A

PROJECT REPORT
ON
"AIR COMPRESSOR ENGINE"
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY:
PRADEEP KUMAR (1249847038)
RAVINDRA KUMAR PATEL (1349847042)
VIPIN KUMAR (1349847054)
ANURAG TYAGI (1349847011)

SUBMITTED TO:
MR. MADHUR KUMAR DUBEY
H.O.D (MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPTT.)
MR. AJAY CHAUDHARY
(COORDINATOR)

DELHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

AFFILATED TO DR. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,

LUCKNOW, 2016

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 INDEX

DESCRIPTION PAGE NUMBER

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………4

Certificate……………………………………………………………………….5

Declaration………………………………………………………………………6

Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………7

Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………………………………..9

1.1 Compressed air vehicle………………………………………………...…..10

1.2 Compressed Air History……………………………………………….......12

1.3 how does it work…………………………………………………….……..19

Chapter 2: Technology……………………………………………….……......32

2.1 Engines……………………………..…………………………….……........33

2.2 Emission………………………………………………………………….....34

Chapter 3: Commponents Used……………………………………………….35

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 1. Crank shaft …………………………………………………………….36

2. Connecting screw……………………………………………………….37

3. Pneumatic cylinder……………………………………………………..38

4. Solenoid valve..……………….………………………………………...39

5. Bearing...………………………………………………………………..40

6. Bearing stand…………………………………………………………...41

7. Tyre-..…………………………………………………………………...43

8. Air cylinder……………………………………………………………..44

9. Compressor…………………………………………………………….44

10. Pneumatic pipe…………………………………………………………45

11. bridge rectifier…………………………………………………………..46

12. Transformer……………………………………………………………46

Chapter 4: Advantage……………………………………………………..……53

Chapter 5: Disadvantage……………………………………………………….54

Chapter 6: Conclusions………………………………………………………....55

Chapter 7: References…………………………………………………………..57

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 ABSTRACT

The compress air vehicle provides fast and efficient transportation that could potentially save
energy and reduce carbon emission over short distances. The purpose of our project is to
determine what the economic and environmental benefits compressed air technology can bring
to current transportation methods. Studies on energy efficiency and carbon emissions of
common planes were compared to compressed air vehicle. The calculations show that the
compressed air vehicle used less energy and produce fewer emissions than the commercial
plane. Based on these results, the compressed air vehicle provides a fast alternative to
commercial plane travel, but the high initial cost and lack of route availability would hinder
the development of compressed air vehicle.

Even though compressed air vehicle designs have been developed to commercial
readiness, we have yet to see any compressed air vehicle Systems in continuous commercial
operation. Obstacles to commercial use of the Compressed Air Vehicle include

Expense, especially in guide way construction

Existence of conventional high-speed car systems, such as the Mahindra ego.

Health concerns regarding exposure to compressed air

Absence of a commercially successful example to reassure investors

Possibility of selecting a guide way design that will be incompatible with future systems

It appears that compressed air vehicle will not become popular without further government
funding and additional advances in technology. The Japanese and German systems were
developed at considerable government expense, but still lack a clear commercial advantage
over conventional high-speed car. The Induct rack technology shows promise but will require
a long and expensive development period before it can be evaluated as a candidate for
commercial use.

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DELHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEERUT

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Project Report entitled “AIR COMPRESSOR ENGINE” which is
submitted partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of B.Tech
(Mechanical) Department is a record of the candidate own work carried out by him under
my/our supervision. The matter embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted
for the award of any other degree/Diploma.

 
 

Date: …………………

…………………………
(Department of Automobile)

………………………… ………………………………….

External Examiner Internal Guide

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 CANDIDATE DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this submission is our own work and that, to the best of my
knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another
person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other
degree of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due
acknowledgment has been made in the text.

PRADEEP KUMAR (1249847038)

RAVINDRA KUMAR PATEL (1349847042)
VIPIN KUMAR (1349847054)
ANURAG TYAGI (1349847011)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Acknowledgement is not a mere obligation but an epitome of humility and indebtness to all
those who have helped in the compilation of this project and without whom our project would
have been anything but presentable.

First of all, we are thankful to Mr. MADHUR KUMAR DUBEY, H.O.D (Mechanical Deptt.)
for his technical support and immense poll of knowledge, which he so very graciously placed,
at our proposal.

Mr. AJAY CHAUDHARY (Faculty of Mechanical Deptt.) commands our special gratitude.
His persistent help and expertise in project works has been of immeasurable help.

We would be highly bureaucratic if we ignored the timely help, co operation, ideas and
constructive criticism of our lab technicians, especially who helped us to complete the project
to the best of our abilities and within available time.

Lastly, but most importantly, we would like to pay our utmost regards to our beloved parents
and all our faculty members for their blessings without which success is a mirage.

To conclude we would like to quote the following words by Sigmund Feud-

"Don't mix excellence with perfection. Excellence, I can reach for, perfection is God's business

PRADEEP KUMAR (1249847038)

RAVINDRA KUMAR PATEL (1349847042)
VIPIN KUMAR (1349847054)
ANURAG TYAGI (1349847011)
(ME,VIII Sem.)

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1: INTRODUCTION

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1.1 COMPRESSED AIR VEHICLE

. A compressed-air vehicle is powered by an air engine, using compressed air, which is stored
in a tank. Instead of mixing fuel with air and burning it in the engine to drive pistons with hot
expanding gases, compressed air vehicles (CAV) use the expansion of compressed air to drive
their pistons. One manufacturer claims to have designed an engine that is 90 percent efficient.

