Anjali Shrestha Thesis Print

BLANCHING EFFECTS ON THE PHYTOCHEMICAL AND
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF SWEET ORANGE PEEL POWDER

(Citrus sinensis) AND ITS UTILIZATION IN CAKE MAKING
by
Anjali Shrestha
Department of Food Technology

GoldenGate International College
Institute of Science and Technology
Affiliated to Tribhuvan University, Nepal
2019
Blanching Effects on the Phytochemical and Functional Properties of
Sweet Orange Peel Powder (Citrus sinensis) and Its Utilization in Cake
Making
A dissertation submitted to Department of Food Technology, GoldenGate

International College, Tribhuvan University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of B. Tech. in Food Technology
by
Anjali Shrestha

GoldenGate International College, Kathmandu
Affiliated to Tribhuvan University, Nepal
2019
ii
Tribhuvan University
GoldenGate International College, Kathmandu
Approval Letter
This dissertation entitled Blanching Effects on the Phytochemical and Functional

Properties of Sweet Orange Peel Powder and its Utilization in Caking Making presented
by Anjali Shrestha has been accepted as the partial fulfillment of the requirement for
the B.Tech. degree in Food Technology.
Dissertation Committee
1. Head of Department
(Prof. Dr. Ganga Prasad Kharel)
2. External Examiner
(Prof. Dr. Surendra B. Katawal)
3. Supervisor
(Mr. Pravin Ojha)
April 4, 2019
iii
Acknowledgment
With immense pleasure and a profound sense of gratitude, I take this opportunity to express
my heartfelt and sincere gratefulness to my esteemed supervisor Mr. Pravin Ojha, Scientist,
Food Research Division, NARC for his careful guidance, continuous inspiration, persistent
encouragement, resourceful suggestions and determined attitude throughout this work
without which this work would have been worth nothing.
I would also like to extend my sincere gratitude to Mr. Ramesh Silwal, CEO and Prof.
Dr. Ganga Prasad Kharel, HOD, Department of Food Technology, GoldenGate Int’l College
for critical suggestion and guidance. I am deeply indebted to Mr. Roman Karki, Chief, Food
Research Division, NARC for his cooperation. I wish to express my deepest thanks to Dr.
Alok Shrestha, the coordinator of GoldenGate International College, Mr. Pradeep Kaji
Poudel and Mr. Rajesh Shrestha for their continuous support and encouragement. I am also
obliged to Mr. Ujjwol Subedi, Technical Officer, Food Research Division, NARC for his
useful discussion about my work throughout.
It is a pleasure for me to offer thanks to all my teachers, friends, seniors, juniors and my
well-wishers. I owe special thanks to my seniors Sujita Pasachhe, Sushma Maharjan,
Samarpan Subba, Abhash Roy, Bhuwan Katuwal and Bibek Adhikari who were always there
as a support system.
I am gladly placing my thanks to Sunil Maharjan, Rabina Bista, Kabir Maharjan and
entire staffs of Food Research Division, NARC for all kind of help during my work. Deepest
appreciation to my friends Anushuya Guragain and Aliza Bhattarai who were always
supportive to work with. I am also expressing my sincere thanks to the entire management
committee of GoldenGate International College for providing necessary facilities during the
work.
I extend my indebtedness to Almighty for true blessings, my family for continuous moral
support, immense love and affection which always motivated me. Finally, thank goes to all
the individuals who are directly or indirectly involved in helping me complete this work.
Date of submission: April 4, 2019 .................................

(Anjali Shrestha)
iv
Abstract
The aim of this research was to study the effects of three types of blanching, namely hot
water blanching (90°C for 1 min), steam blanching (exposed in steam for 5 min), and
microwave blanching (900 W for 5 min) on the physiochemical and phytochemical
properties of sweet orange peels and powders along with the effects of blanching on the
functional and flow properties of the powder. Peels after blanching were dried and ground
to obtain fine powders which was incorporated at 10% with wheat flour to make cakes. The
physiochemical, phytochemical, physical and sensory properties of the cakes were studied.
The data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for peels, powders and
cake. Also, Kramer’s table was referred for sensory evaluation.
From the analysis, total ash, essential oil, acidity and phytochemicals of peels and
powders were observed to decrease after blanching except total carotenoids. Microwave
blanched peel showed the retention of 70.77%, 10.88%, 53.37%, 78.31% 133.20% for
polyphenol, tannin, flavonoid, antioxidant and total carotenoids in comparison to
unblanched peels and that of steam blanched was found to be 69.47%, 10.88%, 53.56%,
76.85% and 132.69% respectively. Swelling power, fat absorption capacity, bulk density,
swelling index, and wettability of the peel powders increased after blanching while the
degree of caking decreased. Incorporation of the peel powder led to the increase in
polyphenols, flavonoid and antioxidants of the cake whereas tannin and total carotenoids
were absent. The specific volume was observed to increase after the addition of peel powder
due to the increase in dietary fiber content. Peel powder incorporated cakes varied
significantly in different sensorial parameters. Cakes with microwave blanched peel powder
was found to be superior in terms of color and sponginess.
v
Contents
Approval Letter .............................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................ iv
Abstract ............................................................................................................ v
List of Tables.................................................................................................. xii
List of Figures ............................................................................................... xiii
List of Abbreviation ..................................................................................... xiv
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1-3

1.1 General Introduction ............................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of problem .............................................................................................. 2
1.3 Objectives ............................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 General objective .................................................................................................. 2

1.3.1 Specific objective ............................................................................................ 2
1.4 Significance of the study......................................................................................... 3
2. Literature review .................................................................................... 4-22
2.1 History ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 4
2.3 Citrus sinensis peel ...................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Citrus sinensis peel powder ......................................................................................... 6
2.5 Composite Flours ......................................................................................................... 7
2.6 Methods of blanching .................................................................................................. 8
2.6.1 Hot water blanching .............................................................................................. 8

2.6.2 Steam blanching.................................................................................................... 8
2.6.3 Microwave blanching ........................................................................................... 8
2.7 Essential oil in peels .................................................................................................... 9
2.8 Phytochemicals ............................................................................................................ 9
vi
2.8.1 Polyphenols .......................................................................................................... 9
2.8.2 Tannin ................................................................................................................. 10
2.8.3 Flavonoid ............................................................................................................ 11
2.8.4 Carotenoids ......................................................................................................... 11
2.8.5 Antioxidant ......................................................................................................... 12
2.9 Functional properties of sweet orange peel powder .................................................. 12
2.9.1 Swelling Power ................................................................................................... 12

2.9.2 Fat absorption capacity ....................................................................................... 13
2.9.3 Gelation............................................................................................................... 13
2.9.4 Wettability .......................................................................................................... 13
2.9.5 Sinkability ........................................................................................................... 14
2.10 Flow properties of sweet orange peel powder ......................................................... 14
2.10.1 Bulk Density ..................................................................................................... 14

2.10.2 Degree of caking ............................................................................................... 15
2.10.3 Flowability ........................................................................................................ 15
2.11 Cake ......................................................................................................................... 15
2.11.1 Types of cakes .................................................................................................. 16

2.11.1.1 Foam (unshortened) cakes ......................................................................... 16
2.11.1.2 Butter (shortened) cakes ............................................................................ 16
2.11.2 Composition of cake ......................................................................................... 17

2.11.3 Ingredients in Cake and their role ..................................................................... 17
2.11.3.1 Cake flour .................................................................................................. 17
2.11.3.2 Sugar .......................................................................................................... 17
2.11.3.3 Fat .............................................................................................................. 17
2.11.3.4 Eggs ........................................................................................................... 18
2.11.3.5 Leavening agent ......................................................................................... 18
2.11.3.6 Salt ............................................................................................................. 18
2.11.3.7 Liquid......................................................................................................... 18
2.11.4 Cake making methods....................................................................................... 19

2.11.4.1 Sugar batter method ................................................................................... 19
vii
2.11.4.2 Flour batter method ................................................................................... 19
2.11.4.3 Flour/Sugar batter method ......................................................................... 19
2.11.4.4 Continuous mixing method ....................................................................... 20
2.11.4.5 All in, high speed ....................................................................................... 20
2.11.5 Process involved in cake making ...................................................................... 20

2.11.5.1 Mixing ....................................................................................................... 20
2.11.5.2 Baking ........................................................................................................ 21
2.11.6 Physical properties of cake ................................................................................... 22
2.11.6.1 Specific Volume ............................................................................................ 22

2.10.6.2 Weight Loss ................................................................................................... 22
3. Materials and methods ........................................................................ 23-32
3.1 Materials .................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.1 Raw Materials ..................................................................................................... 23

3.1.2 Chemical reagents ............................................................................................... 23
3.1.3 Equipment ........................................................................................................... 23
3.2 Methods ..................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.1 Experimental design ........................................................................................... 23

3.2.2 Preparation of peels for treatment....................................................................... 23
3.2.3 Blanching methods ............................................................................................. 23
3.2.4 Preparation of sweet orange peel powder ........................................................... 24
3.2.5 Preparation of sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake ............................. 25
3.3 Formulation of cake ................................................................................................... 26
3.4 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel, powder, and cake ......................... 26
3.4.1 Moisture .............................................................................................................. 26

3.4.2 Ash content ......................................................................................................... 26
3.4.3 Acidity ................................................................................................................ 26
3.4.4 Essential oil......................................................................................................... 26
3.5 Phytochemical analysis.............................................................................................. 27
3.5.1 Extract preparation.............................................................................................. 27
viii
3.5.2 Polyphenol content ............................................................................................. 27
3.5.3 Tannin content .................................................................................................... 27
3.5.4 Flavonoid content ............................................................................................... 28
3.5.5 Carotenoid content .............................................................................................. 28
3.5.6 Antioxidant activity by ABTS+ radical cation method ...................................... 29
3.6.1 Swelling Power ................................................................................................... 29

3.6.2 Fat absorption capacity ....................................................................................... 29
3.6.3 Gelation capacity ................................................................................................ 30
3.6.4 Wettability .......................................................................................................... 30
3.6.5 Sinkability ........................................................................................................... 30
3.6.6 Swelling index .................................................................................................... 30
3.7 Flow properties of sweet orange peel powder ........................................................... 30
3.7.1 Bulk density ........................................................................................................ 30

3.7.2 Angle of repose ................................................................................................... 31
3.7.3 Degree of caking ................................................................................................. 31
3.8 Physical properties of cake ........................................................................................ 31
3.8.1 Volume ............................................................................................................... 31

3.8.2 Weight loss ......................................................................................................... 32
3.8.3 Specific volume .................................................................................................. 32
3.9 Sensory evaluation ..................................................................................................... 32
3.10 Data analysis ..................................................................................................... 32
4. Results and discussion.......................................................................... 34-55
4.1 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peels ..................................................... 34
4.2 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel powder .......................................... 36
4.3 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake ............ 37
4.5 Flow properties of sweet orange peel powder ........................................................... 39
4.6 Phytochemicals .......................................................................................................... 40
4.6.1 Polyphenols ........................................................................................................ 40
ix
4.6.1.1 Polyphenol content of sweet orange peels ................................................... 40
4.6.1.3 Polyphenol content of sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake .......... 42
4.6.2 Tannin content .................................................................................................... 43

4.6.2.1 Tannin content in sweet orange peels .......................................................... 43
4.6.2.2 Tannin content in sweet orange peel powders ............................................. 44
4.6.3 Flavonoid content ............................................................................................... 45

4.6.3.1 Flavonoid content in sweet orange peels ..................................................... 45
4.6.3.2 Flavonoid content in sweet orange peel powders ........................................ 46
4.6.3.3 Flavonoid content in sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake ............ 47
4.6.4 Total Carotenoids................................................................................................ 48

4.6.4.1 Total carotenoid content in sweet orange peels ........................................... 48
4.6.4.2 Total carotenoid content in sweet orange peel powders .............................. 49
4.6.5 Antioxidant content ............................................................................................ 50

4.6.5.1 Antioxidant content in sweet orange peels .................................................. 50
4.6.5.2 Antioxidant content in sweet orange peel powders ..................................... 51
4.6.5.3 Antioxidant content in sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake ......... 52
4.7 Physical properties of cake ........................................................................................ 53
4.8 Sensory evaluation ..................................................................................................... 54
4.8.1 Color ............................................................................................................... 54
4.8.2 Flavor .............................................................................................................. 55
4.8.3 Taste................................................................................................................ 55
4.8.4 Sponginess ...................................................................................................... 55
4.8.5 Overall acceptance .......................................................................................... 55
5. Conclusions and recommendations ......................................................... 56
5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 56
5.2 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 56
6. Summary .................................................................................................... 57
x
References ................................................................................................. 58-67
Appendices ................................................................................................ 68-86
xi
List of Tables
Table No. Title Page No.
2.1 Physico chemical characteristics of fresh peel 6
2.2 Composition of sweet orange peel powder 7
2.3 Composition of cake made with wheat flour 17
3.1 Formulation of cake 26
4.1 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel 34
4.2 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel powder 36
4.3 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel powder incorporated 37

cake
4.4 Functional properties of sweet orange peel powder 37
4.5 Flow properties of sweet orange peel powder 39
4.6 Physical properties of cake 53
4.7 Sensory evaluation of the cakes 54
4.8 Kramers’ Table 54
xii
List of Figures
Figure No. Title Page No.
2.1 Flowchart for cake making 22
3.1 Flowchart for the preparation of sweet orange peel powder 24
3.2 Flowchart for the preparation of sweet orange peel powder 25

incorporated cake
4.1 Polyphenol content of sweet orange peels 40
4.2 Polyphenol content of sweet orange peel powders 41
4.3 Polyphenol content of sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake 42
4.4 Tannin content of sweet orange peels 43
4.5 Tannin content of sweet orange peel powders 44
4.6 Flavonoid content of sweet orange peels 45
4.7 Flavonoid content of sweet orange peel powders 46
4.8 Flavonoid content of sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake 47
4.9 Total carotenoids content of sweet orange peels 48
4.10 Total carotenoids content of sweet orange peels 49
4.11 Antioxidant content of sweet orange peels 50
4.12 Antioxidant content of sweet orange peel powders 51
4.13 Antioxidant content of sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake 52
M.1 Samples of unblanched and blanched peels 82
M.2 Samples of sweet orange peel powders 85
M.3 Samples of control cake and sweet orange peel powder incorporated 86
cakes
xiii
List of Abbreviation
Abbreviation Full Form
ANOVA Analysis of variance
GAE Gallic Acid Equivalent
TAE Tannic Acid Equivalent
ABTS 2,2’-azino-bis (ethylbencthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)
DPPH 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
PP Polyphenol
NARC Nepal Agriculture Research Council
FRD Food Research Division
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
MOA Ministry of Agriculture
OAC Oil Absorption Capacity
LGC Least Gelation Concentration
xiv
Part I
Introduction
1.1 General Introduction
Citrus is one of the world's major fruit crops which is available globally and contributes to
the human diet. The most well‐known examples of citrus fruits with commercial importance
are oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruit, and tangerines (Liu et al., 2012). Sweet orange
belongs to the family Rutaceae and is grown in the tropical and subtropical countries. The
fruit and its products are rich sources of vitamins, minerals and dietary fiber that are essential
for normal growth, development, and overall nutritional well-being. Nowadays, citrus has
also been known for its biologically active components and non-nutrient compounds
(phytochemicals) that can also help reduce the risk of many chronic diseases. It is not only
a good source of vitamin C but it also contains other essential nutrients, including both
glycaemic and non-glycaemic carbohydrate (sugars and fiber), potassium, folate, calcium,
thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, riboflavin, pantothenic acid
and a variety of phytochemicals. In addition, it contains no fat or sodium and, being plant
food, no cholesterol (Economos et al., 1999).
The industry of fruit juice produces significant amounts of by-products which could cause
problems in their disposal. Usually, these products are used in animal feeding (Zaker et al.,
2016). Orange peels pollute the environment to a great extent and this environmental
pollution can be reduced if orange peels are put into proper use. The peels of orange fruits
can be processed into powder to supplement wheat flour during the preparation of different
food products. Citrus fruit peels contain carbohydrates, fat, and pectin that contribute to good
functional properties. Thus, they can be acceptable as a food ingredient in food industries
and at home level (Rwubatse et al., 2014).
Baking industry is considered to be one of the major segments of food processing. Baked
products have popularities among the people because of their availability, ready to eat
convenience and reasonably good shelf-life (Zaker et al., 2016).
In view of the impact and economy of waste, many research investigations have been
carried out to utilize the orange peel powder in the baked products like cake, biscuits and
also evaluated physically, chemically and organoleptically. A study revealed that cakes
prepared with 10 percent of orange peel powder were found to be of higher acceptability on
the basis of their sensory attributes and dietary fiber content. The dietary fibers of citrus have
1
better quality due to the presence of associated bioactive compounds, such as flavonoids,
polyphenols, and carotenes (Zaker et al., 2016).
1.2 Statement of problem
Peel represents a rich source of phenolic compounds and dietary fiber. The peels being
considered as waste are thrown or used up in animal feed. Nevertheless, nowadays these by-
products are also commercialized in forms of citrus oil, citric acid and pectin which requires
sophisticated processes and high capital. However, the application of proper treatments can
allow the utilization of citrus peel as a value-added food product in an economical way.
Without the proper treatments to the peel, longer shelf life and a good product cannot be
ensured. In absence of proper cleaning and adequate blanching; the enzymes present can
degrade the peel making it unsuitable for consumption, improved functional and flow
properties of the powders cannot be attained in absence of blanching. Moreover, appreciable
retainment of phytochemical cannot be observed. Keeping in view the importance of fruit
from the processing angle, this study is undertaken.
1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General objective
The general objective of the research was to study the effect of different types of blanching
on the phytochemical and functional properties of sweet orange peel powder and it’s
utilization in cake making.
1.3.1 Specific objective
The specific objectives include:

