Buku Teks Digital KSSM - Additional Science Form 4

DUAL LANGUAGE PROGRAMME
Additional
SCIENCE
ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

Form
4
RM23.00
ISBN 978-967-2046-43-1
FT444001
KURIKULUM STANDARD SEKOLAH MENENGAH
ADDITIONAL SCIENCE
FORM 4
WRITERS
Rohaillah Mohd Jabid
Tengku Azlin Tuan Mohd Zain
TRANSLATORS
Rugayah binti Tambi
Radziah binti Mohd Yamin
Sharifah Rohaiza binti Syed Omar
EDITORS
Norfarahin Athirah Ab Rahim
Priiya Ashiwini Krishnan
DESIGNERS
Wan Nurul Afikah Wan Ismail
Amos Raja
ILLUSTRATOR
Maski Yu Latif Yu
Multi Educational Book Enterprise

2019
Serial No.: 0172 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
KPM2019 ISBN 978-967-2046-43-1
First Printing 2019 The involvement of the following parties in the
© Ministry of Education Malaysia publication of this book is greatly appreciated:
 Committee members of Penambahbaikan
All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may Pruf Muka Surat, Educational Resources
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or and Technology Division Ministry of
by any means, electronic or mechanical, Education Malaysia.
including photocopying, recording or any
information storage and retrieval system  Committee members of Penyemakan
without permission in writing from the Pembetulan Pruf Muka Surat, Educational
Director-General of Education, Ministry of Resources and Technology Division
Education Malaysia. Negotiation is subject to Ministry of Education Malaysia.
the calculation of royalty or honorarium.
 Committee members of Penyemakan
Published for the Ministry of Education Naskhah Sedia Kamera, Educational
Malaysia by: Resources and Technology Division
Multi Educational Book Enterprise Ministry of Education Malaysia.
No. 22A-2, Jalan PJS 8/4,
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46150 Petaling Jaya, Pembetulan Naskhah Sedia Kamera DLP,
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CONTENTS
THEME 2
Introduction v
Exploration of Elements
in Nature 43
THEME 1
Maintenance and CHAPTER 3
Continuity of Life 1
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE OF
ELEMENTS 44
CHAPTER 1 3.1 History of the Periodic
EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY 2 Table of Elements 46
3.2 Group 1 48
1.1 Evidence of Evolution 4 3.3 Group 17 54
1.2 Theory of Evolution 7 3.4 Group 18 63
1.3 Classification of Organisms 14 3.5 Period 3 68
Summary 18 3.6 Transition Elements 75
Self Reflection 19 Summary 81
Summative Assessment 1 19 Self Reflection 82
Summative Assessment 3 83
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 4
DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM 20
2.1 Abiotic and Biotic Components
STOICHIOMETRY 84
and Interactions in an 4.1 Relative Atomic Mass, Relative
Ecosystem 22 Molecular Mass and Relative
2.2 Colonisation and Succession Formula Mass 86
Processes in Plants 30 4.2 Concept of Mole 89
2.3 Population Ecology 35 4.3 Chemical Formula 95
2.4 Threats to Ecosystems 38 4.4 Concept of Mole in
Chemical Equations 101
Summary 41
4.5 Standard Solution 104
Self Reflection 42
Summative Assessment 2 42 Summary 108
Self Reflection 109
iii
CHAPTER 5
CHEMICAL BOND 112
5.1 Stability of Element 114
5.2 Ionic Bond 117
5.3 Covalent Bond 121
Summary 126
Self Reflection 127 CHAPTER 8
Summative Assessment 5 127 HEAT 174
8.1 Thermal Equilibrium 176
CHAPTER 6 8.2 Specific Heat Capacity 178
8.3 Specific Latent Heat 184
ENERGY AND CHEMICAL CHANGES 128
Summary 191
6.1 Production of Electrical Self Reflection 192
Energy from Chemical Summative Assessment 8 192
Reaction 130
6.2 Redox Reactions 135 Glossary 193
Summary 139 References 195
Self Reflection 140 Index 196
THEME 3
Energy And Sustainability
Of Life 141
CHAPTER 7
FORCE AND MOTION 142
7.1 Scalar and
Vector Quantities 144
7.2 Force 150
7.3 Momentum 159
7.4 Impulse 167
Summary 171
Self Reflection 172
iv
INTRODUCTION
The Additional Science Form 4 textbook is written based on the latest curriculum
by the Ministry of Education Malaysia which is the Dokumen Standard Kurikulum dan
Pentaksiran (DSKP) Form 4. The aim of this subject is to foster interest and develop
creativity in pupils through experience and investigation so as to master knowledge in
science and technology, scientific skills and values. This enables them to solve problems
and make decisions in daily life, in accordance with the needs of the 21st Century Learning
Skills.
Therefore, the contents of this book emphasise on the mastery of scientific knowledge
through pupil-centred active learning methods. In line with the aspiration, this book covers
various approaches such as inquiry-based learning involving investigations, experiments,
project-based learning, problem-based learning, cooperative learning, contextual learning,
constructivism and futuristic learning.
This textbook takes into account the effort to increase pupils’ thinking skills especially
in the Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS). This is to develop innovative and creative
pupils. Furthermore, the integration of noble values, patriotism and citizenship are also
prioritised.
The contents of this book are organised as follows:
Introduction to the Theme: This book Introduction to the Chapter: There are
contains three (3) themes and each theme eight (8) chapters in this textbook. Each
consists of several related chapters. chapter begins with a double spread
stimulus page.
Engaging Engaging illustration.

illustration.
A list of content
standards
and learning
standards.
Fascinating facts on Keywords.

science. Stimulus questions related to
pupils’ background
knowledge.
v
Special features found in this book are as follows:
21st Century Skills
Activities involving the 21st Century skills:

• Thinking and problem-solving skills
• Interpersonal and self-directed skills
• Information and communication skills
21st 21st Century Learning Activities

Century Various pupil-centred and Higher Order Thinking Skills
(HOTS) activities.
Computational Thinking
Activities involve:
• Decomposition
• Pattern recognition
• Abstraction
• Algorithms
• Logical thinking
• Evaluation
STEM
In depth application and integration of knowledge, skills and
values in STEM subjects, Science, Technology, Engineering
STEM and Mathematics, through the inquiry-based learning
approach, project-based learning and problem-based
learning in the real world context.
Higher Order Exploration Thinking Skills (HEBAT)

Science Module
HEBAT Developing HOTS through inquiry-based activities,

projects, data analysis and assessments as well as
challenging activities.
vi
There are various forms of activities in this book:
Experiment
Field trip Discussion
Inquiry
Types of Project
Activities
Laboratory
activity Multimedia
Simulation
In addition, this book also uses several additional information that has specific purpose to
enrich the pupils’ understanding and to engage their interest.
Science Facts Click Internet Values

Provide additional Visit websites to obtain Inculcate positive attitudes
science facts. additional information. and values in pupils.
w ww Noble Values
My Glorious Malaysia Mind Challenge Precaution

Provide information on Challenging questions to A reminder to pupils on
patriotic and cultural encourage the pupils dangerous matters while
elements or international to think. conducting an experiment
achievements of or laboratory activities.
Malaysian citizens.
!
vii
Mind Test Easy To Remember HOTS
Formative assessments Acronyms are used HOTS questions that

to ensure pupils’ mastery to remember facts. test pupils’ abilities to
of certain learning apply knowledge, skills
standards. and values in making
reasonings and reflections
to solve problems, make
decisions, be innovative
and inventive.
In line with the digital age, this book also includes a digital component, the QR Code.
Scan me
Pupils need to Video

download a free
QR Code reader
application on the
App Store or
Play Store. Quiz
Answers
Guide on how to use Quizizz

1. Scan the Quick Quiz QR Code. 3. Click “Start Game” to begin the quiz.
2. Click “Solo Game”. You can choose to time yourself or
not.
viii
The following items are found at the end of each chapter:
Summary Self-Reflection
Learning summary in the form of a A brief checklist of learning
concept map that helps students outcomes to assess pupils' learning.
understand the entire chapter.
Summary Self-Reflection
Summative Assessment Answer Scan

Scan the QR Codes to access the
Assessment of the entire chapter
suggested answers for the
to test the pupils’ understanding
entire chapter.
and mastery. The questions
Scan me
consist of multiple levels which

are Lower Order Thinking
Skills (LOTS) and Higher Order
Thinking Skills (HOTS).
Summative Assessment Chapter

Answers
ix
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2
1 H He
1
Hydrogen
Proton number 1 4
Helium
H
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Element Symbol
2 Li Be Metal
B C N O F Ne
7 9 Relative atomic 11 12 14 16 19 20
1 Semi-metal
Lithium Beryllium
mass Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
11 12 Hydrogen Element name Non-metal
13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg
23 24
Al27
Si28
P31
S32
Cl35.5
Ar40
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K 39
Ca 40
Sc 45
Ti
48
V51
Cr 52
Mn 55
Fe 56
Co 59
Ni 59
Cu 64
Zn 65
Ga70
Ge73
As75
Se 79
Br80
Kr84
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb85.5
Sr88
Y
89
Zr 91
Nb Mo
93 96
Tc 98
Ru 101
Rh 103
Pd 106
Ag 108
Cd 112
In
115
Sn119
Sb122
Te128
I
127
Xe131
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba 57 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
133
Caesium
137
Barium
71 178.5
Hafnium
181
Tantalum
184
Tungsten
186
Rhenium
190
Osmium
192
Iridium
195
Platinum
197
Gold
201
Mercury
204
Thallium
207
Lead
209
Bismuth
209
Polonium
210
Astatine
222
Radon
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra 89 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
223
Francium
226
Radium
103 257
Rutherfordium
260
Dubnium
262
Seaborgium
262
Bohrium
265
Hassium
266
Meitnerium
281
Darmstadtium
281
Roentgenium
285
Copernicium
286
Nihonium
289
Flerovium
289
Moscovium
293
Livermorium
294
Tennessine
294
Oganesson
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanides
La 139
Ce 140
Pr141
Nd Pm Sm Eu
144 145 150 152
Gd 157
Tb 159
Dy 162.5
Ho165
Er167
Tm Yb169 173
Lu175
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinides
Ac 227
Th 232
Pa 231
U
238
Np 237
Pu Am Cm Bk
244 243 247 247
Cf 251
Es Fm Md No
252 257 258 259
Lr266
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
x
THEME
1
MAINTENANCE AND
CONTINUITY OF LIFE
This theme provides an understanding of the process of evolution in
terms of evidence observed by scientists pioneering the Theory of
Evolution. Pupils will explore the history classification of organisms
and their importance in an ecosystem. Pupils also explore the
relationship between abiotic and biotic components. Pupils are
also exposed to field studies to facilitate them to understand the
relationship that exists in a dynamic ecosystem. Disruption to an
ecosystem is also emphasised so that pupils are more sensitive to
the importance of managing sustainable ecosystem development and
management to create a balance in nature.
ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 1 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY 1

CHAPTER 1
Evolution
And
Taxonomy
• Evolution
• How do archeologists identify the age of each • Evidence
fossil found? • Darwin
• Species
• What are the changes that occur to organisms
• Classification of
based on time?
organisms
• What is meant by Theory of Evolution?
2 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY CHAPTER 1 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

CONTENT STANDARD
1.1 Evidence of Evolution
1.1.1 Explain with examples the changes that occur in organisms based on time
1.1.2 Explain the process of evolution and its importance.
1.1.3 Examine examples of evidence that show the process of evolution.
1.2 Theory of Evolution
1.2.1 Explain the Theory of Evolution presented by Lamarck and Darwin
1.2.2 Determine the distribution of endemic animals or plants in habitats on the map of the world
1.2.3 Explain the diversity of organism which resulted from continental drift.
1.2.4 Explain the relationship between the mechanism of natural selection and the diversity
of species.
1.2.5 Do reasoning about the situations related to the process of evolution.
1.3 Classification of Organism
1.3.1 Describe the history and classification of Linneaus Binomial.
1.3.2 Justify the importance of taxonomy in science.
1.3.3 Communicate about careers related to taxonomy.

