A

Seminar Report
On
WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS IN HEAVY VEHICLES
In partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of

Bachelors of Technology

In

Mechanical Engineering

SUBMITTED BY:

MOIEN MUZAFFAR BHAT

Enrolment no.:17206145036

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Institute Of Technology – Zakura Campus

University Of Kashmir

Srinagar-190006
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank the faculty of Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of

Technology for their support and guidance which proved critical for the completion of my
seminar thesis and also I would like to pass my gratitude to my fellow students for their help
and honest feedback.

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 INDEX PAGE

Topic Page No.

ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................................. 1

1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................ 2

1.1 Literature Survey ............................................................................................................................. 3

1.2 Background ...................................................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Purpose............................................................................................................................................. 4

1.4 Method ............................................................................................................................................. 4

1.5 Delimitations .................................................................................................................................... 5

2. IN-DEPTH ............................................................................................................................................ 7

2.1 Truck transports ............................................................................................................................... 7

2.1.1 Consumption ............................................................................................................................. 7

2.1.2 Energy losses ............................................................................................................................ 7
2.2 The diesel engine ............................................................................................................................. 8

2.2.1 Diesel cycle ............................................................................................................................... 8

2.2.2 The thermodynamic circuit process of the diesel engine ........................................................ 10
2.2.3 Losses and efficiency of the diesel engine .............................................................................. 11
2.3 Rankine cycle ................................................................................................................................. 12

2.3.1 Rankine cycle .......................................................................................................................... 12

2.3.2 Rankine cycle thermodynamic cycle process ......................................................................... 14
2.3.3 Losses and efficiency .............................................................................................................. 15
2.4 Organic Rankine Cycle .................................................................................................................. 16

2.5 Potential heat sources ..................................................................................................................... 16

2.5.1 Engine cooling system ............................................................................................................ 17

2.5.2 Intercooler ............................................................................................................................... 17
2.5.3 Exhaust.................................................................................................................................... 18

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 2.5.4 EGR Cooler ............................................................................................................................ 18
3. COMPONENTS AND MODELS ..................................................................................................... 20

3.1 Components ................................................................................................................................... 20

3.1.1 Heat exchanger between the coolant system and the working fluid ....................................... 20
3.1.2 Heat exchanger between the exhaust system and the working fluid ....................................... 21
3.1.3 Steam chamber within the modified piston assembly ............................................................. 22
3.1.4 Condenser ............................................................................................................................... 22
3.1.5 Pump ....................................................................................................................................... 22
3.1.6 Evaporator ............................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.7 Turbine .................................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.8 Working medium .................................................................................................................... 23
3.2 Models ........................................................................................................................................... 23

4. WORKING ......................................................................................................................................... 26

5. SIMULATION AND RESULTS ...................................................................................................... 27

RESULTS ............................................................................................................................................ 29

6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................. 31

6.1 Future work .................................................................................................................................... 32

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................. 33

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 FIGURE INDEX

Figure Page No.

Figure 1: CO2 emissions regulations of different goverments across the world [D]. .................................... 2

Figure 2: Heat losses that occur in the engine [H]. ..................................................................................... 8

Figure 3: Heat energy in the exhaust gases that are lost to the environment [G]. ........................................ 9

Figure 4: Diesel cycle with a pressure-volume diagram [G]....................................................................... 10

Figure 5: Torque and speed during a drive between Paris and Lille [I]. ..................................................... 12

Figure 6: Typical Rankine process with component set-up for extraction of mechanical work [J]. ............ 13

Figure 7: Entropy – Temperature diagram of Rankine cycle [K]. .............................................................. 14

Figure 8: Intake and exhaust system on a Scandia DC1310 engine [G]. .................................................... 19

Figure 9: Novel waste heat recovery system schematic [7]. ....................................................................... 20

Figure 10: Coolant heat exchanger schematic [A]. .................................................................................... 21

Figure 11: Different types of compact heat exchangers [C]. ...................................................................... 22

Figure 12: Exhaust only system schematic [L]. ......................................................................................... 23

Figure 13: EGR only system schematic [L]. .............................................................................................. 24

Figure 14: Exhaust and EGR in parallel system schematic [L]. ................................................................. 24

Figure 15: Exhaust and EGR in series system schematic [L]. .................................................................... 25

Figure 16: Exhaust system schematic [L]. ................................................................................................. 26

Figure 17: Waukesha 16V275GL+ engine [C]. ......................................................................................... 27

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 TABLE INDEX

Table Page No.

