Multimedia Communication

1 Basics of Switching Systems and
Telephone Networks
1.1 Basics of Switching Systems and Telephone Networks ..................................2
1.1.1 Elements of Switching system.................................................................2
1.2 Signaling Tones:............................................................................................5
1.3 Switching System Classification:...................................................................6
1.4 Switching Network Configuration: .................................................................8
1.5 Stored Program Control.................................................................................9
1.5.1 Centralized SPC.......................................................................................9
(a) Standby mode...........................................................................................9
(b) Synchronous duplex mode ......................................................................10
(c) Load sharing mode .................................................................................10
1.5.2 Distributed SPC .....................................................................................11
1.6 Two (2) Stage Network .................................................................................11
1.7 Subscriber Loop System ..............................................................................12
1.8 Switching Hierachy And Routing .................................................................12
1.9 Signaling Techniques ..................................................................................13
1.10 Signaling Techniques Comparision ............................................................13
1.10.1 Network Traffic Load And Its Parameters.............................................13
1.11 GOS (Grade of Service)...............................................................................14
1.12 EPABX: (Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange) ..........................15
2 Multimedia Communication (3361106)
1.1 Basics of Switching Systems and Telephone Networks

Switching Systems: In the field of telecommunications, an electronic switching system (ESS) is
a telephone switch that uses digital electronics and computerized control to interconnect
telephone circuits for the purpose of establishing telephone calls.
Evolution of Telecommunication: -Today’s telecommunication technologies have evolved from

the earliest smoke signals to almost instant global transmission of large amounts of data.
Fig 1.1 Evolution of Telecommunication
 Early Signaling and Telegraphy

 Semaphore - a type of signaling, in which visual cues represent letters or words.
 Morse code - the transmission of a series of short and long pulses (dots and dashes) that
represented characters.
 Duplexing - simultaneously transmitting a signal in both directions along the same wire.
 Multiplexing - simultaneously transmitting an indeterminate number of multiple signals
over one circuit.
1.1.1 Elements of Switching system: -

As we know that switching system receives the control signals, messages and forwards to the
required systems.
The purpose of a telecommunication switching system is to provide the means to pass

information from any terminal device to any other terminal device selected by the originator.
Telecommunication system can be divided into four main parts. They are
1. End system or Instruments

2. Transmission system
3. Switching system
4. Signaling.
Electronics & Communication Engineering

1.1 Basics of Switching Systems and Telephone Networks 3
End Systems or Instruments. The end system or instruments are a transmitter or receiver that
are responsible for sending information or decoding or inverting received information or
message into an intelligible message. End systems in the telephone network have evolved from
analog telephones to digital handsets and cellular phones. However, endless arrays of other
devices are being attached to telephone lines, including computer terminals used for data
transmission. Fig. 1.3 shows some of the end instruments.
Transmission System. Signals generated by the end system or the instruments should be
transported to the destination by some means. The transmission on links conveys the information
and control signals between the terminals and switching centers. A transmission link can be
characterized by its bandwidth, link attenuation and the propagation delay. To maintain signal
quality, the signal must be regenerated after a certain distance. In general a communication path
between two distinct points can be setup be connecting a number of transmission lines in tandem.
The transmission links include two-wire lines, coaxial cables microwave radio, optical fibers and
satellites. Functionally, the communication channels between switching system are referred to as
trunks. Fig. 1.4 shows the various possible transmission media.
Multimedia Communication (3361106)

Switching System. The switching centers receives the control signals, messages or
conversations and forwards to the required destination, after necessary modification (link
amplifications) if necessary. A switching system is a collection of switching elements arranged
and controlled in such a way as to setup a communication path between any two distant points. A
switching center of a telephone network comprising a switching network and its control and
support equipment is called a central office. In computer communication, the switching
technique used is known as packet switching or message switch (store and forward switching). In
telephone network the switching method used is called circuit switching. Some practical
switching system are step-by-step, cross barred relay system, digital switching systems,
electronic switching system etc.

1.2 Signaling Tones: 5
Signaling Systems. A signaling system in a data communication networks exchanges signaling

information effectively between subscribers. The signaling systems are essential building blocks
in providing the ultimate objective of a worldwide automatic telephone services standardized.
Signaling provides the interface between different national systems. The introduction of
signaling system was the big step in improving the PSTN. The consultative committee on
international telegraphy and telephony (CCITT) based in Geneva, recommended seven formats
related to signaling. The first five formats related to in band signaling and the last two in the
category of common channel signaling. In In-band signaling, voice information and signaling
information travel on common paths, where as in common channel signaling, they travel on
separate paths. Further classification and detained study are carried out in later chapter.
1.2 Signaling Tones:
A signal tone or signaling tone is a steady periodic sound used to indicate a condition, for
example on a telephone line or as an audible warning.
In telephone systems, these tones are in-band of frequency indicators to subscribers, as opposed
to in-band and out-of-band switching signaling (telecommunications) tones. Typical major signal
tones are dial tone, ringing tone, busy tone, and number unavailable tone. A loud stutter warning
signal tone is used to alert subscribers of an engaged telephone circuit, warning that the other
party has disconnected as a reminder to indicate the handset is not properly hung up.
Dial Tone: This tone indicates that the exchange is ready to accept dialed digits from the
subscriber.
Ringing Tone: Usually the exchange control equipment sends out the ringing signal to the
telephone set of called party. As these signal is continues in pattern capered to other signal.
Busy Tone: A busy tone is sent to the calling subscriber whenever the switching path or junction
line is not available for throughput the call or the called subscriber line is busy (engaged).

Number unavailable Tone: This tone is send to calling subscriber due to variety of reasons like,
called party line is out of order or disconnected and error in dialing leading to the selection of a
spare line.
Routing Tone Or Call-In-Progress Tone: The routing tone or call-in-progress tone is a 400 Hz
or 800 Hz intermittent pattern. In electromechanical systems, it is usually 800 Hz with 50 per
cent duty ratio and 0.5s on/off period. In analog electronic exchanges it is a 400 Hz pattern with
0.5s on period and 2.5s off period.
1.3 Switching System Classification:
Manual Switch was operated oriented and hence it had limited services with less priority.
Electromechnical switch were have two parts Strowger and Crossbar. In Strowger switch Instead
of dedicating an expensive first-stage selector switch to each customer as in the first exchange,
the customer was given access to the first-stage switch of a telephone network, often by a line-
finder which searched "backward" for the calling line; so requiring only a few relays for the
equipment required for each customer line. The Crossbar Switch. A crossbar switch is a switch
connecting multiple inputs to multiple outputs in a matrix manner.

1.3 Switching System Classification: 7
Switching System
Manual Automatic
Electronic (SP) Electromechanical
Strowger
Space Division Time Division
Digital Analog crossbar
Spcae Switch
Time Switch
Cobination Switch
Space-division switch any switching mechanism that is based on the

through connection of a set of input lines selectively to a set of output
lines. Space-division switches are implemented either by
electromechanical or electronic means. As we know architecture of
digital switch consists of two main elements viz. time and space for
performing time division switching (TDM) and Space Division
Switching (SDM). Other than the space switch and time switch, there
exists time space-time switch, space time-space switch etc. which
combines functionality of both of these types.

A signal tone or signaling tone (or signaling tone) is a steady periodic sound (not necessarily a
pure tone) used to indicate a condition, for example on a telephone line or as an audible warning.
1.4 Switching Network Configuration:
Switching
N M
Inlets Network Inlets
Figure: Model of a Switching Network
As shown in figure basic switching network is shown fig (a) with input and output line known as
inlets and outlets respectively in telecommunication.
The hardware used for such a switching operation is known as switching network. Where N
denotes inlets and M denotes outlets. Such network with N inlets and M outlets is known as
symmetric network as shown in fig (b).
The inlets/outlets are connected back to the subscriber line then that type of switching network is
called “folded back network” as shown in fig (c). In folded network having N subscriber then
there can be maximum N/2 simultaneous switching path available.
The network having only N/2 inlets and outlets then network is said to be Non-blocking, as long
as subscriber line are free. If there are no switching paths available free and denied the
connection. In such case the network is said to be blocking network.
Switching network having more inlets as compared to outlets, then there will be probability that
user may block due to the less outlets. That probability is known as Blocking Probability.
Exchanged are designed such that handle maximum traffic in particular time period. The
maximum traffic handle by the exchange during an hour is known as “Busy hour Traffic”. In
telecommunication call traffic intensity is measured in unit Erlang (E).

1.5 STORED PROGRAM CONTROL: 9
1.5 STORED PROGRAM CONTROL:

1.5.1 CENTRALIZED SPC:-
In this centralized control, all the control

equipment is replaced through a single
processor that must be quite powerful. This
must be able of processing 10 to 100 calls
per second, depending upon the load on the
system, and concurrently performing
several other ancillary tasks. A classical
control configuration of an ESS by using
centralized SPC is demonstrated in figure.
A centralized SPC configuration may
utilize more than one processor for
redundancy reasons.
In about all the present day electronic

switching systems utilizing centralized
control, only a two-processor configuration is utilized. Dual processor architecture may be
configured to function in one of three modes:
1. Standby mode
2. Synchronous duplex mode
3. Load sharing mode
(a) Standby mode

In Standby mode the operation is the simplest because of dual-processor configuration. Normally
one processor is keep in standby mode. The standby processor is brought online only when the
active processor fails or faulty. An important
requirement of this configuration is ability of
standby processor to reconstitute the state of
exchange system. It happens only when it takes
over the control, that means to determine which
of the subscriber lines or trunks are in use.

(b) Synchronous duplex mode
In synchronous duplex mode of

operation hardware coupling is provided
between two processors which execute
same set of instructions and compare
the results continuously. If mismatch
occurs then the faulty processor is
identified and taken out of service
within a few milliseconds. When system
is operating normally, the two
processors have same data in memories
at all times and simultaneously receive
information from exchange
environment. One of the processor
actually controls the exchange, but other is synchronized with the former but does not participate
in the exchange control. If a fault is detected by the comparator the processors are decoupled and
a check-out program is run independently to find faulty processor. This process runs without
disturbing the call processing which is suspended temporarily. When one processor is taken out
then the other processor operates independently. When the faulty processor is repaired and
brought in service then memory contents of the active processor are copied into its memory and
the two are synchronized and comparator is enabled.
It is possible that a comparator fault occurs only due to transient failure which is not shown even
when check out program is run. In such case three possibilities exists:
 Continue with both processors
 Take out the active processor and continue with the other.
 Continue with active processor but remove other processor from service.
(c) Load sharing mode
In load-sharing operation, an incoming call is

assigned randomly or in a predetermined order
to one of the processors which then handles the
call right through completion. Thus, both the
processors are active simultaneously and share
the load and the resources dynamically. Both the
processors have access to the entire exchange
environment which is sensed as well as
controlled by these processors. Since the calls
are handled independently by the processors,
they have separate memories for storing
temporary call data. Although programs and
semi-permanent data can be shared, they are
kept in separate memories for redundancy
purposes.

1.6 Two (2) Stage Network 11
1.5.2 DISTRIBUTED SPC:-
Exchange Environment
EM & DP EM & DP
CP CP
O&MP O&MP
Distributed SPC is both more available and more reliable than centralized SPC.
 Vertical decomposition:
Whole exchange is divided into several blocks and a processor is assigned to each block.
This processor perform all the task related to that specific blocks. Therefore, the total
control system consists of several control units coupled together. For redundancy purpose
processor may be duplicated in each blocks.
 Horizontal Decomposition:
In this type of decomposition each processor performs only one or some exchange
function.
1.6 Two (2) Stage Network
.
.
For any single stage network there exists an equivalent multistage network as shown in above
figure.
So NxN single stage network with capacity k can be realized by a two stage network of NxK and
KxN stages.

1.7 Subscriber Loop System

In telephony, the local loop (also referred to as a local tail, subscriber line, or in the aggregate as
the last mile) is the physical link or circuit that connects from the demarcation point of the
customer premises to the edge of the common carrier or telecommunications service provider's
network.
Any use of telephone channels involves two unidirectional paths, one for transmission and one
for reception.
The local loop, which connects a telephone to a local exchange is a two-wire (2W) circuit that
carries the signals in both transmission directions.
1.8 SWITCHING HIERACHY AND ROUTING

Three basic topologies are adopted for interconnecting exchanges:
• Mesh
• Star
• Hierarchy
Routing Methods:
• Right-through routing
• Own-exchange routing
• Computer- controlled routing

1.9 SIGNALING TECHNIQUES 13
1.9 SIGNALING TECHNIQUES
Signaling
Common
In channel
Channel
Voice Low
D.C. Associated Nonassociated
Frequency Frequency
PCM
Inband Outband
• The signaling techniques link the variety of switching systems, transmission systems and
subscriber equipment’s in a telecommunication network to enable the network to function
as a whole.
• There are three forms of signaling involved in a telecommunication network:
• Subscriber loop signaling
• Interexchange or register signaling
• Interexchange signaling
In channel signaling is also known as per trunk signaling and it uses the same channel which
carries user voice or data to pass control signals related to that call or connection. No additional
facilities are required.
Common Channel signaling (CCS) does not use the speech or data path for signaling. It uses a
separate common channel for passing control signals for a group of trunks or information paths.
1.10 SIGNALING TECHNIQUES COMPARISION:

1.10.1 NETWORK TRAFFIC LOAD AND ITS PARAMETERS:
In a telephone network, the traffic load on a typical working day during the 24 hours is shown in
figure. Obviously, there is little use of the network during 0 and 6 hours when most of population
is asleep. There is a large peak around mid-forenoon and mid-afternoon signifying busy office
activities. The afternoon peak is, however slightly smaller. The load is low during the lunch hour
period i.e. 12.00-14.00 hours. The period 17.00-18.00 hours is characterized by low traffic
signifying that the people are on the move from offices to their residences. The peak of domestic
calls occurs after 18.00 hours when persons reach home and reduced tariff applies. In many
countries including India the period during which the reduced tariff applies has been changed to
begin later than 18.00 hours and one may expect the domestic call patterns also to change
accordingly. During holidays and festival days the traffic pattern is different from the shown in

figure. Generally there is a peak of calls around 10.00 hours just before people leave their homes
on outings and another peak occurs in the evening.
Fig Traffic Load

1. Busy Hour: Continuous 1 hour period lying wholly in the time interval concerned for which
the traffic volume or the number of call attempts is greatest.
2. Peak Busy Hour: The busy hour each day it usually varies from day to day or over a number
of days.
3. Time Consistent Busy Hour: The 1 hour period starting at the same time each day for which
the average traffic volume or the number of call attempts is greatest over the days under
considerations.
1.11 GOS (GRADE OF SERVICE): In telecommunication engineering, and in particular tele-

traffic engineering, the quality of voice service is specified by two measures: the grade of
service (GoS) and the quality of service (QoS). That proportion of calls that are lost due to
congestion in the busy hour. For a Lost Call system, the Grade of Service can be measured
using Equation 1.
Grade of Service = Number of successful calls
Number of offered calls
Smaller grade of services value, better services that produced. Example, if recommended that
grade of services is 0,002, this mean there is two call from every 1000 call or call from every 500
call that offered customer is missing (cannot proceed). If, in one network condition, total
customers is same with total server then GOS is same with zero, because every customers that
will build a connection will always got success to occupation the server. Network system itself is
non-blocking network.
Comprehension of GOS with blocking probability truly almost same that is to explain about call
size that cannot serve by network system. Main different between both is, GOS is a size with
point of view from network side or switching system. GOS measured based on observation total
call from customers that cannot loaded, whereas blocking probability based on observation busy
server (dwelled) on switching system. To distinguish between both clearly, GOS usually named
as call congestion (call jam, because showing part from call that rejected or unloaded) or

1.12 EPABX: (ELECTRONIC PRIVATE AUTOMATIC BRANCH EXCHANGE) 15
probability loss, whereas blocking probability as time congestion (time jam, because showing
part from time which all server or busy line).
1.12 EPABX: (ELECTRONIC PRIVATE AUTOMATIC BRANCH EXCHANGE)
EPABX is an abbreviation that stands for Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange. It
comes under the category of business phone systems which serve a business environment. Multi-
line connections can be made through a single telephonic connection. It is an office equipment of
immense use for telephonic connectivity with extensions of a single phone line. It can be rented
from office equipment suppliers too.