1.1 Evidence of Evolution
1.1.1 Changes that occur in organisms based on time
Evolution is a change that takes place in organisms based on time. Change refers to the
structure and function of an organism that changes from simple to more complex. The
changes include the sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) until the morphology of an
organism is able to change during the process of evolution. The evolution process has
taken place hundreds of millions of years ago and involves a long period of time.
Biological evolution is a genetic change in a population from one generation to the
next. Evolution will also change the generation in a population and will cause the
existence of new species from the same generation. The effect of the process of evolution
results in the presence of diversity in organisms.
Let's look at the evolution of elephants in Figure 1.1.
• Genus: Moeritherium • Genus: Palaeomastodon • Genus: Platybelodon

• Lived 50 to 60 million • Lived 30 million years ago • Lived 12 million years ago
years ago • Has ivory at the top and at • Has two horizontal ivory
• Has very small ivory bottom of the mouth arches at the bottom of
• Height of 70 centimetres • Height of 2 metres the mouth
• Height of 2.5 metres
• Species Elephas maximus

(Asian Elephant)
• Has long ivory
• At the tip of the trunk there
is a “finger”
• Genus: Mammuthus
• Lived 5 million years ago
• Species Loxodonta africana • Has very long and
(African Elephant) crooked ivory
• Has ivory of 3 metres long • Height of 4 metres
• At the tip of the trunk has
two “fingers”
Figure 1.1 Evolution of an elephant 1.1.1

1.1.2 Process of Evolution and its importance
The process of evolution refers to changes in the characteristics or structure of organisms
that match the particular period. Changes in characteristics will usually take a very
long time.
The importance of evolution are:
• continuation of life survival.
• adaptation to the changing environment.
• bringing about diversity at every level of biological organisation.
1.1.3 Examples of evidence that shows process of evolution

How can evidence show the process of evolution? Evidence of evolution that are often used
are fossil records, similarities in the embryonic stages and structure such as homologue,
vestige and analog.
Evidence Fossil Record

Through a fossil record, we can see evolutionary changes that span for millions of years.
The development of a horse evolution is often used as an example because of the
differences in body size and leg structure are easily differentiated.
Table 1.1 Horse evolution based on evidence fossil record
Year Horse evolution and shape of leg Explanation
• It is a species of Eohippus.
Eocene • Height of 40 centimetres and has a
(50 million short neck.
years ago) • Has four toes at front limb and five toes at
the hind limb (fourth and fifth fingers are
very small)
• It is a species of Mesohippus.
Oligocene
• Height of 60 centimetres.
(34 million
• Number of toes at the front limb and hind
years ago)
limb are the same, which is three toes.
• It is a species of Merychippus.
Miocene
(23 million
• Number of toes at the front and hind limb
years ago)
are the same, which is three toes.
• It is a species of Pliohippus.
Pliocene
(6 million
• Number of toes decreases.
years ago)
• Is a species that exists today.

Pleistocene • Height of 160 centimetres and has a
(2.5 million long neck.
years ago) • Has one toe.
1.1.2 1.1.3

Evidence of similarity in embryo stages
The embryonic development of various types of living creatures consists of the same
process, which starts from zygote, morula , blastula, gastrula to embryos. The development
at the early stage is the same and only differs when it enters the stage of foetal formation,
which is during the level of differentiation and specialisation of the embryonic tissue before
the formation of the perfect foetus for hatching or birth. This means that all living beings
have the same origin of ontogeny. Ontogeny is the development of an organism from one
cell to a mature individual.
Lizard
Tortoise
The stages of animal
embryos which show
similar structures.
Chick
Calf
Figure 1.2 Structural stages for animal embryos
Evidence of structure which is homologue, vestige

and analog
Homologue is the condition when an organ or part of the body
has the same basic form but has different functions as shown
in Figure 1.3.
For example, the front legs of a cat, fins of a dolphin and
the wings of a bat originate from the same part even though
they are used in different functions. Figure 1.3 The homologous structures
of a cat, fish and bat
Analog is an organ structure that is basically

different but has the same function.
Figure 1.4 shows an insect’s wing and a
bird’s wing. Both of these parts of the body
Figure 1.4 The analog structures of an insect’s have the same function, but their basic structure
wing and a bird’s wing is different.

Vestige is a shrinking organ or has only partial function
of the homologous organ as compared to other 15 million
well-developed species. years ago to
the present
For example, the dolphin has the same hip bones as
other vertebrates, but the structure does not function and
45 million
will eventually diminish. years ago
Mind Test 1.1 48 million

years ago
1. What is meant by the process of evolution?
2. State the importance of the evolutionary process. 50 million
3. What kind of evidence shows that the process of years ago
evolution occurs?
1.2
Figure 1.5 Vestige structure
Theory of Evolution of a dolphin
1.2.1 Theory of Evolution presented

by Lamarck and Darwin
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck states that evolution
takes place based on inheritance of acquired
characteristics. In explaining his theory, Lamarck
implements the evolution of the giraffe's neck.
According to Lamarck, the elongation of the
giraffe’s neck is the adaptation result of the giraffe
to its environment.
The giraffe stretches its neck to get to
foliage located on a tall tree branch. The
changes that occur in the elongation of the time
giraffe’s neck are inherited by the next
generation. Figure 1.6 Lamarck's theory
Charles Robert Darwin proposed the

Theory of Natural Selection, that is,
species which are most adaptable to the
environment will survive.
For example, a short-necked giraffe
which cannot get food from a tall tree
will die while the long-necked giraffe will
manage to adapt.
time
Figure 1.7 Darwin's theory in the evolution of the
giraffe's neck elongation 1.2.1

Activity 1.1 HEBAT
Aim: To produce multimedia presentations on Theory of Natural Selection.
Instructions:
1. You are asked to refer to the Module “HEBAT Sains” 26 (Biodiversity) and discuss the
adaptation of the beak of Darwin's finches in the Galapagos Islands based on the Theory
of Natural Selection.
2. Present your information in the form of a multimedia presentation.
1.2.2 Distribution of endemic animals or plants in a habitat
The finches on the Galapagos Islands found by Darwin have many variations.
According to Darwin, the finches originated from a seed-eating species in
South America. In search of food, these finches then migrated and
spread to different places. Some went to a place where there
are plenty of grains, some are surrounded by insects and some
are filled with flowers and nectar. Due to differences in food types, the finches
eventually adapted and changed their beaks to suit their type of food.
Ins
e
ct
eat uit
s
ea
er
Fr
ters
Cactus
ea
ter
Click Internet
s
www
s
er
eat
Se e d Browse the website to
better understand how the
finches have evolved from a
seed-eating species to
other species.
Figure 1.8 Variations in the shape of beaks and types of food in finches observed by Darwin

Endemic species means a species that is found only in certain areas of the world and no other
place. Physical, climatic and biological factors can contribute to endemism.
The Galapagos Islands house many endemic species that are very unique and are rarely
encountered elsewhere. This island is a place where Charles Darwin conducted a research
and discovered the Theory of Natural Selection which made the Galapagos Islands famous
around the world.
Among the endemic animals in the
Galapagos Islands are the Galapagos
tortoise, marine iguanas, finches and
Scalesia trees
In addition to the Galapagos Islands,
Malaysia holds the world's largest species
of endemic flower, the Rafflesia sp.
Photograph 1.1 Galapagos Islands
The largest flower Rafflesia sp was recorded to

have a diameter of 91 centimetres. When this
flower blooms, it produces a very bad odour.
This flower has no leaves or roots, making it a
parasitic plant.
Photograph 1.2 Rafflesia sp. is the largest The Rafflesia sp flower found on the RM10
flower in the world note is a native species of Peninsular Malaysia,
Rafflesia azlanii. The species was first discovered
in the Royal Belum Forest, Perak in 2003.
The Galapagos tortoise found by
Charles Darwin is large in size with a
dome-shaped shell. This tortoise differs Galapagos tortoise
from tortoises in other places because
the tortoises in the other places are small
in size and the shell is fairly flat.
Normal tortoise
Photograph 1.3 Galapagos tortoise and

normal tortoise 1.2.2

1.2.3 Diversity of organisms resulted from continental drift
The distribution of the diversity of organisms today is due to continental drifts about 200
million years ago. This is proven by the discovery of the same fossil but found on several
different continents.
African Elephants and Asian Elephants
The African elephant (Loxodonta african) and the Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are
closely related to the extinct Mammoth. The two elephant species originated from Africa
about 4 million years ago. Figure 1.9 shows the difference between the African elephant
and the Asian elephant.
Bigger ears African Elephant
Horizontal
body arch
Curved ivory
The tip of the trunk

has two "fingers”
It has a height of 10
to 11 feet and weighs
about 6 tons
Asian Elephant
The arch of the body is quite curved and
seems to have two domes on his head
Smaller ears
Ivory curves
upwards
and smaller
The tip of the trunk

It has a height of 8 to 10 has one "finger”
feet and weighs about 3 to
5 tons
Figure 1.9 Difference between the African elephant and the Asian elephant
The Theory of Continental Drift
Continental Drift is a theory that explains the existence Science Fact
and distribution of the continents that exist today. This
The word pan means all
statement was issued by a meteorologist from German, while the word gea
Alfred Wegener (1911). This theory is written in his book means earth.
The Origin of Continents and Oceans.
According to Wegener, the continents today come from a large continent,
named Pangea.
225 million years ago 200 million years ago

Pangea was surrounded by an Two drifts occur, namely Laurasia in
ocean called Panthalassa. the north and Gondwana in the south.
Europe Europe
North America North America
North America North America
Europe Europe
Africa Africa
Africa Africa South America South America

South America South America
Europe North America

North America Antarctica Antarctica Antarctica Antarctica
Europe
Africa
Africa
South America South America
Antarctica
Antarctica
65 million years ago

Now
The continental drifting process took
There are seven continents in
place more actively. The continents
the world with many oceans
like South America, Africa, Asia and
surrounding them.
Australia began to move away from
one another.
Figure 1.10 Theory of Continental Drift

The continental drift has caused the diversity of organisms to be found scattered
throughout the world. This movement took millions of years to form the continents of today.
1.2.3

Activity 1.2
Aim : To gather information on how animals in the same family are found in different locations.
Instructions:
1. Form a group of four.
2. Each group is asked to find information on ways how animals in the same family are at
different continent locations. For example, polar bears and sun bears.
3. Present your information in a mini folio.
1.2.4 Relationship between the mechanism of natural selection and diversity

of species
Natural selection results in the change in a population.
This process is a mechanism in evolution. It is the species
means or ways to adapt to their environment to enable them Science Fact
to survive and continue to evolve to the next generation.
Flies and mosquitoes
The natural selection process starts with organism which evolve rapidly to
have genes that produce characteristics that give them an develop high resistance
advantage over the environment for survival. Change in the to insecticides.
characteristics are pass on from one population to the next.
1 Variation 2 Industrial Revolution
Variation of two colour patterns of two The industrial revolution in the United Kingdom in
butterflies Biston betularia. 1750 to 1850 led to a lot of smog being released,
causing the trees to become black.
3 Adaptation 4 Selection
Dark butterflies are able to survive After generations, there is a change in the
and reproduce more compared to the frequency of the alleles, which is, there are more
bright-coloured butterflies to pass on their dark-coloured butterflies than bright-coloured
genes to the next generation. butterflies.
Figure 1.11 Process of natural selection of Biston betularia 1.2.4
Activity 1.3
Aim: To create multimedia presentations on the relationship between natural selection and the
diversity of species of nature.
Instructions:
2. Your group is asked to search and collect information to explain the relationship between
natural selection and the diversity of species.
3. Present your information in the form of a multimedia presentation.
1.2.5 Situations related to the process of evolution

The diversity of organisms is associated with the evolution of species over time. For example,
amphibians are said to have evolved from fish. This is because tetrapod body parts evolve
from fish fins.
In addition, reptiles are also said to evolve from amphibians. This is because of the
similarities in the bones for movement of fish, amphibians and reptiles. However, this theory
of evolution is often debated and is still a controversy.
Fish
Amphibian
Humerus
Humerus
Ulna
Radius Ulna
Radius
Reptiles
Humerus
Radius Ulna
Figure 1.12 Comparison of movement parts of fish, amphibians and reptiles
Mind Test 1.2