Table 1: Performance data [C]. ................................................................................................................. 28

Table 2: Technical Data [C]...................................................................................................................... 29

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ABSTRACT

In today’s fast growing and closely connected society, a reliable and energy efficient
transportation system is more than ever desirable. Nowadays the significant part of the
transportation sector’s energy demand is supplied by fossil fuels. Improving energy efficiency
in combustion engines will result in reduction of fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. A
modern internal combustion engine has an efficiency of 30-45 %, where the most energy loss
occurs as result of heat losses in the exhaust and cooling systems (upto 50% of engines fuel
energy is wasted as heat rejection). By recovering and converting the thermal energy of a
combustion engine to mechanical/electric power the efficiency of the combustion engine can be
increased. Performance of a truck engine has been investigated with the aim to increase its
efficiency by decreasing the heat losses with a Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) system. Exhaust
systems have been studied for their heat loss potentials. The major component of heat loss
comes from the exhaust gases. The temperature of the exhaust gases varies from 800C at low
load and up to 4800C under full load. Thanks to the high temperature and large mass flow that
the exhaust system provides, it is well suited as a heat source. The study shows that an
efficiency gain of approximately 2 % can be achieved with a WHR-system where EGR cooler
serves as a heat source and 2.5 % with the exhaust as heat source. The combination of both
systems can provide an efficiency gain between 4-5 %.

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Waste Heat Recovery System In Heavy Vehicles

1. INTRODUCTION

Currently legislation on carbon dioxide emissions is being set by more and more governments
across the World. As illustrated by Figure 1, Europe is a leader in this respect and has targeted
an average carbon dioxide emission by the fleet of each car manufacturer of 95 g of CO 2 per
km in 2020, whereas United States is aiming at a similar goal, but not before 2025. The
Chinese government is trying to reach by 2020 a limit of 120 g of carbon dioxide per kilometre
and Japan is looking for a goal in 2020 around 100 g of CO2 per kilometre, but globally, the
trend is, and will be, to restrict the carbon dioxide emissions.

Figure 1: CO2 emissions regulations of different goverments across the world [D].

In order to reach those future regulation targets, improvements in vehicle fuel consumption
have to be achieved. Several aspects could be enhanced, but one of the major losses in a
gasoline vehicle happens during the combustion process. In recent spark ignition engines, the
efficiency can be up to 35% and it is common knowledge that roughly one third of the energy
released by the combustion is wasted in the coolant fluid and one third in the exhaust gases.
Those percentages vary with the load engine as some authors [D, E] present it. Those two waste
heat sources can be exploited in order to increase the overall efficiency of the engine. The
energy released in the coolant is however not a very good candidate for waste heat recovery.

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This is mostly due to the fact that this energy is at a very low temperature. Thus it is very
difficult to harvest. On the contrary, exhaust gases show a very large potential for waste heat
recovery since they exit the engine at a very high temperature [F]. The exhaust line waste heat
energy can be recovered by different means. The use of heat engines describing thermodynamic
cycles such as Rankine engines is possible. A turbine similar to the one of car turbocharger can
also be used (turbo compounding) and coupled to an electric machine or to the transmission
line of the vehicle.

1.1 Literature Survey

Wanga et al (2011) reviewed researches on thermal exhaust heat recovery with Rankine cycle
and said accepting a certain design and manufacture cost, a system based on Heavy duty
vehicle application can increase the total power train efficiency by up to 30%.
Bertrand et al (2011) reviewed on various applications of low-grade heat conversion into power
using organic Rankine cycles and revealed that the interest of waste heat recovery rejected by
thermal devices and industrial processes continue to grow, and favourable legislative conditions
are adopted, waste heat recovery organic Rankine cycle systems in the near future will
experience a rapid growth.
Junhong et al (2003) made an experiment on a waste heat recovery apparatus that utilizes the
truck exhaust gas to heat the bitumen used in road maintenance by means of heat transfer oil as
working fluid when en route to road maintenance destination.
Verte et al (2010) made an attempt on modelling of an adsorption system driven by engine
waste heat for truck cabin A/C. and performance estimation for a standard driving cycle. The
experimental activity carried out showed that the chiller is able to generate up to 5kW of peak
cooling power at 10 °C (35 °C of condensation temperature) with a COP of 0.6. The obtained
results show that the system could be able to provide a significant amount of the required
cooling

1.2 Background
A fundamental factor for the functioning of modern society is efficient transport. The transport
sector is individually the most important factor in meeting people's everyday needs. Without
transport, store shelves will be empty and people will not be able to get to work, which will

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lead to devastating consequences for society. Unfortunately, the high need for transport takes a
heavy toll on our finite natural resources as the transport sector is largely powered by fossil
fuels. When fossil fuels are burned, greenhouse gases are formed which have a negative effect
on the climate and the environment. One step in reducing fossil fuel consumption is to increase
the efficiency of internal combustion engines on trucks. A modern internal combustion engine
has an efficiency of 30-45% where the largest energy loss occurs as heat losses in exhaust
systems and cooling systems. By converting heat energy into useful work, the efficiency of an
internal combustion engine can be improved.

1.3 Purpose
The project aims to investigate whether the efficiency of a truck engine can be improved by
utilizing the energy lost in the form of heat loss with a so-called Waste Heat Recovery (WHR)
system. The WHR system is intended to be able to convert the heat losses into mechanical
work based on a Rankine process. The goal is to

 Develop an exhaust-driven Rankine cycle based on thermodynamic equations.