2
Satellite Communication
2.1 Introduction to satellite communication .......................................... 17

2.1.1 Kepler’s three laws of satellite motion in Orbits ......................... 19
(a) Kepler’s First Law ........................................................................ 19
(b) Kepler’s Second Law .................................................................... 20
(c) Kepler’s Third Law ....................................................................... 20
2.2 Satellite Orbits: LEO, MEO and GEO ............................................... 22
2.2.1 Geo-Stationary Earth Orbit ......................................................... 22
2.2.2 Medium Earth Orbit.................................................................... 22
2.2.3 Low Earth Orbit .......................................................................... 23
2.2.4 Comparison between Leo, Meo and Geo ...................................... 24
2.3 Basics of space craft......................................................................... 24
2.3.1 Solar Panels................................................................................ 24
2.3.2 Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries .......................................................... 25
2.3.3 Fuel cells.................................................................................... 25
2.4 Attitude and orbit control system .................................................... 25
2.5 Telemetry tracking and Command ................................................... 26
2.6 Communication subsystem .............................................................. 28
2.6.1 Spacecraft antenna..................................................................... 28
(a) High-gain Antenna ....................................................................... 28
(b) Low-gain Antennas ....................................................................... 29
2.7 Earth station and receivers .............................................................. 29
2.8 Direct broadcast satellites DTH receivers ......................................... 30
2.2 Satellite Orbits: LEO, MEO and GEO 17
2.1 Introduction to satellite communication

The use of satellites in communications systems is very much a fact of everyday life, as is
evidenced by the many homes equipped with antennas, or “dishes,” used for reception of satellite
television. What may not be so well known is that satellites form an essential part of
telecommunications systems worldwide, carrying large amounts of data and telephone traffic in
addition to television signals. Satellites offer a number of features not readily available with other
means of communications. Because very large areas of the earth are visible from a satellite, the
satellite can form the star point of a communications net, simultaneously linking many users who
may be widely separated geographically.
Satellites are specifically made for telecommunication purpose. They are used for mobile
applications such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals and for TV and
radio broadcasting.
The same feature enables satellites to provide communications links to remote communities in
sparsely populated areas that are difficult to access by other means. Of course, satellite signals
ignore political boundaries as well as geographic ones, which may or may not be a desirable
feature.
They are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region (area) on the earth. The
power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the preferred size of the footprint, complexity
of the traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of ground stations.
A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a desired area. When
the area is focused, then the emissions don’t go outside that designated area and thus minimizing
the interference to the other systems. This leads more efficient spectrum usage.
Satellite’s antenna patterns play an important role and must be designed to best cover the
designated geographical area (which is generally irregular in shape). Satellites should be designed
by keeping in mind its usability for short and long term effects throughout its life time.
The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts from its orbit it is
subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces.
Satellites orbit around the earth. Depending on the application, these orbits can be circular or
elliptical. Satellites in circular orbits always keep the same distance to the earth’s surface following
a simple law:
The attractive force Fg of the earth due to gravity equals to m·g (R/r)2
The centrifugal force Fc trying to pull the satellite away equals to m·r·ω2
The variables have the following meaning:
 m is the mass of the satellite;
 R is the radius of earth with R = 6,370 km;
 ri s the distance of the satellite to the centre of the earth;

 g is the acceleration of gravity with g = 9.81 m/s2;

 ω is the angular velocity with ω = 2·π·f, f is the frequency of the rotation.
To facilitate frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions:
Region 1: Europe, Africa, what was formerly the Soviet Union, and Mongolia
Region 2: North and South America and Greenland
Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia, and the south-west Pacific
Some of the services provided by satellites are:

 Fixed satellite service (FSS)
 Broadcasting satellite service (BSS)
 Mobile satellite services
 Navigational satellite services
 Meteorological satellite services

2.1.1 Kepler’s three laws of satellite motion in Orbits

Johann Kepler developed empirically three laws of planetary motion, based on conclusions drawn
from the extensive observations of Mars by Tycho Brahe. While they were originally defined in
terms of the motion of the planets about the Sun, they apply equally to the motion of natural or
artificial satellites about the Earth. Kepler’s first law states that the satellite follows an elliptical
path in its orbit around the Earth. The satellite does not necessarily have uniform velocity around
its orbit. Kepler’s second law states that the line joining the satellite with the Centre of the Earth
sweeps out equal areas in equal times. Kepler’s third law states that the cube of the mean distance
of the satellite from the Earth is proportional to the square of its period.
(a) Kepler’s First Law
The path followed be a satellite (in our case artificial satellite) around the primary (a planet and in
our case Earth) will be an ellipse.
“The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with sun at one of the two foci.”
An ellipse has two focal points. Let us consider F1 and F2. The centre of mass of the two body
system, known as the barycentre as always cantered at one foci. Due to the great difference
between the masses of the planet (Earth) and the satellite, centre of mass always coincides with
the centre of Earth and hence is always at one foci.
Parameters associated with the 1st law of Kepler
 Eccentricity (e): it defines how stretched out an ellipse is from a perfect circle.
 Semi-Major axis (a): It is the longest diameter, a line that runs through the centre and both
foci, its ends being at the widest points of the shapes. This line joins the points of apogee.
 Semi-Minor axis (b): the line joining the points of perigee is called the Semi-Minor axis.
√
The value of e could be determined by: =

(b) Kepler’s Second Law

“For equal time intervals, a satellite will sweep out equal areas in its orbital plane focused at the
barycentre”.
With respect to the laws governing the planetary motion around the sun, tis law could be stated as
“A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps our equal area during equal intervals of time”.
From figure 2.2 and considering the law stated above, if satellite travels distances S1 and S2 meters
in 1 second, then areas A1 and A2 will be equal.
The same area will be covered everyday regardless of where in its orbit a satellite is. As the First
Kepler’s law states that the satellite follows an elliptical orbit around the primary, then the satellite
is at different distances from the planet at different parts of the orbit. Hence the satellite has to
move faster when it is closer to the Earth so that it sweeps an equal area on the Earth.
This could be achieved if the speed of the satellite is adjusted when it is closer to the surface of the
Earth in order to make it sweep out equal areas (footprints) of the surface of the Earth.
(c) Kepler’s Third Law
“The square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between
the two bodies. “
The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major
axis of its orbit. This law shows the relationship between the distances of satellite from earth and
their orbital period.
The mean distance is equal to the semi major axis a. For the artificial satellites orbiting the earth,
Kepler’s third law can be written in the form

Where n is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second and  is the earth’s geocentric
gravitational constant. Its value is
 = 3.986005 x 1014 m3 / s2
With n in radians per second, the orbital period in seconds is given by
2
=
Apogee: A point for a satellite farthest from the Earth. It is denoted as ha.
Perigee: A point for a satellite closest from the Earth. It is denoted as hp.
Line of Apsides: Line joining perigee and apogee through centre of the Earth. It is the major axis
of the orbit. One-half of this line’s length is the semi-major axis equivalents to satellites mean
distance from the Earth.
Ascending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from north to south.
Descending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to north.
Subsatellite path: This is the path traced out on the earth’s surface directly below the satellite.

2.2 Satellite Orbits: LEO, MEO and GEO

There are 4 types of orbits, they are:
1. GEO (Geo-stationary earth orbit)
2. MEO (medium earth orbit)
3. LEO (Low earth orbit) and
4. HEO (Highly elliptical orbit)
2.2.1 Geo-Stationary Earth Orbit

GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth.
Looking from a fixed point from Earth, these satellites
appear to be stationary. These satellites are placed in the space in such a way that only three
satellites are sufficient to provide connection throughout the surface of the Earth (that is; their
footprint is covering almost 1/3rd of the Earth). The orbit of these satellites is circular. These
satellites have almost a distance of 36,000 km to the earth. E.g. All radio and TV, whether satellite
etc, are launched in this orbit.
Advantages of Geo-Stationary Earth Orbit
1. It is possible to cover almost all parts of the earth with just 3 geo satellites.
2. Antennas need not be adjusted every now and then but can be fixed permanently.
3. The life-time of a GEO satellite is quite high usually around 15 years.
Disadvantages of Geo-Stationary Earth Orbit

1. Larger antennas are required for northern/southern regions of the earth.
2. High buildings in a city limit the transmission quality.
3. High transmission power is required.
4. These satellites cannot be used for small mobile phones.
5. Fixing a satellite at Geo stationary orbit is very expensive.
2.2.2 Medium Earth Orbit

Satellite at different orbits operates at different heights. The MEO satellite operates at about 5000
to 12000 km away from the earth's surface. These orbits have moderate number of satellites. MEOs
can be positioned somewhere between LEOs and GEOs, both in terms of their orbit and due to
their advantages and disadvantages. Using orbits around 10,000 km, the system only requires a
dozen satellites which is more than a GEO system, but much less than a LEO system. These
satellites move more slowly relative to the earth’s rotation allowing a simpler system design
(satellite periods are about six hours). Depending on the inclination, a MEO can cover larger
populations, so requiring fewer handovers.

Advantages of Medium Earth Orbit

1. Compared to LEO system, MEO requires only a dozen satellites.
2. Simple in design.
3. Requires very few handovers.
Disadvantages of Medium Earth Orbit

1. Satellites require higher transmission power.
2. Special antennas are required.
2.2.3 Low Earth Orbit

LEO satellites operate at a distance of about 500-1500 km. These satellites are placed 500-
1500kms above the surface of the earth. As LEOs circulate on a lower orbit, hence they exhibit a
much shorter period that is 95 to 120 minutes. LEO systems try to ensure a high elevation for every
spot on earth to provide a high quality communication link. Each LEO satellite will only be visible
from the earth for around ten minutes.
Advantages of Low Earth Orbit
1. The antennas can have low transmission power of about 1 watt.
2. The delay of packets is relatively low.
3. Useful for smaller foot prints.
Disadvantages of Low Earth Orbit

1. If global coverage is required, it requires at least 50-200 satellites in this orbit.
2. Special handover mechanisms are required.
3. These satellites involve complex design.
4. Very short life: Time of 5-8 years. Assuming 48 satellites with a life-time of 8 years each, a
new satellite is needed every 2 months.
5. Data packets should be routed from satellite to satellite.

2.2.4 Comparison between Leo, Meo and Geo

This orbit is made for satellites that do not revolve in circular orbits, only a very few satellite are
operating in this orbit.
Parameter LEO MEO GEO

Satellite Height 500-1500 km 5000-12000 km 35,800 km
Orbital Period 10-40 minutes 2-8 hours 24 hours
Number of Satellites 40-80 8-20 3
Satellite Life Short Long Long
Number of Handoffs High Low Least(none)
Gateway Cost Very Expensive Expensive Cheap
Propagation Loss Least High Highest
2.3 Basics of space craft

Power systems, Attitude and orbit control system, Telemetry tracking and Command,
Communication subsystem, Spacecraft antenna.
The electrical power subsystem is responsible for generating, storing, and distributing power to
the orbiter systems and includes two solar panels and two nickel-hydrogen batteries:
2.3.1 Solar Panels

The one and only source of power for Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is sunlight. Mounted on
opposite sides of the orbiter and capable of changing position to allow the orbiter to track the Sun
continuously, each solar panel has an area of approximately 10 square meters (107.6 square feet)
and contains 3,744 individual solar cells. The solar cells are able to convert more than 26 percent
of the Sun's energy directly into electricity (that's very good for solar cells!), and are connected
together so that the power they produce is 32 volts, the voltage that most devices on the spacecraft
need to operate properly. At Mars, the two panels together produce 1,000 watts of power.
The solar panels were deployed soon after launch and will remain deployed throughout the
mission.
During aerobraking, the solar panels had a special role to play. As the spacecraft skimmed through
the upper layers of the Martian atmosphere, the large, flat panels acted a little like parachutes to
slow the spacecraft down and reduce the size of its orbit.
The friction from the atmosphere passing over the spacecraft during aerobraking heated it up, with
the solar arrays heating up most of all. The solar arrays had to be designed to withstand
temperatures of almost 200 Celsius (almost 400 degrees Fahrenheit!).

2.4 Attitude and orbit control system 25
2.3.2 Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries

During each two-hour orbit around Mars the spacecraft experiences a "day" and a "night." During
the "night," there is no sunlight because the planet is between the orbiter and the Sun, and therefore
blocks the Sun's light from reaching the spacecraft. Astronauts on the shuttle experience this kind
of pattern when they orbit the Earth.
During the nighttime periods, batteries provide the necessary electrical power. The batteries
recharge each "day" (using only part of the electricity produced by the solar cells) and discharge
each "night" to keep the spacecraft supplied with electricity.
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter uses two nickel-hydrogen rechargeable batteries, each with an
energy storage capacity of 50 ampere-hours - at 32 volts that's 1,600 watts for one hour. The
spacecraft can't use this total capacity, because as a battery discharges its voltage drops. If the
voltage ever dropped below about 20 volts the computer would stop functioning -- a very bad
thing! So, to be safe, only about 40 percent of the battery capacity is ever planned to be used.
2.3.3 Fuel cells
Cells in which chemical reaction is used directly to produce electricity. The reactants are typically
hydrogen and oxygen which results in water as a by-product. The water can then be used for
cooling and human consumption. Fuel cells are generally used on manned spacecraft.
2.4 Attitude and orbit control system

The orientation of a satellite in space is crucial, whether it be for telecommunications or Earth
observation craft. This high precision of control in orbit is the responsibility of the satellite's
Attitude and Orbit Control System (AOCS). This major subsystem has been provided by Matra
Marconi Space (MMS) UK and constitutes the principal contribution from the United Kingdom.