Compressed air propulsion may also be incorporated in hybrid systems, e.g., battery electric
propulsion and fuel tanks to recharge the batteries. This kind of system is called hybrid-
pneumatic electric propulsion. Additionally, regenerative braking can also be used in
conjunction with this system

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 Fig 1 , Compressed Air Vehicle

1.2 COMPRESSED AIR

One can buy the vehicle with the engine or buy an engine to be installed in the vehicle. Typical
air engines use one or more expander pistons. In some applications it is advantageous to heat
the air, or the engine, to increase the range or power.
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The riser piping should connect to the top of the header piping and be one pipe size larger than
the compressor discharge piping and/or overhead header piping. A drip leg with a drain is
needed to prevent water from flowing back to the compressor. Mount valves in the highest
horizontal piping (this avoids the hazard of opening a closed valve in vertical piping, and
releasing trapped condensate to flow back into air compressors). All of the header main
compressed air piping should slope 1/8" to 1/4" per foot down from the point of origin.
Gravity and airflow will then carry condensate to the low points where drop leg should be
installed to allow for removal at to accessible drop legs and drain points. These drops should
be installed every 50 to 70 feet in the system and be taken from the bottom of the main line to
insure as much removal as possible.

The header piping up to the air dryers is exposed to moist, hot air (temperatures can reach well
over 150 degrees F). Copper, stainless steel and other piping materials that are less corrosive
are recommended. If plain carbon steel piping is installed, then rust particles can pass
downstream and interfere with the operation of condensate valves and wye strainers

The tanks must be designed to safety standards appropriate for a pressure vessel.

The storage tank may be made of:

1. steel,

2. aluminum,

3. carbon fiber,

4. Kevlar,

Other materials or combinations of the above

The fiber materials are considerably lighter than metals but generally more expensive. Metal
tanks can withstand a large number of pressure cycles, but must be checked for corrosion
periodically.

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One company stores air in tanks at 4,500 pounds per square inch (about 30 MPa) and hold
nearly 3,200 cubic feet (around 90 cubic metres) of air.

The tanks may be refilled at a service station equipped with heat exchangers, or in a few hours
at home or in parking lots, plugging the car into the electric grid via an on-board compressor.
The cost of driving such a car is typically projected to be around €0.75 per 100 km, with a
complete refill at the "tank-station" at about US$3.

(a) History

Compressed air has been used since the 19th century to power mine locomotives and trams in
cities such as Paris (via a central, city-level, compressed air energy distribution system), and
was previously the basis of naval torpedo propulsion.

In 1863, Jules Verne wrote a novel called Paris in the 20th Century about a world of glass
skyscrapers, high-speed trains, and air-powered automobiles.

In 1903, the Liquid Air Company located in London England manufactured a number of
compressed air and liquified air cars. The major problem with these cars and all compressed
air cars is the lack of torque produced by the "engines" and the cost of compressing the air.
Reference: http://www.didik.com/ev_hist.htm

Recently several companies have started to develop compressed air cars, although none have
been released to the public, or have been tested by third parties.

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(B) THE HISTORY OF COMPRESSED AIR VEHICLES

It cannot be claimed that compressed air as an energy and locomotion vector is precisely
recent technology. In fact at the end of the 19th century the first approximations to what
could one day become a compressed air driven vehicle already existed, through the arrival
of the first pneumatic locomotives. Yet even two centuries before that Dennis Papin
apparently came up with the idea of using compressed air (Royal Society London, 1687).

The first recorded compressed-air vehicle in France was built by the Frenchmen Andraud and
Tessie of Motay in 1838. A car ran on a test track at Chaillot on the 9th July 1840, and worked
well, but the idea was not pursued further .
In 1872 the Mekarski air engine was used for street transit, consisting of a single-stage engine.
It represented an extremely important advance in terms of pneumatic engines, due to its
forward thinking use of thermodynamics, ensuring that the air was heated, by passing it
through tanks of boiling water, also increasing its range between fill-ups. Numerous
locomotives were manufactured and a number of regular lines were even opened up (the first
in Nantes in 1879).
Mékarski system tram networks were also built in other towns in France: Vichy (1895), Aix-
les-Bains (1896), La Rochelle (1899), and Saint-Quentin (1901).
The H. K. Porter Company in Pittsburgh sold hundreds of these locomotives to coal-mining
companies in the eastern U.S. With the hopeful days of air powered street transit over, the
compressed air locomotive became a standard fixture in coal mines around the world because
it created no heat or spark and was therefore invaluable in gassy mines where explosions were
always a danger with electric or gas engines.

Also in 1896, Porter supplied ten compressed air motor cars for the Eckington System in
Washington, D.C. There was a tank on the front of the engine and it was recharged at the
station.