 Examine the potential of the system to increase the efficiency of the internal
combustion engine.

 Find out how Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) could be applied to trucks.

1.4 Method
The production of electricity takes place largely in thermal power plants. The principle of a
thermal power plant is used where combustion in a heating boiler heats water to steam that
passes through a turbine which drives a generator. The thermal power plant's system principle
will be used, where a boiler that heats the water is replaced by the diesel engine's heat losses.
The Rankine cycle is assumed to work under ideal conditions and well-known thermodynamic
relationships can be applied. The power produced from the Rankine process is then allowed to
relieve the diesel engine in order to possibly increase the efficiency. Relevant information is
obtained through literature studies of previous work where reliable data from previous analyzes
will also be used in an evaluation simulation. The structure of a general model based on the

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Rankine process is created, which forms the basis for the evaluation simulation. To obtain an
indication of reliability, the model will be verified against results from previous studies and
simulations

1.5 Delimitations
In this work, only the diesel engine has been studied as this is most common in heavy vehicles.
However, the approach is similar for other engine types with certain modifications.
Thermodynamic relationships have been assumed to be ideal as the modeling otherwise falls
far too advanced and the time frame for a bachelor's thesis not sufficient. As a working
medium, only water has been studied as its thermodynamic properties are well known. The
various state changes in the medium that occur in the system are studied, where the state of the
working medium is given by IAPWS IF-97 Standard [1]. Simulation of the truck is performed
when normal operating conditions are considered to apply in terms of load and speed. The
condition when the truck is driven on the motorway at cruising speed is considered to be
stationary. Through previous studies, certain operating data for different distances have been
obtained where the utilization of the engine torque during the test distance has been stated as
time share [2]. Changes in the exhaust gas purification system such as falling exhaust gas
temperature and increased back pressure due to the WHR system have not been taken into
account. Exhaust data that were available at the time are measured in the exhaust system
before any SCR catalyst. The SCR catalyst requires a certain operating temperature to operate
and can be adversely affected by the WHR system. In this work, no consideration has been
given to any malfunction of the SRC catalyst. In more extensive simulation, this should be
taken into account. Losses that occur in the system in the form of thermal convection have not
been taken into account as this requires geometry and material parameters, which is only given
in a possible construction. The system is seen as fully isolated from the environment. The
transmission of the mechanical work to the engine takes place by mechanical interconnection
with the engine transmission. Losses that occur during the transfer of power from the WHR
system to the internal combustion engine are assumed to have a fixed efficiency of 96%, which
is common in gearboxes. The turbine and pump of the WHR system are assumed to work
ideally under isentropic conditions [3]. In order to obtain a fairer analysis, the various
components of the system are given an efficiency which, according to previous work, is

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common [2] [4] [5]. The efficiency of the turbine is considered ideal, which depends on the
operating parameters of the WHR system [3]. The chemical composition of the exhaust gases
depends on the operating condition of the internal combustion engine. This in turn affects the
specific heat capacity of the exhaust gases. In modeling, medium-specific heat capacity is used
for the exhaust gases of 1080J kg ° C at 1,180J kg ° C and for EGR, which is a good guide
value [6]. The available cooling power of the condenser is always considered to satisfy the
required cooling power regardless of ambient temperature, humidity, density, pressure and
possible wind speed. Heat sources in the truck that are not directly connected to the diesel
engine have been completely omitted, such as the retarder and the air conditioning condenser.

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2. IN-DEPTH

In this chapter, an in-depth study is given of the problem and the scope of truck transport.
Various thermodynamic processes involved are discussed and how these may interact together.

2.1 Truck transports

The truck is today one of the most common ways of transporting goods globally. The
proportion of different modes of transport of goods in amounted to 41% road, 22% rail and 37%
shipping [7]. In total, road transport accounts for 65% of land-based transport [7],[8]Truck
transport makes up almost as large a share as the railway in the total transport capacity, but at
the same time it accounts for 94% of the total emissions from domestic transport [9].

2.1.1 Consumption
A long-distance truck with a total weight of 40 tonnes consumes approximately 32-33 liters per
100 km; the corresponding figure for a total weight of 60 tonnes is 45-50 liters per 100 km.
With a remote truck, it is not uncommon for an annual mileage to reach 20,000 km. A reduced
fuel consumption of 2% in a long-distance truck with a total weight of 60 tonnes results in a
fuel gain of approximately 2000 liters per year, which corresponds to 5120 kg CO2 [10]. Small
percentage improvements in the efficiency of the truck engine thus result in large fuel and
environmental savings.

2.1.2 Energy losses

The energy stored in the fuel will sooner or later be converted into heat. What the distribution
of the losses looks like depends on the prevailing operating conditions of the truck. Typical
parameters that affect the truck's losses during operation are air resistance, rolling resistance,
transmission resistance and heat losses in the engine. An example of the distribution of the fuel
energy of a 40 ton truck simulated on a typical road can be seen in Figure 1 [11]. According to
Figure 2, heat losses that occur in the engine constitute the largest source of loss [11].
Therefore, probably the greatest efficiency can be made through efficiency improvements in the
truck's engine. A more detailed examination of the energy losses of the truck engine is made in
Chapter 2.2.