1. Briefly state the Theory of Evolution by Charles Robert Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
2. Why do the finches on the Galapagos Islands found by Darwin have many variations?
3. Explain how the Theory of Continental Drift influences the diversity of organisms that exist
today.
1.2.4 1.2.5

1.3.1 History and classification of Linneaus Binomial
Scientists classify organisms according to shared features. For example, organisms that
move and eat other organisms are classified as animals, while non-moving and green
organisms are called plants.
However, confusion may arise when classifying organisms in that way. How can we
classify and name the existing organisms? We will discuss the classification of organisms
based on the characteristics of the organism’s group.
Hierarchy of organism classification

Organisms can be classified into five large groups called kingdoms. These five kingdoms
are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
Table 1.2 Characteristics of five kingdoms of organism
Kingdom Characteristics
• Unicellular organism
• No nuclear membrane
Monera • No organelle membrane
• Has cell wall
• Example: Bacteria
• Unicellular organism
• Has nuclear membrane
Protista
• Has simple organelle membrane
• Example: Protozoa and algae
• No chloroplast
• Cell wall from chitin
Fungi
• Produces spores
• Example: Mushroom, yeast
• Multicellular organism
• Has chloroplast
Plantae
• Cell wall from cellulose
• Example: Ferns, flowering plants
• Multicellular organism
• No cell wall
Animalia
• Able to move
• Example: Earthworms, fish, birds

All five kingdoms have various organisms in them. Every kingdom is divided into small
groups, called the phylum. The organisms in the phylum have common characteristics.
Phylum can be divided into classes. Each class is divided into orders. Each order is divided
into families, each family is divided into genus, and the genus is divided into species. The
hierarchy of classification of organisms is shown in Figure 1.13.
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Figure 1.13 Hierarchy in organism classification
Table 1.3 Example of hierarchy in organism classification

Animal Taxonomy Plants
Animalia Kingdom Plantae
Annelida Phylum Angiospermaphyta
Oligochitae Class Dicotyledoneae
Terricolae Order Malvales
Lumbricidae Family Malvaceae
Lumbricus Genus Hibiscus
terrestris Species Rosa-sinensis
Earthworm Common name Hibiscus
History of Linnaeus Binomial Classification
Aristotle, a German scientist, started a binomial classification

by classifying organisms based on the same characteristics.
John Ray also introduced the concept of species.
Carl Linnaeus introduced the modern binomial nomenclature

that is known as Linnaeus Binomial System of Classification.
He is known as the Father of Modern Taxonomy and the
pioneer of modern ecological knowledge.
Figure 1.14 Carl Linnaeus

Based on Linnaeus Binomial System of Classification, the scientific name of an
organism consists of two parts, the first part is the general name as the genus and the
second part is a more detailed name, which is the name of the species.
In writing this scientific name, the general name should
be capitalised and for the name of the species is written in Science Fact
small letters. The scientific name is from Latin. Its words
are printed incisively and underlined when written. For
example, Panthera tigris is a scientific name for a tiger and Typed as: Panthera leo
Musca domestica is a scientific name for flies. Written as: Panthera leo
Table 1.4 Examples of scientific names of organisms

Common
Genus Species Scientific name
name
Corn Zea mays Zea mays Photograph 1.4
Paddy Oryza sativa Oryza sativa Panthera leo.
Ixora Ixora sunkist Ixora sunkist
Hibiscus
Hibiscus Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
rosa-sinensis
Housefly Musca domestica Musca domestica
Phyton Pytho currus Pytho currus
Human Homo sapiens Homo sapiens
Activity 1.4
Aim : To use the Linnaeus Binomial system to name trees in the school area.
Material: Signboard, paint, brush and reference book.
Instructions:
1. Form a group consisting of four pupils.
2. With the help of a reference book, look up the scientific name for the trees in your
school area.
3. Write the scientific names of the trees on a signboard and place it at a suitable place on
the tree.
1.3.2 Importance of taxonomy in science

Classification is a system of collecting and arranging living things that have the same characteristics
into the same class. Taxonomy is important because when there are new organisms found by
researchers, new characteristics will be used to classify the organism based on its compatibility.
This can help us to study more precisely and in more detail.
The importance of taxonomy in science:
• facilitate learning, identifying and memorising an organism.
• indicate the relationship between different groups of organisms.
• demonstrate the evolution of organisms from a simple life to a more complex one.
1.3.1 1.3.2
1.3.3 Careers related to taxonomy
The taxonomic field promises an exciting career fields. Among the career fields that the
previous scientists have chosen are:
Botanist
Botanists are researchers in the field of plant life.
They study new species and also conduct experiments to study
how a plant grows in a different situation.
Robert Brown's findings include the discovery of the nucleus
and the naming of about 2000 new plant species.
Zoologist
Zoologists are researchers in
the field of animal life.
Robert Brown They are involved in animal
research, management
and education.
Al-Jahiz explained that animal
habitat affects the life of a
species. He also studied about
350 species of animals written in
his book al-hayawan.
Al-Jahiz
Taxonomist
Taxonomists are researchers who study and determine the
appropriate classification of organisms.
Carl Linnaeus was responsible for classifying plants and animals
according to their characteristics.
Carl Linnaeus
Mind Test 1.3

1. Write the scientific name for the following organisms:
(a) Human
(b) Hibiscus
(c) Tiger
2. Write the hierarchy for the classification of organisms in the correct sequence.
3. State the importance of taxonomy in science.
1.3.3

18
EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY
Summary
Evidence of Evolution Classification of Organism
Fossil record Embryo stages Structure evidence Hierarchy Linnaeus Binomial

• Evolutionary • The same • Homologue Kingdom • Scientific
change over development at name consists
a large scale the beginning • Vestige Phylum of genus and
of time • Analog species
• Structure Class
development is
different after Order
the formation of
the foetus Family
Genus
Species
Scan Me
Theory of Evolution
Lamarck’s Theory Darwin’s Theory

Inherited Theory of Natural
characteristics Selection
Quick
Quiz 1
EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY CHAPTER 1 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

11/7/2019.
Accessible on
Self Reflection
At the end of this chapter, pupils are able to:
1.1 Evidence of evolution

Explain with examples the changes that occur in organisms based on time.
Explain the evolution process and its importance.
Examine examples of evidence examples that shows the process of evolution.
1.2 Theory of Evolution
Explain the Theory of Evolution presented by Lamarck and Darwin.
Determine the distribution of endemic animals or plants in habitats on the map of
the world.
Explain the diversity of organism which resulted from continental drift.
Explain the relationship between the mechanism of natural selection and the diversity
of species.
Do reasoning about situations related to the process of evolution.
Describe the history and classification of Linnaeus Binomial.
Justify the importance of taxonomy in science.
Communicate about careers related to taxonomy.
Summative Assessment 1
1. What is the evolution process?

2. State Darwin's Theory of Evolution about the elongation of the giraffe's neck.
3. Through observation on structure and function, bird wings and fish fins are said to
have homologoue properties. Why?
4. What is the main factor that causes the Biston betularia population to decrease after
the industrial revolution occurred in 1750 to 1850?
5. State the consequences of natural selection with the diversity of species in nature.
6. Why organisms need to be classified?
7. List the five kingdoms involved in organism classification.
Provide an example for every kingdom.
Scan Me
Answers
8. List the hierarchy of classification from the largest to the Chapter 1
smallest.
Accessible on
11/7/2019.

CHAPTER 2
Dynamic
Ecosystem
• Population
• Abiotic components
• Biotic components
• What are the types of interactions between living
• Habitat
organisms in an ecosystem?
• Ecosystem
• How do the colonisation and succession • Pioneer species
processes occur in plants? • Successor species
• What activities can you suggest to prevent the • Succession
degradation of the ecosystem’s quality?
20 DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM CHAPTER 2 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

CONTENT STANDARD
2.1 Abiotic and Biotic Components and Interactions in an Ecosystem
2.1.1 Explain with examples the meaning of habitat, population, community, ecosystem and niche.
2.1.2 Identify abiotic and biotic components in an ecosystem.
2.1.3 Explain the interaction between biotic components in terms of nutrition.
2.1.4 Carry out an experiment to study the competition between plants.
2.1.5 Carry out an experiment to study the effects on pH on the growth of seedlings
2.2 Colonisation and Succession Processes in Plants
2.2.1 Explain with examples the process of colonisation and succession.
2.2.2 Explain the characteristics of adaptation in pioneer and successor species.
2.2.3 Explain the changes of habitat in every stage caused by successor species until climax
community.
2.3 Population Ecology
2.3.1 Identify the suitable sampling technique to study the population size of an organism.
2.3.2 Estimate the population size of an organism in a habitat.
2.3.3 Determine the distribution of organism in a habitat based on density, frequency and
percentage coverage of species.
2.4 Threats to Ecosystems
2.4.1 Describe how human activities threaten the ecosystem.
2.4.2 Communicate about the steps to prevent and control pollution as well as the degradation
of the ecosystem’s quality.
ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 2 DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM 21

2.1 Abiotic and Biotic Components and Interactions in
an Ecosystem
2.1.1 Habitat, Population, Community, Ecosystem and Niche
Ecosystem
Several communities living and interacting with each other together with non-living
components of the environment.
Example: Animals, plants, the pH value of soil, the sun, water and air make up an
ecosystem.
Habitat Niche
A natural environment where an The role and activities of an organism
organism lives that meets their basic in an ecosystem.
needs such as food, shelter Example: Wreathed
and safety. hornbills fly to find food.
Example: A
tropical rainforest
habitat.
Community
Several
animal
and plant
populations living Population
and interacting with
each other. A group of organisms
Example: A wreathed from the same species
hornbill population living living and breeding in the
together with a population same area.
of monkeys, snakes as Example: A group of
well as other animals. wreathed hornbills living in a
tropical rainforest.
Species
A group of organisms that look alike
and share common characteristics.
These organisms are capable of breeding
to produce offspring.
Example: Wreathed hornbills.
Figure 2.1 The relationship between ecosystem, niche, community, population and species
in a habitat 2.1.1
2.1.2 Abiotic and Biotic Components in an Ecosystem
Nature is made up of abiotic and biotic components. These two main components are shown in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
Table 2.1 Abiotic Components
Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living factors in an ecosystem.
Component Temperature pH value Light intensity Humidity Micro climate Topography
Explanation • Organisms can • The pH value of • The intensity of • Humidity refers • The climate in a • The physical land
only live within a water or soil in light affects the to the amount of micro habitat. features such

specific range of a certain habitat distribution and water vapour in as the altitude,
• Involves the
temperature. influences the growth of plants the air. slope gradient
combined affects
distribution of living and animals. and aspects of a
• Organisms will • Humidity affects of wind, humidity,
organisms. region.
not survive if the • The sun is the the rate of temperature and
temperature is • Most organisms main energy water loss from light intensity. • The higher the
extremely different survive well in source for animals through altitude, the lower
from the optimum neutral conditions photosynthesis. dehydration and the atmospheric
temperature (pH 7). plants through pressure and
range. transpiration. temperature.
CHAPTER 2 DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM

Example At very low • Pineapple plants The variation of Snakes and frogs The micro climate in Pine trees can
temperatures, require acidic soil light intensity in a live in humid moist soil is suitable be found growing
polar bears adapt (pH < 7). forest leads to a habitats. for worms. on thin soils and
morphologically by difference in plant slopes.
• Oil palm trees
having thick fur and growth.
require alkaline
undergo behavioural
soil (pH > 7).
adaptation by
hibernating.
Photograph
23
24
Table 2.2 Biotic Components
Biotic Components
Organisms that live in an ecosystem.
Component Producers Consumers Decomposers
Autotroph organisms Heterotroph organisms that cannot synthesise Microorganisms that break down
that synthesise organic their own food but must depend on other complex substances such as proteins
substances from inorganic organisms for food. and carbohydrates in dead organisms
substances through or from waste products into simpler
There are three types of consumers.
photosynthesis. inorganic materials.
They are:-
1. Primary consumers: Herbivores that feed
Explanation on producers.
2. Secondary consumers: Organisms that
feed on primary consumers.
3. Tertiary consumers: Carnivores that feed
on secondary consumers.
Example
DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM CHAPTER 2 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

Primary Secondary Tertiary
Consumer Consumer Consumer
2.1.2
2.1.3 Interactions between biotic components in terms of nutrition
The biotic components in a habitat rely on each other for survival. Their interactions
may be transient or long-term. Figure 2.2 shows the types of interaction between the
biotic components.
TYPES OF INTERACTION
BETWEEN BIOTIC COMPONENTS
Symbiosis Prey and

Saprophytism
Predator
Commensalism Mutualism Parasitism
Figure 2.2 Interaction between the biotic components

Symbiosis
The relationship between two or more species interacting with each other for an extended
period. There are three types of symbiotic relationships: commensalism, mutualism
and parasitism.
Commensalism
• Commensalism is an interaction between two organisms living together where
one organism benefits without affecting the other. Two examples are epiphytes
and epizoics.
Epiphytes
• Green plants that grow on other plants just to gain aerial support
to obtain sunlight for photosynthesis.
• Epiphytes do not have strong stems to reach the height
they need.
• Example: Staghorn ferns, bird's nest ferns and pigeon orchids.
Epizoics
• Animals that live on the body of other animals without causing
any disadvantage to the host.
• Epizoics benefit from their host in the form of transportation
and maybe even food scraps.
• Example: A school of remora fish swim near sharks for
food scraps and protection.