Between 1890 and 1902 ten compressed air trams circulated in Bern, Switzerland
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In 1892, Robert Hardie introduced a new method of heating that at the same time served to
increase the range of the engine.
However, the first urban transport locomotive was not introduced until 1898, by Hoadley and
Knight, and was based on the principle that the longer the air is kept in the engine the more
heat it absorbs and the greater its range. As a result they introduced a two stage engine.
Charles B. Hodges will always be remembered as the true father of the compressed air concept
applied to cars, being the first person, not only to invent a car driven by a compressed air
engine but also to have considerable commercial success with it. 
Later on, in 1912 the American’s method was improved by Europeans, adding a further
expansion stage to the engine (3 stages). 
After years of working on a system for driving an automobile by means of compressed air
Louis C. Kiser, a 77 year old from Decatur USA has succeeded in converting his gasoline
engine into an air compressed system. Kiser removed the entire gasoline line, the cylinder
head, water-cooling system, and self starter. A special cylinder head is substituted and a
compressed-air tank added in place of the gasoline tank.
In 1926 Lee Barton Williams of Pittsburg USA presented his invention: an automobile which,
he claims, runs on air. The motor starts on gasoline, but after it has reached a speed of ten
miles an hour the gasoline supply is shut off and the air starts to work. At the first test his
invention attained a speed of 62 miles an hour. 
The first hybrid diesel and compressed air locomotive appeared in 1930, in Germany. The
pressures brought to bear by the oil industry in the transport sector were ever greater and the
truth of the matter is that they managed to block investigation in this field. 
In January 1932 what appears to be the first journalistic article ever written about a car driven
by compressed air was published.
In 1934, 21-year-old Johannes Wardenier announced he developed the world’s first fuel-less
automobile. For weeks Dutch newspapers reported of an incredible invention that would
change the world for ever. Not long after that he was mysteriously imprisoned in a mental
institution, his design for the engine was stolen and he was kept under constant guard and
never allowed to see anyone. 

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Later he was send off to a concentration camp where he remained until he was near death and
his idea for a motor that ran on air was long forgotten.
According to his design the hot air was pressed into a motor which contained a number of
cylinders, half of which go down when the others rise up. As in an ordinary engine, the
crankshaft forced a rotating movement. The major difference was that the air after having
passed through the cylinders, passed again through the cylinders by means of a compressor at
the side, causing a continuous circulation and enough perpetual movement to last three
months.
After the Second World War the term “air engine” was never again used in textbooks referring
to compressed air or pneumatic locomotives and, whenever they were mentioned the article
would go on to state that these engines were of little use or efficiency.

In the 1970’s Joseph P. Troyan designed an air-powered flywheel that could propel an
automobile using the principle of "ratio amplification of motion in a closed system." The
Troyan air mobile (U.S. Patent No. 040011) was easily attached to electrical generators to
create a pollution-free, variable-power system. ¨My engine simply uses nature’s most powerful
force: air pressure¨ Troyan commented. 

In the 1970’s Willard Truitt presented his invention in McKees Rocks, USA. But because he
did not have the financial means to develop his compressed air car further he gave the rights of
his invention to NASA and the US Army in 1982. 
After noticing steam pumps in Texas refineries Russel R. Brown started thinking about the
idea of an air powered engine. Twenty years later, in 1974, his invention was finished. Brown
claimed that his engine could not only run on air but could also be its own source of power.
¨We’re plagued with pollution, but my engine does no more damage to the air than if you
inflate a tire and let it out again¨ Brown comments.
In January 1975 driving on compressed air was proposed by Sorgato in Italy as a viable fuel-
economy alternative to the electric car for industrial and urban use. The first experimental
model had nine air bottles charged to 2840 psi. by an external compressor. Top speed of this
near-silent and non-polluting vehicle was said to be 30 miles per hour and had a duration of
around two hours. 

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In 1976 Ray Starbard from Vacaville, California developed a truck that is able to drive on
compressed air. He felt that he had invented the power system of the future, a system that
would greatly change the automotive face of the world. ´It’s the car of the future, there’s
absolutely no doubt in my mind´ Starbard comments ´and all because of Mother Nature’s
purest gift – Air¨.
In 1979, Terry Miller decided that compressed air was the perfect medium for storing energy.
He developed Air Car One, which he built for $ 1,500. Terry’s engines showed that it was
feasible to manufacture a car that could run on compressed air. He patented his method in
1983 (US4370857). 
In the 1980’s Carl Leissler developed a motor that was able to function on air. The retired
horticulturalist had been working from his garage in Hollywood for over 15 years. He says that
to use his motor in a car you might have to use a small electric or gas energy source to help
drive the air compressor. ‘We might be able to get 2000 miles per gallon, air is a power in
itself’ Leissler comments

Oblivious to curious stares Claud Mead drove his air compressed car through the streets. The
aim of this car was to spare the American motorists from gasoline woes. The big version of the
car would be able to go 800 miles on a full tank. 
Australian inventor Des Hill had been working on an air compressed motor for thirty years and
had spend more than $ 20.000 on his project. with his air compressed motor). The air
compressor which worked when the engine was running, would ensure that the cylinder was
filled to capacity at all times. Thus Hill’s engine would realize the principle of perpetual
motion.

George Miller said the air car he invented in 1984 would run forever. Miller envisioned his
invention to be a solution to fuel and pollution problems, and the end to the Middle East wars.
The 58 year old retired coal miner and bricklayer from Johnstown, USA used a medium size,
four cylinder engine out of a twelve year old Opel. Air from one of the tanks is fed into it
through the spark plug holes, and air pressure moves the piston. The air is circulated out of the
engine and back into the tank.

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Jet aircraft starter motors using compressed air as a fuel provided unique power for this
experimental dragster from Phoenix, US that had covered the quarter mile in the nine second
range.
In May 1987 an article was published about Miami inventor Ricardo Perez-Pomar. The 61
year old pneumatic engineer, originally from Cuba claimed to have developed an engine that
will continuously refill the very tank of compressed air that powers it. 
‘This machine can be in full operation for months and months before its air tank must be
artificially refilled.’ Perez promises.
Until 1987 the German company Arnold Jung Lokomotivenfabrik GmbH produced
locomotives functioning on compressed air to be used in mines. In the 1980’s they were still
selling and renovating locomotives.
Currently the tram association in Bern Switzerland (BTG) is developing a locomotive
according to the original plans. It is expected to be ready in 2010.
At present (2008) various persons and companies are developing compressed air motors
applicable to transportation, apart from the many companies that produce and commercialize
compressed air motors for industrial purposes.