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Figure 2: Heat losses that occur in the engine [H].

2.2 The diesel engine

As early as 1893, the German engineer Rudolf Diesel had designed the first compression-
igniting internal combustion engine, which later bore his name. The main argument in the
introduction of the diesel engine was its high efficiency compared to the steam engines of that
time. The difference from the petrol engine is that the fuel ignites spontaneously due to the
high compression heat in the cylinder. Fuel is injected directly into the cylinder and self-
ignited by the high heat where combustion continues until fuel injection ceases. Today, the
diesel engine is the most common engine type in commercial vehicles. The total production
capacity of diesel engines is large and it is produced in most countries around the world. A lot
of capital has been invested in current production lines and applications that affect the diesel
engine as it is designed today. A technology shift away from the current solution must be
carried out gradually in order to maintain a financial balance. Instead of switching directly to
alternative drive systems such as hybrid solutions, techniques are being evaluated to increase
the efficiency of existing engine designs. By introducing external systems that take advantage
of energy losses, fuel consumption can be reduced to a certain extent while maintaining returns
from previous investments.

2.2.1 Diesel cycle

The diesel engine's cycle consists of four phases. The workflow of the diesel engine can be
seen in Figure 2 which illustrates the different phases of the diesel engine during a work cycle.

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The first phase is the inlet phase, which fills the cylinder with oxygen-rich air. The air is then
compressed during the compression phase which raises the temperature of the air. Fuel is
injected and self-ignites due to the high temperature in the cylinder. The fuel is burned during
the combustion phase, which raises the pressure in the cylinder. Work is then extracted by
volume expansion in the cylinder. Low-oxygen and emission-filled exhaust gases are flushed
out of the cylinder during the exhaust phase. During the discharge rate and the combustion rate,
the greatest heat loss occurs through heat transfer to cylinder walls and combustion gases.
Some of the energy can be utilized by letting the exhaust gas flow drive a turbo that increases
the degree of filling of the cylinder, which means that more fuel can be burned with increased
engine power as a result. However, the turbo utilizes a smaller part of the energy of the exhaust
gases. This work focuses mainly on how to utilize the heat energy in the exhaust gases that are
lost to the environment that is exhausted Qexhasut and illustrated in figure 3

Figure 3: Heat energy in the exhaust gases that are lost to the environment [G].

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2.2.2 The thermodynamic circuit process of the diesel engine

An ideal diesel engine can be described with four different processes which consist of an isobar,
an isochoric and two isentropic processes [3]. Figure 3 describes the diesel cycle with a
pressure-volume diagram. The four different phases of the circuit process are numbered in
Figure 3 from 1 to 4. Between states 1 and 2, work is performed on the gas in the cylinder in
which an isentropic compression takes place and the heat is raised. Fuel is injected and self-
ignites due to the high heat in the cylinder. As long as fuel is injected, an isobaric combustion
takes place between states 2 and 3. The energy supplied by combustion of fuel can be seen in
Figure 3 as in Qin. Heat generation due to the combustion expands the fuel-air mixture and an
isentropic volume work is carried out between states 3 and 4. Here mechanical work W out is
extracted which can be used for propelling the vehicle. The energy from the fuel which is not
converted to mechanical work is removed in the form of heat to the surroundings at the
transition from state 4 to state 1. The carried energy is given by output Qout in Figure 4 and
includes the heat energy in the exhaust gases and the coolant that surrounds the cylinder walls.

Figure 4: Diesel cycle with a pressure-volume diagram [G]

By allowing the energy carried away by Qout to drive a Rankine cycle, some of the lost energy
could be converted into mechanical work. As previously described, the turbo converts some of
the heat energy into mechanical work. However, the work of the turbo only contributes to an
increased degree of filling of the cylinders, which in itself does not increase the overall
efficiency of the engine but only its volume power factor. Furthermore, the engine's various

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sources of loss must be studied in more detail to ensure that conditions such as temperatures
and energy flows match the requirements of the WHR system. A more detailed examination of
the diesel engine's various heat sources is performed later in Chapter 2.5 (Potential heat
sources).