Mutualism
• Mutualism is an interaction between two organisms

that benefit each other.
Examples:
• Butterflies feed on the nectar provided by the flowers
while the flowers need butterflies as pollinators.
• Oxpeckers feed on ticks that live on water buffaloes,
keeping them clean.
Parasitism
• Parasitism is an interaction between two organisms

that benefits only one organism. There are two types
of parasitism, ectoparasites and endoparasites.
Ectoparasites
• Parasites that live on the external surface of
other organisms.
• Example: Mosquitoes feed on human blood and breed
while humans can be transmitted with mosquito-borne
diseases such as dengue.
Endoparasites
• Parasites that live within the tissue of other organisms
(host).
• Example: Tapeworms attach themselves to the lining
of the human digestive system obtain digested food
as their food source. Humans lose nutrients that
they require.

Saprophytism
Living organisms that obtain nutrients from dead and decaying organic matter are known
as saprophytes. They secrete enzymes to digest dead organisms and absorb the simple
nutrients produced.
Photograph 2.1 Yeast, bacteria and mushrooms are examples of saprophytes
Prey and Predator

The prey and predator interaction is a relationship whereby a
species of organism hunts and eat other organisms.
Example: The relationship between deers and tigers.
Deers are the preys while tigers are the predators.
Characteristics of predators:
Photograph 2.2 Tigers

are predators while
deer are preys
Sharp vision Sharp, curved Hooked beaks to
to identify the claws to grasp tear the flesh of
location of their prey. their prey.
their prey.
Figure 2.3 Characteristics of predators
Photograph 2.3 Preys rely

Scan Me
Prey-predator
graph on camouflage to confuse
their predators
Accessible on
11/7/2019.
2.1.3

2.1.4 Studying the competition between plants
Experiment 2.1
Problem Statement: How do intraspecific and interspecific competitions affect the growth of
seedlings?
Objective: To study the intraspecific and interspecific competitions in plants.
Hypothesis:The higher the intraspecific and interspecific competitions, the lower the mass
of seedlings.
Variables:
Manipulated : Types of seeds
Responding : Mass of seedlings
Constant : Mass of soil, volume of water, intensity of light, number of seedlings and
distance between each seedling.
Materials: Loam, distilled water, green and red bean seeds.
Apparatus: Three boxes (1 m × 1 m), a weighing balance, an oven, a ruler, a dryer and a
permanent ink marker pen.
Procedure:
1. Label three boxes P, Q and R. Fill the boxes with equal amounts of loam.
2. Sow the green bean seeds ( ) at 4 cm intervals in box P. Using the same method, sow the
red bean seeds (X) at 4 cm intervals in box Q. Meanwhile, in box R, sow both green bean and
red bean seeds alternately.
3. Water the seeds with the same volume of distilled water every day.
4. After a week, randomly pull out 10 green bean seedlings from box P.
(Reminder: the roots have to be completely pulled out with the seedlings.)
5. Wash the roots under running water to remove the soil.
6. Dry the seedlings at 102 oC in an oven.
7. Cool the dried seedlings and weigh them.
8. Repeat steps 4 until 7 for seedlings from boxes Q and R.
P Q R
Figure 2.4 Set up of apparatus
Discussion:
1. What are the types of competition that took place in boxes P, Q and R?
2. What were the basic needs competed for by the seedlings in boxes P, Q and R?
3. What are the differences between intraspecific and interspecific competition?
Conclusion: State your conclusion.
2.1.4
2.1.5 Studying the effects of pH on the growth of seedlings
Experiment 2.2
Problem Statement: How does the pH value of the soil affect the growth of seedlings?
Objective: To study the effects of pH on the growth of seedlings.
Hypothesis: Seedlings grow better in a neutral soil condition.
Variables:
Manipulated : Soil condition (acidic and neutral)
Responding : Height of seedlings (cm)
Constant : Volume of water, intensity of light, number of seedlings and distance between
each seedling.
Apparatus: Two boxes (1 m x 1 m), a ruler, a dryer and a permanent ink marker pen.
Materials: Loam, distilled water, carbonic acid and green bean seeds.
Procedure:
1. Label two boxes as P and Q.
2. Fill box P with loam while box Q with a combination of loam and carbonic acid.
3. Plant the green bean seeds at 10 cm intervals in boxes P and Q.
4. Water the seeds with the same volume of distilled water every day.
5. After four week, the height of the plant from the soil in both boxes P and Q are measured
using a ruler.
P Q
Discussion: Which soil condition is suitable for the growth of seedlings?

Conclusion: State your conclusion.
Mind Test 2.1

1. State the components in an ecosystem.
2. Explain with examples the different types of interactions between organisms.
2.1.5

2.2.1 The process of colonisation and succession in a pond
• Pioneer species (algae and submerged

plants) inhabit an abandoned pond.
Submerged
Abandoned pond plants
• The shallow condition of the pond

makes it unsuitable for floating plants.
• Floating plants are subsequently
replaced by amphibious plants. • Decomposed organic matter from
• These plants can live on land as well decayed dead organisms deposits on
as in water. the base of the pond.
Amphibious • The pond becomes shallow.
Floating plants plants
Floating
(Sedges)
plants
Submerged • organic
plants matter
Woody
Herbaceous Primary forest
plants
plants Sedges
Bulrush
• The pioneer species are replaced by • When the amphibious plants die and
floating plants. decay, the organic remains add to the
• These plants float freely on the surface sediments on the base of the pond.
of the water and prevent sunlight from • The pond becomes even shallower.
reaching the organisms at the base of • Gradually, the pond is filled with
the pond. sediments and becomes drier.
• More organisms die. • Land plants such as sedges, shrubs and
• The pond becomes shallower. woody plants will emerge to displace the
amphibious plants.
Figure 2.6 Colonisation and succession processes in plants 2.2.1

2.2.2 Characteristics of adaptation in pioneer and successor species
How does a mangrove forest become a tropical
rainforest? Mangrove swamps are mostly Science Facts
found in the tropical and subtropical regions
where fresh water meets salt water. The abiotic Muddy bank
Straits of Malacca
conditions of a swamp is a hostile environment Avicennia sp.
for normal plants. The muddy soft soil has a low Sonneratia sp.
River Rhizophora sp.
oxygen level and a high concentration of salt.
Bruguiera sp.
In addition, mangrove swamps are exposed Land species
to high intensity of sunlight. Despite these
conditions, mangroves can still survive in the The distribution of mangroves
in an area on the west coast of
area. What are the characteristics of adaptation Peninsular Malaysia.
that enables the growth of mangroves in a
swampy area?
Characteristics of adaptations of mangrove plants
Species Adaptation Characteristics Photograph
• Extensive branched root systems to

anchor the plants onto muddy soil to
withstand strong winds. Photograph 2.4
Pneumatophore roots
• The main cable root has hundreds
Pioneer species
of vertical breathing roots called
Examples:
pneumatophores.
Avicennia sp.
(pokok api-api) • Pneumatophores as shown in
and Sonneratia sp. Photograph 2.4 grow upwards on the
(pokok perepat) base of the tree.
• Each pneumatophore has numerous
pores called lenticels on its surface as
shown in Photograph 2.5 through which
gaseous exchange can take place.
Photoraph 2.5
Lenticels on roots

Species Adaptation Characteristics Photograph
• The leaves of the mangroves are

covered by a thick layer of cuticle to
reduce transpiration during hot days. The
succulent leaves enable them to store
water as shown in Photograph 2.6.
• The sea water that enters the roots are
Pioneer species excreted through hydathodes, pores
Examples: found on the lower epidermis of the Photograph 2.6 Succulent
Avicennia sp. and leaves. leaves
Sonneratia sp.
• Mangrove plants have viviparous
seedlings as shown in Photograph
2.7. These seeds germinate while still
attached to the mother plant. It has a long
and pointed radicle. The seedlings will fall
vertically onto the soft soil. This reduces
the chance that it will submerge into the
mud and get washed out to sea by the Photograph 2.7 Viviparous
tides. seedlings
Successor
species • Prop roots that are highly branched from
Example: the trunk, as shown in Photograph 2.8,
Rhizophora sp. support as well as trap fallen leaves
(Bakau Minyak) and mud. This causes the deposition of
sediment to take place quickly.
Photograph 2.8 Prop roots
Successor
species
• The buttress root system forms loops that
Example: Bruguiera
extend from the soil to trap more silt and
sp.(Tumu Merah)
mud as shown in Photograph 2.9.
Photograph 2.9 Buttress

roots
2.2.2
2.2.3 Changes of habitat caused by pioneer and successor species
The gradual change of a habitat in every stage by successor species eventually leads to
a climax community.
Tropical Rainforest
Pioneer Zone Rhizophora sp. Zone Bruguiera sp. Zone
Zone
• Pioneer • Gradually, • Another • The mangrove

species are the Rhizophora sp. mangrove plants are
Avicennia sp. and replaces the species, the gradually replaced
Sonneratia sp. pioneer species. Bruguiera sp. by herbaceous
replaces the plants, in turn,
• Extensive • Prop roots support
Rhizophora sp. forming a
pneumatophore and anchor the
rainforest which
root system as tree and trap mud. • The buttress root
is a climax
support and system provides
community.
trap mud. • The pioneer support and traps
species and old more mud.
• As more mud • A climax
Rhizophora sp.
is trapped, the community is a
plants die and • As more silt and
seabed will stable community.
sediments are mud sediment are
eventually rise.
formed at the river deposited on the
• Succession is a
• When there is less bank. river bank, the old
gradual process
water, it becomes shore becomes
• The ground that takes
less favourable farther away from
becomes higher hundreds of
for the pioneer the sea.
and the soil years.
species.
becomes drier and
• The soil hardens
firmer.
and becomes
terrestrial ground.
Figure 2.7 The change of habitats from pioneer zone until the formation of a climax community

Activity 2.1
Aim: To conduct a field study on an ecosystem to understand the colonisation and succession
processes.
Instructions:
1. Make a field trip to an ecosystem and see the change of habitat due to the pioneer and
successor species.
2. Find information to understand the meaning of pioneer species, successor species,
dominant species and climax community.
3. Find information on the adaptation characteristics of pioneer and successor species of
the habitat in the colonisation and succession processes.
4. Present the findings of the field study in the form of a folio with pictures.
Activity 2.2
Aim: To find information from websites to investigate colonisation and succession.