1. To determine the effects of blanching on the physiochemical properties of sweet
orange peels, peel powder and peel powder incorporated cakes.
2. To determine the functional properties (swelling power, fat absorption capacity,
gelation, wettability, sinkability, and swelling index) of peel powder.
3. To determine the flow properties (bulk density, degree of caking, angle of repose,
and flowability) of peel powder.
4. To determine the effects of blanching on the phytochemical constituents (essential
oil, total phenols, tannins, flavonoids, carotenoids, and antioxidants) of sweet orange
peels, powder and peel powder incorporated cakes.
2
5. To determine the physical properties (volume, height, weight, specific volume,
weight loss) of the cake.
6. To determine the effects of incorporation of peel powder on the sensory properties
of cake.
1.4 Significance of the study
Peels of fruits which can be converted to valuable food products are still not efficiently
utilized. If it could be converted to valuable food products, it can have various impacts like:
 Minimization of waste
 Efficient use of the by- product
 Economical value-added product
 Identification of suitable blanching treatment for the retention of phytochemicals
 Peel powder can be used in the preparation of diversified products
 Addition of peel powder increased the aesthetic value of cake
 Reduction on the environmental impact
 Generation of employment opportunities
3
Part II
Literature review
2.1 History
Citrus is an ancient crop, with records of human cultivation extending back to at least 2100
B. C. It is native to Southern Asia, which later flourished in other parts of the world. In
Europe, it was used for its medicinal benefits in the 15th century. The fruit got popular in
the 16th century after the Spanish explorer brought them to the “New World” (America)
where missionaries planted many orange trees in Florida and California which presently are
known for their orange plantations. Citrus sinensis were prestigious and popular fruits which
were only used in important holidays like Thanksgiving and Christmas (Perea, 2017).
The production of sweet orange started in Nepal started about 250 years ago. The fruits
were grown only for home consumption until the late seventies. After the realization of the
economic importance of the fruit, the Junar development program started to receive the
support of the government from the sixth plan period (1980-85). The National Citrus Priority
Program was initiated in 20 mid-hill districts of Nepal in the fiscal year 1983/84 and this
program accorded high priority to Junar development in Ramechhap and Sindhuli. This
program was supported by a special Junar Production Program launched by the Janakpur
Agriculture Development Project (JICA) for the establishment of private nurseries and Junar
orchards. This project was implemented for 12 years including 2 years of bridging period
and Junar was the designated crop for Sindhuli and Ramechhap (Kaini, 2013).
2.2 Introduction
Citrus are highly diversified species which consists of different cultivars as a result of
mutation and hybridization. The fruits of different forms and sizes (round to oblong) grow
on shrubs or medium to small evergreen trees. The leaves of the plants are usually dark green
and shiny with some being toothed, the fruits are fragrant, juicy and full of flavor (Zaker,
2017)
Citrus sinensis is the hybrid of Pomelo and Mandarian. The trees can grow to a height of
6–15 m (16–49 ft) and can live for periods in excess of 100 years. It takes between three and
five years to start flowering and five to eighteen months to develop the fruit (Perea, 2017).
The fruits are the main source of important phytochemical nutrients and have been valued
for their wholesome nutritious and antioxidant properties (Etebu, et al., 2014). It is also low
in calories and contains no saturated fats or cholesterol, but rich in dietary fiber and pectin.
4
C. sinensis are commercially used for their fruits, skin, and juices (Perea, 2017).
A cross section of the fruit reveals different layers. The outermost layer is known as
Exocarp or “Flavedo” which is green in color at the initial stages of fruit development. As
the fruit undergoes maturation, chlorophyll pigments are lost and the chloroplasts are
replaced by chromoplasts containing carotenoid pigments, hence, giving it an orange color.
Flavedo also consists of the epidermis where oil glands are present. The inner layers of the
peel consist of a white spongy albedo. The albedo and the core contain the vascular system
which supplies the fruit with water and nutrients. Flavedo and albedo together make up the
peel which is responsible for protecting the fruit against physical damage. Endocarp (pulp)
is segmented and contain juice sacs ﬁlled with juice which are rich in vitamin C and soluble
sugars. Juice vesicles are initiated at the time of bloom. Seeds can be found in the locules
adjacent to juice vesicles. (El-Otmani et al., 2011).
2.3 Citrus sinensis peel
The consumption of citrus fruits has increased immensely in the form of fresh produce, juice
and other commercialized products. However, most often the peel is discarded as waste. The
peels contain a wide variety of secondary components with substantial antioxidant activity
in comparison with other parts of the fruit. Production of citrus fruit in the world has
significantly increased during the past few years and has reached 82 million tons in the years
2009–2010, of which oranges – commercially the most important citrus fruit accounts for
about 50 million tons (USDA, 2010). About 34% of the oranges were used for juice
production, yielding about 44% peel as a by-product. Hence, large amounts of peel are
produced every year (Shafiya et al., 2016).
Citrus peels are rich in nutrients and contain many phytochemicals (Arora et al., 2013).
The phenols, amino acids, essential oils, pectin, carotenoids, flavonoids and vitamin “C”
present in citrus are accepted to have beneficial effects in the prevention of degenerative
diseases. Identification of bioactive compounds from the peel can result in value addition
(Shafiya et al., 2016). The peels also contain sugar, edible fiber (Bisht., 2017). It is also low
in calories, contains no saturated fats or cholesterol, but rich in dietary fiber, pectin. Pectin
helps to protect the mucosa of the colon by its virtue as a bulk laxative. The skin of sweet
orange is used to increase appetite, reduce phlegm and treat coughs, colds, intestinal gas,
acid indigestion and cancerous breast sores (Morton, 1999). The albedo or mesocarp is rich
in flavonoids, which if transferred to the juice imparts a bitter taste. The peel contains oil sac
5
and the oil is composed of 91-94% d-limonene and 2.02% beta-myrcene as a minor
constituent (Shaw et al., 1977). Polymethoxylated flavones are also a class of compounds
found in citrus peel and produce no negative side effects in the animal fed with the
polymethoxylated flavones containing diets (Davis, 2004). The white pith on the peel
contains bioflavonoids. Bioflavonoids strengthen our blood capillaries enhancing their
ability to deliver blood, oxygen and nutrients to our tissue and organs. Bioflavonoids provide
tonic support for the entire cardio vascular system. The high content of bioflavonoids in
orange peel contributes to their anti-bacterial, anti-viral and anti-inflamatory properties
(Chiu and Chang, 1986).
Table 2.1 Physico-chemical characteristics of fresh peel
Parameter Respective values
Moisture content 74.8
Total solids 25.6
TSS (%) 11.5
pH 3.88
Titrable acidity (%) 0.48
Reducing sugar 4.5
Total sugar (%) 6.75
Pectin (calpectate %) 13.34
Tannin (mg/100g) 170
(Source: Bisht, 2017)
2.4 Citrus sinensis peel powder
Orange peels can be processed into powder to supplement wheat flour during the preparation
of different food products. Citrus fruit peels contain carbohydrates, fat, and pectin that
contribute to good functional properties (Rwubatse et al., 2014).
Citrus and apple fibers have better quality than other dietary fibers due to the presence of
associated bioactive compounds, such as flavonoids, polyphenols, and carotenes. Dietary
fibers are not only desirable for their nutritional properties, but also for their functional and
technological properties. Incorporation of the powder obtained from the peel of Citrus
sinensis in the cake has been observed to increase its dietary fiber content. Moreover, orange
fibers had high water holding capacity and swelling capacity values, which are good for food
applications (Zaker et al., 2017).
6
A study concluded that blanched mandarin peel powder was in better terms of carotenoid
content, functional and sensory properties. The findings offered an advantage of
incorporation of blanched mandarin peel powder in other food formulation to increase their
functional property (Ojha et al., 2016).
Table 2.2 Composition of sweet orange peel powder (g/100g DW)
S.No Parameter (%) Values
1 Moisture 7.78
2 Protein 6.14
3 Crude fat 1.98
4 Carbohydrate 80.27
5 Total dietary fiber 74.14±3.0
6 Indigestible dietary fiber 55.47±2.14
7 Digestible dietary fiber 19.1±1.1
(Zaker et al., 2017)
2.5 Composite Flours
Composite flour has been defined in numerous researches as a combination of wheat and
non-wheat flours for the production of leavened bread, other baked products, and pasta; or
wholly non wheat flour prepared from mixtures of flours from cereals, roots, tubers,
legumes, or other raw materials, to be used for traditional or novel products. Composite
flours have been used extensively in the preparation of baked products to primarily identify
the functional roles of flour components and test its organoleptic acceptability (Menon et al.,
2014)
Composite flour can be advantageous in the scenario of developing countries as it
encourages the use of locally grown crops as flour. Bakery products produced by using
composite flours have been found to be of good quality with some characteristics similar to
wheat flour, however, the texture and properties of the composite flours can be different
from those made from wheat flour. The products also show an increased nutritional value
(Noorfarahzilah et al., 2014).
Zaker et al., (2016) revealed that that protein and fat contents decreased with increasing
orange peel powder concentration, which is due to the replacement of refined wheat flour
and vegetable fat which are a major source of the protein and fat. On the other side, for cake
carbohydrate, total insoluble and soluble dietary fiber contents increased by increasing the
7
level of orange peel powder at the level of 20 percent for orange peel powder. Also,
incorporation of orange peel powder had marked improvement in color, appearance and
textural profile of prepared cake up to a concentration of 10 percent while further increase
in concentration results in drastic reduction in appearance, color, flavor, and texture as well
as taste characteristics. Incorporation of orange peel up to the level of 10 percent in
formulating cake preparations enhanced the nutritional value particularly with respect to
dietary fiber, physical quality and overall acceptability of cake.
2.6 Methods of blanching
Blanching is a unit operation prior to freezing, canning, or drying in which fruits or

vegetables are heated for the purpose of inactivating enzymes, modifying texture, preserving
color, flavor, and nutritional value; and removing trapped air. Hot water and steam are the
most commonly used blanching methods. Nowadays, microwave blanching has also been
studied (De Corcuera et al., 2004).
2.6.1 Hot water blanching
Water blanching is performed in hot water at temperatures ranging typically from 70°C to
100°. This method of blanching usually result in a more uniform treatment and allows
processing at lower temperatures. However, the processing time is longer which results in
increased leaching of minerals and nutrients such as vitamins, and it also produces effluents
with large biological oxygen demand [BOD] (De Corcuera et al., 2004).
2.6.2 Steam blanching
Steam blanching is done at a temperature of approximately 100°C. This method is usually
used for cut and small products. It more energy-efficient and produces lower BOD effluent
than water blanching. The problem of leaching of nutrient is reduced and requires less time
compared to water blanching. However, if there are high-temperature gradients between the
surface and the center of the product, the larger products or pieces of the product can be
‘‘over blanched’’ near the surface and ‘‘underblanched’’ at the center (De Corcuera et al.,
2004).
2.6.3 Microwave blanching
Microwave blanching studies on radiofrequency and microwaves. Microwave blanching
helps in the retention of ascorbic acid and carotene and requires very short processing time
compared to conventional water or steam blanching. Generally, microwave blanching has
been carried out using commercially available home microwave ovens. The studies related
8
to microwave blanching are difficult to compare due to the variability in equipment
performance (De Corcuera et al., 2004). The energy inside a microwave oven cavity is an
oscillating electrical and magnetic field. In microwave heating, electrical energy is converted
to thermal energy within the product (M.N et al., 2002).
2.7 Essential oil in peels