2.2.3 Losses and efficiency of the diesel engine

Efficiency is defined as the proportion of energy stored in the fuel, which the internal
combustion engine converts into useful work. The highest theoretical efficiency of the diesel
engine depends on the compression ratio and type of working gas, which can be calculated
according to [3]:

( ) ( )
( )

Where, is a constant that describes the working gas molecular composition and depends on
the type of working gas (for air, =1.4), is the compression ratio of the cylinder and is the
volume ratio between the beginning and end of the combustion phase. In reality, the efficiency
is significantly lower as large losses occur in the form of heat exchange with the surroundings.
Actual efficiency of an internal combustion engine is defined according to [3]:

( )

Where, Wcf is the mechanical work of the engine crankshaft and fuel, Qce is the chemical
energy that is stored in the fuel and which is released during combustion. In diesel engines
used in today's trucks, an efficiency of around 46% is not uncommon [14]. The efficiency
varies with the prevailing load and speed of the diesel engine. High efficiency is obtained
when large torque is used. Under normal operating conditions, these torques are rarely used,
which means that the average efficiency during a normal driving cycle is significantly lower
than that specified for the diesel engine. The motor is oversized to handle larger loads, such as
reversing with a full load. In order to obtain a fair analysis of the potential of the WHR system,
the efficiency during a truck's normal driving cycle must instead be studied [2]. To ensure how

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torque and speed during a typical operating cycle behave, previous field studies have been
examined. Typical engine data such as torque and speed during a drive between Paris and Lille
are shown in Figure 5. The truck was driven at a constant speed of 90 km / h during the
measurement. The result of the measurement is given in Figure 4 as a time share, which
different torque was used while driving between Paris and Lille.

Figure 5: Torque and speed during a drive between Paris and Lille [I].

2.3 Rankine cycle

The Rankine cycle, also called the steam power cycle, is named after the Scottish physicist
William Rankine who between 1850-1860 developed a complete theory of steam engines. The
basis is that a working medium is heated and cooled by which mechanical work can be
extracted by volume expansion. The process is used daily for electricity production in thermal
power plants, such as nuclear power plants.

2.3.1 Rankine cycle

Figure 6 shows a typical Rankine process with component set-up for extraction of mechanical
work. The pump performs a job where a pressure increase of the working medium takes place,
which is then heated by combustion gases and evaporated in the boiler. The medium, which is
in gaseous form, then expands over the turbine where work is extracted. The partially
condensed gas is led to a condenser, where it is cooled and allowed to condense completely
again to liquid.

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Figure 6: Typical Rankine process with component set-up for extraction of mechanical work [J].

The Rankine cycle contains four different sub-processes [3] as described below, the numbering
of the processes is equivalent to the numbering in Figure 6.

Process 1-2: The pump raises the pressure of the working medium with a working pump W pump,
the medium which is in liquid phase then requires less work for pressure increase.

Process 2-3: Under constant pressure, the medium is heated in a boiler, the heat supplied is
denoted in Qin. The medium now changes from liquid to gaseous form (steam) and enthalpy h
increases.

Process 3-4: The hot gas expands and performs work turbine Wturbine. The temperature and
pressure of the steam fall and some condensation occurs. The expansion is seen isentropically.

Process 4-1: The wet steam from the turbine cools with the Qout and condenses under constant
pressure in the condenser. The liquid is then returned to the pump, whereby the process is
repeated.

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2.3.2 Rankine cycle thermodynamic cycle process

An ideal Rankine cycle consists of two isobaric processes and two isotropic processes [3].
When analyzing the Rankine process, the entropy – temperature diagram (TS diagram)
describes the process more easily. During the Rankine cycle, the working medium changes the
aggregation phase, which the TS diagram in Figure 7 illustrates where the area enclosed by the
curve corresponds when the medium changes from liquid phase to gas phase.

Figure 7: Entropy – Temperature diagram of Rankine cycle [K].

If the enthalpy change of the working medium is studied before and after the various processors,
calculation of added and removed heat as well as added and recovered mechanical work can be
performed. The equations (3-6) describe the different stages of the Rankine process under ideal
conditions. Added work which the pump performs on the medium can be described as [3]:

̇ ̇ ( ) ( )

̇ ̇ ( ) ( )

̇ ̇ ( ) ( )

̇ ̇ ( ) ( )

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2.3.3 Losses and efficiency

The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is limited by the working medium and the material
properties of the system components. Under ideal conditions, the compression and expansion
phases take place with constant entropy and the process is similar to the Carnot cycle. The
efficiency of a Carnot cycle is the highest theoretically possible efficiency that a Rankine cycle
can achieve. When heat from the exhaust gases acts as a heat source, it can be seen as many
infinite sources, efficiency according to the Carnot principle cannot be applied directly but
needs to be integrated over the heat source where the temperature drops. Maximum efficiency
of a reversible heat engine with heat source consisting of infinite heat sources can be expressed
as [2]:

( )

Where Tc is the absolute temperature in Kelvin at the cooling reservoir and Th is the absolute
temperature in Kelvin at the heat source. The Rankine process can be seen as ideal which is the
thermal efficiency of one turbine can be expressed as [3]:

( )

Where h1-4 is enthalpy before the media pump and before and after the turbine. During a real
Rankine cycle compression and expansion are by no means isentropic, the process is
irreversible and entropy increases constantly. Calculation of the efficiency for a real case is
done by analyzing the difference between added heat and recovered mechanical work
according to [3]:

̇ ̇
( )
̇

Where, Wturbine is the mechanical power which develops in the turbine or expander and
evaporator Q vaporizer is added heat output from the evaporator. The efficiency of the Rankine

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cycle is greatly affected by the turbine design and the amount of heat energy that the evaporator
can take advantage of from the hot ones the exhaust gases during steam formation of the
system's working medium.