Several companies are investigating and producing prototypes, and one plans to offer cars late
2009, early 2010.[14]

Three mechanical engineering students from San Jose State University; Daniel Mekis, Dennis
Schaaf and Andrew Merovich, designed and built a bike that runs on compressed air. The total
cost of the prototype was under $1000 and was sponsored by Sunshops (on the Boardwalk
in Santa Cruz, California) and NO DIG NO RIDE (from Aptos, California.). The top speed of
the maiden voyage in May 2009 was 23 mphhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=NBeky4EuyBc. While their design was simple (http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=NBeky4EuyBc), these three pioneers of compressed air powered vehicles helped pave the
way for French automaker Peugeot Citreon to invent a brand new air-powered hybrid. The
'Hybrid Air' system uses compressed air to move the car's wheels when driving under 43 mph.
Peugeot says the new hybrid system should get up to 141 miles per gallon of gas. Models
should roll out as early as 2016. http://screen.yahoo.com/hybrid-car-runs-air-001013615.html

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"Ku:Rin" named air-compressed three-wheeler vehicle is created by TOYOTA in 2011. The
speciality about this vehicle is it has registered a record-breaking highest speed 129.2 km/h
(80mph) even if it has engine which uses only compressed air. This car was developed by the
toyota companies "Dream car workshop". This car is nicknamed as "sleek rocket", or "pencil
shaped rocket".

A compressed-air powered motorcycle, called the Green Speed Air Powered Motorcycle was

made by Edwin Yi Yuan, based on the Suzuki GP100 and using the Angelo Di Pietro
compressed-air engine.

As part of the TV-show Planet Mechanics, Jem Stansfield and Dick Strawbridge have

converted a regular scooter to a compressed air moped. This has been done by equipping the
scooter with a compressed-air engine and air tank.

MDI makes MultiCATs vehicle that can be used as buses or trucks. RATP has also already

expressed an interest in the compressed-air pollution-free bus.

Compressed-air locomotives are a kind of fireless locomotive and have been used in

mining and tunnel boring.

Various compressed-air-powered trams were trialled, starting in 1876.

Currently, no water or air vehicles exist that make use of the air engine. Historically
certain torpedoes were propelled by compressed-air engines

1.3 HOW DOES IT WORK

(a) Mopeds

Jem Stansfield, an English inventor has been able to convert a regular scooter to a compressed
air moped.[10] This has been done by equipping the scooter with a compressed air engine and
air tank.
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(b) Cars

Several companies are investigating and producing prototypes, and one plans to offer cars late
2009, early 2010.

(c) Buses

MDI makes MultiCATs vehicle that can be used as buses or trucks. RATP has also already
expressed an interest in the compressed-air pollution-free bus.

(d) Locomotives

Compressed air locomotives have been historically used as mining locomotives.

(e) Trams

Various compressed-air-powered trams were trialled, starting in 1876.

(f) Watercraft and aircraft

Currently, no water or air vehicles exist that make use of the air engine. Historically
compressed air engines propelled certain torpedoes.

About our project

Step-1 We arrange two crank shafts two wheeler scooter

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 Fig 2 Crank shaft

Step-2 We fix two ball bearings on both side of crankshaft as shown in above diagram

Fig 3 Ball Bearing

Step-3 We fix crank shaft on iron stand for smooth working

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 Fig 4 Breaking Stand

Step-4 We adjoin both crank shafts with the distance angle of 90 degree for smooth turning

Fig 5 Adjoin both crank shaft

Step-5 We fix crank shaft on wooden frame

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 Fig 6 Fix crank shaft

We used Solenoid valve for transmit compressed air to the cylinder for 4
stroke rotation

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Normally in off condition Solenoid valve air inlet hole are B and E and outlet hole are D and
C. due to this cylinder squeeze

Fig 7 Off condition of solenoid valve

In ON condition Solenoid valve air inlet hole are B and D and outlet hole are E and A. due to
this cylinder expended

Fig 8 On condition of solenoid valve

The expansion and squeezing help crank rotation

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 Fig 9 Expansion and squeezing help crank rotation

Step-6

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We weld two crankshafts and connect pneumatic cylinder with them and fix them on body
frame with the help of bearing. We weld one sprocket on the right side of crank shaft to
transfer its rotation to gear box.

Fig 10 Weld two crankshafts and connect pneumatic cylinder

Step-8

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Now we connect 4 solenoid coil with pneumatic cylinder for provide 4 stroke (every coil
provide 90 degree rotation when current pass through them).

Fig 11 Connect 4 solenoid coil with pneumatic cylinder

Step-10

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We connect 1:4 gear box with crankshaft for convert crank speed in to wheel torque motion,
due to this our project is easily move on surface.

Fig 12 Connect 1:4 gear box with crankshaft

Power transmission
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Step-11

The most important part of the project is power transmission system. As per above information
we are using 4 solenoid coil in our project and these coil are act as 4 stock transmission, we are
using a simple technique to transmit the same power. We take one circular wooden piece and
divide that circle in to four parts as shown below diagram, these for piece are metallic cutouts.