The essential oil is present in the fruit’s peel in great quantities. The citrus essential oil is a
mixture of volatile compounds and mainly consists of monoterpene hydrocarbon. Essential
oils are mixtures of over a hundred compounds that can be approximated into three fractions:
terpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated compounds, and nonvolatile compounds. The terpene
fraction can constitute from 50 to more than 95% of the oil. Essential oil from citrus is a
large type of natural flavors and fragrances which is popularly used in food industries, daily
chemical products, and health care field. Orange peels can give the maximum essential oil
yields of 4.40%, 3.47% and 2.53% in steam distillation, water distillation, and solvent
extraction respectively (Giwa et al., 2018).
Kimura et al., (2006) reported that blanching treatment resulted in decrement of esential
oil concentration per unit in the stem of Aralia cordata. Also, Miyazawa et al., (2001) stated
that percentage of monoterpenoid content, which is the major component of essential oil
decreased after blanching. The extraction time and temperature also have an impact on the
amount of extraction of essential oil. Sikdar et al., (2016) reported that an increase in
temperature of steam distillation can result in the extraction of higher amounts of oil. Higher
drying temperatures can cause the decrement of essential oil content in sweet wormwood
(Khangoli et al., 2008).
2.8 Phytochemicals
2.8.1 Polyphenols
Besides contributing toward the color and sensory characteristics of fruits and vegetables,
phenolic compounds play a major role in growth and reproduction, providing protection
against pathogens and predators. Phenolic compounds can be classified as free, soluble and
insoluble-bound phenolic compounds (Renger and Steinchart, 2000). The antioxidant
activity of dietary polyphenols is considered to be much greater than that of the essential
vitamins (Siddhuraju and Becker, 2007). Hydroxybenzoic acids (e.g. gallic acid, syringic
acids), Xanthones (C6-C1-C6), Flavonoids, Isoflavonoids, Tannin (C6-C3-C6) and
Bioflavonoids are the most common phenolic compounds occur in citrus fruits (Ueda et al.,
2000). Polyphenol content of sweet orange peel is 132.2–223.2 mg GAE/g DM (Kamran et
9
al., 2009).
Polyphenols are heat sensitive phenolic compounds which decrease as a result of heat
treatment (Turkmen et al., 2005). Phenolic compounds exhibit a wide range of physiological
properties such as antiallergenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant,
antithrombotic, cardioprotective and vasodilatory effects (Middleton et al., 2000). Ismail et
al., (2004) and Turkmen et al., (2005) found that the treatment like blanching in boiling
water for 1 min reduced phenolic content between 14 and 40% for vegetables like spinach,
cabbage, peas or squash while blanching of carrot at 90°C for 1 min 10 can retain up to 80%
of its initial total phenolic content. Mostly blanching at 100°C for 90 seconds found to be
effective to preserve the losses of polyphenols (Gorinstein et al., 2009). Kaur et al., (2018)
reported that during blanching prior to drying, the phenolic content was lost due to leaching
in broccoli. Polyphenol content in ripe citrus peel was higher compared to that of raw peel
(Ueda et al., 2000) and highly concentrated in peels and seeds than fleshy parts of fruit
(Nogata et al., 2006).
2.8.2 Tannin
Tannins are the relatively high molecular weight compounds, which constitute the third
important group of phenolics, and may be subdivided into hydrolyzable and condensed
tannins (Porter et al., 1989). The hydrolyzable tannins are esters of gallic acid (Gallo- and
ellagic-tannins), while the condensed tannins are polymers of polyhydroxyflavan-3-ol
monomers (Porter et al., 1989). A third subdivision, the phlorotannins consisting entirely of
phloroglucinal, has been isolated from several genera of brown algae (Porter et al., 1989).
Tannin, which usually gives rise to a dry, pickery, astringent sensation in the mouth, may
also contain antinutritional factors (Oluremi et al., 2007). Egbe and Akinyele (1990),
reported tannin can be reduced by employing longer blanching period of time. Tannin
reduced appreciably with increased blanching period (Eze and Okafor, 2014). According to
Ezeabara et al., (2014) tannin content of Citrus sinensis L Osbeck is 0.09% in wet basis.
Tannin in hot-water blanched peel reduced significantly which is in accordance to the result
obtained by Eze and Okafor, 2014. According to (Eze and Okafor, 2014) tannin reduced
appreciably with increased blanching period.Pant et al., (2004) reported a 17.5 to 20.4% loss
of tannin during blanching. The anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic potential of tannins may
be related to their antioxidative property which is important in protecting cellular damage
including lipid peroxidation. Tannins are reported to exert physiological effects such as
accelerate blood clotting, reduce blood pressure, decrease the serum lipid level, produce liver
10
necrosis and modulate immuno responses (Chung et al., 1998). During thermal treatments,
a complex group of influences is present. There is the formation of new compounds and
hydrolysis of substances occur. The most important reactions being hydrolysis, oxidation,
polymerization. The interaction of composition and reactions of thermal decomposition
results in the reduction of tannin content (Rakic´ et al., 2004).
2.8.3 Flavonoid
Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds having a phenyl benzopyrone structure,
representing as two benzene rings (C6) joined by a linear three-carbon chain (C3), with a
carbonyl group at the C position. The citrus flavonoids include a class of glycosides, namely,
hesperidin and naringin and another class of O-methylatedaglycones of flavones such as
nobiletin and tangeretin, which are relatively two common polymethoxylated flavones (Li
et al., 2014). Kamran et al., (2009) reported that the total flavonoid contents of citrus peels
were in the range of 0.3-31.1 mg quercetin equivalent/g. T Flavonoids are heat susceptible
phenolic compounds, therefore, heat treatment during blanching cause decrease in total
flavonoid content. Also, flavonoids decrease due to mechanical processes of food (peeling,
trimming, chopping, slicing, crushing, pressing and seiving) (Zhu et al., 2010). Sumitra et
al., (2016) also stated that blanching leads to the decrement of flavonoids. M’hiri et al.,
(2016) reported that thermal treatments and storage leads to the loss of citrus flavonoid
compounds by their decomposition at high temperature (70-90°C), and due to the presence
of dissolved oxygen during the prolonged storage period. Flavonoids are known to have
antioxidant activities and are used as antibiotics, anti-diarrheal, anti-ulcer and anti-
inflammatory agents, and also for treatment of diseases such as hypertension, vascular
fragility, allergies, and hypercholesterolemia. Furthermore, these flavonoids are known to
possess antioxidant, anticancer, antiallergic and gastroprotective properties (Sreerama et al.,
2012). The main flavonoids found in citrus species are hesperidin, narirutin, naringen, and
eriocitrin (Anagnostopoulou et al., 2005). Flavonoid possesses anti-inflammatory,
antioxidant, antiallergic, hepatoprotective, antithrombotic, antiviral and anticarcinogenic
activities (Middleton et al., 2004).
2.8.4 Carotenoids
Carotenoids are those red, yellow and orange pigments which are responsible for giving
many fruits and vegetables their bright colors. They are found to be liposoluble antioxidants.
In citrus peels, the main carotenoids are β- violaxanthin, β-carotene, β-citrauin, and β-
11
cyptoxanthin. (Negi et al., 2002).
In high carotenoids containing fruits and vegetables, carotenoid levels increase during
processing (Chandler and Schwartz, 1988 and Dietz et al., 1988). (Sharma et al., 2000 )
studied the effect of steam, water and microwave blanching on the stability of total
carotenoids and found an apparent increase in total carotenoids (2-25%) was recorded when
expressed on a dry basis. Many carotenoids present in plants are found to be protein bound.
Some heat treatments such as steaming may help to release these bound carotenoids and
cause them to readily get extracted (Azza et al., 2016). Leaching of soluble solids during
blanching is the major factor, responsible for the apparent increase in carotenoid (Desobry
et al., 1998). Also, Suvimol and Pranee (2010) reported that the total carotenoid content also
increased with an increase in hydrolysis time.
2.8.5 Antioxidant
Residues of the citrus processing industry are sources of dietary fiber, pectin, cold pressed
oils, essence, limonene, limonoids and flavonoids (Braddock et al., 1999). Sweet orange peel
has been analyzed for a few important phytonutrients such as polyphenols, carotenoids,
flavonoids, vitamin, and dietary fibers. Flavonoid content and antioxidant activity from the
residue of sweet orange peel has been reported (Anagnostopoulou et al., 2005). High dietary
fibre powder prepared from citrus by-product with high functional and microbial quality, as
well as favorable physiochemical characteristics to be used in food formulation (Lario et al.,
2004). Citrus seed and peel found to possess high anti-oxidant activity (Bocco et al., 1998).
Antioxidant activity of citrus peel extracts was significantly affected by heating temperature
and duration of treatment on the citrus peel (Jeong et al., 2004). The blanching pretreatment
and high drying temperature cause a decrease in antioxidant compound (Sengkhamparn et
al., 2013). Klimenzak et al., (2013) reported that a decrease in antioxidant activity is linked
to the decrease in total phenolic content and ascorbic acid content of the fruits.
2.9 Functional properties of sweet orange peel powder

2.9.1 Swelling Power
Swelling power indicates the water holding capacity of floury samples, which has generally
been used to demonstrate differences between various types of flours. Swelling power is the
ability to increase in volume when foamed. The extent of swelling in the presence of water
depends on the temperature, availability of water, species of starch, the extent of starch
damage due to thermal and mechanical processes and other carbohydrates and protein such
as pectin, hemicelluloses and cellulose etc. (Moses et al., 2012).
12
Swelling power is an indication of the absorption index of the granules during heating
(Maloma et al., 2013). Jangchud et al., (2003) stated that blanching increases the swelling
power of flour at all temperature. The degree of exposure of the internal structure of the
starch present in the flour to the action of water can result in the variation of swelling
capacity (Ruales et al., 1993).
2.9.2 Fat absorption capacity

Fat absorption capacity is attributed mainly to the physical entrapment of oils (Omimawo
and Akubor, 2012). It is an important functional property that enhances the mouthfeel while
retaining the flavor of food products. Absorption of oil by food products improves mouthfeel
and flavor retention, and this makes it an important property in such food formulations (Iwe
et al., 2016). Fat increases the leavening power of the baking powder in the batter and
improves the texture of the baked product (Akubot et al., 2013). The increase in oil
absorption capacity of the flour may help to maintain and improve mouthfeel (Onuegbu et
al., 2013). Faqbeni (1999) reported that blanching increases oil absorption capacity. The oil
absorption capacity is important for the development of new food product and has an
influence on their storage stability, particularly for the development of rancidity (Ejiofor et
al., 2014). Essma et al., (2013) stated that the oil absorption capacity of the citrus peel may
be related to their fiber content and bulk density of the sample.
2.9.3 Gelation
Gelation may be theoretically defined as a protein aggregation phenomenon in which
polymer-polymer and polymer-solvent interactions and in which attractive and repulsive
forces are so balanced that a well ordered tertiary network or matrix is formed. This matrix
is capable of immobilizing or trapping extremely large amounts of water (Schmidt, 1981).
The least gelation concentration (LGC) which is defined as the lowest protein
concentration at which gel remained in the inverted tube was used as an index of gelation
capacity. The lower the LGC, the better the gelating ability of the protein ingredient
(Akintayo et al., 1999 and Chandra et. al., 2014). Vautsinas and Nakai (1983) reported that
protein gelation was significantly affected by the hydrophobicity and square of sulfhydryls
of proteins.
2.9.4 Wettability
Wettability is the ability of powder particles to overcome the surface tension between
themselves and water. A powder particle that fails to wet sufficiently will lead to the
13
formation of a substance called scum. The scums will gradually adhere together, forming a
distinct layer on the walls of the container (Fang et al., 2008). Wettability depends largely
on particle size. Small particles have a large value of the specific area (i.e., the ratio of
surface area to mass) and may not be wetted individually.
Increasing particle size and/or agglomerating particles can reduce the incidence of
clumping. The nature of the particle surface can also affect wettability. For example, the
presence of free fat on the surface reduces wettability. The selective use of surface-active
agents, such as lecithin, can sometimes improve wettability in dried powders containing fat
(Barbosa et al., 2005).
2.9.5 Sinkability
Sinkability is the process of the sinking of the powdered product below the liquid surface. It
depends mainly on the particle size and density. Larger and denser particles usually sink
faster than finer and lighter ones. Particles with a lot of included air may be relatively large
in size but exhibit poor sinkability because of their low density (Barbosa et al., 2005).
2.10 Flow properties of sweet orange peel powder

2.10.1 Bulk Density
The bulk density of powders is determined by particle density, which in turn is determined
by solid density and particle internal porosity, and also by the spatial arrangement of the
particles in the container. Powders have “loose bulk density”, that is, a measured density
after the powder is freely poured into a container and “compact density.” after it is allowed
to compress by mechanical pressure, vibration, and/or impact. Bulk density determines the
choice of the container size and strength of the reconstituted food if prepared from a given
volume (Peleg and Bagley, 1983). Bulk density is a measure of the bulkiness of flour and an
important parameter that determines the suitability of flours for the ease of packaging and
transportation (Nelson-Quartey et al., 2007). Balagopalan et al., (1988) reported that
blanching confers harder consistency to chips due to the gelatinization of starch. This,
ultimately, toughened the chips leading to the production of granulated materials, which had
higher bulk density than unblanched flours. The bulk density was seen to be higher with the
blanched sample by 3-37% because of the shrinking of the softened leaf, which leads to the
formation of compact mass (Prasad, 2015). Also, Tagodoe and Nip, (1994) show that bulk
density increases as a result of heat treatment of flour prior to drying.
14
2.10.2 Degree of caking
The degree of caking is the amount of powder appearing as lumps which cannot pass through
a 500μ sieve, after allowing the powder first to absorb moisture to equilibrium and then to
release moisture by drying (Sagar and Kumar, 2014). Caking is a deleterious phenomenon
by which amorphous food powders are transformed into a sticky undesirable material,
resulting in loss of functionality and lowered quality. Caking is caused by various inter-
particle forces developed under moisture absorption, elevated temperature, or static pressure
during processing, transportation, and storage. The common mechanism of caking of the
food powder is due to humidity (Barbosa et al., 2005). The degree of caking depends upon
temperature, moisture, and position within the powder, and involve many different stages,
including bridging, agglomeration, compaction and liquefaction (Aguilera et al., 1995).
2.10.3 Flowability
Powder flow is defined as the relative movement of a bulk of particles among neighboring
particles or along the container wall surface. The practical objective of powder flowability
investigations is to provide both qualitative and quantitative knowledge of powder behavior,
which can be used in equipment design and in equipment performance prediction. The
flowability of powder depends upon the angle of repose. The static angle of repose is defined
as the angle at which a material will rest on a stationary heap; it is the angle θ formed by the
heap slope and the horizontal when the powder is dropped on a platform (Barbosa et al.,
2005).
A value of <30° indicates ‘excellent’ flow whereas >56° indicates ‘very poor’ flow. The
intermediate scale indicates ‘good’ (θ between 31–35°), ‘fair’ (θ between 36–40°), ‘passable
which may hang up’ (θ between 41–45°), and ‘poor which must be agitated or vibrated’
(θ between 46–55°) (Shah et al., 2008). Addition of free-flowing agents significantly
improves the flowability. Anticaking agents are very fine powders of fairly inert chemical
substances added to powders with much larger particle size. During storage, dried powdered
products undergo some changes that affect their free-flowing properties. The changes in
flowability of these products during storage largely depend on the moisture uptake by the
product which results in lump formation and caking (Porwal, 2016).
2.11 Cake
The change in food habit has increased the demand of various bakery and confectionery
product. Among many bakery items, cake is one of the relished, palatable baked products
prepared from flour, sugar, shortening, baking powder (a mixture of cereal flour, sodium
15
carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate), egg, and milk as principal ingredients. It is often served
on occasion like wedding, anniversaries and birthdays (Karim, 2012).
Cake is an edible leavened or unleavened baked, sweet flour confectionery, often
enriched with other minor compounds for air pockets enclosed in a protein and starch
network. Cake ingredients are soft wheat flour with variable levels of fat, sugar, eggs, milk,
baking powders, emulsifiers and other commonly used ingredients such as cocoa powder,
nuts, fruits, icings, and certain flavorings are used for specialty cakes. The shelf life of cake
depends on a variety of factors, such as the preparation method, storage conditions,
ingredients, cake mix and packaging materials (Cauvain and Young, 2006).
2.11.1 Types of cakes
There are two basic types of cakes: shortened and foam. Shortened cakes are made with
hydrogenated shortening, butter, or margarine. The infinite variety includes pound, butter,
chocolate, spice, and fruit and nut cakes (Ranjit, 2014).
2.11.1.1 Foam (unshortened) cakes
Foam cakes are made without fat or oil. Examples are sponge cakes and angel cakes. These
cakes have high proportion of egg to flour and are leavened solely by the beating air into
eggs. They contain little fat with spongy texture. An optimum foam cake is fine, even
textured. It is leavened by steam. The three categories of foam cakes those that contain no
fat are angel food cakes and Meringues; those where fat is only from egg yolks are sponge
cakes and some biscuits; those that contain fat (butter, shortening) plus egg yolks are
genoises and chiffons (Ranjit, 2014).
2.11.1.2 Butter (shortened) cakes
Butter or shortened cakes contain fat (butter, margarine, shortening) and rely on a chemical
leavening agent (baking powder, baking soda) for their rise. They are flavorful, and have a
good texture and volume. Examples of butter cakes includes the white and yellow cake,
coffee cakes, tea cakes, and fruitcakes. The main difference between foam cakes and butter
cakes is baking powder/soda is not used for leavening (rise) in foam cakes (Ranjit, 2014).
16
2.11.2 Composition of cake
Table 2.3 Chemical composition of cake made with wheat flour
Components Value (%)
Moisture 14.30
Crude protein 11.23
Crude fiber 5.15
Crude fat 20.64
Ash 0.85
Calcium 0.28
Phosphorus 0.01
Source: Ugwona et al. (2012)
2.11.3 Ingredients in Cake and their role