The attitude and orbit control subsystem (AOCS) provides attitude information and maintains the
required spacecraft attitude during all phases of the mission, starting at spacecraft separation from
the launch vehicle and throughout its operational lifetime. The subsystem consists of redundant
microprocessor-based control electronics, sun and earth sensors, gyros, momentum wheels
(MWs), a reaction wheel (RW), magnetic torques, thrusters, and solar array and trim tab
positioners.
Normal on-orbit attitude control operations are based on a momentum bias concept that provides
precise pointing of the Imager and Sounder, communications service equipment, and scientific
instruments. Control is accomplished by applying torque to internal MWs and the RW or by
modulating the current applied to roll and/or yaw magnetic torqueing coils. Attitude control during
orbit maneuvers is provided by twelve 22-N bipropellant thrusters. Control during transfer orbit
uses thrusters only, without momentum bias. The fully redundant AOCS represents some 100 kg
of electronics: a dozen black equipment boxes, containing the computers, reaction wheels, Sun
and inertial sensors, power supplies and associated cabling. Before delivery for integration into the
spacecraft
2.5 Telemetry tracking and Command

The telemetry, tracking and control subsystem provides vital communication to and from the
spacecraft. TT&C is the only way to observe and to control the spacecraft’s functions and
condition from the ground.
ISTRAC facilities in Bangalore consists of TTC ground station (BLR) with full redundancy multi-
mission Spacecraft Control Center to carryout and control spacecraft operations and co-ordinate
with the network stations. Computer facility with distributed architecture providing independent
processors for communications handling, dedicated processors to provide real-time displays for
individual spacecraft missions and off-line processors for carrying out spacecraft data archival,
analysis and orbit determination.
Tracking, commanding and housekeeping data acquisition as well as health analysis and control,
orbit and attitude determination and network co-ordination support to all low Earth orbit satellite
missions of ISRO throughout their mission life.
Telemetry data acquisition support for ISRO launch vehicle emissions from liftoff until satellite
acquisition and down range tracking support for monitoring and determining the satellite injection
parameters.
Coordinating between spacecraft and launch vehicle teams, supporting ground stations right from
planning till the completion of mission for the national and international satellite missions.

2.5 Telemetry tracking and Command 27
TT&C Functions
 Carrier tracking
o Two-way coherent communication
– Transmitter phase-locks to the received frequency
– Transmitted frequency is a specific ratio of the uplink frequency
o Easy to find and measure the frequency received on the ground
o Doppler shift provides range rate
 Command reception and detection
 Telemetry modulation and transmission
 Ranging
o Uplink pseudo-random code is detected and retransmitted on the downlink
o Turnaround time provides range
o Ground antenna azimuth and elevation
 Determines satellite angular location
 Subsystem operations
o Receive commands from Command and Data Handling subsystem
o Provide health and status data to CD&H
o Perform antenna pointing
o Perform mission sequence operations per stored software sequence
o Autonomously select omni-antenna when spacecraft attitude is lost

o Autonomously detect faults and recover communications using stored software

sequence
Receiver/ Command Command Interface

Demodulator Decoder Logic Circuitary
Figure: Space Craft Command System Block Diagram
Command System
 Reconfigures satellite or subsystems in response to radio signals from the ground
 Command timing
– Immediate
– Delayed
– Priority driven (ASAP)
Command Functions
 Power on/off subsystems
 Change subsystem operating modes
 Control spacecraft guidance and attitude control
 Deploy booms, antennas, solar cell arrays, protective covers
 Upload computer programs
2.6 Communication subsystem

The spacecraft communications subsystem provides the conditioning, transmission, reception, and
routing of attitude telemetry and mission data signals for the GOES space segment. It consists of
six major component groups that provide a variety of functions:
 Sensor data (SD) and multiuse data link (MDL) transmitters
 Data collection platform interrogate (DCPI) transponder
 Data collection platform report (DCPR) transponder
 Processed data relay (PDR) and transponders
 Weather facsimile (WEFAX) transmission
 Search and rescue (SAR) transponder
2.6.1 Spacecraft antenna
(a) High-gain Antenna
The high-gain antenna is a 3 meter- (10 foot-) diameter dish antenna for sending and receiving
data at high rates. The high-gain antenna was deployed shortly after launch (see launch
configuration), and will remain deployed for the remainder of the mission. It serves as the primary
means of communication to and from the orbiter.

2.7 Earth station and receivers 29
The high-gain antenna must be pointed accurately and is therefore steered using the gimbal
mechanism.
(b) Low-gain Antennas
Two smaller antennas provide lower-rate communication during emergencies and special events.
For example, they did this during launch and Mars Orbit Insertion. The data rate of these antennas
is lower because they focus the radio beam much more broadly than the high-gain antenna,
meaning less of the signal reaches Earth. The Deep Space Network on Earth, however, can "see"
the signal even when the spacecraft is not pointed at Earth. That is why these antennas are useful
for emergencies. Think of how a flashlight works: With a tightly focused beam of light you can
see farther directly ahead but not at all to the side. With a wide beam you can see all around you
but not very far. The low-gain antennas have the capability to both transmit and receive.
2.7 Earth station and receivers

The baseband signal from the terrestrial network enters the earth station at the transmitter after
having processed by the baseband equipment.
After encoding and modulating the baseband signal, it is converted to the uplink frequency. Then
it is amplified and directed to the appropriate polarization port of the antenna feed.
The signal received from the satellite is amplified in a low noise amplifier first and is then down
converted to the downlink frequency. It is then demodulated and decoded and then the original
baseband signal is obtained.
The isolation of low noise receiver from the high power transmitter is of much concern in the
design consideration of earth station. There may also be satellite/earth terminal mutual
interference effects. Other sources of interference include ground microwaves relay links, sun
transit effects and inter-modulation products generated in the transponder or earth terminal. Before
1983, the spacing between two GEO satellites was established at 40 of the equatorial arc and the
smallest earth station antenna for the simultaneous transmit-receive operations was 5m in diameter.
Now the spacing allowed between two adjacent satellites in space is 20 along the equatorial arc.
The close spacing has allowed twice as many satellites to occupy the same orbital arc.

2.8 Direct broadcast satellites DTH receivers

Systems for transmitting television and other program material via satellite directly to individual
homes and businesses. Direct broadcasting satellite (DBS) systems operate at microwave
frequencies.
DBS systems use a satellite in geostationary orbit to receive television signals sent up from the
Earth's surface, amplify them, and transmit them back down to the surface. The satellite also shifts
the signal frequency, so that a signal sent up to the satellite in the 17.3–17.8-GHz uplink band is
transmitted back down in the 12.2–12.7-GHz downlink band. The downlink signal is picked up by
a receive antenna located atop an individual home or office; these antennas are usually in the form
of a parabolic dish, but flat square phased-array antennas are sometimes used, and may eventually
become commonplace. The receive antenna may be permanently pointed at the satellite, which is
at a fixed point in the sky, in a geostationary orbit.
It is difficult to build receivers to operate at the microwave downlink frequencies, so the signal
from the dish antenna is first passed to a down converter, usually mounted outdoors on the antenna,
which shifts it to (typically) the 0.95–1.45-GHz band. This signal is then conducted by cable to
the receiver atop the television set. The receiver contains the channel selector, as well as a decoder
to permit the user to view authorized channels. The receiver is connected by an additional cable to
the television set.
A typical direct broadcasting satellite contains 16 transponders, or amplifiers, the maximum

permitted under present regulations, each with a radio-frequency power output in the range 120–
240 W.
A wide variety of communications services can be converted to digital form and carried as part of
this digital signal, including television, high-definition television (HDTV), stereo audio, one-way
videoconference, information services and digital data.

3
Integrated Digital Service Network
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................32
3.1.1 ISDN Standards .....................................................................................32
3.2 ISDN Protocol Architecture .........................................................................33
3.3 (ISDN) Transmission channel .......................................................................33
3.3.1 Two Types of Digital Subscriber Loops...................................................33
3.3.2 ISDN Channels and their Applications ...................................................34
3.4 ISDN services ..............................................................................................34
3.4.1 Videotext ..............................................................................................35
3.4.2 Email ....................................................................................................36
3.4.3 Facsimile...............................................................................................36
3.5 Signalling: User Level, Network Level ..........................................................36
3.5.1 User Level .............................................................................................36
3.5.2 Network Level .......................................................................................36
3.6 Broadband ISDN ........................................................................................36
3.6.1 Interactive services ...............................................................................36
3.6.2 Distributive services..............................................................................37
3.1 Introduction: - Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication

standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services
over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network.
• ISDN Concept : - It is a switched digital telecommunication line that can be delivered over
regular copper wires Possible to provide end-to-end digital communications
• ISDN Standards: ISDN STANDARD was developed by ITU –T.
3.1.1 ISDN Standards

 Contained in the I-series recommendations
 Issued by CCITT (now ITU-T)
 Six main groupings I.100 to I.600 series
 I.100 series - General Concepts
 I.200 series - Service Capabilities
 I.300 series - Network Aspects
 I.400 series - User-Network Interfaces
 I.500 series - Internetwork Interfaces
 I.600 series - Maintenance Principles
ISDN Bridges: Because of its simplicity, bridging is one of the most popular ways of linking
LANs. The big problem with ISDN bridging is controlling the bridge's use of the ISDN network.
Bridges are simple to set up and use because they will forward data, such as broadcasts, by default.
Over ISDN, this means that calls will be made to send largely unnecessary data. Over a period of
time, this can prove very expensive.
ISDN Routers: Routing is a far more effective way to utilize ISDN for LAN internetworking.
This is the approach being taken by the entire internetworking vendors. Data is only sent over the
ISDN network when it is really needed. There are no unnecessary broadcast messages to transmit,
so the bandwidth is used more efficiently than with bridges and the configuration can actually be
simpler. Filters may be used to block out all unnecessary traffic.

3.2 ISDN Protocol Architecture 33
3.2 ISDN Protocol Architecture
The ISDN D channel will utilize different signaling protocols at Layer 3 and Layer 2 of the OSI
Model. Typically, at Layer 2, LAP-D (Link Access Procedure -- D Channel) is the Q.921 signaling
used, and DSS1 (Digital Subscriber Signaling System No. 1) is the Q.931 signaling that is used at
Layer 3. It is easy to remember which one is used at which layer by simply remembering that the
middle number corresponds to the layer at which it operates.
Physical layer (layer 1)

The electrical and mechanical layer. Protocols for this layer describe, from an electrical and
mechanical perspective, the methods used to transfer bits from one device to another. A protocol
used at this layer is CCITT recommendation I.430/I.431.
Data link layer(layer 2)
The layer above the physical layer. Protocols for this layer describe methods for error-free
communication between devices across the physical link. A protocol used at this layer is CCITT
recommendation Q.921, also known as Link Access Procedures on the D channel (LAPD).
Network layer (layer 3)
The layer above the data link layer. Protocols for this layer describe methods for transferring
information between computers. They also describe how data is routed within and between
networks. A protocol used at this layer is CCITT recommendation Q.931.
3.3 (ISDN) Transmission channel

 The Digital pipe is made up of channels - one of three types
 B channel, D channel or H channel
 Channels are grouped and offered as a package to users
3.3.1 Two Types of Digital Subscriber Loops

• Basic rate interface (BRI)

• Primary rate interface (PRI)

– Each type is suited to a different level of customer needs
– Both include one D channel and some number of either B or H channels
B Channel
 B channel-64 kbps
 B is basic user channel
o can carry digital data or PCM-encoded voice or mixture of lower rate traffic.
 Four kinds of connection possible
 Circuit-switched
 Packet-switched - X.25
 Frame mode - frame relay (LAPF)
 Semi-permanent - equivalent to a leased line
D Channel
 D Channel - 16 or 64 kbps
 Carries signalling information to control circuit-switched calls on B channels
 Can also be used for packet switching or low-speed telemetry
H Channel
 Carry user information at higher bit rates 384kbps or 1536kbps or 1920kbps
 Can be used as a high-speed trunk
 Can also be subdivided as per user’s own TDM scheme
 Uses include high speed data, fast facsimile, video, high-quality audio
3.3.2 ISDN Channels and their Applications

B Channel D Channel H Channel
(64 kbps) (16/64 kbps) (384/1536 kbps)
Digital voice Signalling High-speed trunk
(using SS#7)
High-speed data Low- speed Very high speed
(e.g. packet and data, (e.g. data
circuit switched packet, terminal,
data) videotex)
Other (e.g. fax, Other (e.g. Other (e.g. fast
slow video) telemetry) fax. Video)
3.4 ISDN services:

Bearer services – provide the means to transfer information (voice, data, video) between users
without the network manipulating the content of that information. Belongs to the first 3 layers of
the OSI model.
Teleservices – the network my change or process the contents of the data.

- correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model
- rely on the facilities of bearer services
Supplementary services – provide additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices.

3.4 ISDN services: 35
Fig. ISDN services
1. Bearer Services: Bearer services provide the means to transfer information (voice, data and
video) between users without the network manipulating the content of that information.
The network does not need to process the information and therefore does not change the
content. Bearer services belong to the first three layers of the OSI model and are well
defined in the ISDN standard. They can be provided using circuit-switched, packet-
switched, frame-switched, or cell-switched networks.
2. Teleservices: In teleservices, the network may change or process the contents of the data.
These services correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model. Teleservices relay on the
facilities of the bearer services and are designed to accommodate complex user needs,
without the user having to be aware of the details of the process. Teleservices include
telephony, teletex, telefax, videotex, telex and teleconferencing. Although the ISDN
defines these services by name, they have not yet become standards.
3. Supplementary Service: Supplementary services are those services that provide additional
functionality to the bearer services and teleservices. Examples of these services are reverse
charging, call waiting, and message handling, all familiar from today's telephone company
services.
3.4.1 Videotext
Videotext is a generic term for system that provide easy to use, low cost computer based services
via communication facilities.
Three forms of videotext exists.
1. View data: it is fully interactive video text. Ex. Video calling
2. Tele text: it is broadcast or pseudo-interactive videotext service. Tele text users may
select the information to be seen, the pace at which the information is to be displayed.
3. Open channel teletext: it is totally non-nutritive one way video text.