2.4 Organic Rankine Cycle

An organic Rankine cycle works with an organic working medium such as pentane or butane in
exchange for water. The advantages are that the evaporation takes place at lower temperatures
and thus allows more low-temperature heat sources. The disadvantage, however, is that the
maximum temperature at which the working medium is allowed to work also drops.
Depending on the choice of working medium, the process can be adapted to different types of
heat sources. An organic Rankine cycle can suggest working with the engine coolant or charge
air cooler as a heat source. Many working media that have the property of evaporating at low
temperatures also contribute to increase in global warming as they are released into the
atmosphere. WHR systems that work with this type of working medium can instead have a
negative effect on the total environmental benefit. Choice of working medium affects the
system's total environmental benefit and number potential heat sources drop drastically. When
measuring the WHR system's total environmental savings, any environmental impact of the
organic medium must also be taken into account. This work will only analyze water as a
working medium and no environmental aspects need to be taken into account. It should also be
mentioned that organic working medium to a certain extent generates less turbine power
compared to water [16].

2.5 Potential heat sources

A natural heat source for a Rankine-based power plant is the combustion of some kind of fuel
in a boiler, which the hot combustion gases are led to a steam where water is heated to water
vapor. The temperature at which water evaporates varies with the pressure to which it is
subjected. Higher pressures give a higher evaporation temperature but also a higher ideal
efficiency of the turbine [5]. The temperature of the heat source will determine the highest
possible system pressure and also to some extent the efficiency. A more detailed analysis of
the truck's sources of loss (as described in Chapter 2.2) is described in this section where
different heat sources are studied, which has the potential to be able to operate a WHR system.

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Four potential heat sources where mechanical work could be extracted using a WHR system are
investigated. These four heat sources are the engine cooling system, Intercooler, EGR and
exhaust system.

2.5.1 Engine cooling system

The flame temperature that arises in the cylinder has an order of magnitude of 2500 0C [17].
Aluminum pistons, cylinder liners in cast iron and steel valves have melting points around
9000C, 18000C to 13500C. To prevent engine components from melting, these are enclosed by a
water jacket which cools the components. The heated coolant is passed on to a front-mounted
cooler where the liquid is cooled. The heat cooled by the radiator could be used as a heat
source for the WHR system. The temperature of the cooling system varies during operation
between 70 0C to 100 0C, with a normal temperature around 80 0C. For a water-based WHR
system, this is far too low a temperature as water under normal atmospheric pressure
evaporates at 100 0C. Due to the low temperature, a water-based WHR system will only
constitute a heat accumulator. This heat source requires a WHR system whose working
medium has an evaporation temperature lower than 100 0C, which means that an organic
working medium must be used. As this work focuses on water-based WHR systems, this heat
source will be excluded as a potential heat source and a more detailed analysis will be omitted.

2.5.2 Intercooler
Intercooler only exists on supercharged diesel engines and today more or less all truck engines
are supercharged because with supercharging you increase the volume effect considerably. The
air compressed by the turbo is heated and its density decreases. In internal combustion engines,
a high density of the intake air is sought as a high density contributes to higher oxygen content
and more fuel can be burned, which increases the power of the engine. Like the cooling system,
the temperature of the intercooler is around 100 0C under heavy load and is suitable for WHR
systems where working medium with a low evaporation temperature is used. For the same
reason as for the cooling system, an organic working medium must be used to be able to use the
intercooler as a heat source. In this work, only water-based WHR systems are analyzed and
therefore the intercooler will also be excluded as a potential heat source.

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2.5.3 Exhaust
The exhaust gases that are not recalculated via the EGR valve are led out to the environment
via the exhaust system. The temperature of the exhaust gases varies from 80 0C at low load as
idle up to 480 0C under full load [5]. The mass flow of the exhaust gases varies between 22kg/s
and 265kg/s [5]. Thanks to the high temperature and large mass flow that the exhaust system
provides, it is well suited as a heat source for a water-based WHR system. Introducing a WHR
system in the exhaust system will lower the temperature of the exhaust gases as energy is
extracted, which can affect 265kg of exhaust gas cleaning systems such as SCR negatively.
SCR systems operate with an exhaust temperature from and as efficiently around 220 0C 400
0
C with an upper limit of 450 - 500 0C [18]. In order for this not to happen, the exhaust boiler
should be placed according to the SCR system where the exhaust temperature is lower in
comparison with what has been discussed earlier. The design of the exhaust boiler must not
create back pressure in the exhaust system as this reduces the efficiency of the diesel engine.
Exhaust-based WHR system is interesting but also has major challenges that need to be
overcome.