2.11.3.1 Cake flour
Flour is the primary structure builder and is used to bind all of the other ingredients together
during the cake making process. Wheat flour is a major type of flour used for cake making.
Wheat flour used in cake elaboration have a lower protein content, short patent flour of low
ash and it is known that one of the most important characteristics of cake elaboration flours
is particle size (Karim, 2012).
Gluten does not play an important role in this kind of product. It indicates that flours from
other cereals, pulses, such as chickpeas, lupine, horse gram (Ranjit, 2014), fruits like banana,
tubers like yacon (Rocha et al., 2015), potato (Karim, 2012), seeds, peels etc. can be used.
Low protein flour (7-9%) gives a soft and tender cake of best quality. High level of sugar is
desirable for taste and freshness of cake (Czernohorsky and Hooker, 2009).
2.11.3.2 Sugar
Granulated sugar (sucrose) is the major type of sugar used in baking. Sugar adds sweetness
and flavor but also aids in browning, tenderizing, maintaining moistness, and preserving the
shelf life of the cake. Sugar is mainly used as a tenderizer in cakes because it absorbs water,
inhibits flour gluten development, and incorporating air into shortening during the creaming
process (Bastin, 2010). Sugar undergoes a series of complex browning reactions called
Maillard reaction above 160 ̊C due to which a sugar aldehyde or ketone is converted to an
unsaturated aldehyde or ketone resulting in brown color of crust (Czernohorsky and Hooker,
2009).
2.11.3.3 Fat
Shortening, butter, margarine, and oil are all considered fats and can be used in cakes
depending on the desired texture. Besides adding flavor and moisture, fat combines with
17
sugar during “creaming” to add lightness by trapping air that expands during baking. This
makes the cake tender, forming a lighter crumb in the baked cake (Bastin, 2010). Fat
incorporates air in cake batter during beating by trapping air within the fat droplet which
helps in expansion of cake during baking (Czernohorsky and Hooker, 2009).
2.11.3.4 Eggs
One of the main functions of eggs is to build structure light and airy texture. They are used
as a tenderizer (yolks - contain lecithin- an emulsifier). They are also used for color,
nutrition, and flavor and help to retain moisture in the finished cake. Dry eggs are more
convenient but liquid eggs have more strength function (Karim, 2012). Eggs surround small
particles of fat, make the cake batter smoother, contributing to volume and texture. In
addition, when eggs are beaten, they incorporate tiny air bubbles that expand with heat in
the oven, contributing to volume (Bastin, 2010).
2.11.3.5 Leavening agent

Baking soda and baking powder are a major leavening agent used in Baking. Baking powder
contains baking soda (NaHCO3) and the right amount of acid to react with it. Batters made
with double acting baking powder rise twice; once when dry and moist ingredients are mixed
together, and again when the product is baked (Lauterbach and Albrecht, 1994). When the
baking powder dissolves in water and the temperature is raised, CO2 is released according
to the equation:
NaHCO3 + H+ (from the acid) Na+ H2O + CO2
The most common acids used are cream of tartar (potassium hydrogen tartrate), tartaric acid,
sodium acid pyrophosphate, and acid calcium phosphate.
2.11.3.6 Salt
Salt is used to enhance the flavors and sweetness of other ingredients in food. It “toughen
up” the soft mixture of fat and sugar (Czernohorsky and Hooker, 2009). If salt is omitted or
reduced, other spices or flavorings in the recipe should be increased slightly. There is not a
specific ratio for home baking, and the recipe may need to be adjusted if salted butter is used
(Lauterbach and Albrecht, 1994; Bastin, 2010).
2.11.3.7 Liquid
Liquids are necessary for baked goods for hydrating protein, starch, and leavening agents.
When hydration occurs, water is absorbed and the chemical changes necessary for structure
and texture development can take place. Liquids contribute moistness to the texture and
18
improve the mouth feel of baked products. When water vaporizes in a batter or dough, the
steam expands the air cells, increasing the final volume of the product. Cake batters may call
for water, milk, juice, or extracts to add flavor and moisture. These ingredients are usually
added with the eggs. A liquid is needed to dissolve the sugar and also contributes to moisture
(Lauterbach and Albrecht, 1994; Ranjit, 2014).
2.11.4 Cake making methods
All of the cake making methods involve dispersion of ingredients and incorporation of air.
The various methods may be summarized as follows according to Bennion and Bamford,
(1997).
2.11.4.1 Sugar batter method
In sugar batter method sugar and fat are creamed together until light. The egg is then added
in four to five minutes over a period of 5-7 minutes with a good creaming between each
addition. After creaming the batter turns soft and velvety feel. At this stage any required
flavors are added. Then flour with any powder which is incorporated s shifted and gently
mixed into batter along with the addition of milk or water. The optimum temperature for all
the ingredients during mixing is 21°C (Bennion and Bamford, 1997).
2.11.4.2 Flour batter method
In the process mixture of fat is creamed up with its own weight of flour or a little less, until
a light creamy mass is obtained. The egg is then whisked up with its own weight of sugar.
The mixture is then carefully blended into creamy mass, the addition being made in three
portions. The first being creamed in, the second mixed well in, and the third stirred in. The
remainder of the flour is added while clearing the batter (Bennion and Bamford, 1997).
2.11.4.3 Flour/Sugar batter method
This method is very similar to the flour batter, with the exception that a solution of the egg
and sugar is made instead of a sponge. Thus prepared solution is added to the creamed fat
and flour in a number of additions. The remainder of any flour or milk are added at the final
stage. A variation of this method is one whereby the fats and sugars are creamed lightly
together in a bowl, then a quality of flour equal in weight to the fat employed is creamed in
when this mixture is light, the eggs and flavor are creamed in produce a light velvety batter.
Lastly the remainder of the flour, which have been sifted with the baking powder, is mixed
in, any milk in the mixing should be added with this last portion of flour, and any fruit should
be added while clearing the batter (Bennion and Bamford, 1997).
19
2.11.4.4 Continuous mixing method
The process is one whereby all the ingredients, after the preliminary mixing, are fed to a
mixing head. The mixer head are so constructed that the ingredients are sufficiently
dispersed in a very short time, while simultaneously with the dispersion air is injected in and
incorporated (Bennion and Bamford, 1997).
2.11.4.5 All in, high speed
Here, modified high- speed cake mixers are used. Many types of cakes are prepared in an
all-in, one stage process. In the process all the ingredients are added to the machine and the
required degree of mixing is given. Each mixing is given a fixed amount of work which is
measured in watt per pound of batter and number of watt hour is set on the control panel
(Bennion and Bamford, 1997).
2.11.5 Process involved in cake making
2.11.5.1 Mixing
Mixing of a cake batter serves the purpose of hydrating the ingredients, dispersing the
ingredients and aerating the batter. During mixing, water-containing ingredients (e.g., water,
liquid eggs, and liquid milk) are combined with the dry ingredients of the formula. In this
process, the water is distributed such that it can serve to unlock the functionality of various
ingredients. For example, water dissolves the chemical leaveners, enabling them to
contribute towards the leavening action in the cake batter. Starches in the flour are also
hydrated such that, during baking, their gelatinization can serve as an integral part of the
structure formation of the cake (Karim, 2012). Mixing is basically accomplished in 4 steps
i.e. wetting of ingredients, incorporation of air into the batter, homogeneous dispersion of
air becoming increasingly fine throughout the batter and elimination of possible large air
pockets and still a finer break down of the air cells (Karim, 2012). For cakes there are
basically two different methods i.e.
a. Multistage mixing method
b. Single stage mixing method
Multistage mixing method creates a stable batter with many tiny air bubbles through a
creaming step in which fat (not oil) and sugar are mixed together to form a cream as well as
incorporate air into fat. Because of the semisolid nature of the fat, these batters tend to be
very stable over time. A second and sometimes a third mixing step is used to incorporate the
other ingredients and liquids into the batter without destroying the creamed fat structure. The
tiny air bubbles in the creamed fat will only be released into the aqueous phase when the fat
20
melts during baking. These air bubbles will grow in size when the leavening gas is released
during baking from the decomposing baking powder. This leavens the product until its
structure is set when the starch in the batter gelatinizes and forms a starch gel (Anonymous,
2000).
On the other hand in single stage mixing method for foam-type cakes, the air is
incorporated directly into the aqueous phase in a single step (called mixing, beating, or
whipping). Gas bubbles created in a liquid phase normally disappear quickly through various
mechanisms unless these gas bubbles are stabilized. Both eggs and emulsifiers are important
ingredients for stabilizing the gas-in water bubbles created through the single stage mixing
method (Anonymous, 2000).
2.11.5.2 Baking
Baking is a complex process that brings about a series of physical, chemical and biochemical
changes in food such as gelatinization of starch, denaturation of protein, and liberation of
carbon dioxide from leavening agents, volume expansion, and evaporation of water, crust
formation and browning reactions. It can be described as a simultaneous heat and mass
transfer within the product and with the environment inside the oven (Demirkol, 2007). The
cake-baking process can be broken down into three main stages i.e. rising, setting and
browning. As the temperature of the cake mixture rises, the gas cells expand and the
chemical rising agent, if any, releases carbon dioxide. At setting stage, the further increase
in temperature leads the cake mix to set into its permanent shape by starch gelatinization at
60 °C and flour, egg, and milk protein coagulation 71 °C. In this stage the starch and protein
molecules line up along the walls of gas cells and then water is squeezed out from between
the proteins and absorbed by the starch granules due to protein chain formation. The softened
starch granules will become more solid as the cake is allowed to cool after baking once the
mixture has solidified, the flavor-enhancing browning reactions can begin to take place
which is final stage. Browning only occurs significantly in the areas where moisture has
been driven from the cake, in effect, where the cake temperature is at least 100 °C and so
browning first occurs in the sides and surface of the cake. The products of the browning
process diffuse inwards, improving the flavor of the cake, but if left too long the browning
process will become charring and burning. Baking is normally carried out for about 40 min
at 180 ̊C (Jackson, 1996).
21
2.11.5.3 Cooling and packaging
After baking, the cake must be thoroughly and carefully cooled so that it does not collapse.
Once the cake is completely cool, it is released from its mold and packaged so that it will be
ready for transportation. The cake must be completely cool before packaging, or
condensation will form and damage the product. Commercial cakes are normally wrapped
in plastic packaging, possibly with the additional of a cardboard tray (Ranjit, 2014).
Flowchart for cake making:
Beating of egg and sugar
Addition of milk
Batter formation
Moulding
Baking 180° C
Cooking and Packaging

(Ranjit, 2014)
Fig 2.1 Flowchart for cake making
2.11.6 Physical properties of cake
2.11.6.1 Specific Volume
The specific volume is the ratio of the two properties, namely, volume to weight (Menon et
al., 2015). Addition of orange peel powder increased the volume of cake, this indicated the
importance of adding dietary fiber sources on the volume of cake. The trend of increase in
the specific volume got high after adding dietary fiber sources (Zaker et al., 2017).
2.10.6.2 Weight Loss
The main mass transfer characteristics associated with baking include an evaporation front
moving from the surface towards the product core. The evaporation front divides the product
into two zones: the crumb (inner zone, humid) and the crust (outer zone, dehydrated). Weight
loss is a measure of the yield of batter and, hence, global yields of the whole baking process.
Weight loss drops as the oven temperature increases (Ureta et al., 2012).
22
Part III
Materials and methods
3.1 Materials
3.1.1 Raw Materials
Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) was collected from the farms of Sindhuli districts with the
help of local people. The variety was sthaniya junar.
3.1.2 Chemical reagents

The used chemical reagents are listed in Appendix B.
3.1.3 Equipment
The used equipment is listed in Appendix B
3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Experimental design
The experiment was a completely randomized design with four treatments for blanching
viz.unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched and microwave blanched for peels and
five treatments for cake viz.control, unblanched peel powder, hot water blanched peel
powder, steam blanched peel powder and microwave blanched peel powder incorporated
cakes with triplicate analysis for each parameter.
3.2.2 Preparation of peels for treatment

The sweet oranges were washed with potable water to remove the adhered dust. The oranges
were then cut with the help of a knife to get four quarters of the peel. The peels were of then
weighed and its thickness was measured. The average thickness of the peels was 0.478 cm.
3.2.3 Blanching methods

a) Hot water blanching
The peels were dipped in water maintained at a temperature of 90°C for 1 minute
(Turkmen et al., 2005).
b) Steam blanching
The peels were exposed to steam for 5 minutes (Nurhuda et al., 2013).
c) Microwave blanching
The peels were exposed to microwaves at 900 W for 5 minutes (Olivera et al., 2008).
23
3.2.4 Preparation of sweet orange peel powder
The blanched peels were dried in a cabinet dryer at 50°C for 24 hours (Zaker et al., 2017).
The dried peels were then ground with the help of an electric grinder to fine powders which
passed through the sieve of 0.25 mm. The flowchart for the preparation of sweet orange peel
powder is given in Fig.3.1.
Sweet orange
Washing with potable water
Cutting and Peeling ( peels of thickness 0.478 cm)
Blanching
Hot water blanching Steam blanching Microwave blanching

(90°C for 1 min) (exposed to steam for 5 min) (900W for 5 min)
Drying (50°C for 24 hours)
Grinding
Sieving (Passed through 0.25 mm)
Sweet orange peel powder
Packaging
(Modified from Zaker et al., 2017)
Fig 3.1 Flowchart for the preparation of sweet orange peel powder
24
3.2.5 Preparation of sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake
a) Beating of egg and sugar b) Mixing of dry ingredients
(Eggs: 4, sugar: 75g)
(until creamy white foam appears) Wheat flour (150 g)
Peel powder (15g)
Baking powder (5 g)
Salt (1g)
Addition of melted butter (75g)
Addition of milk (30mL)
Addition of beaten sugar and egg

(until the formation of a creamy batter)
Pouring the batter into greased cake moulds
Bake in a pre-heated oven at 180°C for 40 min
Cooling (at room temperature)
Cake
(Modified from Zaker et al., 2017)
Fig 3.2 Flowchart for the preparation of sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake
25
3.3 Formulation of cake
Table 3.1 Formulation of cake
Item Control cake (Amount) Sweet orange peel powder
incorporated cake (Amount)
Flour 150 g 135 g
Peel powder - 15 g
Butter 75 g 75 g
Baking powder 5g 5g
Egg 4 4
Salt 1g 1g
Milk 30 mL 30 mL
Sugar 75g 75g
Zaker et al. (2017)
3.4 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel, powder, and cake

3.4.1 Moisture
The moisture content of the peel, powder, and cake was determined by using hot air oven at
the temperature of 103±2ºC described as Rangana 2010.
3.4.2 Ash content

Ash content of peel, powder and cake was determined as incinerating the sample at 550ºC
as described by Rangana, 2010.
3.4.3 Acidity
Titrable acidity of Sweet orange peel and powder was measured as per described by
(Rangana, 2010) and expressed in percentage citric acid.
3.4.4 Essential oil