3.4.2 Email
One of the most popular network services is electronic mail. The TCP/IP protocol that supports
electronic mail on the internet is called simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP).
- Sending a single message to one or more recipients.
- Sending message to users on text, voice, video or graphics.
- Sending message to users on networks outside the internet.
3.4.3 Facsimile:
Document exchange through facsimile system is emerging as a major application of
communication system.
A modern fax machine is faster and it does not use any rotating drum but it users the same basic
mechanics to get the job done.
3.5 Signalling: User Level, Network Level

Unlike in other networks, signalling in ISDN falls into two distinct categories:
User Level signalling and network level signalling
3.5.1 User Level:
It permits user to
1. Establish control and terminate circuit switched connections in B channel
2. Carry out user to user signalling and
3. Establish, control and terminate packet switched connections in B or D channels.
3.5.2 Network Level:
1. forward address
2. general setup
3. backward setup
4. call supervision
5. circuit supervision
6. circuit group supervision
7. in call modification
8. in call modification
9. end to end
10. user to user
3.6 Broadband ISDN
There are two types of services: interactive and distributive.
3.6.1 Interactive services

Interactive service are those that require two-way exchanges between either two subscribers or
between a subscriber and & service provide. These services are of three types: conversational,
messaging, and retrieval.
- Conversational
Conversational services are those. Such as telephone calls, that support real-time exchanges.

3.6 Broadband ISDN 37
- Messaging
Messaging services are store and forward exchanges. These services are bidirectional, meaning
that all parties in an exchange can use them at the same time.
- Retrieval
Retrieval services are those used to retrieve information from a central source, called an
information center. These services are like libraries: they must allow public access and allow
users to retrieve information on demand.
3.6.2 Distributive services

These are unidirectional services sent from a provider to subscribers without the subscriber having
to transmit a request each time a service is desired.
- Without user control

Distributive services without user control are broadcast to the user without the user’s
having requested them or having control over either broadcast times or content. The user
can turn on TV and change the channel but cannot request a specific program or a broadcast
time.
- With user control
Distributive services with user control are broadcast to the user in a round-robin fashion.
Services are repeated periodically to allow the user a choice of times during which to
receive them. Ex. Tele-advertising, educational broadcasting and pay TV.

4
Multimedia Communication Techniques and
Standards
4.1 Multimedia Communications ..................................................................... 39

4.2 Multimedia Communication Model ............................................................ 39
4.3 Elements of Multimedia Systems, User and, Network requirements ............ 40
4.4 Multimedia processing for communication ................................................. 41
4.4.1 Digital media ....................................................................................... 41
4.5 Signal processing elements ........................................................................ 41
4.5.1 Digital audio file formats ..................................................................... 41
4.5.2 Digital image file formats ..................................................................... 42
4.5.3 Digital video file formats ..................................................................... 44
4.6 Distributed Multimedia Systems ................................................................ 46
4.7 Main features of DMS ................................................................................ 46
4.8 Resource management of DMS ................................................................... 47
4.9 Distributed Multimedia application ............................................................ 47
4.9.1 ITV ...................................................................................................... 47
4.9.2 VOD .................................................................................................... 48
4.10 Multimedia communication standards ..................................................... 49
4.11 MPEG approach to multimedia standardization ........................................ 49
4.11.1 MPEG-1 encoding and decoding.......................................................... 50
4.11.2 MPEG-4 coding of audiovisual objects ................................................ 51
4.11.3 JPEG 2000 ........................................................................................ 53
4.11.4 ITU-T standardization of audiovisual communication systems ............ 54
4.1 Multimedia Communications

Multimedia communication involves showing information in multiple media formats. Images,
video, audio and text all are part of multimedia communication. A single instance of multimedia
communication does not have to have all four components.
Multimedia communication presents information in an interesting, creative way that helps many
different types of learners internalize the data. Infographics are a common example of multimedia
communication. These large images are set up like posters and have text, statistics, graphs, charts
and images that provide information. Visual learners who need these graphs, charts and images
are able to get just as much from the infograph as learners who focus on numbers who, for instance,
hone in on the statistics.
4.2 Multimedia Communication Model
TEXT COMMUNICATION
Text communication encompasses a variety of forms and is one of the most common forms of
multimedia communication in a computer user's day-to-day activities. Text communication
includes such areas of Internet use as reading a website, reading and writing email messages and
instant messaging. Text communication is also the oldest form of multimedia communication, as
the first computers displayed text only.
IMAGE COMMUNICATION
Though images might not seem to be a form of communication in the same way that text is a form
of communication, it is a legitimate form of multimedia communication that many users enjoy
daily. Examples include browsing an online photo album, opening and viewing images attached
to an email and looking at photos that accompany stories on news websites.

4.3 Elements of Multimedia Systems, User and, Network requirements 40
AUDIO COMMUNICATION
A common form of Web-based multimedia communication is audio communication. This form
involves receiving a message through an audio format, such as listening to an online radio station
or playing a music file. If you use the Internet to stream a radio station broadcast, for example, you
are engaging in a form of audio communication. Audio communication often combines with other
forms of multimedia communication. A slideshow, for example, can feature text, images and audio
together.
VIDEO COMMUNICATION
As its name indicates, video communication is a form of multimedia communication through
video. It is common on many websites, including YouTube and the websites of television stations.
Since high-speed Internet has become common, video communication has increased as users are
able to access this form of multimedia communication. Types of video communication include
.AVI, MPEG, WMV and QuickTime files.
4.3 Elements of Multimedia Systems, User and, Network requirements

Text
Audio Sound
Static Graphics Images
Animation
Full-Motion Video
User Requirements
• Fast preparation and presentation of the different information types of interest, taking into
account the capabilities of available terminals and services
• Dynamic control of multimedia applications with respect to connection interactions and quality
on demand combined with user-friendly human/machine interfaces'
• Intelligent support of users taking into consideration their individual capabilities
• Standardization

Network Requirements
• High speed and changing bit rates
• Several virtual connections using the same access
• Synchronization of different information types
• Suitable standardized services and supplementary service supporting multimedia applications
4.4 Multimedia processing for communication

4.4.1 Digital media
Digital media having following advantages as compare to analog media.
 Robustness- The quality of digital media will not degrade as copies are made. They are
most stable and more immune to the noises and errors that occur during processing _and
transmission. Analog signals suffer from signal-path attenuation and generation loss (as
copies are made) and are influenced by the characteristics of the medium itself.
 Seamless integration-This involves the integration of different media through digital
storage and processing and transmission technologies, regardless of the particular' media
properties. Therefore, digital media eliminate device dependency, in an inte-grated
environment and allow easy data composition of nonlinear editing.
 Reusability and interchangeability-With the development of standards for the common
exchange formats, digital media have greater potential to be reused and shared by multiple
users.
 Ease of distributed potential-Thousands of copies may be distributed electronically by a
simple command.
4.5 Signal processing elements

 Nonlinear analog (video and audio) mapping
 Quantization of the analog signal
 Statistical characterization
 Motion representation and models
 3D representations
 Color processing
4.5.1 Digital audio file formats

 Uncompressed audio formats, such as WAV, AIFF and AU;
Formats with lossless compression, such as FLAC, Monkey's Audio (filename extension APE),
Wav Pack (filename extension WV), Shorten, Tom's lossless Audio compressor (TAK), TTA,
ATRAC Advanced
 Lossless, Apple Lossless and lossless Windows Media Audio (WMA).
Formats with lossy compression, such as MP3, Vorbis, Musepack, ATRAC, lossy Windows Media
Audio (WMA) and AAC.

4.5 Signal processing elements 42
There is one major uncompressed audio format, PCM, which is usually stored as a .wav on
Windows or as if on Mac OS.
 WAV is a flexible file format designed to store more or less any combination of sampling
rates or bitrates.
 This makes it an adequate file format for storing and archiving an original recording.
 A lossless compressed format would require more processing for the same time recorded,
but would be more efficient in terms of space used.
WAV, encodes all sounds, whether they are complex sounds or absolute silence, with the same
number of bits per unit of time. E.g a file containing a minute of playing by a symphonic orchestra
would be the same size as a minute of absolute silence if they were both stored in WAV.
 If the files were encoded with a lossless compressed audio format, the first file would be
marginally smaller, and the second file taking up almost no space at all. However, to encode
the files to a lossless format would take significantly more time than encoding the files to
the WAV format.
Lossless audio formats (such as the most widespread FLAC, WavPack, Monkey's Audio) provide
a compression ratio of about 2:1.
 A lossy compression method is one where compressing data and then decompressing it
retrieves data that may well be different from the original, but is close enough to be useful
in some way.
 Lossy compression is most commonly used to compress multimedia data (audio, video,
still images), especially in applications such as streaming media and internet telephony.
 By contrast, lossless compression is required for text and data files, such as bank records,
text articles, etc.
MP3 MPEG-1 Audio Layer-3 format offers a very high rate of compression for audio files (about
a 12:1 ratio) while preserving the original level of sound quality to the ear. Because of its high
quality at small size, mp3 has exploded in popularity, and many sites offer mp3 files for download
(most are offering these files in violation of copyright). Digital audio is typically created by taking
44,100 16-bit samples per second (Hz) of the analog audio signal, this means that one second of
CD-quality sound requires 1.4 million bits (about 176K bytes) of data.
Using a knowledge of how people actually perceive sound, the developers of MP3 devised a
compression algorithm that reduces data about sound that most listeners cannot perceive. MP3 is
currently the most powerful algorithm in a series of audio encoding standards developed under the
sponsorship of the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG) and formalized by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).
4.5.2 Digital image file formats

You will often hear the terms "lossy" and "lossless" compression. A lossless compression
algorithm discards no information. It looks for more efficient ways to represent an image, while

making no compromises in accuracy. In contrast, lossy algorithms accept some degradation in the
image in order to achieve smaller file size.
A lossless algorithm might, for example, look for a recurring pattern in the file, and replace each
occurrence with a short abbreviation, thereby cutting the file size. In contrast, a lossy algorithm
might store color information at a lower resolution than the image itself, since the eye is not so
sensitive to changes in color of a small distance.
TIFF is, in principle, a very flexible format that can be lossless or lossy. The details of the image
storage algorithm are included as part of the file. In practice, TIFF is used almost exclusively as a
lossless image storage format that uses no compression at all. Most graphics programs that use
TIFF do not compression. Consequently, file sizes are quite big. (Sometimes a lossless
compression algorithm called LZW is used, but it is not universally supported.)
PNG is also a lossless storage format. However, in contrast with common TIFF usage, it looks for
patterns in the image that it can use to compress file size. The compression is exactly reversible,
so the image is recovered exactly.
GIF creates a table of up to 256 colors from a pool of 16 million. If the image has fewer than 256
colors, GIF can render the image exactly. When the image contains many colors, software that
creates the GIF uses any of several algorithms to approximate the colors in the image with the
limited palette of 256 colors available. Better algorithms search the image to find an optimum set
of 256 colors. Sometimes GIF uses the nearest color to represent each pixel, and sometimes it uses
"error diffusion" to adjust the color of nearby pixels to correct for the error in each pixel.
GIF achieves compression in two ways. First, it reduces the number of colors of color-rich images,
thereby reducing the number of bits needed per pixel, as just described. Second, it replaces
commonly occurring patterns (especially large areas of uniform color) with a short abbreviation:
instead of storing "white, white, white, white, white," it stores "5 white."
Thus, GIF is "lossless" only for images with 256 colors or less. For a rich, true color image, GIF
may "lose" 99.998% of the colors.
JPG is optimized for photographs and similar continuous tone images that contain many, many
colors. It can achieve astounding compression ratios even while maintaining very high image
quality. GIF compression is unkind to such images. JPG works by analyzing images and discarding
kinds of information that the eye is least likely to notice. It stores information as 24 bit color.
Important: the degree of compression of JPG is adjustable. At moderate compression levels of
photographic images, it is very difficult for the eye to discern any difference from the original,
even at extreme magnification. Compression factors of more than 20 are often quite acceptable.
Better graphics programs, such as Paint Shop Pro and Photoshop, allow you to view the image
quality and file size as a function of compression level, so that you can conveniently choose the
balance between qualities and file size.

4.5 Signal processing elements 44
RAW is an image output option available on some digital cameras. Though lossless, it is a factor
of three of four smaller than TIFF files of the same image. The disadvantage is that there is a
different RAW format for each manufacturer, and so you may have to use the manufacturer's
software to view the images. (Some graphics applications can read some manufacturer's RAW
formats.)
BMP is an uncompressed proprietary format invented by Microsoft. There is really no reason to

ever use this format.
PSD, PSP, etc., are proprietary formats used by graphics programs. Photoshop's files have the
PSD extension, while Paint Shop Pro files use PSP. These are the preferred working formats as
you edit images in the software, because only the proprietary formats retain all the editing power
of the programs. These packages use layers, for example, to build complex images, and layer
information may be lost in the nonproprietary formats such as TIFF and JPG. However, be sure to
save your end result as a standard TIFF or JPG, or you may not be able to view it in a few years
when your software has changed.
Currently, GIF and JPG are the formats used for nearly all web images. PNG is supported by most
of the latest generation browsers. TIFF is not widely supported by web browsers, and should be
avoided for web use. PNG does everything GIF does, and better, so expect to see PNG replace
GIF in the future. PNG will not replace JPG, since JPG is capable of much greater compression of
photographic images, even when set for quite minimal loss of quality.
4.5.3 Digital video file formats

Video streaming is becoming extremely popular. More and more websites are starting to stream
video online, and many video sharing scripts such as ClipShare, ClipBucket and PHP Motion are
on the rise.
A video file in a digital format is made up of two parts, container and a codec.
What is a codec?
A codec is used to compress and decompress a digital file. Now you probably are thinking? Why
in the world do you need to compress a file and loose quality?? Think of it this way: A normal
two-hour long movie on a Blu-ray disk would take up 20GB to 40GB of space. Such a large video
file will take too long if downloaded over the Internet. Hence, video files are compressed so that
they can be handled easily. A codec is used to do this task.
What is a container?
A container is a collection of files that stores information about the digital file; it consists of the
video and audio codecs along with other information, such as subtitles and chapters. You have
control over the type of codec you wish to choose for audio and video separately. The popular
types of containers are AVI, MP4 and MOV. A new open source container that’s gaining
popularity recently is MKV, the reason being that it can support nearly any video codec known.

Types of Video File Formats:

The last three or four digits of a file after the period indicate the type file format it is or the file
container. Similarly, for a Word document, .doc indicates that it is a Word file. We will list here
some of the popular types of video file formats used over the Internet.
AVI (Audio Video Interlaced)

AVI files comply with a standard developed by Microsoft and are a very popular video file an
uncompressed .AVI file is too huge and will be difficult to be transferred over the Internet. AVI
files are mainly used for editing, as they are compatible with almost any application; however,
they are not much of a video sharing format. Most popular video players can open. AVI files
without any issue, and an AVI file can be coded using a variety of codecs. Due to this, one .AVI
file will differ completely from another.
FLV (Flash Video Format)

A Flash video file format is the most common and popular video sharing file format used over the
Internet. Almost all browsers are compatible with Flash and can the play the video with ease. Most
online video games are also done in a Flash video format. Many video-sharing sites will let you
upload a video in a different format, after which they will convert the files to .FLV on the fly. An
example of such a site is YouTube. Videos in the .FLV format are high quality even after
compression, and that is one of the major reasons for the popularity of .FLV.
WMV (Windows Media Video)

The tiniest video files over the Internet are mostly .WMV files. Their file size after compression
is very small, which results in poor quality. As a result of this, .WMV files are used for streaming
as well as downloading content over the Internet. Windows Media Player is the main application
that is used to play .WMV files
MOV (Apple Quick Time Movie)

MOV is a popular type of video format amongst MAC users. MOV files are of high quality and
usually big in size. However, being a popular MAC format, MOV files can still be opened with a
variety of players available on PC.
MPEG (Motions Picture Experts Group)

The Motion Picture Experts Group is an international group that was created to develop standards
for audio and video file formats.
MPEG-4 (.MP4)
MP4 is a video format mainly used by camcorders and cameras that is gaining popularity. The
quality of a video coded using .MP4 is very high and the file size relatively small. .MP4 standard
is becoming more popular than .FLV for online video sharing, as it compatible with both online
and mobile browsers and also supported by the new HTML5.