2.5.4 EGR Cooler

Modern trucks contain emission-purifying systems (EGR) where some of the exhaust gases
recirculate to the engine intake and are allowed to participate in the combustion. The exhaust
gases that are allowed to recirculate must be cooled in an EGR cooler which can be seen in
Figure 8. The temperature of the exhaust gases that are to pass the EGR cooler varies according
to [5] from 80 0C to 510 0C with mass flow between 120kg/s and 10kg/s. The exhaust gases
that pass the EGR cooler maintain a temperature that during normal operation is higher than
100 0C, which is fully sufficient for water to evaporate and the EGR cooler is well suited as a
heat source for a water-based WHR system. The EGR radiator is already a natural engine
component that has been analyzed for many operating hours by engine manufacturers
worldwide. This facilitates the introduction of a WHR system as smaller new components have
to be introduced into production and changes to existing systems become small. EGR based
heat source also allows the WHR system to be built close to the engine, this facilitates
assembly during production as this can be done entirely at the engine module's assembly station.

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When the engine is finally mounted in the chassis, only the condenser needs to be connected
and the working medium filled, which further reduces production costs.

Figure 8: Intake and exhaust system on a Scandia DC1310 engine [G].

In this work, water is used as a working medium for analysis of the WHR system. Water
requires a relatively high temperature heat source to be able to evaporate under high pressures.
The exhaust system and EGR cooler have been shown to maintain a sufficiently high
temperature to operate a water-based WHR system. During simulation, a more detailed
analysis will therefore be made of these sources. Using clean water as a working medium is
not really suitable for heavy vehicles that have to withstand extreme climatic conditions such as
severe cold. At ambient temperatures below zero degrees Celsius, water tends to freeze, which
can burst the components of the WHR system and cause a breakdown. Water not only causes
freezing damage to the system but also contributes to corrosion attacks that reduce the system's
reliability and service intervals. The working medium consisting of clean water is suitable
there only for basic tests of the WHR system under controlled conditions.

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3. COMPONENTS AND MODELS

Figure 9: Novel waste heat recovery system schematic [7].

3.1 Components
Following are the components of a Rankine based waste heat recovery system

3.1.1 Heat exchanger between the coolant system and the working fluid
This heat exchanger is used to extract the thermal energy from the coolant system and raise the
temperature of the working fluid. 100% propylene glycol replaces the commonly used ethylene
glycol/water mixture within the coolant system. This was chosen to achieve an increased
coolant temperature without the concern of boiling since the boiling point of propylene glycol;
(370℉) is higher than that of an ethylene glycol/water mixture (225℉) [A, B]. Also, the
working fluid had an increased temperature of 250℉ before entering the exhaust heat

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exchanger, which reduced the size, back pressure and cost of the heat exchanger. Figure 10
shows a schematic of the single pass coolant heat exchanger used in the simulation.

Figure 10: Coolant heat exchanger schematic [A].

3.1.2 Heat exchanger between the exhaust system and the working fluid
This heat exchanger is used to vaporize and superheat the working fluid. For a gas-to-gas heat
exchange process, a compact heat exchanger is the optimum choice for the exhaust heat
exchanger [c]. A fin – tube type compact heat exchanger which is shown in Figure 11 (b) was
chosen as the exhaust heat exchanger.

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Figure 11: Different types of compact heat exchangers [C].

3.1.3 Steam chamber within the modified piston assembly

The working fluid vapor is allowed to expand in the steam chamber located underneath the
piston head. This configuration helps reduce the compression work and the exhaust work, thus
increasing the power of the engine.

3.1.4 Condenser
The maximum power of the condenser depends on the available mounting space on the vehicle,
the temperature of the surroundings and the size of the air flow through the condenser. When
the maximum power of the condenser is not sufficient, steam pockets can occur at the pump,
which affects the system's function. The required power of the condenser is studied only,
where the available condenser power is always assumed to satisfy the required

3.1.5 Pump
The working medium is circulated by a pressure pump operating under isentropic conditions.
Furthermore, the pump is assumed to work with medium in the full liquid phase.

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3.1.6 Evaporator
The evaporator, also called an exhaust boiler, is mounted in connection with the exhaust system
and has the task of evaporating the working medium, in this case producing water vapor. The
heat energy taken from the engine's hot exhaust gases heats up the working medium which
starts to boil.

3.1.7 Turbine
The turbine converts the thermal energy of the evaporated working medium into mechanical
work. The volume expansion of the working medium through the turbine performs a work
which drives the turbine. The turbine can be allowed to drive a generator or directly transferred
to the engine transmission.

3.1.8 Working medium

Water is used as working medium and then the various solid conditions that depend on
temperature and pressure are well known.

3.2 Models

Figure 12: Exhaust only system schematic [L].

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Waste Heat Recovery System In Heavy Vehicles

Figure 13: EGR only system schematic [L].

Figure 14: Exhaust and EGR in parallel system schematic [L].

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Figure 15: Exhaust and EGR in series system schematic [L].