Essential oil of the sweet orange peel and powder was determined by subjecting the samples
to steam distillation method at the temperature of 30ºC for about 4 hours (Rangana, 2010).
26
3.5 Phytochemical analysis
3.5.1 Extract preparation
The extract of sweet orange peel, powder and cake were being prepared according to the
method described by Dimitrijević et al. (2014) with some modification. 5 g of the sample
was ground with 80 % methanol (30 mL) and this was kept under continuous shaking for 20
minutes and then was be filtered through Whatman no. 1 filter paper. The residue was again
submitted to two more extraction cycle for 20 minutes each totalizing 60 minutes of
extraction time.
The filtrate was combined in a volumetric flask, and the volume was made up to 100 mL.
The extracts were stored in a refrigerator for analysis of polyphenol, tannins, flavonoids and
antioxidant activity.
3.5.2 Polyphenol content

The total phenol content of sample extracts was measured by using the Folin-Ciocalteu
method, as described by (Mahadavi et al., 2010). 1 ml of extract or standard solution of gallic
acid (100 μg/ml-1000 μg/ml) was decanted in 25 ml volumetric flask, which contained 9 ml
of distilled water. 1 ml of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent was added to the mixture and shaken.
After 5 mins, 10 ml of 7 % Na2CO3 solution was added and the solution was diluted to
volume with distilled water and mixed. After incubation for 90 min at room temperature, the
absorbance against a prepared reagent blank (distilled water) was measured using an
automated UV- VIS spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 765 nm. Standard solution of
gallic acid was being used to obtain a standard curve. The results were expressed as mg of
gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per 100 g of sample.
3.5.3 Tannin content

Tannin content of sweet orange peel, powder and cake were determined by using Folin Denis
method (Polshettiwar et al., 2007). 0.1 mL extract was taken and 0.5 mL of Folin Denis
reagent was added. Then, 1mL of 0.5 % sodium carbonate was added to it. Then, the volume
was made up to 100 mL using distilled water and it was allowed to stand for 30 minutes.
The absorbance was taken at 775 nm. The results were expressed as mg of tannic acid
equivalents (TAE) per 100 g of sample.
27
3.5.4 Flavonoid content
The total flavonoid content (TFC) of sweet orange peel, powder and cake were determined
as (Samatha et al.., 2012) and (Walvekar and Kaimal, 2014) using the aluminum chloride
assay through colorimetry.
Principle:
The total flavonoid content determined by aluminum chloride method may represent the
real content of total flavonoids. The principle of the aluminum chloride colorimetric method
is that aluminum chloride forms acid stable complexes with the C-4 keto group and either
the C-3 or C-5 hydroxyl group of flavones and flavonols. In addition, aluminum chloride
forms acid labile complexes with the orthodihydroxyl groups in the A- or B- ring of
flavonoids. Thus, determining the total flavonoids by using aluminum chloride method is
based upon the formation of a stable complex between aluminum chloride and keto and
hydroxyl groups of flavones and flavonoids (Hassan et al., 2013).
Procedure:
An aliquot (0.5 ml) of extracts were taken in different test tubes then 2 ml of distilled
water was added followed by the addition of 0.15 ml of sodium nitrite (5 % NaNO2, w/v)
and allowed to stand for 6 min. Later 0.15 ml of aluminum trichloride (10 % AlCl3) was
added and incubated for 6 min, followed by the addition of 2 ml of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH, 4 % w/v) and volume was made up to the 5 ml with distilled water. After 15 min of
incubation, the mixture turns to pink whose absorbance was measured at 510 nm using a
colorimeter. Distilled water was used as a blank. The calibration standard curve was prepared
by preparing gallic acid solutions and results were expressed as mg of Gallic acid equivalents
per 100 g of sample.
3.5.5 Carotenoid content

Total carotenoid content of the peel, powder and cake was determined as described by
Rainha et al., (2011). Methanolic solutions of the sample extracts were analyzed in UV/VIS
spectrophotometer at 470, 653 and 666 nm. The concentrations of carotenoids and
chlorophylls α and β were determined according to the equations reported by Lichtenthaler
and Wellburn (1983) as follows:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 (𝑚𝑔/𝐿) = 1000 𝐴𝑏𝑠470 – 2.860 𝐶𝑎 – 129.2 𝐶𝑏/245
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙 𝛼 (𝑚𝑔/𝐿) = 15.65 𝐴𝑏𝑠666 – 7.340 𝐴𝑏𝑠653
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙 𝑏 (𝑚𝑔/𝐿) = 27.05 𝐴𝑏𝑠653 – 11.21 𝐴𝑏𝑠666
28
3.5.6 Antioxidant activity by ABTS+ radical cation method
This assay is based on the ability of different substances to scavenge 2, 2’- azino-bis
(ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS +) radical cation. The radical cation was
prepared by mixing 7mM ABTS stock solution with 2.45 mM potassium persulfate (1/1,
v/v) and leaving the mixture for 4-16 h until the reaction was complete and the absorbance
was stable.
The ABTS + solution was diluted with ethanol to an absorbance of 0.700 ± 0.005 at 734
nm for measurements. The photometric assay was conducted on 0.9 mL of ABTS + solution
and 0.1 mL of tested samples (100 and 200 µg/mL) and mixed for 45 sec; measurements
were taken immediately at 734 nm after 15 min. The antioxidant activity of the tested
samples was calculated by determining the decrease in absorbance at different
concentrations by using the following equation;
E = ((Ac-At)/Ac)*100 where;
+
At and Ac are the respective absorbance of tested samples and ABTS was expressed as
µmol.

3.6.1 Swelling Power
About 500 mg of the powder was taken in a centrifuge tube and weighed (W1). To the
weighed centrifuge tube with the sample (W2), 20 mL of distilled water was added and was
allowed to boil for 30 min in a hot water bath at 100°C. The contents were cooled and
centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was carefully decanted in a test tube.
The water adhering to the sides of the centrifuge tube was wiped well and the weight of the
centrifuge was taken (W3). The swelling power of the powder per gram was calculated by
the formula
Swelling power (g/g)= (W3-W2)/W1
3.6.2 Fat absorption capacity

One gram of powder was taken in a centrifuge tube and its weight was recorded. 10 ml of
refined oil was added to it and centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 25 min. Free oil was decanted
and the weight of the centrifuge tube was noted. Fat absorption of the powder was calculated
as:
% fat absorption capacity= ( (wt.of sample after centrifugation – wt. of sample before
centrifugation)/ wt. of sample) *100
29
3.6.3 Gelation capacity
The method of Coffman and Garcia (1977) was used with slight modifications. Sample
suspension of 2-20% (w/v) were prepared in 5 mL distilled water. The test tubes containing
this suspension were heated for 1 hour in boiling water bath followed by rapid cooling under
cold tap water. The test tubes were then further cooled for 2 hours at 4°C. The least gelation
concentration was determined as that concentration when the sample from the inverted test
tube did not fall or slip.
3.6.4 Wettability
Into a 25 ml graduated cylinder with a diameter of 1 cm, 1 g of sample was added. A finger
was placed over the open end of the cylinder which was inverted and clamped at a height of
10 cm from the surface of a 600 ml beaker containing 500 ml of distilled water. The finger
was removed and the rest material allowed to be dumped. The wettability is the time required
for the sample to become completely wet (Justina, 2011).
3.6.5 Sinkability
The sinkability of powder was measured by Spectrophotometric method as described by
Sammhammer, 1966. In this test, 3.5 mL of distilled water at 20 °C was taken in the
Spectrophotometer cuvette and 10 mg sample of the powder was then dusted on the surface
of the water and the percentage transmittance was measured at 760 nm in a
Spectrophotometer. The readings were recorded after 2, 4 and 6 min intervals. The mean of
four replicate values was taken as the percentage transmittance.
3.6.6 Swelling index

3 g of each powder samples were transferred into clean, dry, graduated cylinders of 50 ml.
Samples were gently leveled and the volumes were noted. Distilled water of 30 ml was added
to each sample; the cylinder was swirled and allowed to stand for 60 minutes while the
change in volume (swelling) was recorded every 15 minutes (Justina, 2011).

3.7.1 Bulk density
A calibrated centrifuge tube was weighed and samples were filled to 5 mL by constant
tapping until there was no further change in volume. Bulk density value is expressed as g/mL
(Justina,2011).
30
3.7.2 Angle of repose
The angle of repose of powder was determined by the method of (Sjollema, 1963). A plastic
funnel with a narrow stem, cut at right angles, was mounted exactly 2 cm above a piece of
butter paper positioned on a horizontal table. Powder sample was placed on the sieve and
allowed to go through the funnel in a fine stream so as to form a conical heap. When the top
of the powder heap touched the end of funnel stem, the powder stream was stopped. The
base of the powder heap was outlined with a pencil and powder was removed. The radius
was calculated and the angle of repose was estimated.
θ= Tan-1 [h / (r - 1 ⁄2 a)]
Where,
θ= Angle of repose
h = Height of stem base (mm)
r = Radius of the base of powder heap (mm)
a = diameter of funnel stem (mm)
3.7.3 Degree of caking

The degree of caking of powder was determined as described by (Sagar and Kumar, 2014).
A known weight (5 g powder) was placed in an oven at 102±2 °C for one hour. The sample
was removed, cooled at room temperature, weighed and transferred into a sieve of 500 μm
size. The sieve was then shook for 5 min. The weight of the powder remaining on the sieve
was weighed. Degree of caking (%) was calculated by using the equation as
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = (𝑐/𝑑) 𝑥 100
Where d (g) is the amount of the powder used sieving and c (g) is the amount of powder left
on the sieve after sieving.
3.8 Physical properties of cake

3.8.1 Volume
The volume of the cake was determined by measuring the radius and height of the cake
moulds.
Volume of the cake = πr2h
Where, r = radius of the cake mould
h= height of the cake mould
31
3.8.2 Weight loss
The main mass transfer characteristics associated with baking include an evaporation front
moving from the surface towards the product core. Weight loss measured the yield of batter
and hence, the global yield of the whole baking process. Weight loss, WL, was calculated as
the percentage difference between the weight of batter and cake (Ureta et al., 2012).
Weight loss (%) = ((Wi- Wf) / Wi) x100
Where, Wi= weight of batter
Wf= weight of cake
3.8.3 Specific volume

The specific volume of cake in cm3/g was calculated by dividing the volume of cake with
weight of cake (Bennion et.al.,1997).
Specific volume = Volume of cake in cm3
Volume of cake in g
3.9 Sensory evaluation

Sensory evaluation was carried out using ranking test as described by Rangana, 2010.
Sensory panels consisted of 20 semi-trained panelists from NARC, Khumaltar and
GoldenGate International College. Sensory evaluation was carried out on the quality
attributes viz., color, flavor, texture, taste, sponginess and overall acceptance.
Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 were assigned as ranking measure where:
 1 represented the highest preference and
 5 as lowest preference.
Semi-trained panelists were briefed about the simple preference ranking procedure and
samples were provided anonymously. Also water was provided to the panelist to rinse
mouth. The specimen card for sensory evaluation is given in Appendix A.
3.10 Data analysis

IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) Statistics version 23 and Microsoft
Office Excel 2016 were used for the statistical analysis and data interpretation. The data
were analyzed by one-way Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for peels, powders and cakes
using SPSS at 5% level of significance. The significant differences between them were
studied by using Tukey HSD at 5% level of significance.
The data of sensory evaluation was analyzed by Kramer’s table as described in Rangana,
2010. Kramer’s table was used to analyze thus obtained data at p<0.01 (1% level of
32
significance) to understand whether the samples were significantly different or not. All the
rank of specific parameters were first added to obtain rank sum then it was compared with
Kramer’s table of upper pair and lower pair at 1% level of significance. For the samples to
be considered significantly different, at least one of the rank sums of sample must be lower
than the lower limit or higher than the higher limit in the upper pair.
33
Part IV
Results and discussion
The physicochemical properties (moisture, acidity, ash and essential oil), the bioactive
compounds (total phenols, tannins, flavonoids, carotenoids and the antioxidant activity) of
the sweet orange peels treated by different methods of blanching i.e hot water blanching,
steam blanching and microwave blanching were analyzed and compared. Then the peels
were dried and converted into fine powders. The physicochemical properties (moisture,
acidity, ash and essential oil), the bioactive compounds (total phenols, tannins, flavonoids,
carotenoids, and the antioxidant activity) of the sweet orange peel powder were determined
and compared. Also, the functional properties (swelling power, fat absorption capacity,
gelation, wettability, sinkability, and swelling index) and flow properties (bulk density,
degree of caking and angle of repose) of sweet orange peel powder were studied.
The physiochemical properties (moisture and ash) along with the bioactive components
(total phenols, tannins, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity) of the sweet orange peel powder
incorporated cake were studied. The physical properties (height, weight, volume, specific
volume and weight loss) of the cake was also determined.
4.1 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peels

Table 4.1 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel
Parameters UB HB SB MB
Moisture % 71.67±4.88 73.82±2.19 64.11±0.36 60.62±2.60
Acidity% 0.33±0.00b 0.25±0.00a 0.25±0.00a 0.27±0.04a
Total Ash %(db) 3.94±0.16c 1.56±0.46a 1.95±0.05ab 2.43±0.31b
Essential oil (mL,db) 0.59±0.06b 0.32±0.00a 0.43±0.13ab 0.49±0.02ab
 Values are the mean ± standard deviation of mean obtained from the triplicate data
 Superscript letters in the same row indicate significant differences (p<0.05)
 UB, HB, SB, and MB represent Unblanched peel, Hot water blanched peel, Steam
blanched peel and Microwave blanched peel respectively.
 Total ash and essential oil are in dry basis.
The moisture content of the peels after blanching has been seen to decrease in case of steam
and microwave blanched peel. However, the moisture content of hot water blanched peel
34
has been increased slightly. Longer blanching time may be the reason behind the lower
moisture content of the steam blanched and microwave blanched. Blanching increases the
drying and dehydration rates by changing the physical properties of the products, which
can improve their quality attributes. The improvement in product quality resulted from
the increased permeability of cell membranes, which in turn increases the rate of
moisture removal (Xiao et al., 2017). M.N et al., (2002) stated that weight loss during
microwave blanching was significant in three different vegetables, and was mainly due to
the drying action of heat which caused moisture vaporization. Also, longer the blanching
period resulted in more evaporation of water leading to loss of weight. The increase in
moisture in hot water blanched peel may also be due to the adhered water on the peels.
The acidity of the unblanched and blanched peels are statistically different. The amount
of citric acid has been observed to decrease after blanching. The retention is maximum in
the microwave and steam blanched peels. The result is in accordance with the (Lin and
Brewer, 2005) which presented that the amount of water used during blanching affects the
amount of acid loss due to leaching of the water-soluble compound into blanched water. Ash
or mineral content is the portion of the food or any organic material that remains after it is
burned at very high temperatures (Amy, 2015). Ash can include both compounds with
essential minerals, such as iron and potassium, and toxic materials, such as mercury. Ash
contents of fresh foods rarely exceed 5%, although some processed foods can have ash
contents as high as 12% (Fennema, 1996). Thus obtained ash content is in accordance with
the result. Ash content may not necessarily be exactly equivalent to the mineral matter as
some changes may occur due to volatilization or some interaction between constituents. The
total ash content of the peels has been found statistically different from one another and its
amount has decreased after blanching.
A significant difference has been observed in the case of the essential oil of the peels.
The amount of essential oil after blanching is observed to be lower than that of the
unblanched peels which are in accordance with Kimura et al., (2006) which states that
essential oil concentration per unit weight in the stem of Aralia cordata decreased by
blanching treatment. Moreover, Miyazawa et al., (2001) reported that as for Hamabofu, the
percentage of monoterpenoid content, which is the major component of essential oil,
decreased because of the blanching treatment. Highest retention is found in the microwave
and steam blanched peels. Sikdar et al., (2016) reported that an increase in temperature and
time of steam distillation can result in the extraction of higher amounts of oil. The extraction
35
was done at a relatively lower temperature and for a longer time which resulted in 0.18 mL
of oil in wet basis which is in range according to Sikdar et al., (2016).
4.2 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel powder