4.6 Distributed Multimedia Systems 46
4.6 Distributed Multimedia Systems

Distributed multimedia systems consist of multimedia databases, proxy and information servers,
and clients, and are intended to for the distribution of multimedia content over the networks.
In a large scale network infrastructure, it is wiser if the control is distributed in the sense that
service providers (SPs) choose vantage sites to exercise control to regulate the traffic which in a
way assures a respectable quality of service (QoS). This is facilitated via agent-driven approaches.
Thus a central dogma in modern days is in adopting agent-driven support within a DMMS to
handle overwhelming client population on the network.
A decade ago, networked multimedia systems were capable of supporting mostly devices like
Personal computers and/or a small LAN set-up. However, with the advent of modern day wireless
technology, devices such as mobile-technology enabled laptops, handheld devices such as palm-
tops, PDAs, etc also fall under active interactive devices. This means that in the volume of traffic
ranges from simple short media clips, images, and text messages to long duration media data,
which is a multi-fold increase. Further, when compared to service architectures conceived from
late 80’s to mid-90’s, modern day services need to account radically different issues in addition to
the existing issues in the design of a DMMS architecture. To appreciate this point, one can quickly
imagine the issues related to a mobile technology playing crucial roles such as ensuring continuous
network connectivity, graceful degradation of service quality under unavoidable circumstances,
replication of media data 1 and maintaining consistency for editable data, if any, to quote a few.
In addition to such media-rendering service facilities, the purview of modern day DMMS extends
to entertainment in the form of games and casinos on networks.
4.7 Main features of DMS

 Multimedia synchronization support: Presents the playback continuity of media frames
within a single continuous media stream, and temporal relationships among multiple
related data objects.
 Standardization support: Allows interoperability despite heterogeneity in the
information content, presentation format, user interfaces, network protocols and consumer
electronics.
 System wide QoS support: Supports diverse QoS requirements on an end-to-end basis
along the data path from the sender, through the transport network and to the receiver.

 Interactivity: Requires duplex communication between the user and the system and allows
each user to control the information
 Technology integration: Integrates information, communication and computing system
to from a unified digital processing environment.
 Multimedia Integration: Accommodates discrete data as well as continuous data in an
integrated environment.
 Real-time performance: Requires the storage system processing system and transmission
systems to have real-time performance. Hence huge storage volume, high network
transmission rate and high CPU processing rate are required.
4.8 Resource management of DMS

A DMS integrates and manages the information, communication and computing subsystems. The
resource management ensures end-to-end QoS guarantees. Such guarantees have the following
characteristics.
 System wide resource a management and admission control to ensure desired QoS level.
 Quantitative specification rather than quantitative description as in the internet TCP/IP.
This gives the flexibility to accommodate a wide range of applications with diverse QoS
requirements.
 Dynamic management, which means that QoS is dynamically adjusted rather than
statistically maintained throughout the lifetime of the connection.
4.9 Distributed Multimedia application

The arrival of distributed multimedia technology has the potential both to create new application
areas and augment those that already exist. However; to achieve this potential system developers
must fully understand the nature of multimedia information systems and the mechanisms necessary
for such systems to operate successfully. It is the quest for this knowledge which has initiated
research into the needs of distributed multimedia applications. This paper provides a survey of
multimedia applications research, and assesses its contribution to the understanding of distributed
multimedia applications.
4.9.1 ITV
Two way cable TV system that enables the viewer to issue commands and give feedback
information through an electronic device called a setup box. The viewer can select which program
or movie to watch, at what time, and can place orders in response to commercials. New setup boxes
also allow access to email and e-commerce applications via internet.
Interactive TV (ITV or iTV) is an approach to television advertising and programming that creates
the opportunity for viewers to communicate with advertisers and programming executives by
responding to a call to action.
Interactive television refers to technology where traditional TV services are combined with data
services. The major aim of interactive TV is to provide an engaging experience to the viewer.

4.9 Distributed Multimedia application 48
Interactive TV allows various forms of interaction, such as:

 Interacting with the TV set
 Interacting with the program content
 Interacting with TV-related content
 Interactive TV services
 Closed-circuit interactive television
Interactive TV is similar to converged TV services, but should not be confused with it. Interactive
TV is delivered through pay-TV set-top boxes, whereas converged TV services are delivered using
Internet connectivity and Web-based services with the help of over-the-top boxes like Roku or
gaming consoles.
Interactive TV increases engagement levels by allowing user participation and feedback. It can
also become part of a connected living room and be controlled using devices other than the remote
control, like mobile phones and tablets.
The return path is the channel that is used by viewers to send information back to the broadcaster.
This path can be established using a cable, telephone lines or any data communications technology.
The most commonly used return path is a broadband IP connection.
4.9.2 VOD
VoD and VoR are most commonly used services by network users. VoD is certainly an attractive
technology in rendering digital video libraries, distance learning, electronic commerce, etc, as (i)
users can request the service any time and from anywhere and, (ii) service allows users to have a
complete control of the presentation. Despite continuous research efforts in rendering quality VoD
service, the requirement on network resources, such as server bandwidth, cache space, number of
copies, etc., are still considered overwhelming owing to an exponential growth in client population.
When such fully interactive service demands are met we say that the service is of type True-VoD.
While small movie clips rendering, learning and video-conferencing kind of applications are
almost now delivering a high-quality service, for long-duration movie viewing with a presentation
control still seems to exhibit annoying experiences for users.

When users reserve for a movie presentation in advance, VoD manifests in the form of VoR. Under
VoR service, system is shown to utilize resources in an optimal manner as user viewing times are
known in advance. VoD and VoR are completely orthogonal in their service style. Perhaps VoR
is better suited for pay-per-view by SPs for digital TV subscribers. Another type of VoD service
is called as Near VoD services (NVoD), and it distributes videos over multicast or broadcast
channels to serve the requests which demand the same videos and arrive close in time. These
technologies have been successful to provide video services in local area networks, say in hotels.
4.10 Multimedia communication standards

The past years have seen an explosion in the use of digital media. Industry is making significant
investments to deliver digital audio, image and video information to consumers and customers. A
new infrastructure of digital audio, image and video recorders and players; online services and
electronic commerce is rapidly being deployed. At the same time, major corporations are
converting their audio, image and video archives to an electronic form. Digital media offer several
distinct advantages over analog media. The quality of digital audio, image and video signals is
higher than that of their analog counterparts. Editing is easy because one can access the exact
discrete locations that need to be changed. Copying is simple with no loss of fidelity. A copy of
digital media is identical to the original. Digital audio, image and video are easily transmitted
across networked information systems. These advantages have opened up many new possibilities.
There are different standards use for the multimedia communication. We discuss some standards
of Moving Pictures Experts Group (MPEG)-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, MPEG-4 Visual Texture
Coding (VTC), Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)-2000, MPEG-7, MPEG-21,
International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector (ITU-T) and Internet
standards. We discuss the ITU-T standardization process in multimedia communications from the
video and speech coding, as well as from multimedia, multiplex and synchronization points of
view (H.320, H.321, H.322, H.323, H.262, H.263, H.26L, H.221, H.222, H.223 and H.225).
 MPEG-1, a standard for storage and retrieval of moving pictures and audio on
storage media (approved November 1992); products such as Video CD and
MP3 are based on it
 MPEG-2, a standard for digital television (approved November 1994); Digital
Television set top boxes and DVD are based on it
 MPEG-4 version 1 and 2, a standard for multimedia applications (approved
October 1998 and December 1999, respectively ), for the fixed and mobile web
 MPEG-7 a content representation standard for multimedia information search,
filtering, management and processing
4.11 MPEG approach to multimedia standardization

There are three main bodies engaged in international standardization.
 ITU (International Telecommunication Union), a United Nations agency producing

telecommunications and broadcasting standards.

4.11 MPEG approach to multimedia standardization 50
 IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission), a body producing international

standards on electrical/electronic matters
 ISO (International Organization for Standardization), a body producing international
standards on "everything else".
With MPEG-1 and MPEG-2, MPEG has produced common audio-visual coding standards that are
used by all industries mentioned in Para. 3. This has enabled them to accelerate digital audio-visual
technology development, share development costs, and, more fundamentally for users, flow of
content unrestricted by built-in technical barriers.
Currently MPEG has the following subgroups:
1. DSM: develops standards for interfaces between Digital Storage Media (DSM), servers
and clients for the purpose of managing DSM resources and controlling the delivery of MPEG bit
streams and associated data.
2. Delivery: develops standards for interfaces between MPEG-4 applications and peers or
broadcast media, for the purpose of managing transport resources.
3. Systems: develops standards for the coding of the combination of individually coded audio,
moving images and related information so that the combination can be used by any application.
4. Video: develops standards for coded representation of moving pictures of natural origin.
5. Audio: develops standards for coded representation of audio of natural origin.
6. SNHC: Synthetic- Natural Hybrid Coding: develops standards for coded representation of
audio and moving pictures of natural and synthetic origin. SNHC concentrates on the coding of
synthetic data.
7. Test: develops methods for and executes subjective evaluation tests of the quality of
coded audio and moving pictures, both individually and combined, to test the quality of moving
pictures and audio produced by MPEG standards
8. Implementation: evaluates coding techniques so as to provide guidelines to other groups
upon realistic boundaries of implementation parameters.
9. Liaison: handles relations with bodies external to MPEG.
10. HoD: (Heads of Delegations): acts in advisory capacity on matters of general nature.
4.11.1 MPEG-1 encoding and decoding

The specific target of MPEG-1 is CD-ROM and DAT platforms for multimedia applications with
a bandwidth of 1.5 Mbit/sec. The three parts of the standard are video encoding, with a binary
stream taking almost the 1.15 Mbit/s bandwidth, audio encoding, and systems (which includes
information for synchronization, and information about the coding). The target quality of MPEG-
1 is that of a VHS video.
MPEG-1 is a standard providing normative statements that allow implementers to realize the
traditional communication paradigm (see figure below). Audio-visual information is generated in
real time from a natural scene or is stored on a server. In both cases a multiplexed bit stream
reaches a decoder via a delivery medium (a telecommunication network, a broadcasting channel
etc.). In the case of a local disk the delivery part of the scheme disappears but the model still
remains valid. Encoded audio and video streams, constrained to have a common time base and
combined into a single stream by the MPEG system layer, are extracted and handed over to the

appropriate audio and video decoders that produce the intended sequences of PCM samples
representing audio and video information.
MPEG-1, formally known as ISO/IEC 11172, is a standard in 5 parts. The first three parts are
Systems, Video and Audio, in that order. Two more parts complete the suite of MPEG-1 standards:
Conformance Testing, which specifies the methodology for verifying claims of conformance to
the standard by manufacturers of equipment and producers of bit streams, and Software
Simulation, a full C-language implementation of the MPEG-1 standard (encoder and decoder).
Manifold have been the implementations of the MPEG-1 standard: from software implementations
running on a consumer-grade PC of today in real time, to single boards for PCs, to the so-called
Video CD etc. The last product has become a market success in some countries: in China alone
millions of Video CD decoders have already been sold. MPEG-1 content is used for such services
as DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting) and is the standard format on the Internet for quality video.
4.11.2 MPEG-4 coding of audiovisual objects

Currently, MPEG-4 is officially described as a standard for multimedia applications. But the initial
goal was different: MPEG-4 was intended for very low bit rate coding of video. In the process of
the discussion of the standard it became oriented towards a new form of representation of
audiovisual content, better suited for multimedia applications. MPEG-4 should be able to support
audio-visual interactive services, such as videogames, teleshopping.
The MPEG-4 representation of video represents a departure from the traditional digital signal
processing approach. This approach can be labelled as coding oriented towards compression based
on Fourier transforms or similar mathematical operations. The new approach is a step towards
using more "intelligent" image analysis and understanding in the whole process.

The following figure gives a general reference model for an MPEG-4 receiver. This is an extension
of the MHEG-enabled MPEG-2 model with the capability for a user to present the scene depending
on the view/hear point.
A thorough analysis of requirements has led the group to target a standard with the following
characteristics
1. Is natural, synthetic or both;
2. Is real time and non-real time;
3. Supports different functionalities responding to user's needs;
4. Flows to and from different sources simultaneously;
5. Does not require the user to bother with the specifics of the communication channel, but
uses a technology that is aware of it.
6. Gives users the possibility to interact with the different information elements;
7. Let’s the user present the result of his interaction with content in the way suiting his needs.
The technical specifications of the standard will be contained in 6 parts

 Part 1 Systems
 Part 2 Visual
 Part 3 Audio
 Part 4 Conformance Testing
 Part 5 Reference Software
 Part 6 DMIF

4.11.3 JPEG 2000

The JPEG2000 file format was put forward as an improvement on the classic JPEG format. In my
experience, it is not. It does not come as a surprise that support for the format, several years later,
is almost non-existent - there is not a single web browser, paint program, or office app which
supports it directly.
In fact, upon first testing, it appeared to be step backwards, producing significantly more visual
distortion at the same file sizes as classic JPEG. Upon further testing, it appears to be roughly
comparable. JPEG2000 producing a slightly different kind of distortion, characterized by
significant blurring.
JPEG 2000 is an image coding system that uses state-of-the-art compression techniques based on
wavelet technology. Its architecture lends itself to a wide range of uses from portable digital
cameras through to advanced pre-press, medical imaging and other key sectors.
JPEG 2000 refers to all parts of the standard. Below is the list of current parts that make up the
complete JPEG 2000 suite of standards.
At the core of the JPEG 2000 structure is a new wavelet based compression methodology that
provides for a number of benefits over the Discrete Cosine Transformation (DCT) compression
method, which was used in the JPEG format. The DCT compresses an image into 8x8 blocks and
places them consecutively in the file. In this compression process, the blocks are compressed
individually, without reference to the adjoining blocks. This results in “blockiness” associated
with compressed JPEG files. With high levels of compression, only the most important
information is used to convey the essentials of the image. However, much of the subtlety that
makes for a pleasing, continuous image is lost.
In contrast, wavelet compression converts the image into a series of wavelets that can be stored
more efficiently than pixel blocks. Although wavelets also have rough edges, they are able to
render pictures better by eliminating the “blockiness” that is a common feature of DCT
compression. Not only does this make for smoother color toning and clearer edges where there
are sharp changes of color, it also gives smaller file sizes than a JPEG image with the same level
of compression.
This wavelet compression is accomplished through the use of the JPEG 2000 encoder, which is
pictured in Figure 4. This is similar to every other transform based coding scheme. The transform
is first applied on the source image data. The transform coefficients are then quantized and entropy
coded, before forming the output. The decoder is just the reverse of the encoder. Unlike other
coding schemes, JPEG 2000 can be both lossy and lossless. This depends on the wavelet transform
and the quantization applied.