Instructions:
1. Visit websites to find information on the colonisation and succession processes in a
mangrove swamp.
2. Include pictures and adaptation characteristics of animal species living in the mangrove
swamp.
3. Present your findings through a multimedia presentation.
Mind Test 2.2

1. Describe the colonisation and succession processes in a pond.
2. State the adaptations of mangrove plants.
3. Explain the changes of habitat that takes place in mangrove swamps.
2.2.3
• Population ecology is a study on the measurement of the population size and the factors
affecting it. In an ecosystem, it is important to study the population size.
• Population is defined as a group of organisms of the same species occupying the same habitat.
• Population size refers to the number of organisms in a population.
The population size and density of an organism in a habitat is dynamic depending on abiotic
and biotic factors such as birth rates, death rates, immigration rates (inward migration) and
emigration rates (outward migration). Abiotic factors such as competition, predation and
parasitism also control population size.
Population density refers to the number of individual species per unit area of a habitat. How
do we estimate the size and density of a population?
2.3.1 Sampling technique to determine the population

size of an organism.
The quadrat sampling technique is used to study the size
of a population.
Quadrat Sampling Technique

A quadrat is a square frame made of wood, metal or strings.
The size of the quadrat depends on the size, density and
distribution of the organisms being studied. For example, Photograph 2.10 Example of a
a quadrat of 10 cm x 10 cm. Using this technique, the quadrat
quadrats are placed randomly in a particular area to study the population of one or more
species of organism. This technique is suitable to be used to determine the percentage
coverage, density and frequency of a particular species such as plants and small, static
animals.
Frequency
Frequency is defined as the probability of obtaining a species of plants in a quadrat. Frequency
also refers to the degree of dispersion of plants in a given area.
Number of quadrats containing the studied species
Frequency = × 100%
Total number of quadrates sampled
Density
Density is the mean number of individuals of a species per unit area of study.
Total number of individuals of the species in all quadrats
Density =
Total number of quadrats sampled × area of quadrats

Coverage
Coverage of a species is the ground occupied by the growth of a plant species . The
percentage coverage is the percentage of ground area occupied by the plant. Percentage
coverage is useful when it is difficult to count each individual plant.
Percentage Total aerial coverage of the species in all quadrats (m2)

= × 100%
coverage Total number of quadrats sampled × area of quadrat
2.3.2 Estimating the population size of organisms in a habitat

An estimation of the population size of animals can be done using the capture, mark,
release and recapture technique by using the following formula:
Number of Number of
organisms in the × organisms in the
Estimated population first capture second capture
=
size
Number of marked organisms
in the second capture Figure 2.8 Determination
of the estimated size
of population
Activity 2.3
Aim: To investigate the relationship between the population size of an organism and the
change of pH value, temperature, light intensity and humidity.
Instructions:
1. Using sources such as videos, reference books and other references from the Internet,
gather information and data on the effects of each abiotic factor listed below on the population
distribution of an organism.
(a) pH value (c) Light intensity
(b) Temperature (d) Humidity
2. Investigate and interpret the information and data obtained.
3. Write a report on this investigation.
2.3.3 Determining the distribution of organisms in a habitat based on density,

frequency and percentage coverage of species
The data collected can be used to determine the distribution of organisms in a particular habitat
based on the density, frequency and percentage coverage of the species. Let us do Activity 2.4 to
determine the distribution of organisms in a habitat.
Activity 2.4
Aim: To investigate the percentage coverage of Mimosa pudica in the school field by using
quadrat sampling technique.
Material: Mimosa pudica plants in the school field.
Apparatus: 10 quadrats measuring 1 m x 1 m, a metre stick, string, scissors,
nails and hammer. 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3
Procedure:
1. Construct 10 quadrats measuring 1 m × 1 m.
2. Using the strings, nails and hammer, subdivide the quadrat into 100 smaller squares of
0.1 m x 0.1 m each.
3. In each quadrat, count the number of squares that are covered with Mimosa pudica.
Only count the squares that are at least half occupied with Mimosa pudica and disregard
the others.
4. Count the aerial coverage of the Mimosa pudica in each quadrat by multiplying the number
of occupied squares by the area of each square.
5. Record the results into the table below.
Table 2.3 Results

Quadrat 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Aerial coverage of
Mimosa pudica (m2)
6. Calculate the percentage coverage of Mimosa pudica in the 10 quadrats.

7. Calculate the frequency of the sample species on the school field.
Discussion:
1. State one way to improve the precision of this technique.
2. Is the Mimosa pudica plant uniformly distributed across the school field? Why?
Capture, mark, release and recapture technique

The capture, mark, release and recapture technique is used to estimate the population
size of mobile animals such as small mammals, butterflies and birds. How is it done?
Step 3
Step 1
The marked
A specific animals are
animal sample then released
is determined into the general Step 4
Step 2
and is captured. population.
The animals are After a certain period,
marked with a a second sample is
ring or a tag. recaptured and the
number of marked
animals is recorded.
Figure 2.9 The capture, mark, release and recapture technique
Mind Test 2.3

1. State a suitable sampling technique to investigate the population size of an organism.
2. How do you estimate the population size in a habitat?
2.3.3

2.4 Threats to the Ecosystem
2.4.1 Describe how human activities threaten the ecosystem
With the increase of human population worldwide, various activities have to be done to
ensure humans continue to enjoy life. However, if such activities are not monitored, they
could lead to problems related to the environment and threaten the survival of ecosystems.
Respecting Nature or Earth
All species have the right to live as

they are also God’s creations.
• The intensive usage of inorganic fertilisers

which contain nitrates and phosphates will
leach into the rivers and lakes.
• This condition encourages excessive growth of • Deforestation is the destruction of forests
aquatic plant life such as algae. to make way for development. The most
• When the algae eventually die, they are common type is the “slash and burn”
decomposed by bacteria that consume oxygen. method where the large trees are logged
This reduces dissolved oxygen in the water. and sold while smaller ones will be cut
The biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D.) and burnt.
value will increase and kill the aquatic animals. • This activity results in the extinction of
This phenomenon is known as eutrophication. the flora and fauna and an increase in
the amount of carbon dioxide in the air
which leads to global warming.
• Unplanned development comes about as to meet the

growing needs of the population.
• Urbanisation is developed from deforestation and the
destruction of natural habitats.
• Burning of fossil fuels also contributes to the increase
in the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere
leading to the greenhouse effect.
• Industrial and domestic activities cause dumping of

huge piles of waste in landfills.
• This activity pollutes nearby water resources and will
affect the organisms in the aquatic system.

Activity 2.5
Aim: To investigate the issues of the impact of human activities affecting the environment
Instructions:
1. Form a group of four students.
2. Each group is required to gather information regarding The Malaysian
Scan Me
the following issues: Department
of Environment
Thinning of Website
Water, air, thermal and
Global warming the ozone
noise pollution
layer
3. You can also refer to the Malaysian Department of Accessible On
Environment website to obtain relevant information. 11/7/2019.
4. Present your work in the form of a poster creatively.
2.4.2 Steps to prevent and control the degradation of the ecosystem quality
Implementation of law
Implementation of law by the Malaysian legislative system is as

follows:
• The Environmental Quality Act,1974 (Amendment, 1985)
• The National Forestry Act,1984
• The Factories and Machinery Act,1967 (Amendment, 1983)
• The Pesticides Act,1974
The use of technology
• Install special filters on motorcycle exhausts and smokestacks

of factories to filter out carbon emission, lead particles and
toxic gases.
• Use hybrid cars to reduce the emission of gases that pollutes
the air.
• Use microorganisms to clean the environment (bioremediation).
Being responsible
Be responsible for the pollution and degradation of the environment.
2.4.1 2.4.2

Education on the 5R concept
Recycle
• Recycle waste to become new products.
Reduce Reuse
Reuse
• Reuse things that can still be used.
Refuse Recycle
Reduce
• Reduce the usage of non-biodegradable materials such as plastic. Renew
Renew
• Repurposing old materials such as turning old shirts into rags.
Refuse
• Refuse usage of unnecessary and non-biodegradable daily items.
Source: Malaysian Department of Environment.
Preservation and conservation
• Preservation is to ensure the sustainability of natural resources.

• Conservation is the protection and the management of natural
resources such as land, water, flora and fauna in the forests and
mangrove swamps are taken care by The Department of Wildlife and
National Parks.
• This department is established to protect our forest and wildlife.
The use of renewable energy
Renewable energy is an energy source that is inexhaustible

such as:
• Wind energy generated by wind turbines can provide
electrical energy for a small village.
• Solar energy can be converted into electrical energy for
daily usage.
• Hydroelectric power can be used to generate electrical
energy.
• Biomass energy.
Mind Test 2.4

1. Discuss some human activities that threaten the ecosystem and suggest solutions to
control the degradation of the ecosystem quality.
2.4.2
DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM
Summary

Components Population Ecology Threats to Ecosystems
Abiotic Biotic Sampling Techniques Human Activities Preventive Measures

• Temperature • Producers • Quadrat • Unplanned • The use of
development technology
• pH value • Consumers • Capture, mark,
release and • Deforestation • Implementation
• Light intensity • Decomposers recapture • Industrial of laws
• Humidity
activities • Preservation and
• Microclimate
CHAPTER 2 DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM

• Irresponsible conservation
• Topography usage of • The use of
inorganic renewable
fertilisers energy
Colonisation & Succession
• Education on the
Scan Me 5R concept
Pond Mangrove Swamp

Sedimentation Mangrove
of pond and swamp
growth of becomes
terrestrial plants a tropical
rainforest
Quick
Quiz 2
11/7/2019.
Accessible on
41
Self Reflection
2.1 Abiotic and Biotic Components and Interactions in an Ecosystem

Explain with examples the meaning of habitat, population, community, ecosystem and
niche.
Identify abiotic and biotic components in an ecosystem.
Explain the interaction between biotic components in terms of nutrition.
Carry out an experiment to study the competition between plants.
Carry out an experiment to study the effects of pH on the growth of seedlings
Explain with examples the process of colonisation and succession.
Explain the characteristics of adaptation in pioneer and successor species.
Explain the changes of habitat in every stage caused by successor species until climax
community
Identify the suitable sampling technique to study the population size of an organism.
Estimate the population size of an organism in a habitat.
Determine the distribution of organisms in a habitat based on density, frequency and
percentage coverage of species.
2.4 Threats to Ecosystems
Describe how human activities can threaten the ecosystem.
Communicate about the steps to prevent and control pollution as well as the degradation
of the ecosystem quality.
1. List five abiotic components.

2. Based on the statements below, name the type of interaction between the
two organisms.
(a) One benefits while the other is unaffected.
(b) One benefits while the other is harmed.
Scan me
(c) Both gain benefit.

3. In ecology, what is meant by colonisation and succession?
4. What community climax is formed through colonisation Chapter 2
Answers
and succession in Malaysia?
Accessible on
5. State the steps in a succession process in a disused pond. 11/7/2019.

THEME
2
EXPLORATION OF
ELEMENTS IN NATURE
This theme provides an understanding of the elements that are found
in nature as well as the historical development of the Modern Periodic
Table of Elements developed by various scientists. Then, the importance
of stoichiometry in predicting chemical reactions will be discussed in
detail in this chapter. The chemical bonds formed between the elements
are shown. Subsequently, this theme will also show the production of
energy from chemical reactions and the skills involved in preparing
solution with different molarity.
ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 3 PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS 43

CHAPTER 3
Periodic
Table of
Elements
•• What is the Periodic Table of Elements?