Table 4.2 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel powder
Parameters UPP HBP SBP MBP
Moisture % 10.39±0.25 11.48±0.06 11.79±0.21 12.21±0.07
Acidity % 0.83±0.01a 0.75±0.06a 0.76±0.00a 0.79±0.01a
Total Ash %(db) 2.74±0.01a 2.71±0.04a 2.66±0.13a 2.50±0.19a
Essential oil (mL,db) 0.58±0.03b 0.3±0.02a 0.41±0.13ab 0.45±0.00ab
 UPP, HBP, SBP, and MBP represent unblanched peel powder, hot water blanched
peel power, steam blanched peel powder and microwave blanched peel powder
respectively.
 Total ash and essential oil are in dry basis.
The physiochemical composition of unblanched and differently blanched peel powders is
shown in table 4.2. The obtained moisture content is higher than the results obtained by
Zaker et .al., (2017) who found the moisture content of the peel powder was to be 7.78%.
After the blanching and drying, an increase in the moisture content of the peel powder was
observed.
The acidity of the peel powders remains statistically same as per the outcome. The change
in its content before and after blanching is due to the susceptibility of acid with heat treatment
and blanching. Also, no significant difference was found in case of the total ash content of
the unblanched and blanched peel powders.
A significant difference was observed between the unblanched and the blanched peel
powders in case of essential oil, where the minimum retention of the essential oil was
observed in hot water blanched peel powder. The observed decrement in the peel powders
after blanching remains in agreement to that blanching reduces the essential oil contents
(Kimura et al., 2008 ). Khangoli et al ., (2008) reported that higher drying temperatures led
to the decrease of essential oil content in sweet wormwood. Hence, drying may be one of
the reasons for the loss of essential oils when converted from peels to powder.
36
4.3 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake
Table 4.3 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake
Parameters CC UPC HPC SPC MPC
Moisture % 30.92±0.29 33.31±6.98 49.06±2.15 44.12±0.05 34.66±0.28
Total Ash % 2.23±0.13ab 2.47±0.25b 2.18±0.04ab 1.80±0.39a 2.25±0.03ab

(db)
 CC, UPC, HPC, SPC, and MPC represent control cake, unblanched peel powder
incorporated cake, hot water blanched peel powder incorporated cake, steam
blanched peel powder incorporated cake and microwave blanched peel powder
incorporated cake respectively.
 Total ash is on dry basis.
The results show that the moisture content of the cakes increased with the addition of peel
powders. This may be due to the flour blends. Likewise, a significant difference was found
in terms of the total ash contents of the cakes.

Table 4.4 Functional properties of sweet orange peel powder
Swelling power (g/g) 4.93±0.19a 5.30±0.19a 5.15±0.20a 6.05±0.23b
Fat absorption capacity 0.67±0.25a 0.73±0.01b 0.74±0.01b 0.75±0.33b

(%)
Gelation (%) 15.00±0.00 15.00±0.00 15.00±0.00 10.00±0.00
Wettability(g/s) 11.04±3.77a 28.86±3.26b 44.22±5.86c 56.86±3.62d
Sinkability 92.95±1.36b 88.85±1.49b 94.94±0.66b 72.00±4.38a

(% transmittance)
Swelling index 1.54±0.07a 2.23±0.13c 2.04±0.03c 1.76±0.01b
37
peel powder, steam blanched peel powder, and microwave blanched peel powder
respectively.
There was no significant difference in the swelling power of the blanched and unblanched
peel powders except in the case of microwave blanched peel powders. Swelling power is an
indication of the absorption index of the granules during heating (Maloma et al., 2013). The
results show blanching increases the swelling power which is in accordance with the findings
of (Jangchud et al., 2003) which stated that blanching increases the swelling power of flour
at all temperature. The variation in the swelling capacity indicates the degree of exposure of
the internal structure of the starch present in the flour to the action of water (Ruales et al.,
1993). Faqbemi, (1999) reported blanching increases the oil absorption capacity. The results
showed an increase in oil absorption capacity after blanching. The OAC has been reported
to be important for the development of new food product and has an influence on their
storage stability, particularly for the development of rancidity (Ejiofor et al., 2014). The
OAC of citrus peel powder may be related to their fiber content and the higher bulk density
of the sample (Essmat et al., 2013).
Microwave blanched peel powder formed a gel at a concentration of 10%. The lower the
LGC, the better the gelating ability of the protein ingredient (Akintayo et al. 1999).
(Vautsinas and Nakai 1983) reported that protein gelation was significantly affected by
exposed hydrophobicity and square of sulfhydryls of proteins.
Sinkability depends mainly on the particle size and density since larger and denser
particles usually sink faster than finer and lighter ones (Barbosa et al., 2005). The sinkability
of microwave blanched peel powder is statistically different than the unblanched and
differently blanched powders. Wettability of the peel powders has been increased after
blanching. The variation may be due to the change in composition of the powders after
drying.
A significant difference has been found in case of the swelling index of the unblanched
and blanched peel powders. The results show an increase in the swelling index after
blanching treatments. Swelling index depends upon the water holding capacity of the orange
peel powders.
38
Table 4.5 Flow properties of sweet orange peel powder
Bulk density (g/mL) 0.42±0.01a 0.55±0.02b 0.57±0.00b 0.53±0.05b
Degree of caking (%) 7.95±1.28c 0.88±0.45a 0.41±0.30a 3.41±0.62b
Angle of repose(º) 45.73±1.77b 37.86±4.01a 47.84±1.49b 46.84±2.10b
respectively.
The result shows that bulk density of hot water, steam and microwave blanched peel powder
statistically varies from the unblanched peel powder. The result shows that blanching
slightly increases the bulk density which was in compliance with the report made by Tagode
and Nip, (1994) which showed that bulk density increased as a result of heat treatment of
flour prior to drying. Balagopalan et al., (1988) reported that blanching confers harder
consistency to chips due to the gelatinization of starch. This, ultimately, toughened the chips
leading to the production of granulated materials, which had higher bulk density than
unblanched flours.
The results obtained has shown that the degree of caking decreases appreciably after
blanching. Degree of caking depends upon temperature, moisture, and position within the
powder, and involve many different stages, including bridging, agglomeration, compaction
and liquefaction (Aguilera et al., 1995).
Flowability is indicated based on the angle of repose. A value of <30° indicates
‘excellent’ flow whereas >56° indicates ‘very poor’ flow. The intermediate scale indicates
‘good’ (θ between 31–35°), ‘fair’ (θ between 36–40°), ‘passable which may hang up’
(θ between 41–45°), and ‘poor which must be agitated or vibrated’ (θ between 46–55°) (Shah
et al., 2008). According to the results, the hot water blanched peel powder exhibited fair
flow properties whereas the remaining had no statistical difference among them and
exhibited poor flowability. The variation may be due to the moisture content of the peel
powders and the drying efficiency.
39
4.6 Phytochemicals
4.6.1 Polyphenols
4.6.1.1 Polyphenol content of sweet orange peels
A calibration curve was plotted from the absorbance of gallic acid standards with
concentration ranging from 0-600 μg/ml. The graph is shown in Appendix figure L1.
165
c
160
155
mg GAE/g (db)
b
150
a a
145
140
135
130
UB HB SB MB
Fig 4.1 Polyphenol content of sweet orange peels

• Values are the mean ± standard deviation of mean from triplicate data
• Different letters in the bar diagram indicate significant difference (p<0.05)
• UB, HB, SB and MB represent unblanched peel, hot water blanched peel, steam
blanched peel and microwave blanched peel respectively
• All the data are on dry basis
The polyphenol content of the unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched and
microwave blanched peel were found to be 161.06±0.00, 143.37±2.08, 145.76±0.15,
151.92±0.39 mg GAE/g respectively. A significant difference has been seen between
unblanched and blanched peels. The obtained values are in accordance with Ghasemi et al.,
(2009) who reported that the orange peels contain 132.2–223.2 mg GAE/g DM. Blanching
treatment has been observed to lower the value of polyphenol which is as per Turkmen et
al., (2005) which states that polyphenol is heat sensitive phenolic compounds which
decrease after heat treatment. Microwave blanched peels retained the highest value of
polyphenols i.e. 94.32% followed by the steam blanched peels and hot water blanched peels
with 90.5% and 89.01% retention respectively. Kaur et al., (2018) also reported that during
40
blanching prior to drying the phenolic content was lost due to the leaching in broccoli. 4.6.1.2
4.6.1.2 Polyphenol content of sweet orange peel powders
concentration ranging from 0-600 μg/ml. The graph is shown in Appendix figure L1.
140
c
120 b b
a
100
mg GAE/g (db)
80
60
40
20
0
UPP HBP SBP MBP
Fig 4.2 Polyphenol contents in sweet orange peel powder

• UPP, HBP, SBP and MBP represent unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched
and microwave blanched peel powder respectively
The polyphenol content of the unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched and
microwave blanched peel powder were found to be 122.33±0.68, 101.03±0.00, 111.90±0.81,
113.99±1.67 mg GAE/g DM respectively. A significant difference has been seen between
unblanched and blanched peels, and steam blanched peel powder and microwave blanched
peel powder has been observed to be similar to each other. Blanching treatment has been
observed to lower the value of polyphenol which is as per Turkmen et al., (2005) which
states that polyphenol is heat sensitive phenolic compounds which decrease after heat
treatment. The depletion in polyphenol content of peel powder than the peel may be due to
the effect of heat during blanching and drying. Microwave blanched and steam blanched
powder showed retention of 91.4% and 93.18%. The lowest retention of 82.58% was found
in case of hot water blanched peel powders.
41
4.6.1.3 Polyphenol content of sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake
concentration ranging from 0-600 μg/ml. The graph is shown in appendix figure L1.
1.8
e
1.6
1.4
d
mg GAE/g (db)
1.2 c
b
1
0.8
0.6
a
0.4
0.2
0
CC UPC HPC SPC MPC
Fig 4.3 Polyphenol content in sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake
• CC, UPC, HPC, SPC and MPC represent control, unblanched peel, hot water
blanched peel, steam blanched peel and microwave blanched peel powder
incorporated cake respectively
• All the data are in dry basis
The polyphenol content of the control, unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched
and microwave blanched peel powder incorporated cake was found to be 0.40±0.01,
1.61±0.01, 1.10±0.00, 1.00±0.00 and 1.16±0.01 mg GAE/g DM respectively. A significant
difference has been seen between all the cakes. The results show that incorporation of the
sweet orange peel powder an increase the polyphenol content of the cakes. The depletion in
polyphenol content of peel powder than the peel may be due to the effect of heat during
blanching, drying, and baking. Moreover, polyphenols are heat sensitive phenolic
compounds which decrease after heat treatment (Turkmen et al., 2005).
42
4.6.2 Tannin content
4.6.2.1 Tannin content in sweet orange peels
A calibration curve was plotted from the absorbance of tannic acid standards with
concentration ranging from 0-30 μg/ml. The graph is shown in Appendix Fig L 2.
4
c
3.5
3
mg TAE/100g (db)
b
2.5
ab
2 a
1.5
1
0.5
0
UB HB SB MB
Fig 4.4 Tannin content in sweet orange peels
 Different letters in the bar diagram indicate significant differences (p<0.05)
 UB, HB, SB, and MB represent unblanched peels, hot water blanched peels, steam
blanched peels, and microwave blanched peels respectively.
 All data are in dry basis
The tannin content of the unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched and microwave
blanched peels were found to be 3.40±0.19, 1.72±0.05, 1.92±0.17, 2.22±0.26 mg TAE/100g
respectively. The tannin content of the blanched and the unblanched peels are significantly
different. Pant et al., (2004) reported a 17.5 to 20.4% loss of tannin during blanching. Also,
Eze and Okafor, (2014) reported that tannins can be reduced drastically by employing
blanching pre-treatments. The percentage level of reduction is also dependent on the duration
of blanching. Also, water used for blanching may also remove some of the soluble
compounds. Microwave blanched peels, steam blanched peels and hot water blanched
showed retention of 68.3%, 56.5% and 50.58 respectively.
43
4.6.2.2 Tannin content in sweet orange peel powders
A calibration curve was plotted from the absorbance of tannic acid standards with
concentration ranging from 0-30 μg/ml. The graph is shown in Appendix Fig L.2
0.4
0.39 b
0.38 ab ab
mg TAE/100g (db)
0.37
0.36 a
0.35
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.31
UPP HBP SBP MBP
Fig 4.5 Tannin content in sweet orange peel powder

respectively.
Tannin content of unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched and microwave blanched
peel powders were found to be 0.38±0.01, 0.35±0.01, 0.37±0.01 and 0.37±0.01 mg
TAE/100g DB respectively. Tannins are highly volatile and are easily oxidized to give a
brown product of high molecular weight. There is the formation of new compounds and
hydrolysis of substances occur. The most important reactions being hydrolysis, oxidation,
polymerization. The interaction of composition and reactions of thermal decomposition
results in the reduction of tannin content (Rakic´ et al., 2004).The obtained result is in
accordance with the result obtained by Rakic´ et al., (2004). The retention percentage of
tannin with respect to the unblanched peel powder was found to be 92.10% for hot water
blanched peel powder and 97.36% in case of steam blanched and microwave blanched peel
powders. No tannin was observed in case of cakes, which may be due to high baking
44
temperatures.
4.6.3 Flavonoid content

4.6.3.1 Flavonoid content in sweet orange peels
25
b
20
a ab ab
mg GAE/g (db)
15
10
0
UB HB SB MB
Fig 4.6 Flavonoid content in sweet orange peels

blanched peels, and microwave blanched peels respectively
The flavonoid content was found to be 20.61±1.14, 15.73±2.36, 17.22±1.09 and
17.59±0.92 mg GAE/g for unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched and microwave
blanched peels respectively.
A significant difference is seen between the unblanched and blanched peels. Flavonoids
are heat susceptible phenolic compounds, therefore, heat treatment during blanching cause
decrease in total flavonoid content. Also, flavonoids decrease due to mechanical processes
of food (peeling, trimming, chopping, slicing, crushing, pressing and seiving) (Zhu et al.,
2010). Sumitra et al., (2016) also stated that blanching leads to the decrement of flavonoids.
M’hiri et al., (2016) reported that thermal treatments and storage leads to the loss of citrus
45
flavonoid compounds by their decomposition at high temperature (70-90°C), and due to the
presence of dissolved oxygen during the prolonged storage period. Microwave and steam
blanched peel powders exhibited high retention of 83.55% and 83.55% respectively in
comparison to hot water blanched peels having the retention of 76.33%.
4.6.3.2 Flavonoid content in sweet orange peel powders

11.6
a
11.4
a
a
11.2
mg GAE/g (db)
a
11
10.8
10.6
10.4
10.2
UPP HBP SBP MBP
Fig 4.7 Flavonoid content in sweet orange peel powder