4.11.4 ITU-T standardization of audiovisual communication systems

The ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is one of the three sectors (divisions
or units) of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU); it coordinates standards for
telecommunications.
The ITU-T mission is to ensure the efficient and timely production of standards covering all fields
of telecommunications on a worldwide basis, as well as defining tariff and accounting principles
for international telecommunication services.
The international standards that are produced by the ITU-T are referred to as "Recommendations"
(with the word ordinarily capitalized to distinguish its meaning from the ordinary sense of the word
"recommendation"), as they become mandatory only when adopted as part of a national law.
The rise of the personal computer industry in the early 1980s created a new common practice
among both consumers and businesses of adopting "bleeding edge" communications technology
even if it was not yet standardized. Thus, standards organizations had to put forth standards much
faster, or find themselves ratifying de facto standards after the fact. One of the most prominent
examples of this was the Open Document Architecture project, which began in 1985 when a
profusion of software firms around the world were still furiously competing to shape the future of
the electronic office, and was completed in 1999 long after Microsoft Office's then-secret binary
file formats had become established as the global de facto standard.
Standardization:
The ITU-T now operates under much more streamlined processes. The time between an initial
proposal of a draft document by a member company and the final approval of a full-status ITU-T
Recommendation can now be as short as a few months (or less in some cases). This makes the
standardization approval process in the ITU-T much more responsive to the needs of rapid
technology development than in the ITU's historical past. New and updated Recommendations are
published on an almost daily basis, and much of the library of over 3,270 Recommendations is
now free of charge online. (Specifications jointly maintained by the ITU-T and ISO/IEC are not
free.

Standard Approval:
The “Alternative Approval Process” (AAP) is a fast-track approval procedure that was developed
to allow standards to be brought to market in the timeframe that industry now demands. This
dramatic overhaul of standards-making by streamlining approval procedures was implemented in
2001 and is estimated to have cut the time involved in this critical aspect of the standardization
process by 80 to 90 per cent. This means that an average standard which took around four years to
approve and publish until the mid-nineties, and two years until 1997, can now be approved in an
average of two months, or as little as five weeks. The vast majority of standards are approved in
this way. Only those that have regulatory implications are not, they use the is called the traditional
approval process (TAP). Besides streamlining the underlying procedures involved in the approval
process, an important contributory factor to the use of AAP is electronic document handling.

5
Multimedia Communication Across Networks
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................57
5.2 Multimedia Networking: Goals and Challenges.............................................57
The real-time challenge ...............................................................................57
5.3 Multimedia over Internet ............................................................................57
5.4 PROTOCOLS FOR MULTIMEDIA ..................................................................58
5.4.1 RSVP --- Resource Reservation Protocol ................................................58
5.4.2 How does RSVP work? ...........................................................................58
5.4.3 RTP --- Real-time Transport Protocol .....................................................59
5.4.4 RTSP---Real-Time Streaming Protocol ...................................................59
5.5 AOIP AND VOIP ...........................................................................................60
5.5.1 Audio over IP.........................................................................................60
5.5.2 VOICE OVER IP .....................................................................................60
5.6 DSL LINES AND ITS TYPES..........................................................................61
5.6.1 Asymmetric DSL....................................................................................62
5.6.2 Symmetric DSL .....................................................................................62
5.6.3 ADSL/VDSL ...........................................................................................62
5.7 Multimedia across Wireless .........................................................................64
5.7.1 Speech transmission in GSM .................................................................64
5.7.2 Video across GSM ..................................................................................65
5.7.3 Mobile ATM ...........................................................................................65
5.7.4 Mobile IP ...............................................................................................66
5.8 Wireless multimedia delivery ......................................................................67
5.1 Introduction 57
5.1 Introduction
The future Integrated Services Internet will provide means to transmit real-time multimedia data
across networks. RSVP, RTP, RTCP and RTSP are the foundation of real-time services. This
paper is a detailed survey of the four related protocols.
5.2 Multimedia Networking: Goals and Challenges
Computer networks were designed to connect computers on different locations so that they can
share data and communicate. In the old days, most of the data carried on networks was textual
data. Today, with the rise of multimedia and network technologies, multimedia has become an
indispensable feature on the Internet. Animation, voice and video clips become more and more
popular on the Internet. Multimedia networking products like Internet telephony, Internet TV,
video conferencing have appeared on the market. In the future, people would enjoy other
multimedia products in distance learning, distributed simulation, distributed work groups and
other areas.
For networkers, multimedia networking is to build the hardware and software infrastructure and
application tools to support multimedia transport on networks so that users can communicate in
multimedia. Multimedia networking will greatly boost the use the of computer as a
communication tool. We believe someday multimedia networks will replace telephone,
television and other inventions that had dramatically changed our life.
The real-time challenge
However, multimedia networking is not a trivial task. We can expect at least three difficulties.
First, compared with traditional textual applications, multimedia applications usually require
much higher bandwidth. A typical piece of 25 second 320x240 QuickTime movie could take
2.3MB, which is equivalent to about 1000 screens of textual data. This is unimaginable in the old
days when only textual data is transmitted on the net.
5.3 Multimedia over Internet
There are other ways to transmit multimedia data, like dedicated links, cables and ATM.
However, the idea of running multimedia over Internet is extremely attractive.
Dedicated links and cables are not practical because they require special installation and new
software. Without an existing technology like LAN,WAN, the software development will be
extremely expensive. ATM was said to be the ultimate solution for multimedia because it
supports very high bandwidth, is connection-oriented and can tailor different level of quality of
service to different type of applications. But at this moment, very few users have ATM networks
reaching their organization, even fewer have ATM connections to their desktops.

58) Multimedia Communication (3361106)
On the other hand, the Internet is growing exponentially. The well established LAN and WAN
technologies based on IP protocol suite connect bigger and bigger networks all over the world to
the Internet. In fact, Internet has become the platform of most networking activities. This is the
primary reason to develop multimedia protocols over Internet. Another benefit of running
multimedia over IP is that users can have integrated data and multimedia service over one single
network, without investing on another network hardware and building the interface between two
networks.
5.4 PROTOCOLS FOR MULTIMEDIA
5.4.1 RSVP --- Resource Reservation Protocol
RSVP is the network control protocol that allows data receiver to request a special end-to-end
quality of service for its data flows. Real-time applications use RSVP to reserve necessary
resources at routers along the transmission paths so that the requested bandwidth can be available
when the transmission actually takes place. RSVP is a main component of the future Integrated
Services Internet which can provide both best-effort and real-time service
5.4.2 How does RSVP work?
RSVP is used to set up reservations for network resources. When an application in a host (the
data stream receiver) requests a specific quality of service (QoS) for its data stream, it uses
RSVP to deliver its request to routers along the data stream paths. RSVP is responsible for the
negotiation of connection parameters with these routers. If the reservation is setup, RSVP is also
responsible for maintaining router and host states to provide the requested service.
Each node capable of resource reservation has several local procedures for reservation setup and
enforcement (see Figure 1). Policy control determines whether the user has administrative
permission to make the reservation. In the future, authentication, access control and accounting
for reservation will also be implemented by policy control. Admission control keeps track of the
system resources and determines whether the node has sufficient resources to supply the
requested QoS.
The RSVP daemon checks with both procedures. If either check fails, the RSVP program returns
an error notification to the application that originated the request. If both checks succeed, the
RSVP daemon sets parameters in the packet classifier and packet scheduler to obtain the
requested QoS. The packet classifier determines the QoS class for each packet and the packet
scheduler orders packet transmission to achieve the promised QoS for each stream.
RSVP daemon also communicate with the routing process to determine the path to send its
reservation requests and to handle changing memberships and routes.

5.4 PROTOCOLS FOR MULTIMEDIA 59
Figure 1: Reservation at a node on the data flow path
This reservation procedure is repeated at routers along the reverse data stream path until the
reservation merges with another reservation for the same source stream.
Reservations are implemented through two types of RSVP messages: PATH and RESV. The
PATH messages are sent periodically from the sender to the multicast address. A PATH message
contains flow spec to describe sender template (data format, source address, source port) and
traffic characteristics. This information is used by receivers to find the reverse path to the sender
and to determine what resources should be reserved. Receivers must join the multicast group in
order to receive PATH messages.
5.4.3 RTP --- Real-time Transport Protocol
Realtime transport protocol (RTP) is an IP-based protocol providing support for the transport of
real-time data such as video and audio streams. The services provided by RTP include time
reconstruction, loss detection, security and content identification. RTP is primarily designed for
multicast of real-time data, but it can be also used in unicast. It can be used for one-way transport
such as video-on-demand as well as interactive services such as Internet telephony.
5.4.4 RTSP---Real-Time Streaming Protocol
Instead of storing large multimedia files and playing back, multimedia data is usually sent across
the network in streams. Streaming breaks data into packets with size suitable for transmission
between the servers and clients. The real-time data flows through the transmission,
decompressing and playing back pipeline just like a water stream. A client can play the first
packet, decompress the second, while receiving the third. Thus the user can start enjoying the
multimedia without waiting to the end of transmission.

5.5 AOIP AND VOIP
5.5.1 Audio over IP
Audio over IP (AoIP) is the distribution of digital audio across an IP network such as the
Internet. It is being used increasingly to provide high-quality audio feeds over long distances.
The application is also known as audio contribution over IP (ACIP) in reference to the
programming contributions made by field reporters and remote events. Audio quality and latency
are key issues for contribution links.
In the past, these links have made use of ISDN services but these are becoming increasingly
difficult or expensive to obtain in some parts of Europe and are being phased out in others. Many
proprietary systems came into existence for transporting high-quality audio over IP based on
TCP, UDP or RTP. An interoperable standard for audio over IP using RTP now exists.
5.5.2 VOICE OVER IP
Voice over Internet Protocol (Voice over IP, VoIP and IP telephony) is a methodology and group
of technologies for the delivery of voice communications and multimedia sessions over Internet
Protocol (IP) networks, such as the Internet. The terms Internet telephony, broadband telephony,
and broadband phone service specifically refer to the provisioning of communications services
(voice, fax, SMS, voice-messaging) over the public Internet, rather than via the public switched
telephone network (PSTN).

5.6 DSL LINES AND ITS TYPES 61
FIG. Understanding the terms is a first step toward learning the potential of this technology
*VoIP refers to a way to carry phone calls over an IP data network, whether on the Internet or
your own internal network. A primary attraction of VoIP is its ability to help reduce expenses
because telephone calls travel over the data network rather than the phone company's network.
*IP telephony encompasses the full suite of VoIP enabled services including the interconnection
of phones for communications; related services such as billing and dialing plans; and basic
features such as conferencing, transfer, forward, and hold. These services might previously have
been provided by a PBX.
*IP communications includes business applications that enhance communications to enable

features such as unified messaging, integrated contact centers, and rich-media conferencing with
voice, data, and video.
*Unified communications takes IP communications a step further by using such technologies as

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) and presence along with mobility solutions to unify and simply
all forms of communications, independent of location, time, or device.
5.6 DSL LINES AND ITS TYPES

The leading DSL technologies being deployed today include:
 RADSL - (Rate Adaptive Digital Subscriber Line)

 ADSL - Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line. ...
 ADSL Lite (or G.lite) ...
 R-ADSL - Rate-Adapative Digital Subscriber Line. ...
 HDSL - Hight Bit-Rate Digital Subscriber Line. ...
 IDSL - ISDN Digital Subscriber Line.

5.6.1 Asymmetric DSL
Asymmetric types of DSL connections provide more network bandwidth for downloading (from
the Internet service provider down to the subscriber's computer) than for uploading in the other
direction). By reducing the amount of bandwidth available upstream, service providers are able
to offer relatively more bandwidth downstream.
Asymmetric DSL technology is popular in residential DSL services as home Internet users
predominately use downstream bandwidth. Typical asymmetric DSL services support 5 Mbps for
downloads and 1 Mbps for uploads.
Common forms of asymmetric DSL include:
 ADSL (and G.Lite)

 RADSL
 VDSL
5.6.2 Symmetric DSL
Symmetric types of DSL connections provide equal bandwidth for both uploads and downloads.
Symmetric DSL technology is popular for business-class DSL services as companies often have
greater needs for transferring data. Typical symmetric DSL connections support 1.5 Mbps for
downloads and uploads.
Common forms of symmetric DSL include:
 SDSL (and G.Lite)

 HSDL - developed in the early 1990s, making it one of the oldest forms of DSL. HDSL offered data
rates up to 2,048 Kbps but required multiple phone lines, making it eventually obsolete.
 SHDSL
5.6.3 ADSL/VDSL
DSL delivers broadband to more people today than any other technology. Roughly two-thirds of
all broadband subscribers are DSL subscribers, and there are more new DSL subscribers each
month than new subscribers for all other broadband access technologies combined.
DSL, which stands for Digital Subscriber Line, is a technology that delivers broadband speeds
over distances of miles or kilometers via copper wiring. DSL was originally delivered over the
same wires that are used to provide traditional voice telephony services. These wires run from a
telephone company’s Central Office (CO), the location where voice switching and other
traditional telephony functions are performed, to a subscriber’s home or business. Increasingly,
DSL is delivered from a device situated closer to the subscriber’s home or business that is
connected to a CO via an optical fiber link, and then to the subscriber’s premises via copper
wires. In all cases, however, DSL delivers broadband over the copper connections that exist
already in almost every residence and business in the developing and developed worlds.

5.6 DSL LINES AND ITS TYPES 63
This architecture is depicted in the figure below. At the CO, or at a remote location typically
connected to the CO via fiber optics, there is a DSL Access Multiplexer (DSLAM) that sends
and receives broadband data to many subscribers via DSL technology. At each subscriber’s
location, there is a modem (modulator-demodulator) that communicates with the DSLAM to
send and receive that subscriber’s broadband data to and from the Internet and other networks. A
DSLAM communicates with many individual subscriber modems. Each subscriber’s modem is
dedicated to that subscriber’s broadband connection.
Voice services utilize only a small fraction of the total information carrying capacity of copper
connections. In an analogous manner to Ethernet technology, which can transmit a Gigabit (more
than one billion bits) per second of data over copper connections or the equivalent of tens of
thousands of simultaneous phone conversations, DSL exploits the information carrying capacity
of copper lines to deliver broadband services over long distances.
To engineers, “DSL” means a set of formal standards for communicating broadband signals over
copper lines. It also means equipment that complies with those standards. The principal DSL
standards are published by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), a standards body
based in Geneva, Switzerland.
DSL standards have evolved significantly since the first DSL standards were established in the
early 1990’s. The DSL standards have evolved to support higher data rates, to take advantage of
advances in equipment technologies, and to ensure that DSL can coexist on copper lines with
other communications standards such as Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), an early
digital voice and data service that is still in use in many countries. The table below lists some of
the principal DSL standards in use today.