• Periodic table of
•• What is the most reactive element in each group? Elements
• Group
•• How can we explain the physical and chemical
properties of each element? • Period
• Alkali metal
•• Are there many uses of transition elements in our
• Halogen
lives?
• Noble gas
• Transition
elements
44 PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS CHAPTER 3 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

Content Standard
3.1 History of Periodic Table of Elements
3.1.1 Describe the historical development of the Periodic
Table of Elements.
3.2 Group 1
3.2.1 List the elements in Group 1.
3.2.2 Explain the physical and chemical properties of
elements in Group 1, that is lithium, sodium and
potassium.
3.2.3 Arrange in order the reactivity of lithium, sodium and
potassium.
3.2.4 Predict the physical and chemical properties of other
elements in Group 1.
3.2.5 Communicate about the uses of Group 1 elements in
daily life.
3.3 Group 17
3.3.1 Identify the elements of Group 17.
3.3.2 Explain the physical and chemical properties of the
elements in Group 17, that is chlorine, bromine and
iodine.
3.3.3 Arrange in order the reactivity of chlorine, bromine and
iodine reactions.
3.3.4 Predict the chemical properties and physical properties
and of other elements in Group 17.
3.3.5 Communicate about the uses of Group 17 elements in
daily life.
3.4 Group 18
3.4.1 Identify the elements of Group 18.
3.4.2 Explain the physical properties of Group 18 elements.
3.4.3 Explain the trends of the physical properties of the
elements of Group 18.
3.4.4 Explain the inert chemical properties of elements in
Group 18 and relate to their electron arrangement.
3.4.5 Communicate the uses of Group 18 elements in
daily life.
3.5 Period 3
3.5.1 List the elements of Period 3 that are metals,
semi-metals and non-metals.
3.5.2 Explain the physical properties in Period 3 from sodium
to argon.
3.5.3 Explain with examples basic oxide, amphoteric oxide and
acidic oxide.
3.5.4 Communicate about the uses of semi-metals in daily life.
3.6 Transition Elements
3.6.1 Identify the transition elements in the Periodic Table.
3.6.2 Explain the special characteristics of transition elements
besides its metallic properties.
3.6.3 Relate physical properties of transition elements with
their uses in daily life.
3.6.4 Innovate existing devices by using transition elements.

3.1.1 History of Periodic Table of Elements
The Periodic Table of Elements is the arrangement of elements based on its increasing
atomic number.These elements which have similiar chemical properties are placed in the
same group. The Periodic Table of Elements has gone through development by scientists
before the Modern Periodic Table of Elements is produced. The following illustrates the
history of the development of the Periodic Table of Elements.
Jabir Ibnu Hayyan

(721 – 815 AD)
• His real name is Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan al-Barqi al-Azdi.
• Tested every chemical element by mixing all the elements.
• The Al-kimiya is the most popular book produced in the
eighth century.
• Known as the Father of Chemistry.
Reference : Ahmad, I.A., (2011). Saintis Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Sabunai Media Sdn. Bhd.
Antoine Lavoisier
(1743 – 1794)
• Classifed elements into light, heat, gas, metal, non-metal
and some compounds by group.
• He named the Oxygen element
Reference : Raul, S., Bernard, R. & Peter, S., (2009). Chemistry for the Life Sciences. (2nd ed.). United States of America:
CRC Press
John Newlands
(1837 – 1898)
• Arranged elements based on its increasing relative atomic mass.
• Introduced the Octave Law when he found the repetition of
physical and chemical properties of elements for every eighth
elements.
• The Octave Law cannot be applied because it only complies to
the first 17 elements.
• The first chemist to show the existence of periodic patterns of
the properties of the elements.
Reference: Raul, S., Bernard, R. & Peter, S., (2009). Chemistry for the Life Sciences. (2nd ed.). United States of America:
CRC Press

Dmitri Mendeleev
(1834 – 1907)
• Arranged elements according to the periods based on its
increasing atomic number and elements with similar properties
are arranged in groups. This arrangement is known as the
Mendeleev Periodic Table.
• Left empty spaces for undiscovered elements.
• Unfitted elements are placed in any groups of the Periodic
Table of Elements but into a separate block, known as
transition elements.
Reference: Brown, T.L., Eugene, L.H. Bursten, B.E. & Murphy, C.J. (2006). Chemistry the Central Science
(10th ed.). United States of America: Pearson Education, Inc
Henry Moseley
(1887 – 1915)
• Used the X-ray spectrum to study the chemical elements.
• Found the arrangement of elements based on the same pattern
of Mendeleev's Periodic Table.
• Found that the atomic number determines the position of the
element in the Periodic Table of Elements rather than the mass of the
atom. He then rearranged the elements according to the atomic numbers.
• His findings formed the basis for the arrangement of the Modern Periodic
Table of Elements.
Reference: Brown, T.L., Eugene, L.H. Bursten, B.E.0 & Murphy, C.J. (2006). Chemistry the Central Science
(10th ed.). United States of America: Pearson Education, Inc.
21st
Century
Activity 3.1
Aim: To describe the history of the development of the Modern Periodic Table of Elements.
Instructions:
1. Form a group of five pupils. Appoint a mentor for this activity.
2. Gather information on the historical development of the Periodic Table of Elements.
3. Information is available through sources such as books and the Internet.
4. Discuss in the group.
5. Present the group’s findings in a multimedia presentation.
Science Fact Mind

Challenge
Nihonium, Moscovium, Tennessine • Arranged the elements by the increasing atomic mass.
and Oganesson are the four most • Left empty space for undiscovered elements.
recent elements included in the
Periodic Table of Elements in 2016. Who is the described scientist?

Tips to
remember easily
Scientists involved in the
historical development Mind Test 3.1
of the Periodic Table of
Elements: 1. Who introduced the Octave Law?
Jabir 2. How did Moseley invent the Modern Periodic Table of
Lavoiser Elements that is used until today?
Newland
Mendeleev 3. Describe the Mendeleev Periodic Table.
Moseley 4. Describe the benefits of the Periodic Table of Elements
JALA NEMEMO developed by scientists for society.
3.2
Where
1 is 2the position
3 4 of Group
5
Group 1
3.2.1 Elements in Group 1
61 in the
7 Periodic
8 9 Table
10 of 11
Elements?
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
What are the elements in Group 1? Let's look at Figure 3.1 which shows the elements in
1
Group 1.
3
2 Li7
Lithium
11
3 Na 23
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Tips to remember
easily!
Sodium 1
19 3
4 K 2 Li7
Lithium
39
Potassium 3
11
Na 23
All elements of Group 1 end
with the sound -ium.
Sodium
37 19
K
Rb
4
5 39
Potassium
37
85.5
Rubidium
5 Rb85.5
Rubidium
55
55 6 Cs
6 Cs
133
Caesium
87
133 7 Fr
223
Caesium Francium
87
7 Fr
223
Figure 3.1 Elements in Group 1.

Francium
3.2.2 Physical and chemical properties of lithium, sodium and potassium

Physical properties of lithium, sodium and potassium
Science Fact
Lithium, sodium and potassium are elements that belong to
the same group in the Periodic Table of Elements. These Group 1 elements are also
known as alkali metals.
three elements have the same physical properties as
Do you know why?
shown in Figure 3.2.
3.1.1 3.2.1 3.2.2
Has a shiny grey surface
Mind
Challenge
Good thermal and electrical conductivity
What are the other unique
properties of the three elements
in Group 1?
Exist as solid at room temperature
Soft and easy to cut
Figure 3.2 The physical properties of lithium, sodium and potassium.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
As going down the group, some of the physical properties of the first three elements of
Group
1 1 change as shown in Figure 3.3.
2 Li7
Melting point and boiling point decrease
Lithium
11
3 Na23
Hardness decreases
Sodium
19
4 K39 Density increases

Potassium
37
5 Rb
Figure
85.5 3.3 Changes in the physical properties of Group 1 as going down the group
Rubidium
55
6 Cs133
21 st
century
Activity 3.2
Caesium
87
Fr
Aim:7 To explain
223
the physical properties of elements in Group 1, that is lithium, sodium and
potassium.Francium
Instructions:
1. Form a small group and appoint a mentor among group members.
2. Collect information on the physical properties of Group 1 for first three elements that are
lithium, sodium and potassium.
3. Present your group findings in the form of a multimedia presentation.

Chemical properties of lithium, sodium and potassium
Are the chemical reactions of the elements in Group 1 Science Fact
similiar? Chemical reactions of Group 1 elements are
similiar but they differ in its reaction reactivity. The chemical property of
Group 1 for the reaction
Group 1 elements react with water to produce hydrogen with water is highly reactive.
gas and hydroxide solution. The reactions of these three This provides the many
elements with oxygen will produce metal oxide. The uses of these element in
general chemical equations for the reactions of alkali everyday life.
metal with water and oxygen are as follows;
Reaction of alkali metal with water:
2A + 2H2O → 2AOH + H2
alkali metal hydrogen

water
metal hydroxide gas
Reaction of alkali metal with oxygen gas

4A + O2 → 2A2O
alkali oxygen
metal oxide
metal gas
Let’s conduct an experiment to observe the reactivity and reaction that occur.
Activity 3.3
Aim: To investigate the chemical properties of lithium, sodium and potassium reaction with water
and oxygen.
Materials: Small pieces of lithium, sodium and potassium, gas jar containing oxygen gas
and water.
Apparatus: Gas jar, forceps, knife, basin, gas jar, white tile, Bunsen burner and
filter paper.
A. Reaction of Alkali metal and water.
Instructions: Precaution ! !
1. Set up the apparatus as in Figure 3.4
2. Hold a piece of lithium metal with a pair of forceps. Cut off a
Alkali metal is very reactive.
small piece using a knife.
Avoid touching it with your
3. Dry the pieces of lithium using filter paper. bare hands. Put on gloves
4. Slowly place the piece of lithium on the surface of the water. and use protective eyewear
5. Dip red litmus paper into the water. such as safety goggles as
6. Record the observation in Table 3.1. well.
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 for sodium and potassium
Basin
A piece of Lithium
water

Result:
Table 3.1 Results of reaction between alkali metal with water
Alkali metal
Lithium Sodium Potassium
Observation
Reactivity
Colour change of litmus paper
B. Reaction of Alkali metal with oxygen

Instructions: Deflagrating
Spoon
1. Set up the apparatus as in Figure 3.5
Gas jar lid
2. Hold a piece of lithium metal with a pair of forceps.
Cut off a small piece using a knife.
Gas jar
3. Dry the piece of lithium using filter paper.
4. Place the piece of lithium on the deflagrating spoon of Oxygen gas, O2
the gas jar.
Alkali metal
5. Heat the deflagrating spoon until the lithium burns. Then,
burns
immediately lower the deflagrating spoon into the gas jar
filled with oxygen gas.
6. Record the observation in Table 3.2. Figure 3.5 Set up of apparatus
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 for sodium and potassium metals.
Result:
Table 3.2 Results of reaction between alkali metal with oxygen
Alkali metal Lithium Sodium Potassium
Observation
3.2.3 Reactivity sequence of lithium, sodium and potassium.

What are your conclusions for Activity 3.3? Do lithium, sodium and potassium have a
similiar reactivity?
Based on Activity 3.3, it has been observed that all the alkali metals show the same
results when reacting with water and oxygen. Thus, the chemical properties of lithium,
potassium and sodium are similar but alkali metal
reactivity increases when going down the group as in
Figure 3.6. Potassium metal reacts very vigorously and
Mind
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
very reactively with water and oxygen followed by sodium
8 9
Challenge
10 11 12 13 14 15
and lithium
1 metal. Reactivity sequence for Group 1 is as Group 1 elements should be
shown in Figure 3.6. stored in paraffin oil. Why?
3
2 Li
7
Lithium
11
3 Na Increasing reactivity when going down the group

23
Sodium
19
4 K39
Potassium
Figure 3.6 The reactivity sequence of lithium, sodium and potassium. 3.2.2 3.2.3
37
5 Rb SCIENCE FORM 4
ADDITIONAL
85.5 CHAPTER 3 PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS 51
Rubidium
55
6 Cs
133
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1
3.2.4 Physical properties and chemical properties of other elements in Group 1
3
Physical Li
2 properties
7
of other elements in Group 1
Lithium
What are the
11
physical properties of other elements in Group 1 such as rubidium, caesium
and francium?
3 NaCan you predict the physical properties of other elements in Group 1?
When going down the group, some of the physical properties of lithium, sodium and
23
Sodium
potassium 19
change. Therefore, other elements in Group 1 also show the same changes of
the physical
4 properties
K as shown in Figure 3.7.
39
Potassium
37
5 Rb85.5
Melting point and boiling point decrease

Rubidium
55
6 Cs133
Hardness decreases
Caesium
87 Density increases
7 Fr
223
Francium
Figure 3.7 Physical properties of other elements in Group 1.
Chemical properties of other elements in Group 1