Flavonoid content in unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched and microwave
blanched peel powder was found to be 11.24±0.19, 10.87±0.19, 11.04±0.19, 11.00 ±0.32 mg
GAE/g respectively. No significant difference was found between unblanched and blanched
peel powders. Blanching together with drying led to the decrease in value of flavonoid as
flavonoids are susceptible to heat treatments.
M’hiri et al., (2016) reported that thermal treatments and storage leads to the loss of citrus
flavonoids compounds by their decomposition at high temperatures (70-95°C) or/and during
46
a long storage period due to the presence of dissolved oxygen. The peels were dried in a
cabinet dryer for 24 hours. The prolonged drying time may be the reason behind the
decrement of flavonoids. Microwave blanched peel powder, steam blanched peel powder
and hot water blanched peel powder showed retention of 97.86%, 98.22% and 96.72%
respectively.
4.6.3.3 Flavonoid content in sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake

1 b
0.9 b
b
0.8
a
0.7 a
mg GAE/g (db)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
CC UPC HPC SPC MPC
Fig 4.8 Flavonoids content in sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake
The flavonoids content in the control cake, unblanched peel powder, hot water blanched peel
powder, steam blanched peel powder and microwave blanched peel powder incorporated
cake was found to be 0.695±0.03, 0.86±0.09, 0.62±0.00, 0.83±0.01 and 0.81±0.08 mg
GAE/g respectively.
A significant difference is seen between control and peel powder incorporated cake.
However, hot water blanched peel powder incorporated cake and control cake remain
47
statistically same. Thermal treatments lead to the loss of citrus flavonoids compounds by
their decomposition at high temperatures (70-95°C) (M’hiri et al., 2016). Baking was done
at 180°C which resulted in a relatively lower value of flavonoids.
4.6.4 Total Carotenoids

4.6.4.1 Total carotenoid content in sweet orange peels
20 b
18 b b
16 a
14
mg/100g (db)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
UB HBP SBP MBP
Fig 4.9 Total carotenoids in sweet orange peels

 All data are on dry basis
The values of the unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched and microwave blanched
peels were found to be 13.49±1.09, 16.88±0.51, 16.97±0.00, 17.39±1.55 mg/100g
respectively.
Carotenoids are lipophilic substances, thus insoluble in aqueous medium except in certain
cases, where highly polar functional groups are present as in norbixin, a carotenoid with
dicarboxylic acid structure (Albandak et al., 2015). A significant difference was found
between the unblanched and the blanched peels. The result shows that carotenoids content
increases in the blanched peel. Leaching of soluble solids during blanching is the major
factor, responsible for the apparent increase in carotenoids (Desobry et al., 1998). Also,
Suvimol and Pranee (2010) reported that total carotenoid content also increased with
48
increasing hydrolysis time. In high carotenoid-containing fruits and vegetables, carotenoid
levels increase during processing. Some of the trans forms are either lost or converted to cis
and their derivatives, thereby resulting in an overall increase of total carotenoids (Chandler
and Schwartz, 1988 and Dietz et al., 1988). Since dry matter content decreased in hot water
blanched peel and carotenoids being insoluble in water might have caused carotenoids
content to increase in hot-water blanched peel. The retention percentage of carotenoids in
case of microwave blanched peels, steam blanched peels and hot water blanched peels were
found to be 128.91%, 125.79% and 125.12% respectively.
4.6.4.2 Total carotenoid content in sweet orange peel powders

20 a
a a
18 a
16
14
mg/100 g (db)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
UPP HBP SBP MBP
Fig 4.10 Total carotenoids in sweet orange peel powder

The values for unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched and microwave blanched
peel powder was found to be 16.21±1.53,17.08±1.55, 17.90±0.71, 17.97±0.12 mg/100 g
respectively.
No significant difference was found between unblanched and blanched peel powder. The
result shows that carotenoids content increases during blanching. The obtained result is in
accordance with (Ojha et al., 2008) that the blanched sample had the highest carotenoid
content than other salt treated mandarin peel powder. Leaching of soluble solids during
49
blanching may be the reason for the apparent increase in carotenoids (Desobry et al., 1998).
The result shows there is an increase in carotenoid content during processing of peel powder
from the peels. In high carotenoid-containing fruits and vegetables, carotenoid levels
increase during processing. Some of the transforms are either lost or converted to cis and
their derivatives, thereby resulting in an overall increase of total carotenoids (Chandler and
Schwartz, 1988 and Dietz et al., 1988). Sharma et al., (2000) studied the effect of steam,
water and microwave blanching on the stability of total carotenoids and found that an
apparent increase in total carotenoids (2-25%) was recorded when expressed on dry basis.
Heat treatments increase the chemical extractability of carotenoids (Dietz et al., 1988).
Reports by Anderson et al., (1978), Krinsky, (1979), Braumann et al, (1892) and Grimme et
al., (1984) have shown many carotenoids present in plants to be protein bound. Some heat
treatments such as steaming may help to release these bound carotenoids and cause them to
readily extract. The retention of carotenoids in microwave blanched peel powder was found
to be 110.85% and for steam blanched peel powder and hot water blanched peel powder was
found to be 110.42%. Also, no carotenoids were obtained in case of peel powder
incorporated cakes. This may be due to higher baking temperatures.
4.6.5 Antioxidant content

4.6.5.1 Antioxidant content in sweet orange peels
98
b
97.5 ab
97 ab
%ABTS (db)
a
96.5
96
95.5
95
UB HB SB MB
Fig 4.11 Antioxidant in sweet orange peels

50
The amount of antioxidant in unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched and
microwave blanched peels were found to be 97.36±0.35, 96.45±0.35, 96.75±0.17 and
97.16±0.17 % ABTS respectively.
Antioxidant activity decreases slightly during blanching. The obtained result is in
accordance with Sengkhamparn et al., (2013) that the blanching pretreatment and high
drying temperature caused the decrease in the antioxidant compound. Antioxidant activity
of citrus peel extracts was significantly affected by heating temperature and duration of
treatment on the citrus peel (Jeong et al., 2004).
Sapkota (2018) presented the results that the antioxidant activity as % DPPH of
unblanched mandarin peel was found to be 74.31±4.55 % on dry basis. The obtained results
are much higher. According to Emad et al., (2013) contrary to the DPPH method, the ABTS
method revealed that absolute methanol extract showed the higher antiradical as well as
antioxidant activities.
4.6.5.2 Antioxidant content in sweet orange peel powders
77.5
77 b
76.5 ab
ab
76
a
75.5
%ABTS
75
74.5
74
73.5
73
72.5
UPP HBP SBP MBP
Fig 4.12 Antioxidant in sweet orange peel powder

51
• All the data are osn dry basis
The values of the antioxidant were found to be 76.75±0.17, 75.34±0.76, 74.83±0.80,
76.25±0.00 % ABTS for unblanched, hot water blanched, steam blanched and microwave
blanched peel powders respectively.
The result shows that antioxidant activity decreases during blanching. Blanching leach
out the hydrophilic antioxidant such as ascorbic acid and phenolic compound into the water
which results in a decrease in antioxidant capacity. Since, Klimenzak et al., (2013) reported
that a decrease in antioxidant activity is linked to the decrease in total phenolic content and
ascorbic acid content of the fruits.
4.6.5.3 Antioxidant content in sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake
8 c
c
7 b b
6
a
5
%ABTS
4
3
2
1
0
CC UPC HPC SPC MPC
Fig 4.13 Antioxidant in sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake

• All the data are in dry basis
The control cake had the least antioxidant (4.73±0.17) in comparison to the sweet orange
peel powder incorporated cakes. Likewise, the amount of antioxidant in unblanched, hot
water blanched and steam blanched cakes were found to be 6.65±0.00, 7.16±0.17, 6.45±0.17
and 7.26±0.00 % ABTS respectively. Unblanched peel powder incorporated cake and steam
52
blanched peel powder incorporated cake are found to be insignificant, however, the
remaining data are statistically different. The decrease in the amount of antioxidant activity
is due to the high baking temperature. Moreover, the decrease in phenols and flavonoids has
resulted in lower values of antioxidant activities.
4.7 Physical properties of cake
Table 4.6 Physical properties of cake
Paramete CC UPC HPC SPC MPC

rs
Weight (g) 461.16±10.72 458.82±9.66 445.63±0.82 453.32±4.87 466.87±7.14
Volume 905.72±18.86 974.90±28.82 912.01±28.82 956.03±21.8 974.90±28.82

(cm3)
Weight 5.61±1.30ab 7.41±0.29b 4.76±0.87a 5.23±0.45a 6.83±0.50ab

loss
Specific 1.96±0.65a 2.12±0.10a 2.04±0.06a 2.11±0.02a 2.08±0.05a

volume
(cm3/g)
 CC, UPC, HPC, SPC, and MPC represent control cake, unblanched peel powder
incorporated cake, hot water blanched peel powder incorporated cake, steam
blanched peel powder incorporated cake and microwave blanched peel powder
incorporated cake respectively.
Addition of the peel powders has shown an increase in cakes’ volume. The study conducted
by (Zaker et al.,2016) provided the volume in the range of 1083 to 14887 cm3 for the Citrus
sinensis peel powder incorporated cake. Likewise, the specific volume was found at the
range of 2 to 3 cm3/g in the study conducted by Zaker et al., (2016) and the obtained results
are found to be in range.
Weight loss of the cakes was significantly different from one another except control and
microwave blanched peel powder incorporated cake. Hot water blanched peel powder
incorporated cake showed higher losses in comparison to others. Weight loss of the cakes
depends on oven power, starch type and hydration levels (Gulum et al., 1999). Ureta et al.,
53
(2012) reported that weight loss decreases as the baking temperature increases in the case of
muffins. Increase in oven temperature produces a significant decrease in baking time and, in
consequence, the available time for water evaporation is low.
4.8 Sensory evaluation
Table 4.7 Sensory evaluation of the cakes
Sample Color Flavor Taste Sponginess Overall
acceptance
A 72 76 77 65 79
B 59 46 62 76 60
C 69 57 58 52 59
D 58 53 51 46 53
E 38 49 45 44 42
Range 38-72 46-76 45-77 44-76 42-79
 Value in the respective row indicates the ranking sum of that particular parameter
 Sample A, B, C, D, and E represents control, unblanched peel powder, hot water
blanched peel powder, steam blanched peel powder and microwave blanched peel
powder incorporated cake respectively.
Table 4.8 Kramers Table
At 1% level of significance Upper pair Lower pair
42-78 45-75
For the samples to be considered significantly different, at least one of the rank sums of
either the test sample or any of the market sample must be lower than the lower limit or
higher than the higher limit in the upper pair or lower pair.
4.8.1 Color
From the above data, rank sum of sample E upon color attribute was found to be 38 which
is higher than the higher limit in the upper pair which indicates to be significantly superior
at 1 % level of significance. Rank sum of sample A to D were observed to be within the
range of 42-78 in upper pair and 45-75 in lower pair, and hence, neither superior nor inferior.
Hence, from Kramer’s table, the effects on sensory score based upon color attribute on E
was found to be significantly inferior and other samples were not significantly different
(p<0.01).`
54
4.8.2 Flavor
From the above data, rank sum of sample A was found to be higher than the higher limit in
the lower pair, hence, the sample was found to be significantly inferior. The remaining
samples were found to be within the range of 42-78 in upper pair and 45-75 in lower pair at
1% level of significance and hence, neither superior nor inferior.
Hence, from Kramer’s table, the effects of on sensory score based upon flavor on A was
found significantly inferior and other samples were not significantly different (p<0.01).
4.8.3 Taste
lower pair, hence, it is significantly inferior. The remaining samples were found to be within
the range of 42-78 in upper pair and 45-75 in lower pair at 1% level of significance and
hence, neither superior nor inferior.
Hence, from Kramer’s table, the effects of on sensory score based upon taste on A was
found significantly inferior and other samples were not significantly different (p<0.01).
4.8.4 Sponginess
From the above data, rank sum of sample E was found to be lower than the lower limit in
lower pair, hence, the sample was found to be significantly superior. The rank sum of sample
B was found to be higher than the higher limit in lower pair, hence it is significantly inferior.
The remaining samples were found to be within the range of 42-78 in upper pair and 45-75
in lower pair at 1% level of significance and hence, neither superior nor inferior.
Hence, from Kramer’s table, the effects of sensory score based upon sponginess for
sample E was found to be significantly superior and that for sample B was found to be
significantly inferior and other samples were not significantly different (p<0.01).
4.8.5 Overall acceptance
upper and lower pair, hence it is significantly inferior. The remaining samples were found
to be within the range of 42-78 in upper pair and 45-75 in lower pair at 1% level of
significance and hence, neither superior nor inferior.
Hence, from Kramer’s table, the effects of sensory score based upon overall acceptance
for sample A was found to be significantly inferior and other samples were not significantly
different (p<0.01).
55
Part V
Conclusions and recommendations
5.1 Conclusions
a. Blanching pre-treatments led to the decrease of acidity, essential oil and total ash in peels
and powders.
b. Significant retention of phytochemicals was observed in case of steam and microwave
blanched peels and powders.
c. Blanching led to an increase in swelling power, fat absorption capacity, bulk density,
swelling index, wettability of the peel powder while the degree of caking decreased.
d. Incorporation of the sweet orange peel powder in cake resulted in an increment of the
phytochemical properties of the cake.
e. Incorporation of sweet orange peel powder in cake also led to the increase in volume and
specific volume of the cake due to increment of dietary fibers.
f. Cakes with microwave blanched peel powder was found to be superior in terms of color
and sponginess.
5.2 Recommendations
 Study can be done on the effects of storage condition on the phytochemical contents of
the peels and powders.
 Percentage incorporation can be varied to study the effects on the sensorial attributes of
the final product.
56
Part VI
Summary
Sweet oranges are mainly consumed in its natural state or are processed into juices and
squash. The peels obtained after the juice extraction do not gain any economic value and are
usually discarded as waste. Peels are rich in nutrients and can be processed to obtain a value-
added product. Preparation of powders from peels can be an easy and economical option to
utilize the peels and produce diversified products. The sweet orange peel was subjected to
three methods of blanching viz. hot water blanching (at 90° C for 1 min), steam blanching
(exposed to steam for 5 min) and microwave blanching (900W For 5 min). After blanching,
the peels were then dried in a cabinet dryer at 50° C for 24 hours and then the dried peels
were ground to get fine powder which passed through the sieve size of 0.25mm. Effects of
blanching on the phytochemical and physiochemical properties of peels and powders were
studied. The powder thus obtained was studied for its functional and flow properties and was
incorporated at the rate of 10% in wheat flour for the preparation of the final product.
Changes in the physiochemical, phytochemical and physical properties of the cakes were
studied. The data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for peels,
powders and cake. Also, Kramer’s table was referred for sensory evaluation.
Blanching led to the decrease in total ash, acidity and essential oil of the peels. It also led
to the decrement of different phytochemical components except for carotenoids. The result
exhibited that the microwave and steam blanched peels and powder exhibited the highest
retainment of phytochemicals in comparison to hot water blanched peels and powders. The
retention of polyphenol, tannin, flavonoid, antioxidant and total carotenoids in microwave
blanched powder in comparison to unblanched peels are 70.77%, 10.88%, 53.37%, 78.31%
133.20% respectively, likewise the retention in case of steam blanched peel powder are
69.47%, 10.88%, 53.56%, 76.85% and 132.69% respectively. Swelling power, fat
absorption capacity, bulk density, swelling index, and wettability of the peel powders
increased after blanching while the degree of caking decreased. Incorporation of the peel
powder led to the increase in polyphenols, flavonoid and antioxidants of the cake whereas
tannin and total carotenoids were absent. The specific volume was observed to increase after
the addition of peel powder due to the increase in dietary fiber content. Peel powder
incorporated cakes varied significantly in different sensorial parameters. Cakes with
microwave blanched peel powder was found to be superior in terms of color and sponginess.
57
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comprehensive review. Info Processing in Agri. 4(2), 101-127.
Zaker, M. A., Sawate, A. R., Patil, B. M., Sadawarte, S. K. and Kshirsagar, R. B. (2017).
Utilization of orange (Citrus sinesis) peel powder as a source of dietary fibre and its
effect on the cake quality attributes. Int. J. of Agri. Sci. 13(1), 56-61.
Zaker, M. A., Sawate, A. R., Patil, B., and Sadawarte, S. K. (2016). Studies on Effect of
Orange Peel Powder Incorporation on Physical, Nutritional and Sensorial Quality of
Cookies. Int. J. of Eng. Res. 5(9).
Zhu, F., Cai, Y.Z., Bao, J., Corke, H. (2010). Effect of ɤ-radiation on phenolic compounds
in rice grain. J. Food chem. 120, 74-77.
67
Appendices
Appendix A
Ranking Test
Date:
Name :
Product: Sweet Orange Peel Cake
Please rank the samples in numerical order (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) according to your preference or
the intensity of mentioned below characteristics of the product. An honest expression of your
feeling is expected.
(Here, 1 represents the highest preference and 5 represents the lowest preference)
Parameter Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
“A” “B” “C” “D” “E”
Color
Flavor
Taste
Sponginess
Overall
acceptance
Comments :
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
................................................
..............................
Signature
68
Appendix B
Table B.1 Equipment
Equipment /Apparatus Manufacturer
Cabinet drier PhysilaB, India
Hot air oven Heraeus Instrument GmbH, Germany
UV spectrophotometer Genesys, USA
Heating mantle Vitco lab, India
Weighing balance Adam Equipment, USA
Water bath Ambassador, India
Grinder (18000RPM) Greenline, India
Centrifuge Remi Process Plant and Machinery, India
Muffle furnance Heraeus Instrument GmbH, Germany
69
Table B.2 Chemicals used
Chemicals/Reagents Manufacturer
Gallic acid Lobal Chemie Pvt. Ltd. India
Methanol Thermo Fischer Scientific India Pvt. Ltd
Folin Ciocalteau reagent Thermo Fischer Scientific India Pvt. Ltd
Sodium carbonate Thermo Fischer Scientific India Pvt. Ltd
Folin denis reasgent Thermo Fischer Scientific India Pvt. Ltd
Sodium nitrite Thermo Fischer Scientific India Pvt. Ltd
Aluminium trichloride Thermo Fischer Scientific India Pvt. Ltd
Sodium hydroxide Thermo Fischer Scientific India Pvt. Ltd
Hydrocholric acid Thermo Fischer Scientific India Pvt. Ltd
Sulphuric acid Thermo Fischer Scientific India Pvt. Ltd
Ethanol Jiangying Tenghua Co. Ltd
Phenol Sigma Aldrich Chemie GmbH, Germany
Acetic acid Thermo Fischer Scientific India Pvt. Ltd.
Acetone Thermo Fischer Scientific India Pvt. Ltd
ABTS Sigma-Aldrich, USA
70
Appendix C
One-way ANOVA table for physiochemical parameters of four different samples of sweet
orange peels.
1. Variate: Acidity
Table C.1 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for acidity of sweet orange peels.
Sno N Subset for alpha = 0.05
1 2
3.00 3 .2540
2.00 3 .2550
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 .2747
1.00 3 .3370
Sig. .646 1.000
2. Variate: Total ash