Fig 13 Four solenoid coil

Step-12

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Now we take one special dc gear motor (motor shaft is not directly connected with motor, so
we are transmit ac current to the coil from that shaft) and fix it with circular dick and this
motor transmit ac supply to coil.

Fig 14 One special dc gear motor

Working: our project is working in 220v ac current, we divide this current in to two part.

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Part-1 is the Solenoid coil, one wire of the 4-coil (negative) is attach with dick and positive
current is transmit by motor with its connecting shaft.

Part-2 is Dc motor regulating supply, second 220v ac supply is going to step down transformer
through fan regulator for regulate supply. This transformer converts 220v ac to 12 ac supply.
Now we fix one bridge rectifier to convert ac to dc 12v supply for motor. When we operate
fane regulator, motor rotate slow and fast to transmit ac current to solenoid coil.

Step-13

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Now this technique make easy to move our project perfectly on surface.

Final look

Fig 15 Compressed Air vehicle

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 2 - TECHNOLOGY

2.1 ENGINES
(a) Compressed air engine

Compressed air cars are powered by motors driven by compressed air, which is stored in
a tank at high pressure such as 30 MPa (4500 psi or 310 bar). Rather than driving engine

32
pistons with an ignited fuel-air mixture, compressed air cars use the expansion of compressed
air, in a similar manner to the expansion of steam in a steam engine.

There have been prototype cars since the 1920s, with compressed air used
in torpedo propulsion.

(b)Compressed air tank

In contrast to hydrogen's issues of damage and danger involved in high-impact crashes, air, on
its own, is non-flammable. It was reported on Seven Network's Beyond Tomorrow that on its
own, carbon-fiber is brittle and can split under sufficient stress, but creates no shrapnel when it
does so. Carbon-fiber tanks safely hold air at a pressure somewhere around 4500 psi, making
them comparable to steel tanks. The cars are designed to be filled up at a high-pressure pump.

(c) Compressed air 

It has relatively low energy density. Air at 30 MPa (4,500 psi) contains about 50 Wh of energy
per liter (and normally weighs 372g per liter). For comparison, a lead–acid batterycontains 60-
75 Wh/l. A lithium-ion battery contains about 250-620 Wh/l. Gasoline contains about
9411 Wh per liter;[1] however, a typical gasoline engine with 18% efficiency can only recover
the equivalent of 1694 Wh/l. The energy density of a compressed air system can be more than
doubled if the air is heated prior to expansion.

In order to increase energy density, some systems may use gases that can be liquified or
solidified. "CO2 offers far greater compressibility than air when it transitions from gaseous to
supercritical form."

2.2 EMISSION

Compressed air cars are emission-free at the exhaust. Since a compressed air car's source of
energy is usually electricity, its total environmental impact depends on how clean the source of
this electricity is. Different regions can have very different sources of power, ranging from
high-emission power sources such as coal to zero-emission power sources such as wind. A

33
given region can also update its electrical power sources over time, thereby improving or
worsening total emissions.

However a study showed that even with very optimistic assumptions, air storage of energy is
less efficient than chemical (battery) storage.

3 Components used

1 Crank shaft –2
2 Connecting screw-2
2 Pneumatic cylender-2
3 Solenoid valve-4
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4 Bearing-2
5 Bearing stand
6 Tyre-2
7 Air cylinder
8 Compressor
9 Pneumatic pipe
10 Connectors
11 Body base
12 Fan regulator
13 bridge rectifier
Many more as per requirement…

COMPONENT DETAIL

1. Crankshaft

The crankshaft, sometimes abbreviated to crank, is the part of an engine that

translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation. To convert the reciprocating motion

35
into rotation, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces
whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from
each cylinder attach.

It typically connects to a flywheel to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke

cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce
the torsional vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders farthest
from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.

Fig 16 Crankshaft

2 Connecting screw

A screw, or bolt, is a type of fastener characterized by a helical ridge, known as an external

thread or just thread, wrapped around a cylinder. Some screw threads are designed to mate
with a complementary thread, known as an internal thread, often in the form of a nutor an
object that has the internal thread formed into it. Other screw threads are designed to cut a

36
helical groove in a softer material as the screw is inserted. The most common uses of screws
are to hold objects together and to position objects.

A screw will always have a head, which is a specially formed section on one end of the screw
that allows it to be turned, or driven. Common tools for driving screws
include screwdrivers and wrenches. The head is usually larger than the body of the screw,
which keeps the screw from being driven deeper than the length of the screw and to provide
a bearing surface. There are exceptions; for instance, carriage bolts have a domed head that is
not designed to be driven; set screws have a head smaller than the outer diameter of the screw;
J-bolts have a J-shaped head which is not designed to be driven, but rather is usually sunk into
concrete allowing it to be used as an anchor bolt. The cylindrical portion of the screw from the
underside of the head to the tip is known as the shank; it may be fully threaded or partially
threaded. The distance between each thread is called the "pitch".

The majority of screws are tightened by clockwise rotation, which is termed a right-hand

thread; a common mnemonic device for remembering this when working with screws or bolts
is "righty-tighty, lefty-loosey." Screws with left-hand threads are used in exceptional cases.
For example, when the screw will be subject to counterclockwise torque (which would work to
undo a right-hand thread), a left-hand-threaded screw would be an appropriate choice. The left
side pedal of a bicycle has a left-hand thread.

More generally, screw may mean any helical device, such as a clamp, a micrometer, a ship's
propeller or an Archimedes' screw water pump.