5.7 Multimedia across Wireless

Streaming multimedia over wireless networks is a challenging task. Extensive research has been
carried out to ensure a smooth and uninterrupted multimedia transmission to a Mobile Host
(MH) over wireless media. The current research thrust is to ensure an uninterrupted multimedia
transmission when the MH moves between networks or subnets. Ensuring uninterrupted
multimedia transmission during handoff is challenging, because the MH is already receiving
multimedia from the network to which it is connected; when it moves into another network, it
needs to break the connection with the old network and establish a connection with the new
network. Fig. 1 shows an MH connected to Wireless Network 1; when it moves it has to make a
connection with the new network, say Wireless Network 2. The reestablishment of a new
connection takes a considerable amount of time, resulting in the possibility of interruption and
resulting loss of multimedia. The current TCP/IP network infrastructure was not designed for
mobility. It does not support handoff between IP networks. For example, a device running a real
time application, such as video conference, cannot play smoothly when the user hands off from
one wireless IP network to another, resulting in unsatisfactory performance to the user.
5.7.1 Speech transmission in GSM
The speech transmission in GSM involved modulation and demodulation process basically. The
GSM digital speech compression process works by grouping the digital audio signals into
20msec speech frames. These speech frames are analyzed and characterized (e.g. volume, pitch)
by the speech coder. The speech coder removes redundancy in the digital signal (such as silence
periods) and characterizes digital patterns that can be made by the human voice using code book
tables. The code book table codes are transmitted instead of the original digitized audio signal.
This results in the transmission of a 13 kbps compressed digital audio instead of the 64 kbps
digitized audio signal.

5.7 Multimedia across Wireless 65
There are six level encoding and decoding process includes, Speech coding, channel coding,
interleave, burst formatting, ciphering and modulation. This figure shows the basic speech data
compression process used for the GSM speech coder. This diagram shows that the analog voice
signal is sampled 8,000 times each second and digitized into a 64 kbps digital signal. The
digitized signal is grouped into 20msec speech frames. The speech frames are analyzed and
compressed into a new 13 kbps digital signal.
5.7.2 Video across GSM
Transmitting video over bandwidth-limited and error-prone mobile wireless channels is

challenging. In this paper, we investigate the transmission of H.263-based video over a GSM
wireless network. A fourth order Markov model based algorithm proposed in is used to generate
burst errors on the block or packet level for the GSM wireless channel. We evaluate the
transmission performance of H.263 video over the channel by simulation. An Intra-coding based
error resilient method and a simple generic forward error correction scheme are discussed. Since
the Markov-based algorithm can be generalized to model different error statistics, e.g., different
wireless channels, the performance analysis of H.263-based video over the GSM network may
be applied for other wireless channels such as 3G systems.
The GSM system presently offers circuit-switched data rates of 9.6 Kb/s which is usually not
adequate for real-time transmission of video. However, the specifications for High-Speed
Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD) [6.183] have already been completed, and deployment of these
higher data rates for GSM started in 1999. The data-rate enhancements include an increase of the
single slot data rate from 9.6 Kb/s to 14.4 Kb/s, as well as the use of multiple data transmission
slots for one connection. For example, one practical configuration will use two data slots
providing an aggregate full duplex data rate of 28.8 Kb/s. This rate will already be sufficient for
simple video telephony as well as for some asymmetric video applications.
5.7.3 Mobile ATM
The item, which defines the design functions of control/signaling, IS called mobile ATM. In
WATM networks, a mobile end-user establishes a VC to communicate with another user, either a
mobile or an ATM end-user. When the mobile end-user moves from one AP to another AP,
proper handover is required. To minimize the interruption to cell transport, an efficient switching
of the active VC from the old data path to new data path is needed. Also, the switching should be
fast enough to make the new VCs available to the mobile users. During the handover, an old path
is released and a new path is then reestablished. In this case, no cell is lost, and cell sequence is
preserved. Cell buffering consists of uplink buffering and downlink buffering. If VC is broken
when the mobile user is sending cells to APs, unlinking buffering is required. The mobile user
will buffer all the outgoing cells. When the connection is up, it sends out all the buffered cells so
that no cells are lost unless the buffer overflows. Downlink buffering is performed by APs to
preserve the downlink cells for sudden link interruption congestion or retransmissions. It may
also occur when the hand over is executed.
When a connection is established between one mobile ATM endpoint and another ATM end
point, the mobile ATM endpoint needs to be located. There are two basic location management

schemes: the mobile scheme and the location register scheme. In the mobile scheme, when a
user, moves, the reachability update information only propagates to the nodes in a limited region.
When a call is originated by switching in this region, it can use the location information to
establish the connection directly.
5.7.4 Mobile IP
The evolution of mobile networking will differ from that of telephony in some important
respects. The end points of a telephone connection are typically human. Computer applications
are likely to involve interconnections between machines without human interruption. Obvious
examples of this are mobile computing devices on airplanes, ships and automobiles. Mobile
networking may well also come to depend on position-finding devices, such as a satellite global,
positioning system, to work in tandem with wireless access to the Internet. There are still some
technical obstacles that must be overcome before mobile networking can become widespread.
The most fundamental is the IP, the protocol that connects the networks of today's Internet, and
routes packets to their destinations according to IP addresses. These addresses are associated
with a fixed network location much as a non-mobile phone number is associated with a physical
jack in a wall. When the packet's destination is a mobile node, this means that each new point of
attachment made by the node is associated with a new network number and hence a new IP
address. Mobile IP is a standard protocol that builds on IP by making mobility transparent to
applications and higher-level protocol like TCP.
Mobile IP is best understood as the cooperation of three separable mechanisms,

• Discovering the care-of address
• Registering the care-of address
• Tuning to the care-of address
Mobile IP discovery does not modify the original fields of existing router advertisements, but
simply extends them to associated mobility functions. When the router advertisements also
contain the needed care-of address, they are known as agent advertisements, which are the
procedures by which a mobile agent becomes known to the mobile node. Home agents and
foreign agents typically broadcast agent advertisements at regular intervals, for example, once a
second or once every few seconds. An agent advertisement performs the following functions:
• Allows for the data detection of mobile agents
• Lists one or more available care-of addresses
• Informs the mobile node about special features provided by foreign agents, for example,
alternative encapsulation techniques
• Let’s mobile nodes determine the network number and status of their link to the Internet
• Let’s the mobile node know whether the agent is a home agent, a foreign agent or both,
and therefore whether it is on its home network or a foreign network

5.8 Wireless multimedia delivery 67
5.8 Wireless multimedia delivery

Early this year, the Wireless Multimedia Forum Technical Working Group (WMF TWG)
published its first document, which recommends technologies, formats and protocols that can be
used by the various supply-chain members in the streaming multimedia wireless space.
Equipment makers, content developers, and service providers that build products conforming to
the specifications in Recommended Technical Framework Document (RTFD) Version 1.0 will
enable equipment from many vendors to interoperate and will allow software interfaces to be
interchangeable across networks.
Achieving such consensus will accelerate the market for multimedia content and services. For
example, having a common technology framework for wireless multimedia delivery will reduce
the number of multimedia platforms that content providers will have to support, hastening their
time to market with new content and services and stepping up the pace at which their content can
reach a broad, far-flung user audience.
New mobile services could include the delivery of news, weather, stock and sports updates to
mobile users. In addition, traveling parents could receive clips of a child’s soccer game or
performance in the school play. Geographic location services could be combined with dating
services, whereby handheld users could receive a multimedia profile of a dating service
candidate who lives in the geographic ballpark of the user’s location. Children in Japan are
already using cell phones to send animated multimedia greetings to one another, and interactive
games that could be streamed among participating users across wireless networks are in
development in companies across the globe. With new streaming wireless services, traveling
parents could, for example, receive clips of a child’s soccer game or performance in the school
play.
RTFD Version 1.0 explicitly addresses the streaming multimedia (SMM) application, which
includes both on-demand and live streaming using voice and video as the primary media types.
The components of an SMM system include the following:
 Content creation subsystem

 Multimedia distribution servers
 Wireless multimedia terminals

Seat No.: ________ Enrolment No.___________
GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Diploma Engineering - SEMESTER–VI • EXAMINATION – WINTER • 2016
Subject Code: 3361106 Date: 25 -10-2016
Subject Name: Multimedia Communication
Time: 10:30 am - 01:00 pm Total Marks: 70
Instructions:
1. Attempt all questions.
2. Make Suitable assumptions wherever necessary.
3. Figures to the right indicate full marks.
4. Use of programmable & Communication aids are strictly prohibited.
5. Use of only simple calculator is permitted in Mathematics.
6. English version is authentic.
Seat No.: ________ Enrolment No.______________

DIPLOMA ENGINEERING – SEMESTER – VI• EXAMINATION – SUMMER 2016
Subject Code: 3361106 Date: 19/05/2016

Time: 10:30 AM to 01:00 PM Total Marks: 70
Instructions:
Q.1 Answer any seven out of ten. દશમાંથી કોઇપણ સાતના જવાબ આપો. 14
1. Write speech frequency range of human.
૧. માણસની સ્પી ફ્ર�કવન્સ ર� ન્ લખો.
2. Write audio frequency range which human can listen.
૨. માણસની સાંભળવાની ફ્ર�કવન્સ ર� ન્ લખો.
3. Write full forms of these:MPEG, DTH
૩. આના �લ ફોમર લખો: MPEG, DTH
4. Write full forms of these:DVB, VoIP
૪. આના �લ ફોમર લખો: DVB, VoIP
5. Write different types of switching systems.
૫. સ્વીચ� સીસ્ટ્મ પ્રક લખો.
6. Write at least four digital audio and image file formats.
૬. કોઇપણ ચાર ડ��ટલ ઓડ�યો અને ઇમેજ ફોરમેટના નામ લખો.
7. Draw block diagram of elements of multimedia systems used in person-to-
person communication.
8. Draw block diagram of elements of multimedia systems used in person-to-
machine communication.
9. Find bandwidth requirement in Kilo bits per seconds for Telephone quality
audio i.e. 8 KHz sampling rate, 8 bit quantization and 1 channel mono.
10. Write four advanced features of JPEG 2000.
૧૦. JPEG 2000ના ચાર એડવાન્ ફ�ચસર લખો.
Q.2 (a) Write different multimedia applications. 03

પ�. ર (અ) �ુ દ��ુ દ� મલ્ટ�મીડ�ય એપ્લીક�શન્સ નામ લખો. ૦૩
OR
(a) Explain the operations of synchronous duplex mode of stored program 03
control in brief.
(અ) સ્ટોર પ્રોગ ક્ન્ટ્ર synchronous duplex mode �ુંકમાં સમ�વો. ૦૩
(b) Write and explain different satellite orbits in brief. 03
(બ) �ુ દ� �ુ દ� સેટ�લાઇટ ઓરબીટના નામ લખી �ુંકમાં સમ�વો. ૦૩
OR
(b) Define these terms : Erlang, Tandem Exchange, GOS 03
1/3
(બ) આની વ્યાખ્ આપો: Erlang, Tandem Exchange, GOS ૦૩
(c) Draw block diagram of Earth station for satellite system and explain in brief. 04
(ક) સેટ�લાઇટ અથર સીસ્ટમન બ્લો ડાયેગ્ર દોર� �ુંકમાં સમ�વો. ૦૪
OR
(c) Explain the operations of standby mode of centralized stored program 04
control.
(ક) સેન્ટ્રલા સ્ટોર પ્રોગ ક્ન્ટ્ર standby mode �ુંકમાં સમ�વો. ૦૪
(d) Compare single stage and two stage networks. 04
(ડ) સ�ગલ સ્ટ� અને �ુ સ્ટ� નેટવકર ્ન સરખામણી કરો. ૦૪
OR
(d) Explain in brief the user requirements of multimedia communication. 04
(ડ) મલ્ટ�મીડ�ય કોમ્�ુનીક�શનન �ુઝર ર�ક્વાયરમેન �ુંકમાં સમ�વો. ૦૪
Q.3 (a) Define these: busy hour and busy hour call attempts. 03
પ�. 3 (અ) આની વ્યાખ્ આપો: busy hour and busy hour call attempts ૦૩
OR
(a) Explain in brief the network requirements of multimedia communication. 03
(અ) મલ્ટ�મીડ�ય કોમ્�ુનીક�શનન નેટવકર ર�ક્વાયરમેન �ુંકમાં સમ�વો. ૦૩
(b) State Kepler’s three laws of satellite motion in Orbits 03
(બ) ઓરબીટમાં સેટ�લાઇટ મોશનના ક�પલરના ત્ િનયમો સમ�વો. ૦૩
OR
(b) Draw a typical telephone traffic pattern of a working day of an urban 03
exchange.
(બ) શહ�ર� એ�ચ�જની કામના �દવસની ટ્રાફ પેટનર દોરો. ૦૩
(c) Explain transmission channels of ISDN in brief. 04
(ક) ISDNની ટ્રાન્શમ ચેનલો �ુંકમાં સમ�વો. ૦૪
OR
(c) Explain the subscriber loop system using cable hierarchy. 04
(ક) ક�બલ હાઇરારચીથી સબસ્ક્રા �ુપ સીસ્ટ સમ�વો. ૦૪
(d) Explain broadband ISDN in brief. 04
(ડ) બ્રોડબે ISDN �ુંકમાં સમ�વો. ૦૪
OR
(d) Draw block diagram of stored program control exchange. 04
(ડ) સ્ટોર પ્રોગ ક્ન્ટ એ�ચ�જનો બ્લો ડાયેગ્ર દોરો. ૦૪
Q.4 (a) Draw block diagram of EPABX. 03