In Activity 3.3, the first three elements of Group 1 reacted with water and oxygen. Do the
other elements in Group 1 show the same chemical properties? Yes, rubidium, caesium
and francium also react with water and oxygen. Since the reactivity of elements in Group 1
increases going down the group, these elements are seldom used in laboratories because
they explode easily.
Activity 3.4
Aim: To predict the physical and chemical properties of other elements in Group 1, that is
rubidium, caesium and francium.
Instructions:
1. Make predictions about the physical and chemical properties of rubidium, caesium and
francium based on the physical and chemical properties of lithium, sodium and potassium.
2. Using resources from the Internet, gather information on the physical properties and
chemical properties of other elements in Group 1.
3. Compare your search results with your predictions.
3.2.4
3.2.5 Uses of Group 1 elements in daily life
Yellow sparks in fireworks are from sodium compound.
Sodium vapour light gives a yellow lighting on the

road. This yellow light saves energy consumption.
Potassium is used to make NPK fertilisers, that is for

plant growth.
Mind Test 3.2

1. Why is potassium stored in paraffin oil?
2. Write down the reactivity sequence in increasing order for the reaction of elements in
Group 1 with water.
3. What is the most reactive element in Group 1? Explain your answer.
4. Why is hydrogen not included in Group 1 elements although it is positioned above lithium
in the Periodic Table of Elements?
5. Give three situations for the uses of Group 1 elements in your daily life.
3.2.5

3.3 Group 17
Group 17 is also known as halogen. Naturally, all of the elements in Group 17 exist as
diatomic molecules. This is 1because
2 3 elements
4 5 6 in 7Group
8 17 have
9 10 11 seven
12 13 valence
14 15 electrons
16 17 18
in the outermost shell. To

1 achieve stability, these elements combine to form diatomic
molecules. The elements in Group 17 can be seen in Figure 3.8. 9
2 F
19
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Fluorine
17
1
3 Cl
Tips to remember 2
9
F
19
35
35.5
Chlorine
easily !
Fluorine
4 3
17
Cl Br80
35.5
Chlorine Bromine
35
53
4 Br
All elements of Group 17 5 I
80
Bromine
53 127
5 I Iodine
end with the sound -ine.

127
Iodine 85
At
85
6 6 At210 210
Astatine
Astatine
117
117
7 Ts
7 Ts
294
Tennessine
Figure 3.8 Elements in Group 17

294
Tennessine
3.3.2 Physical and chemical properties of Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine

Physical properties of Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine
Group 17 elements are non metal elements. Therefore, the elements of chlorine, bromine
and iodine do not conduct electricity and heat. Uniquely, the Group 17 elements exist in
all three states of matter, that is solid, liquid and gas. Let's look at this uniqueness in
Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Physical properties of Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine going down the group.
Electrical and
Element Colour State of matter Density
heat conductivity
Chlorine Greenish yellow Gas No

As going
down the
Bromine Reddish brown Liquid No group,
density
Iodine Purplish black Solid No increases.
Activity 3.5
Aim: To gather information on physical properties of chlorine, bromine and iodine.
Instructions:
1. Divide the class into five groups.
2. Search information on physical properties such as colour, state of matter, density, electrical
conductivity and heat conductivity of chlorine, bromine and iodine in books, magazines
or Internet.
3. Present the group's work using multimedia. Each group is given different physical properties
to present. 3.3.1 3.3.2
Chemical properties of chlorine, bromine and iodine
Group 17 elements have the tendency to form compounds or molecules because they only require
one electron valence to achieve a stable octet electron arrangement. Therefore, chlorine, bromine
and iodine are able to react with water, metal and sodium hydroxide solution.
If X represents an element from Group 17, the general equation for the reactions of group 17
elements with water and sodium hydroxide solution are as follows:
Reaction of halogen with water
X2 + 2H2O → HX + HOX
Halogen water HX acid HOX acid
Cl2 + 2H2O → HCl + HOCl
Reaction of halogen with iron metal

3X2 + 2Fe → 2FeX3
Halogen iron metal iron(III) halide
3Cl2 + 2Fe → 2FeCl3
Reaction of halogen with sodium hydroxide

X2 + 2NaOH → NaX + NaOX + H 2O
Halogen sodium hydroxide sodium halide sodium halate(I) water
Cl2 + 2NaOH → NaCl + NaOCl + H 2O
Let's conduct Activity 3.6 to further prove the chemical properties of halogen.
Activity 3.6
Aim: To investigate reactions of chlorine, bromine and iodine reactions with water, metal and
sodium hydroxide solution.
A.Reactions of chlorine, bromine and iodine with water
Materials: Bromine liquid, iodine solid, potassium manganate (VII) crystal, concentrated
hydrochloric acid, distilled water and blue litmus paper.
Apparatus: Test tubes, delivery tube with stopper, test tube holder, retort stand,
dropper and cork.
I. Reaction of chlorine gas and water
Instructions:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 3.9. Potassium
2. Place several potassium manganate (VII) crystals into a test manganate (VII)
tube.
3. Add drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid slowly into the
test tube to immerse all of the potassium manganate (VII)
crystals. Concentrated
4. Bubble in the gas produced into a test tube containing 10 cm³ hydrochloric
distilled water. acid
Distilled water
5. Dip the blue litmus paper into the distilled water.
6. Record the colour change of the litmus paper.

II. Reaction of liquid bromine with water
Instructions:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 3.10.
bromine
2. Add two drops of bromine liquid into a test tube containing liquid
10 cm³ distilled water.
3. Close the test tube with a stopper. Then, shake the solution
strongly.
4. Place blue litmus paper into the solution that is produced. distilled
water
5. Record the colour change of the litmus paper.

III. Reaction of solid iodine and water
Instructions:
2. Add some iodine crystals into the test tube containing 10 cm³
distilled water.
3. Close the test tube with a stopper. Then, shake the test tube distilled
strongly until there is no further change. water
4. Place blue litmus paper into the test tube. iodine
5. Record the colour change of the litmus paper. solid
Results:
Table 3.4 Reaction of halogen with water
Halogen Observation
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
B. Reaction of chlorine, bromine and iodine with iron

metal
Precaution! !
Materials : Concentrated hydrochloric acid, potassium Chlorine gas, liquid bromine
manganate (VII), bromine liquid, solid iodine, chlorine gas, and solid iodine are
iron wool and soda lime. very toxic.
Make sure the experiment
is conducted in the fume
Apparatus: Boiling tube, delivery tube, thistle funnel, chamber and pupils put on
dropper, combustion tube, conical flask, retort stand and safety goggles and gloves.
clamp, stopper and Bunsen burner.

I. Reaction of chlorine gas and iron metal thistle
iron wool soda
funnel lime
Instructions:
2. Heat the iron wool until it becomes hot and red. retort
heat
3. Pour the concentrated hydrochloric acid into the thistle stand
concentrated
funnel until the other end of the thistle is immersed in hydrochloric
the concentrated hydrochloric acid. acid
4. Deliver the chlorine gas that had been produced to the potassium manganate (VII)
red hot iron wool until no further changes occur. crystals
5. Record your observation. Figure 3.12 Set up of apparatus
II. Reaction of Bromine gas and iron metal iron wool soda
lime
Instructions:
2. Heat the iron wool until it becomes hot and red.
Heat
3. Heat bromine liquid to produce bromine vapours that will retort
be streamed onto the hot iron wool. bromine stand
liquid
4. Bromine vapour is continously delivered to the red hot
iron wool until no further changes occur. Heat
5. Record your observation.
III. Reaction of solid iodine and iron metal

soda
iron wool
Instructions: lime
2. Heat the iron wool until it becomes hot and red.
3. Heat the iodine crystals until sublimation occurs to Heat
produce iodine vapour. retort
stand
4. Deliver the iodine vapour to the red hot wool until no
iodine
further changes occur. crystals
5. Record your observation. Heat
Results:
Table 3.5 Reaction of halogen with metal
Halogen Observation
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine

C. Reaction of chlorine, bromine and iodine with sodium hydroxide solution
Materials:
Concentrated hydrochloric acid, potassium manganate (VII), bromine liquid, iodine solid and
sodium hydroxide solution.
Apparatus:
Test tube, delivery tube, dropper, stopper, retort stand and measuring cylinder.
I. Reaction of chlorine gas and sodium hydroxide solution
potassium manganate (VII) crystals
Instructions:
2. Place several potassium manganate (VII) crystals into the
test tube. concentrated
3. Add the concentrated hydrochloric acid until all the hydrochloric acid
potassium manganate (VII) crystals are immersed in the sodium hydroxide
test tube. solution
4. The gas that is produced is bubbled into test tubes Figure 3.15 Set up of apparatus
containing 10 cm³ of sodium hydroxide solution.
5. Shake the test tube strongly until no further changes occur.
II. Reaction of bromine liquid with sodium hydroxide solution

liquid
Instructions: bromine

2. Prepare 10 cm³ sodium hydroxide solution in the test tube.
3. Add two drops of bromine liquid into a test tube containing sodium sodium
hydroxide solution. hydroxide
4. Close the test tube with a stopper and shake the test tube strongly solution
until no further changes occur. Figure 3.16 Set up
5. Record your observation. of apparatus
III. Reaction of solid iodine with sodium hydroxide solution

Instructions:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 3.17. sodium
2. Prepare 10 cm³ sodium hydroxide solution in the test tube. hydroxide
3. Place some small crystals of iodine into the test tube solution
containing sodium hydroxide solution. iodine
4. Close the test tube with a stopper and shake the test tube crystals
strongly until no further changes occur. Figure 3.17 Set up of apparatus
Result:
Table 3.6 Reaction of halogen with sodium hydroxide
Halogen Observation
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine

Are the reactions of every halogen element with water, metal and sodium hydroxide
solution the same?
Let's look at the answer.
Reaction of halogen with water

When halogen reacts with water, it produces acids and the litmus paper changes from
blue to red. However, reactivity of halogen decreases when going down the group.
Reaction of halogen with metal

Halogen reacts with metal such as iron. From Activity 3.6, all of the reactions produced
brown solid. The brown solid produced is iron (III) halide. However, the reactivity of
the halogen decreases when going down the group.
Reaction of halogen with sodium hydroxide solution

When halogen reacts with sodium hydroxide solution, it produces colourless solutions.
However, the reactivity of the halogen decreases when going down the group.
3.3.3 Reactivity order of chlorine, bromine and iodine

14 15 16 17 18
What conclusions can you make based on Activity 3.6? Do chlorine, bromine and iodine
have the same chemical properties? What is the reactivity for chlorine, bromine and iodine?
Based on Activity 3.6, you have observed that all the halogens reacted with water,
iron and sodium hydroxide. Thus, the chemical properties of chlorine, bromine and iodine
are the same9 but halogen reactivity decreases when going down the group. Chlorine reacts
very vigorouslyFfollowed by bromine and iodine. Reactivity order of Group 17 is shown in
Figure 3.18. Fluorine
19
17
Cl 35.5
Chlorine
35
Br 80
Reactivity decreases when going down the group
Bromine
53
I
127
Iodine
85
At Figure 3.18 Reactivity order of chlorine, bromine and iodine

210
3.3.2 3.3.3
Astatine
ADDITIONAL
117 SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 3 PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS 59
Ts 294
Tennessine
3.3.4 Physical properties and chemical properties of other elements in
Group 17
Physical properties of other elements in Group 17
Besides chlorine, bromine and iodine, fluorine is also an element in Group 17 which is
positioned on the top of Group 17. Astatine is at a lower position than iodine in Group 17.
All these halogens are non-metals and do not conduct electricity and heat.
The physical properties of fluorine and astatine in Group 17 are shown in Table 3.7
Figure 3.7 The physical properties of fluorine and astatine

Element
Fluorine Astatine
Characteristics
Colour Yellow Black
State of matter Gas Solid
Density Less dense Dense
Electrical conductivity No No
Heat conductivity No No
Chemical properties of other elements in Group 17

What are the reactions of the other elements in Group 17? Based on Activity 3.6, all halogen
elements exhibit the same chemical properties in the reactions.
• Halogen reacts with water to produce acid. Science Fact