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 Fig 17 Connecting screw

3 Pneumatic cylinder

Pneumatic cylinders (sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical devices which use the

power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear motion.[1]:85

Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The
piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to be
moved.[1] :85 Engineers prefer to use pneumatics sometime because they are quieter, cleaner,
and do not require large amounts of space for fluid storage.

Because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out and
contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where cleanliness is a
requirement. For example, in the mechanical puppets of the Disney Tiki Room, pneumatics are
used to prevent fluid from dripping onto people below the puppets.

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 Fig 18 Penumatic Cylinder

4 Solenoid valve

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is controlled by

an electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on
or off; in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports.
Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold.

Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are to
shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas.
Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium
compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact design.

Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently, pivoted-armature actuators
and rocker actuators are also used.

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 Fig 19 Soleoid Valve

5. Bearing

A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion between moving parts to only

the desired motion. The design of the bearing may, for example, provide for
free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it
may prevent a motion by controlling the vectorsof normal forces that bear on the moving parts.
Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to
the directions of the loads (forces) applied to the parts.

The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear";[1] a bearing being a machine element
that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings are bearing
surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control over the form,
size, roughness and location of the surface. Other bearings are separate devices installed into a
machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most demanding
applications are very precise devices; their manufacture requires some of the highest standards
of current technology.

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 Fig 20 Bearing

6. Bearing stand

Whether for moving a heavy table saw or for guiding and supporting lumber as it comes off
the saw, the right roller stand or mobile base can save you a lot of unneeded effort.

Rockler offers outfeed support stands in two basic types: roller stands with single or multiple
elongated rollers, and ball bearing roller stands with several smaller multi-directional ball
bearings. Roller stands keep stock tracking in a straight line, or when slightly angled, can keep
stock against a fence. Ball bearing stands are better when you want the freedom to slide
materials in any direction. Our Fliptop Roller Stand offers the best of both worlds in a
convertible design. We also sell individual ball bearings so you can create your own ball
bearing mount, ball bearing rack or a full-sized ball bearing table for outfeed panel support or
for table saw wings. 

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Rockler has a variety of universal mobile bases for workbenches and stationary power tools.
These are ideal for garage shops and other small shops where tools must be stored against the
wall and rolled out when needed. With large diameter casters and easy foot-actuated locking,
these glide easily around the shop and lock securely in place. Check out the five-star reviews
on our Rockler All-Terrain Mobile Base. With its huge wheels, it rolls over shop debris and
cracks in the floor with one-finger ease. Whatever your needs for mobile bases and outfeed
tables, you’ll soon be on a roll with Rockler.

Fig 21 Bearing Stand

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7. Tyre-2

Tyre, the international spelling of tire, the outer part of a wheel

Fig 21 Tyre

8. Air cylinder

Pneumatic cylinders (sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical devices which use the

power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear motion.[1]:85

Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The
piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to be
moved.[1] :85 Engineers prefer to use pneumatics sometime because they are quieter, cleaner,
and do not require large amounts of space for fluid storage.

Because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out and
contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where cleanliness is a
requirement. For example, in the mechanical puppets of the Disney Tiki Room, pneumatics are
used to prevent fluid from dripping onto people below the puppets.

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 Fig 22 Air Cylinder

9. Compressor

An air compressor is a device that converts power (usually from an electric motor, a diesel
engine or a gasoline engine) into kinetic energy by compressing and pressurizing air, which,
on command, can be released in quick bursts. There are numerous methods of air compression,
divided into either positive-displacement or negative-displacement types

Fig 23 Air Compresser

10. Pneumatic pipe

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Pneumatic tubes (or capsule pipelines; also known as Pneumatic Tube Transport or PTT) are
systems in which cylindrical containers are propelled through a network
of tubes bycompressed air or by partial vacuum. They are used for transporting solid objects,
as opposed to conventional pipelines, which transport fluids. Pneumatic tube networks gained
great prominence in the late 19th and early 20th century for businesses or administrations that
needed to transport small but urgent packages (such as mail or money) over relatively short
distances (within a building, or, at most, within a city). Some of these systems grew to great
complexity, but they were eventually superseded by more modern methods of communication
and courier transport, and are now much rarer than before. However, in some settings, such as
hospitals, they remain of great use, and have been extended and developed further
technologically in recent decades.

A small number of pneumatic transportation systems were also built for larger cargo, to
compete with more standard train and subway systems. However, these never gained as much
popularity as practical systems.

Fig 24 Pneumatic Pipe

11. Bridge rectifier

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A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that
provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most
common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into a direct
current (DC) output, it is known as abridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave
rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a
rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding. The
essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same regardless of the
polarity at the input. The diode bridge circuit is also known as the "Graetz circuit" after its
inventor, German physicist Leo Graetz

Fig 25 Bridge Rectifier

12. Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy from one circuit to another by
magnetic coupling with no moving parts. A transformer comprises two or more coupled
windings, or a single tapped winding and, in most cases, a magnetic core to concentrate
magnetic flux. A changing current in one winding creates a time-varying magnetic flux in the
core, which induces a voltage in the other windings. Michael Faraday built the first
transformer, although he used it only to demonstrate the principle of electromagnetic induction
and did not foresee the use to which it would eventually be put.
46
 Fig 26 Transformer

A historical Stanley transformer.

Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs, who first exhibited a device called a 'secondary
generator' in London in 1881 and then sold the idea to American company Westinghouse. This
may have been the first practical power transformer. They also exhibited the invention in Turin
in 1884, where it was adopted for an electric lighting system. Their early devices used an open
iron core, which was soon abandoned in favour of a more efficient circular core with a closed
magnetic path.