પ�. ૪ (અ) EPABX નો બ્લો ડાયેગ્ર દોરો. ૦૩
OR
(a) Draw block diagram of MPEG-1 decoder. 03
(અ) MPEG-1 decoder નો બ્લો ડાયેગ્ર દોરો. ૦૩
(b) Draw architectural block diagram of VODSL (Video over DSL). 04
(બ) VODSL (Video over DSL) નો બ્લો ડાયેગ્ર દોરો. ૦૪
OR
(b) What is mobile IP? Draw registration operations block diagram of mobile IP. 04
(બ) મોબાઇલ IP એટલે �ુ?ં તેમાં registration operations નો બ્લો ડાયેગ્ર દોરો ૦૪
(c) Draw and explain block diagram of elements of switching system. 07
(ક) સ્વીચ� સીસ્ટ્મ element નો બ્લો ડાયેગ્ર દોરો અને સમ�વો. ૦૭
2/3
Q.5 (a) Explain main features of Distributed multimedia System. 07
પ�. ૫ (અ) ડ�સ્ટ્ર�બ્� મલ્ટ�મીડ�ય સીસ્ટ્મ મેઇન ફ�ચસર સમ�વો. ૦૭
(b) Draw and explain digital internet delivery using DTH. 07
(બ) DTHના ઉપયોગથી ડ��ટલ ઇન્ટરને ડ�લીવર� સમ�વો. ૦૭
(c) Draw block diagram of digital audio signal processing system . 03
(ક) ડ��ટલ ઓડ�યો સીગ્ન પ્રોસેસ સીસ્ટમન બ્લો ડાયેગ્ર દોરો ૦૩
(d) Find bandwidth requirement in Mega bits per seconds for an CD quality 03
audio i.e. 44.1 KHz sampling rate, 16 bit quantization and 2 channel stereo
audio reception.
(ડ) આની બેન્ડવીડ ર�ક્વાયરમ� મેગા બીટસ/સ�કડમાં શોધો: CD quality audio i.e. 44.1 ૦૩
KHz sampling rate, 16 bit quantization and 2 channel stereo audio reception
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DIPLOMA ENGINEERING – SEMESTER –VI • EXAMINATION – WINTER 2015
Subject Code: 3361106 Date: 10/12/2015

Time: 02:30 PM TO 05:00 PM Total Marks: 70
Instructions:
1. Draw two signaling tone waveforms used for telephony.
૧. ટ� �લફોની માટ� ઉપયોગ થતા બે સંક�ત ટોનના તરં ગ દોરો.
2. Define term : a) CCR b) BHCA
૨. વ્યાખ્યા આપો: અ) CCR બ) BHCA
3. Draw a typical telephone traffic pattern of a working day of an urban
exchange.
૩. શહ�ર� એક્સચેન્જમા એક કામ �દવસ એક લાક્ષ�ણક ટ� લીફોન ટ્રા�ફક પેટનર્
દોરો.
4. Compare two parameters of LEO and GEO.
૪. LEO અને GEO ના બે પ�રમાણો સરખાવો.
5. State kepler’s first law of orbital motion of satellite with diagram.
૫. ઉપગ્રહની ભ્રમણ ગિતનો ક�પ્લર નો પ્રથમ લૉ ર� ખા�ૃિત સાથે કહો.
6. List transmission channels in ISDN with their data rate.
૬. ISDN માં પ્રસારણ ચેનલો તેમની મા�હતી દર સાથે યાદ� આપો.
7. List out four ISDN services.
૭. ચાર ISDN સેવાઓની યાદ� આપો.
8. List two audio and image file formats.
૮. બે ઓ�ડયો અને ઇમેજ ફાઇલ ફોમ�ટ્સ ને યાદ� આપો.
9. Write four main features of Distributed multimedia system.
૯. િવતરણ મલ્ટ�મી�ડયા િસસ્ટમના ચાર �ુખ્ય લક્ષણો લખો.
10. Write full form of MPEG and JPEG.
૧૦. MPEG અને JPEG �ું � ૂ� નામ લખો.
Q.2 (a) Draw the block diagram of satellite space craft system. 03
પ્ર�. ર (અ) સેટ�લાઇટ સ્પેસ યાન િસસ્ટમનો બ્લોક ડાયાગ્રામ દોરો. ૦૩
OR
(a) Explain the indoor unit of direct broadcast satellite . 03
(અ) સીધા પ્રસારણ ઉપગ્રહ ની ઇન્ડોર એકમ સમ�વો. ૦૩
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(b) Draw block diagram of MPEG-1 audio /video decoder. 03
(બ) MPEG -1 ઓ�ડયો /િવ�ડયો ડ�કોડર નો બ્લોક ડાયાગ્રામ દોરો. ૦૩
OR
(b) Describe the digital audio signal processing with block diagram. 03
(બ) બ્લોક ડાયાગ્રામ સાથે �ડ�જટલ ઓ�ડયો સંક�ત પ્ર�ક્રયા વણર્વો. ૦૩
(c) Describe the block diagram of earth station. 04
(ક) અથર્ સ્ટ�શનના બ્લોક ડાયાગ્રામ�ુ ં વણર્ન કરો. ૦૪
OR
(c) Describe Geosynchronous orbit in satellite communication. 04
(ક) સેટ�લાઇટ કોમ્�ુિનક�શન માં �યો-િસ�ક્રનસ ભ્રમણકક્ષા�ુ ં વણર્ન કરો. ૦૪
(d) A subscriber makes three phone calls during an hour. The time durations of 04
these calls are 3 minutes, 4 minutes and 2 minutes. Find subscriber traffic in
Erlang, Call Minutes (CM) and Centum Call Seconds (CCS).
(ડ) એક ગ્રાહકના કલાક દરિમયાન ત્રણ ફોન કોલ્સ કર� છે . આ કોલ્સ ના સમય 3 ૦૪
િમિનટ, 4 િમિનટ અને 2 િમિનટ છે . ગ્રાહકના ટ્રા�ફક અરલેન્ગ, કૉલ િમિનટ
(CM) અને Centum કૉલ સેકન્ડ્સ (સીસીએસ) માં શોધો.
OR
(d) Compare In channel signaling with common channel signaling. 04
(ડ) સામાન્ય ચેનલ સંક�ત સાથે સંક�ત ઇન ચેનલ સરખામણી કરો. ૦૪
Q.3 (a) Draw ISDN protocol architecture showing bearer and tele-services. 03
પ્ર�. 3 (અ) બેરર અને ટ� લી સેવાઓ દશાર્ વતા ISDN પ્રોટોકોલ આક�ટ� ક્ચર દોરો. ૦૩
OR
(a) Describe E-mail service in ISDN. 03
(અ) ISDN માં ઇ મેલ સેવા�ુ ં વણર્ન કરો. ૦૩
(b) Describe the block diagram of distributed multimedia system (DMS). 03
(બ) િવતરણ મલ્ટ�મી�ડયા િસસ્ટમનો બ્લોક ડાયાગ્રામ વણર્વો. ૦૩
OR
(b) Explain the general protocol stack of H-series audio visual communication. 03
(બ) H-શ્રેણી ઓ�ડયો િવઝ�ુઅલ સંચારના સામાન્ય પ્રોટોકોલ સ્ટ� ક સમ�વો. ૦૩
(c) Explain VOD distributed multimedia application. 04
(ક) VOD િવત�રત મલ્ટ�મી�ડયા એ�પ્લક�શન સમ�વો. ૦૪
OR
(c) Describe the various digital media used for multimedia communication. 04
(ક) મલ્ટ�મી�ડયા સંચાર માટ� ઉપયોગ થતા િવિવધ �ડ�જટલ મી�ડયા વણર્વો. ૦૪
(d) Explain digital facsimile service in ISDN. 04
(ડ) ISDN માં �ડ�જટલ પ્રિત�ૃિત સેવા સમ�વો. ૦૪

OR
(d) Describe broadband ISDN (BISDN). 04
(ડ) બ્રોડબેન્ડ ISDN�ુ વણર્ન કરો. ૦૪
Q.4 (a) Draw VODSL architecture. 03

પ્ર�. ૪ (અ) VODSL આક�ટ� ક્ચર દોરો. ૦૩
OR
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(a) Describe video transmission across IP networks. 03
(અ) IP નેટવકર્ દ્વારા િવ�ડયો પ્રસારણ વણર્ન કરો. ૦૩
(b) Explain the mobile video encoder across GSM. 04
(બ) GSM દ્વારા મોબાઇલ િવ�ડઓ એન્કોડર સમ�વો. ૦૪
OR
(b) Explain wireless multimedia network system. 04
(બ) વાયરલેસ મલ્ટ�મી�ડયા નેટવકર્ િસસ્ટમ સમ�વો. ૦૪
(c) Explain the operations of synchronous duplex mode and load sharing mode 07
of stored program control.
(ક) સંગ્ર�હત પ્રોગ્રામ િનયંત્રણના િસ�ક્રોનસ �દ્વ�ુ�ણત મોડ અને લોડ શે�ર�ગ મોડ ની ૦૭
કામગીર� સમ�વો.
Q.5 (a) Explain the subscriber loop system using cable hierarchy. 04
પ્ર�. ૫ (અ) ક�બલ અિધશ્રે�ણનો ઉપયોગ કર�ને ગ્રાહકના � ૂપ િસસ્ટમ સમ�વો. ૦૪
(b) Describe the data transmission using MPEG-2 and DVB. 04
(બ) MPEG -2 અને ડ�વીબી મદદથી મા�હતી પ્રસારણ�ુ ં વણર્ન કરો. ૦૪
(c) Draw satellite based digital TV broadcast system. 03
(ક) સેટ�લાઇટ આધા�રત �ડ�જટલ ટ�વી પ્રસારણ િસસ્ટમ દોરો. ૦૩
(d) Draw hierarchical structure of switching system. 03
(ડ) �સ્વચ�ગ િસસ્ટમ�ુ સ્તરવા�ં માળ�ુ ં દોરો. ૦૩
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DIPLOMA ENGINEERING – SEMESTER – VI • EXAMINATION – SUMMER 2015
Subject Code:3361106 Date:11-05- 2015

Time: 10:30 AM TO 1:00 PM Total Marks: 70
Instructions:
1. Which are different signaling provided by switching system.
૧. સ્વીચ� સીસ્ટમ કયા કયા � ુદા � ુદા િસગ્નલ આપે?
2. Differentiate GOS and Blocking Probability.
૨. �ઓએસ અને બ્લોક��્ પ્રોબેબીલીટ� વચ્ચે �ભ�તા સ.
3. State application of MEO.
૩. MEO ની ઊપયૉગીતા જણાવો.
4. Which antennas are used for Spacecraft?
૪. Spacecraft મા કયા કયા antennas વપરાય છે?
5. What is interworking?
૫. Interworking એટલે � ુ ?
6. What is Digital Video Broadcasting?
૬. Digital Video Broadcastingએટલે �?ુ
7. Which are the different Multimedia Standards?
૭. Multimedia Standardsકયા કયાછે?
8. Define Distributed SPC.
૮. Distributed SPC ની વ્યાખ્યા આપ.
9. Which are different ISDN standards.
૯. ISDN standardsકયા કયાછે?
10. Define Tandem Exchange.
૧૦. Tandem Exchange ની વ્યાખ્યા આપ.
Q.2 (a) Draw different signaling tone waveforms used for telephony. 03
પ�. ર (અ) Telephony મા વપરાતા િવિવધ signaling tone waveforms દોરો. ૦૩
OR
(a) Explain Synchronous duplex mode of Centralized SPC. 03
(અ) Centralized SPC મા Synchronous duplex mode સમ�વો. ૦૩

(b) Draw block diagram of EPABX. 03
(બ) EPABX નો બ્લોક ડાયાગ્રામ દ. ૦૩
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OR
(b) Draw schematic of a switching system showing logical connections 03
between
different elements of switching system.
(બ) સ્વીચ� સીસ્ટમનોlogical connections અને elements દશાર્વતોબ્લોક ૦૩
ડાયાગ્રામ દો
(c) Explain Multimedia Communication Model. 04
(ક) Multimedia Communication Model સમજવો. ૦૪
OR
(c) Which are different techniques to reduce storage requirement. 04
(ક) Storage requirement ને ઘટાડવા માટ� ની પધ્ધિતઓ સમજવો. ૦૪
(d) Which are the main features of DMS? 04
(ડ) DMS ના �ુખ્ય લક્ સમજવો. ૦૪
OR
(d) Explain the application of Distributed Multimedia. 04
(ડ) Distributed Multimedia ની ઊપયૉગીતા સમજવો. ૦૪
Q.3 (a) State and explain Kepler’s three laws. 03

પ�. 3 (અ) ક� પ્લ ના ત્રણ િનયમસમજવો. ૦૩
OR
(a) Explain Telemetry, Tracking and Command subsystems. 03
(અ) Telemetry, Tracking અનg◌Command
ે subsystemsસમજવો. ૦૩
(b) Draw block diagram of Earth Station. 03
(બ) Earth Station નો બ્લોક ડાયાગ્રામ દ ૦૩
OR
(b) Explain Broadcast DTH receivers. 03
(બ) Broadcast DTH receiversસમજવો. ૦૩
(c) Give difference between BRI and PRI? 04
(ક) BRI અને PRI વચ્ચે નો તફાવત આપ. ૦૪
OR
(c) Which services are offered by ISDN. 04
(ક) ISDN કઈ કઈ service આપે છે? ૦૪
(d) Explain signal processing in multimedia communication. 04
(ડ) Multimedia Communication માં િસગ્નલ પ્રોસેસ�ગ સમ. ૦૪
OR
(d) Which are different formats of digital audio file, digital image file and digital 04
video file.
(ડ) Digital audio file, digital image file and digital video file ના િવિવધ ફોમ�ટ ૦૪
લખો.
Q.4 (a) Explain serial transmission of ADSL for multimedia. 03

પ�. ૪ (અ) Multimedia માટ� ADSL થી થ� ુ serial transmission સમજવો. ૦૩
OR
(a) Explain Mobile IP 03
(અ) Mobile IP સમ�વો. ૦૩
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(b) Explain MPEG-4 coding of audio-visual objects. 04
(બ) Audio-Visual objects � ુ MPEG-4 coding સમ�વો. ૦૪
OR
(b) Explain speech and video transmission across GSM. 04
(બ) GSMથી થ� ુspeech and video transmissionસમ�વો. ૦૪
(c) Explain video transmission across IP network. 07
(ક) IP network થી થ� ુ video transmission સમ�વો. ૦૭
Q.5 (a) Explain various international standards for Video Coding. 04

પ�. ૫ (અ) Video Coding ના �ુ દા �ુદા international standards સમ�વો. ૦૪
(b) Which are significant features of JPEG 2000. 04
(બ) JPEG 2000 ના મહત્વના લક્ષણો કયા? ૦૪
(c) What is Mobile ATM? 03
(ક) Mobile ATM � ુ છે? ૦૩
(d) Which are interactive broadcast data services. 03
(ડ) Interactive Broadcast Data services કઇ કઇ છે? ૦૩
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1 Basics of Switching Systems and

1.1 Basics of Switching Systems and Telephone Networks

Evolution of Telecommunication: -Today’s telecommunication technologies have evolved from

Fig 1.1 Evolution of Telecommunication

 Early Signaling and Telegraphy

1.1.1 Elements of Switching system: -

The purpose of a telecommunication switching system is to provide the means to pass

1. End system or Instruments

Electronics & Communication Engineering