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4. WORKING

The understanding of working of a waste heat recovery system is quite simple. The pump
increases the pressure of the working fluid isentropically and feeds it to the boiler. Then the
high temperature exhaust gases are directed towards the boiler. The heat is transferred from the
exhaust gases to the working fluid which then changes its phase from liquid to superheated
vapour which is then fed to the expansion device. During the expansion of the superheated
steam we get work output from the expansion device. After that the steam passes through the
condenser and then condenses to the liquid form and then the cycle continues.

Figure 16: Exhaust system schematic [L].

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5. SIMULATION AND RESULTS

The Waukesha 16V275GL+ engine shown in Figure 17 was modeled in GT-POWER to

simulate the performance parameters of the engine. The simulated model does not exactly
match the data given by the company since propriety data such as valve timings and lift at
every angle was not obtained [C].

Figure 17: Waukesha 16V275GL+ engine [C].

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Waste Heat Recovery System In Heavy Vehicles

Table 1 and Table 2 were obtained from the data provided by the manufacturer

Table 1: Performance data [C].

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Table 2: Technical Data [C]

RESULTS
Exhaust gas properties were determined from GT-POWER at 900 RPM and full load.

 Exhaust gas properties:

• Temperature of the exhaust gas, Texhaust gas = 747 (℉)

• Mass flow rate of the exhaust gas, exhaust gas = 7.597 𝑏/𝑠

• Specific heat of the exhaust gas, Cpexhuast gas = 0.2724157 𝐵 𝑈/ 𝑏℉

The exit temperature of both the incoming working fluid and exhaust gas to and from the
exhaust heat exchanger was assumed to be 250 (℉ ). The heat exchanger was assumed to be 80%
efficient [C].

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 Waste heat recovery from the exhaust heat exchanger:

WHRexhaust = exhaust gas * Cpexhaust gas * Δ T * ηheat exchanger

WHRexhaust = 27350.516 𝑏/ℎ * 0.2724157 𝐵 𝑈 𝑏∗℉ * (747 – 250) (℉) * 0.8

WHRexhaust = 2,962,402.281 𝐵 𝑈/ℎ

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6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained from the evaluation model show that an efficiency gain between 1.5% to 2%
is fully possible for an EGR-based WHR system. Furthermore, it is also apparent that an
exhaust gas-based WHR system can generate an efficiency gain on the internal combustion
engine of about 2.5%. The exhaust-based WHR system thus provides a better efficiency gain
than the EGR-based one. The highest efficiency gain is obtained when combining EGR and
exhaust-based WHR system. Large variations in temperatures and mass flows of the EGR
system and the exhaust system, respectively, place great demands on efficient regulation of the
WHR system's mass flow and system pressure. Building a combined WHR system where both
heat losses from the EGR and the exhaust system are used is a major challenge as an optimal
system pressure for the EGR-based WHR system is higher than the exhaust-based one. If the
same pressure were used for both systems, the efficiency of the EGR system would not be as
high as possible. One solution to this problem is to construct parallel systems, one for each
heat source, each of which relieves the internal combustion engine. However, such a solution
will cost twice as much as it requires double set of components. Another solution is to allow
the media to evaporate in two steps, a first where the exhaust system acts as a preheater and a
second where the EGR system with its higher exhaust temperature finally evaporates and
overheats the working medium, which creates high vapor quality and efficiency. The system is
allowed to use both heat sources under high system pressure, while fewer system components
contribute to a more cost-effective WHR system. A WHR system makes it possible to
streamline the efficiency of the internal combustion engine. Trucks equipped with WHR
systems will, however, have a higher purchase cost, which affects the end customer. Despite a
higher purchase price, the additional cost will ultimately be lower thanks to a reduced fuel cost.
Trucks have a long life cycle, which means that it will take time before the WHR system has
become standard in the transport sector. With a simple modeling based on the Rankine process
(which is the same principle as in power plants), it is concluded that the WHR system can be
applied to trucks where the heat source consists of EGR or exhaust system. Furthermore, the
calculations have shown that the Rankine-based WHR system has great potential to be able to
increase the efficiency of the internal combustion engine.

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6.1 Future work

It has been shown that the WHR system provides the highest efficiency at high temperatures.
The highest temperature is obtained in close proximity to the cylinder where combustion takes
place. Examples of future work are to investigate hybrid engine solutions, which combine a
Rankine cycle and a Diesel cycle in the existing cylinders of the internal combustion engine by
introducing two more superficial working strokes. Working medium is injected directly into
the cylinder, which evaporates and expands by the heat in the cylinder. At present, urea is
injected into the SCR catalyst, which could perhaps act as a working medium in the cylinder
instead and be mixed with the exhaust gases in this way. Another option is to introduce an
extra cylinder which works under the same principles as a steam engine. The system would be
fully integrated with the engine block where the cooling water can act as a working medium.
The water jackets of the cylinders constitute preheaters, which then overheat the heat from the
exhaust gases, which is finally allowed to expand in the inserted extra-cylinder. To evaluate
hybrid engine alternatives, this integrates the various thermodynamic working principles
instead of introducing new external systems, which hopefully in the future can contribute to
further increasing the efficiency of the internal combustion engine.

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