William Stanley, an engineer for Westinghouse, who built the first practical device in 1885
after George Westinghouse bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents. The core was made from
interlocking E-shaped iron plates. This design was first used commercially in 1886.

Hungarian engineers Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri at the Ganz company
in Budapest in 1885, who created the efficient "ZBD" model based on the design by Gaulard
and Gibbs.

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Nikola Tesla in 1891 invented the Tesla coil, which is a high-voltage, air-core, dual-tuned
resonant transformer for generating very high voltages at high frequency.

Construction

Cores

Steel cores

Fig 27 Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of unit.

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies have cores made of many thin laminations
of silicon steel. By concentrating the magnetic flux, more of it is usefully linked by both
primary and secondary windings. Since the steel core is conductive, it, too, has currents
induced in it by the changing magnetic flux. Each layer is insulated from the adjacent layer to
reduce the energy lost to eddy current heating of the core. The thin laminations are used to
reduce the eddy currents, and the insulation is used to keep the laminations from acting as a

48
solid piece of steel. The thinner the laminations, the lower the eddy currents, and the lower the
losses. Very thin laminations are generally used on high frequency transformers. The cost goes
up when using thinner laminations mainly over the labor in stacking them.

A typical laminated core is made from E-shaped and I-shaped pieces, leading to the name "EI
transformer". In the EI transformer, the laminations are stacked in what is known as an
interleaved fashion. Due to this interleaving a second gap in parallel (in an analogy to
electronic circuits) to the gap between E and I is formed between the E-pieces. The E-pieces
are pressed together to reduce the gap width to that of the insulation. The gap area is very
large, so that the effective gap width is very small (in analogy to a capacitor). For this to work
the flux has to gradually flow from one E to the other. That means that on one end all flux is
only on every second E. That means saturation occurs at half the flux density. Using a longer E
and wedging it with two small Is will increase the overlap and additionally make the grains
more parallel to the flux (think of a wooden frame for a window). If an air gap is needed
(which is unlikely considering the low remanence available for steel), all the E's are stacked on
one side, and all the I's on the other creating a gap.

The cut core or C-core is made by winding a silicon steel strip around a rectangular form.
After the required thickness is achieved, it is removed from the form and the laminations are
bonded together. It is then cut in two forming two C shapes. The faces of the cuts are then
ground smooth so they fit very tight with a very small gap to reduce losses. The core is then
assembled by placing the two C halves together, and holding them closed by a steel strap.
Usually two C-cores are used to shorten the return path for the magnetic flux resulting in a
form similar to the EI. More cores would necessitate a triangular cross-section. Like toroidal
cores they have the advantage, that the flux is always in the oriented parallel the grains. Due to
the bending of the core some area is lost for a rectangular winging.

A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed.
When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush current until the
effect of the remanent magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied
alternating current. Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this
harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long overhead power transmission lines,
49
induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of
the core, and false operation of transformer protection devices.

Distribution transformers can achieve low off-load losses by using cores made with low loss
high permeability silicon steel and amorphous (non-crystalline) steel, so-called "metal glasses"
— the high cost of the core material is offset by the lower losses incurred at light load, over the
life of the transformer. In order to maintain good voltage regulation, distribution transformers
are designed to have very low leakage inductance.

Certain special purpose transformers use long magnetic paths, insert air gaps, or add magnetic
shunts (which bypass a portion of magnetic flux that would otherwise link the primary and
secondary windings) in order to intentionally add leakage inductance. The additional leakage
inductance limits the secondary winding's short circuit current to a safe, or a controlled, level.
This technique is used to stabilize the output current for loads that exhibit negative resistance
such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs, or safely handle loads that may
become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders. Gaps are also used to keep a
transformer from saturating, especially audio transformers which have a DC component added.

Solid cores

Powdered iron cores are used in circuits (such as switch-mode power supplies) that operate
above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high
magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity.

At even higher, radio-frequencies (RF), other types of cores made from non-conductive
magnetic ceramic materials, called ferrites, are common. Some RF transformers also have
moveable cores (sometimes called slugs) which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient
(and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits.

Air cores

High-frequency transformers may also use air cores. These eliminate the loss due to hysteresis
in the core material. Such transformers maintain high coupling efficiency (low stray field loss)
by overlapping the primary and secondary windings.
50
Toroidal cores

Fig 28 Various transformers

Various transformers. The top right is toroidal. The bottom right is from a 12 VAC wall wart
supply.

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which is made from a long strip of
silicon steel or permalloy wound into a coil, from powdered iron, or ferrite, depending on
operating frequency. The strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally
aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The closed
ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an EI core. The cross-section of
the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections
are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover
the entire surface of the core. This minimises the length of wire needed, and also provides
screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference.

Ferrite toroid cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to
a megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of switch-mode power supplies.

Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated EI types of similar power
level. Other advantages, compared to EI types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight
51
(about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior
magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby
circuits), single-bolt mounting, and more choice of shapes. This last point means that, for a
given power output, either a wide, flat toroid or a tall, narrow one with the same electrical
properties can be chosen, depending on the space available. The main disadvantages are higher
cost and limited size.

A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher cost of windings. As a

consequence, toroidal transformers are uncommon above ratings of a few kVA. Small
distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and
forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings.