Table C.2 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for total ash of sweet orange peels.
1 2 3
4.00 3 2.4333
3.00 3 1.9520 1.9520

Tukey HSDa 2.00 3 1.5693
1.00 3 3.9397
Sig. .426 .257 1.000
3. Variate : Essential oil

Table C.3 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for the essential oil content of the samples.
1 2
2.00 3 .3819
3.00 3 .4272 .4272
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 .4995 .4995
1.00 3 .5999
Sig. .260 .071
71
Appendix D
One way ANOVA for physiochemical parameters of four different samples of sweet orange
peels.
1. Variate: Acidity
Table D.1 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for the acidity of the samples.
1
2.00 3 .2633
3.00 3 .3014
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 .3211
1.00 3 .3348
Sig. .542
2. Variate: Total Ash

Table D.2 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for total ash of the samples.
1
4.00 3 2.5050
3.00 3 2.6662
Tukey HSDa 2.00 3 2.7167
1.00 3 2.7479
Sig. .135
3. Variate: Essential oil

Table D.3 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for the essential oil content of the samples.
1 2
2.00 3 .3050
3.00 3 .4157 .4157
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 .4556 .4556
1.00 3 .5766
Sig. .106 .082
72
Appendix E
One-way ANOVA tables for physiochemical parameters of five different types of sweet
orange peel powder incorporated cake.
1. Variate: Total ash

Table E.1 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for total ash of the samples.
Sample N Subset for alpha = 0.05
1 2
4.00 3 1.8087
3.00 3 2.1827 2.1827
5.00 3 2.2470 2.2470
Tukey HSDa
1.00 3 2.2773 2.2773
2.00 3 2.4750
Sig. .144 .517
73
Appendix F
One-way ANOVA tables for functional properties of four different types of sweet orange
peel powder.
1. Variate: Swelling Power
Table F.1 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for swelling power of the samples.
S.no N Subset for alpha = 0.05
1 2
1.00 3 4.9277
3.00 3 5.1527
Tukey HSDa 2.00 3 5.3020
4.00 3 6.0527
Sig. .205 1.000
2. Variate: Fat absorption capacity

Table F.2 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for the fat absorption capacity of the samples.
1 2
1.00 3 .6707
2.00 3 .7310
Tukey HSDa 3.00 3 .7397
4.00 3 .7493
Sig. 1.000 .735
3. Variate: Wettability
Table F.3 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for wettability of the samples.
1 2 3 4
1.00 3 11.0433
2.00 3 28.8610
Tukey HSDa 3.00 3 44.2297
4.00 3 56.8660
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
74
4. Variate: Sinkability
Table F.4 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for sinkability of the samples.
1 2
4.00 3 72.0003
2.00 3 88.8517
Tukey HSDa 1.00 3 92.9490
3.00 3 94.9413
Sig. 1.000 .061
5. Variate: Swelling index
Table F.5 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for swelling index of the samples.
1 2 3
1.00 3 1.5360
4.00 3 1.7627
Tukey HSDa 3.00 3 2.0447
2.00 3 2.2310
Sig. 1.000 1.000 .078
75
Appendix G
ANOVA tables for flow parameters of four different types of sweet orange peel powders.
1. Variate: Bulk density
Table G.1 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for the bulk density of the samples.
1 2
1.00 3 .4197
4.00 3 .5250
Tukey HSDa 2.00 3 .5587
3.00 3 .5773
Sig. 1.000 .208
2. Variate Degree of caking
Table G.2 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for the degree of caking of the samples.
1 2 3
3.00 3 .4120
2.00 3 .8863
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 3.4100
1.00 3 7.9520
Sig. .870 1.000 1.000
3. Variate: Angle of repose

Table G.3 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for the angle of repose of the samples.
1 2
2.00 3 37.8630
1.00 3 45.7350
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 46.8447
3.00 3 47.8487
Sig. 1.000 .745
76
Appendix H
One-way ANOVA tables for phytochemical parameters of four different samples of sweet
orange peels.
1. Variate: Polyphenol
Table H.1 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for the total polyphenol content of the
samples
1 2 3
2.00 3 143.3763
3.00 3 145.7667
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 151.9200
1.00 3 161.0640
Sig. .094 1.000 1.000
2. Variate: Tannin
Table H.2 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for tannin content of the samples
1 2 3
2.00 3 1.7201
3.00 3 1.9186 1.9186
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 2.2254
1.00 3 3.4046
Sig. .587 .260 1.000
3. Variate: Flavonoid
Table .4 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for flavonoids of the samples.
1 2
2.00 3 15.7372
3.00 3 17.2211 17.2211
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 17.5993 17.5993
1.00 3 20.6195
Sig. .467 .090
77
4. Variate: Total Carotenoids
1 2
1.00 3 13.4964
2.00 3 16.8834
Tukey HSDa 3.00 3 16.9746
4.00 3 17.3929
Sig. 1.000 .918
5. Variate: Antioxidant
Table H.5 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for antioxidant of the samples
1 2
2.00 3 96.4539
3.00 3 96.7579 96.7579
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 97.1631 97.1631
1.00 3 97.3658
Sig. .055 .104
78
Appendix I
One-way ANOVA tables for phytochemical parameters of four different samples of sweet
orange peel powder
Table I.1 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for polyphenol of the samples.
1 2 3
2.00 3 101.0380
3.00 3 111.9000
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 113.9967
1.00 3 122.3300
Sig. 1.000 .119 1.000
2. Variate: Tannin
Table I.2 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for tannin of the samples.
1 2
2.00 3 .3566
3.00 3 .3774 .3774
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 .3792 .3792
1.00 3 .3883
Sig. .100 .583
Table I.3 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for flavonoid of the samples.
1
2.00 3 10.8746
4.00 3 11.0081
Tukey HSDa 3.00 3 11.0414
1.00 3 11.2450
Sig. .281
79
4. Variate: Total Carotenoids
Table I.4 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for total carotenoids of the samples.

1
1.00 3 16.2194
2.00 3 17.0891
Tukey HSDa 3.00 3 17.9088
4.00 3 17.9791
Sig. .310
Table I.5 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for antioxidant of the samples

1 2
3.00 3 74.8328
2.00 3 75.3394 75.3394
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 76.2526 76.2526
1.00 3 76.7557
Sig. .058 .059
80
Appendix J
Table J.1 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for polyphenols of the samples
1 2 3 4 5
1.00 3 .4067
4.00 3 1.0055
3.00 3 1.1030
Tukey HSDa
5.00 3 1.1647
2.00 3 1.6119
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
Table J.2 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for flavonoids of the samples
1 2
3.00 3 .6265
1.00 3 .6951
5.00 3 .8139
Tukey HSDa
4.00 3 .8392
2.00 3 .8604
Sig. .320 .655
Table J.3 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for antioxidants of the samples
1 2 3
1.00 3 4.7315
4.00 3 6.4539
2.00 3 6.6565
Tukey HSDa
3.00 3 7.1631
5.00 3 7.2644
Sig. 1.000 .411 .886
81
Appendix K
ANOVA tables for physical properties of five different samples of sweet orange peel powder
incorporated cake.
1. Variate: Specific volume
Table K.1 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for specific volume in cake for the samples.
1
1.00 3 1.9648
3.00 3 2.0466
5.00 3 2.0882
Tukey HSDa 4.00 3 2.1088
2.00 3 2.1261
Sig. .088
2. Variate: Weight loss in cake

Table K.2 ANOVA at 5% level of significance for weight loss in cake for the samples.
1 2
3.00 3 4.7660
4.00 3 5.2370
1.00 3 5.6130 5.6130
Tukey HSDa
5.00 3 6.8313 6.8313
2.00 3 7.4117
Sig. .053 .102
82
Appendix L
The standard curves of gallic acid for the determination of polyphenols and flavonoids and
tannic acid for determination of tannin content of sweet orange peel, powder, and cake.
12 y = 0.0178x
R² = 0.9356
10
Absorbance at 765nm
0
0 200 400 600 800
Standard Gallic acid (µg/mL)
Fig L.1 Standard Gallic Acid Equivalent Calibration Curve at 765 nm.
0.08
0.07 y = 0.0022x + 0.0055

Absorbance at 775 nm
R² = 0.9767
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Standard tannic acid (µg/mL)
Fig L.2 Standard Tannic Acid Equivalent Calibration Curve at 775 nm.
83
0.5 y = 0.0088x
0.45 R² = 0.9924
Absorbance at 510nm
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
Abs
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Standard gallic acid (µg/ml)
Fig L.3 Standard Gallic Acid Equivalent Calibration Curve at 510 nm.
84
Appendix M
Fig M.1 Samples of unblanched and blanched peels
85
Fig M.2 Samples of sweet orange peel powders
Fig M.3 Samples of control cake and sweet orange peel powder incorporated cake
86

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BLANCHING EFFECTS ON THE PHYTOCHEMICAL AND

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF SWEET ORANGE PEEL POWDER

Department of Food Technology

A dissertation submitted to Department of Food Technology, GoldenGate

Department of Food Technology

This dissertation entitled Blanching Effects on the Phytochemical and Functional

(Prof. Dr. Ganga Prasad Kharel)

(Prof. Dr. Surendra B. Katawal)

Date of submission: April 4, 2019 .................................

Approval Letter .............................................................................................. iii

List of Tables.................................................................................................. xii

List of Figures ............................................................................................... xiii

List of Abbreviation ..................................................................................... xiv

1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1-3

1.2 Statement of problem .............................................................................................. 2

1.3 Objectives ............................................................................................................... 2

1.3.1 General objective .................................................................................................. 2

2. Literature review .................................................................................... 4-22

2.1 History ......................................................................................................................... 4

2.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 4

2.3 Citrus sinensis peel ...................................................................................................... 5

2.4 Citrus sinensis peel powder ......................................................................................... 6

2.5 Composite Flours ......................................................................................................... 7

2.6 Methods of blanching .................................................................................................. 8

2.6.1 Hot water blanching .............................................................................................. 8

2.8 Phytochemicals ............................................................................................................ 9

2.9.1 Swelling Power ................................................................................................... 12

2.10.1 Bulk Density ..................................................................................................... 14

2.11.1 Types of cakes .................................................................................................. 16

2.11.1.2 Butter (shortened) cakes ............................................................................ 16

2.11.2 Composition of cake ......................................................................................... 17

2.11.3.2 Sugar .......................................................................................................... 17

2.11.3.3 Fat .............................................................................................................. 17

2.11.3.4 Eggs ........................................................................................................... 18

2.11.3.5 Leavening agent ......................................................................................... 18

2.11.3.6 Salt ............................................................................................................. 18

2.11.4 Cake making methods....................................................................................... 19

2.11.4.3 Flour/Sugar batter method ......................................................................... 19

2.11.4.4 Continuous mixing method ....................................................................... 20

2.11.4.5 All in, high speed ....................................................................................... 20

2.11.5 Process involved in cake making ...................................................................... 20

2.11.5.2 Baking ........................................................................................................ 21

2.11.6 Physical properties of cake ................................................................................... 22

2.11.6.1 Specific Volume ............................................................................................ 22

3. Materials and methods ........................................................................ 23-32

3.1 Materials .................................................................................................................... 23

3.1.1 Raw Materials ..................................................................................................... 23

3.2.1 Experimental design ........................................................................................... 23

3.4.1 Moisture .............................................................................................................. 26

3.5.1 Extract preparation.............................................................................................. 27

3.6.1 Swelling Power ................................................................................................... 29

3.7.1 Bulk density ........................................................................................................ 30

3.8.1 Volume ............................................................................................................... 31

3.10 Data analysis ..................................................................................................... 32

4. Results and discussion.......................................................................... 34-55

4.1 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peels ..................................................... 34

4.2 Physiochemical properties of sweet orange peel powder .......................................... 36

4.4 Functional properties of sweet orange peel powder .................................................. 37

4.5 Flow properties of sweet orange peel powder ........................................................... 39

4.6 Phytochemicals .......................................................................................................... 40

4.6.1 Polyphenols ........................................................................................................ 40

4.6.2 Tannin content .................................................................................................... 43

4.6.2.2 Tannin content in sweet orange peel powders ............................................. 44