When fitting a toroidal transformer, it is important to avoid making an unintentional short-

circuit through the core. This can happen if the steel mounting bolt in the middle of the core is
allowed to touch metalwork at both ends, making a loop of conductive material which passes
through the hole in the toroid. Such a loop could result in a dangerously large current flowing
in the bolt.

4 Advantages
The advantages are well publicised since the developers need to make their machines attractive
to investors. Compressed-air vehicles are comparable in many ways to electric vehicles, but
use compressed air to store the energy instead of batteries. Their potential advantages over
other vehicles include:

 Much like electrical vehicles, air powered vehicles would ultimately be powered
through the electrical grid. Which makes it easier to focus on reducing pollution from
one source, as opposed to the millions of vehicles on the road?

52
  Transportation of the fuel would not be required due to drawing power off the electrical
grid. This presents significant cost benefits. Pollution created during fuel transportation
would be eliminated.
 Compressed air technology reduces the cost of vehicle production by about 20%,
because there is no need to build a cooling system, fuel tank, Ignition Systems or
silencers.[5]
 Air, on its own, is non-flammable.
 High torque for minimum volume.
 The mechanical design of the engine is simple and robust.
 Low manufacture and maintenance costs as well as easy maintenance.
 Compressed-air tanks can be disposed of or recycled with less pollution than batteries.
 Compressed-air vehicles are unconstrained by the degradation problems associated
with current battery systems.
 The tank may be able to be refilled more often and in less time than batteries can be
recharged, with re-fueling rates comparable to liquid fuels.
 Lighter vehicles would mean less abuse on roads. Resulting in longer lasting roads.
 The price of fueling air-powered vehicles will be significantly cheaper than current
fuels.

5 Disadvantages
Like the modern car and most household appliances, the principal disadvantage is the indirect
use of energy. Energy is used to compress air, which - in turn - provides the energy to run the
motor. Any conversion of energy between forms results in loss. For conventional combustion
motor cars, the energy is lost when oil is converted to usable fuel - including drilling,
refinement, labor, storage, eventually transportation to the end-user. For compressed-air cars,
energy is lost when electrical energy is converted to compressed air.

 When air expands, as it would in the engine, it cools dramatically (Charles law) and
must be heated to ambient temperature using a heat exchanger similar to the Intercooler
used for internal combustion engines. The heating is necessary in order to obtain a
significant fraction of the theoretical energy output. The heat exchanger can be
53
 problematic. While it performs a similar task to the Intercooler, the temperature
difference between the incoming air and the working gas is smaller. In heating the
stored air, the device gets very cold and may ice up in cool, moist climates.
 Refueling the compressed air container using a home or low-end conventional air
compressor may take as long as 4 hours though the specialized equipment at service
stations may fill the tanks in only 3 minutes.
 Tanks get very hot when filled rapidly. SCUBA tanks are sometimes immersed in
water to cool them down when they are being filled. That would not be possible with
tanks in a car and thus it would either take a long time to fill the tanks, or they would
have to take less than a full charge, since heat drives up the pressure.
 Early tests have demonstrated the limited storage capacity of the tanks; the only
published test of a vehicle running on compressed air alone was limited to a range of
7.22 km.
 A 2005 study demonstrated that cars running on lithium-ion batteries out-perform both
compressed air and fuel cell vehicles more than three-fold at same speeds. MDI has
recently claimed that an air car will be able to travel 140km in urban driving, and have
a range of 80 km with a top speed of 110km/h on highways, when operating on
compressed air alone.

6: CONCLUSIONS
For the operation of a compressed air car the overall "plug-to-road" efficiency is one of the key
criteria. The optimum is obtained when maximum technical work Wt34 becomes available at a
minimum of technical work Wt12 input for air compression. From the foregoing analysis it
becomes clear that both compression and expansion must proceed close to the isothermal limit.
This can only be accomplished with multi-stage compression and expansion processes with
heat exchangers for removal or addition of heat to the medium to establish close to ambient
conditions. The foregoing analysis may not be the first of its kind and certainly needs
refinements. In particular, the thermodynamics of heat exchange, mechanical and aerodynamic
losses, electrical efficiencies etc. need to be considered. All these effects may reduce the
overall efficiency to 40% or less. The total process efficiency may be improved by increasing

54
the number of compression and expansion stages. However, such efficiencies may still be
attractive in a sustainable energy future when renewable energy is harvested as electricity and
transportation needs must be satisfied from available energy sources. With respect to overall
efficiency, battery-electric vehicles may be better than air cars, but hydrogen fuel cell systems
may be worse. However, with respect to system and operating costs, air cars may offer many
advantages such as simplicity, cost, independence, zero pollution and environmental
friendliness of all system components. All in all, the compressed air car seems to be a viable
option for clean and efficient short range transportation. Further analyses, additional research
and development are most welcome to fully identify the potentials of this unconventional
source of transportation energy.

7: REFERENCES
1. Mazedi, The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems, Prentice Hall, 1ST Edition
2. Kenneth J. Ayala, The 8051 Microcontroller, Penram International Publishing,1996,
2nd Edition
3. http://www.dom.com/about/companies/vapower/ compressed air vehicle /index.jsp
4. http://www.lanl.gov
5. http://www.howstuffworks.com/compressed air vehicle.htm
6. http://www.graph%20 of%20maglev%20train/compressed air veicle%20(1).pdf
7. Some Websites
 www.alldatasheets.com
 www.datasheetcatalog.com
55
 www.electronicscircuits.com
 www.scielectronics.com
 www.parallax.com

56