Flourine is a very dangerous
• Halogen reacts with metal to produce brown solid. and toxic element. Astatine
and tennessine are naturally
difficult to be found because
• Halogen reacts with sodium hydroxide to produce they are radioactive and
colourless solutions. have a short half life.
Therefore, the use of these
Therefore, other elements such as fluorine, astatine substances are not allowed
and tennessine also exhibit similar chemical properties in the school laboratory.
but with different reactivity.
3.3.4
3.3.5 Uses of Group 17 elements
Group 17 elements are able to react with water and metal. Therefore, there are many uses
of elements in this group that can be applied in our daily lives. Figure 3.19 shows examples
of the uses of Group 17 elements.
A University Putra Malaysia researcher, Prof. Dr. Azni Idris uses

cosmoball biomedia to remove organic material and ammonia in
the water treatment by biofiltration.
Fluorine is used in
toothpaste to prevent
tooth decay
Iodine is used to produce Tooth Paste

antiseptic solution
Iodine or bromine is
Uses of used in halogen lamps
elements in
Group 17
Bromide
compound
is used as
insecticides
Chlorine is used as
a substance to kill
bacteria in water
treatment process
Figure 3.19 Uses of Group 17 elements in daily life

3.3.5

21st
Century21
Activity 3.7
Aim: To communicate the uses of Group 17 elements in daily life.
Method: Gallery Walk
Instructions:
1. Form a group of four pupils and appoint a leader.
2. Gather information about the uses of Group 17 elements. Discuss and write on a piece of
spread paper.
3. Stick the paper on the class wall upon completion.
4. Each group will move to the next closest group in clockwise direction until the end of
the gallery .
5. Pupils will discuss with their teacher on the findings of the Gallery Walk and make conclusions.
Mind Test 3.3

1. Name the Group 17 elements that exist as gas at room temperature.
2. Element B is below element A in the Periodic Table of Elements for group 17. Compare the
density, electrical and heat conductivity of elements A and B.
3. Iodine Chlorine Bromine
Arrange the elements in the order of increasing reactivity.
4. A type of chemical substance is added into a swimming pool. What is the chemical
substance? State the function of the chemical substance.
• Used in agriculture
5.
• Functions as an insecticide
What is the element that is described ?

6. When halogen reacts with water, the product of the reaction will turn blue litmus paper to
red. Why does it happen?

3.4 Group 18
Group 18 is the last group in the Periodic Table of Elements. Group 18 elements are
also known as noble gases. What are the elements in Group 18? Figure 3.20 shows the
elements
1 2 in Group
3 4 18. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
2
1 He 4
Helium
Tips to remember
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
2 10
1 He
2
easily! 10
4
Helium
Ne20
2 Ne20
Neon
Neon
18 18
3 Helium Hadi 3 Ar40

Argon Ar
Neon Needed
36 40
4 Kr84
Argon
Argon A
36
Krypton
54
4 5 Xe
Kr
Krypton Knee
131
Xenon
84
86
Krypton
6 Rn
Xenon X- 222
Radon
54
Xe
118
5
Radon Ray Og
7
294
Oganeson
131
Xenon
Figure 3.20 Elements in Group 18 86
6 Rn222
Radon
118
7 Og 294
Oganeson
3.4.2 Physical properties of Group 18 elements

Physical properties of Group 18 elements are shown in Figure 3.21.
Melting point and boiling point Colour State of Matter

Naturally found Nearly 1% of the air is made up of
Very low melting point and boiling point
colourless noble gases. Therefore, Group 18
elements are gases
Physical properties of
Group 18 elements
Electrical and heat conductivity

Atomic size Density
Noble Gases are non-metal. Small atomic size Low density
Therefore, these gases do not
conduct electricity and heat.
Figure 3.21 Physical properties of Group 18 elements

3.4.1 3.4.2

3,4,3 Physical properties trends for elements in Group 18 elements
When going down Group 18, the trends of physical properties of Group 18 elements also
4 15 changes
16 as shown
17 18 in Figure 3.22.
2
He
The size of atom increases because of the increase
4
Helium
10 in electron shells.
Ne20
Neon
18 The atomic mass increases due to the increase in

Ar the number of protons.
40
Argon
36
Density increases because relative atomic mass
Kr84 increases.
Krypton
54
Xe The melting point and boiling point increase as

more energy is required to overcome the increasing
131
Xenon
86 attraction force between atoms.

Rn222
Radon Figure 3.22 Trends in physical properties
118
What about Og
the physical properties of Group 18 elements in terms of colour, electrical
conductivity and heat conductivity? Every element in Group 18 has the same physical
294
Oganeson
properties in which they are colourless gases have no electrical conductivity, and no heat
conductivity.
Activity 3.8
Aim: To create a poster on physical properties of Group 18.
Instructions:
2. Search information on the physical properties of helium, neon and argon from the library,
Internet, books, pamphlets or magazines.
3. You can use the keyword "Physical properties of Group 18" on the Internet search engine.
4. Create a poster from your group's findings.
3.4.3
3.4.4 Chemical properties of Group 18
Noble gases are inert gases and do not react chemically. Do you know why these elements
are inert and do not react with other elements?
• Noble gases have achieved the duplet and octet electron arrangement.
• The element that has reached the duplet or octet electron arrangement will not
donate, gain or share electrons since the outermost shell is fully filled with electrons.
This makes the Group 18 elements very stable and are unreactive. Table 3.8 shows
the electron arrangement of Group 18 elements.
Table 3.8 Electron arrangement of Group 18.
Group 18 Elements Atomic Number Electron Arrangement

Helium 2 2
Neon 10 2.8
Argon 18 2.8.8
Krypton 36 2.8.18.8
Xenon 54 2.8.18.18.8
Radon 86 2.8.18.32.18.8
Electron arrangement of atom

Electrons are arranged in shells that is around the nucleus. Each shell will be required to
be filled up completely first with a certain number of electrons before filling the next shells.
Table 3.9 The maximum number of electrons in every shell.
Shell Maximum numbers of electrons
First 2
Second 8
Third 8 or 18
Example:
Electron arrangement of neon atom is 2.8.
First shell : 2 electrons
Ne
Second shell : 8 electrons

3.4.4

3.4.5 The uses of Group 18 elements in daily life
Group 18 element are not reactive because they are inert. Therefore, there are many uses
in everyday life.
Mind
Challenge
A balloon held by a child in
Helium a playground floats in the
air. In your opinion, why is
• Used in weather balloons the balloon able to float?
and airplanes
Argon
• Used in filament bulbs
Xenon
• Used in surgical room

lighting
Neon
• Used in signboard lights
Krypton
• Used in camera flash

light
Radon
• Used in cancer treatment

through radiotherapy
3.4.5
Activity 3.9
Aim : To create a folio on the uses of Group 18 elements.
Instructions:
1. Search for pictures on the uses of Group 18 elements in magazines, books or newspapers.
2. Paste the pictures into your folio.
3. State the functions of Group 18 elements in the pictures you have gathered.
Mind test 3.4

1. What are the other names for Group 18 elements?
2. Arrange the Group 18 elements according to the trends:
(a) increasing atomic size
(b) decreasing density
3. The table below shows the electron arrangement of elements P, Q and R.
Element Electron Arrangement

P 2.8
Q 2.8.8
R 2.8.18.8
(a) What are the elements P, Q and R?

(b) Explain why the elements P, Q and R are chemically unreactive.
4. What is the element in Group 18 that is found in the balloon below?
5. What is the gas that can be found in the object below?

3.5
3.5.1 Period 3 properties
Period 3
Period is the horizontal row in the Periodic Table of Elements. Period 3 refers
to the third row in the Periodic Table of Elements.
Based on Photograph 3.1, what are the similiarities for all the substances? Are all the
substances are made up of Period 3 elements?
Yes, they are elements with specific characteristics when going across Period 3 of the
Periodic Table of Elements. Figure 3.23 shows the position of the Period 3 elements in the
Periodic Table of Elements.
Volcanic eruptions Bulb Aluminium foil
Photograph 3.1 Period 3 elements in everyday life

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
4 5 1 62 2 7 3 8 4 9 5 10 6 11 7 12 8 13 9 14 1015 1116 1217 1318 14 15 16

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg
23 24
Al 27
Si 28
P
31
S
32
Cl35.5
Ar 40
1
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicone Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
2 6
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 13 18 14 15 16 17
7 3 8 Na 9Mg 10 1 11 2 12 3 13 4 14 Al
5 15 6Si
16 7P
17 S18
8 Cl
9 AlAr
10 Si 11 P 12 S 13
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 27 40 28 31 32
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicone Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Aluminium
Argon Silicone Phosphorus Sulphur C
Figure
1 3.23 Position of the Period 3 elements in the Periodic Table of Elements.
4
When going across the period in the Periodic Table of Elements, there are metal,
5 semi-metal and
2 non metal elements. Are you able to identify the names of metal,
semi-metal and non-metal elements in Period 3?
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 13
6 3 Na Mg 23 24
Al 27
Si 28
P 31
S
32
Cl35.5
Ar 40
A 27
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicone Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon Alumi
7 Metal Semi Non-metal

4
metal
Figure 3.24 Properties of elements across Period 3. 3.5.1
68 5 PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS CHAPTER 3 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4
3.5.2 Physical properties of Period 3 elements
All elements in Period 3 have three shells filled with electrons. These elements also show
properties changes when going across the period from sodium to argon. Let's look at the
changes in physical properties that occur across period 3.
Number of Proton
Increase in number of protons when going across the period.
Atomic Size
Going across Period 3 from left to right, the size of atom decreases because the
number of protons increases causing the increase in positive charges in the nucleus
of the atom. This causes the attraction between the positive charges and the electrons
becomes stronger. Thus,the size of the atom will become smaller.
State of matter
All are solid except for chlorine and argon which are in the gaseous state.
Melting point and boiling point

• An increase of melting point and boiling point from sodium to silicon. This is
because melting point and boiling point increase when the atomic size decrease.
• The opposite applies to non-metal elements. Therefore, starting from the
phosphorus to argon, the melting point and boiling point decrease.
Density
Decreases because of the change in the state of matter from solid to gas.
Activity 3.10
Aim: To create multimedia presentation on the uses of Period 3 elements.
Instructions:
2. Gather information to study the physical properties trends of Period 3 Elements from the
library, Internet, books, pamphlets or magazines.
3. You may use the keyword "Period 3 Elements" on the Internet search engine.
4. The findings of the group’s discussion should be presented using multimedia software
based on your creativity.
3.5.2

3.5.3 Basic oxide, amphoteric oxide and acidic oxide
Across the period, the oxide properties of Period 3
elements change from basic oxide, amphoteric oxide and
acidic oxide. The oxide properties affect the chemical Science Fact
properties and the reaction of an element. Water is an amphoteric
because it is able to react
Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO2 Cl2O7
with acid and alkali.
Basic oxide Amphoteric Acidic oxide

oxide
Figure 3.25 The oxide properties of Period 3 Elements.
Basic oxide
• It is a metal oxide that reacts with acid to produce salt and water.
▪▪ Example: Magnesium oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce
magnesium chloride and water.
Amphoteric oxide
• It is an oxide that reacts with alkali and acid to form salt and water.
Reaction with alkali
▪▪ Example : Aluminium oxide reacts with sodium hydroxide to produce salt
and water.
Reaction with acid.
Example : Aluminium oxide reacts with nitric acid to produce salt and water.
Acidic oxide
• It is a non-metal oxide that reacts with alkali to produce salt and water.
▪▪ Example: silicon dioxide reacts with sodium hydroxide to produce salt
and water
Mind
Challenge
Argon is the only element in Period 3 that does not form any compound. Explain why?

Activity 3.11
Aim: To investigate the oxide properties of Period 3 Elements for magnesium, aluminium and
sulphur.
Materials: Magnesium oxide powder, aluminium oxide powder, sulphur dioxide gas, 2 mol
dm-3 nitric acid and 2 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide.
Apparatus: Boiling tube, test tube rack, test tube holder, spatula and Bunsen burner.
Instructions:
1. Pour 10 cm³ of nitric acid 2 mol dm-3 into a boiling tube.
2. Pour 10 cm³ of sodium hydroxide 2.0 mol dm-3 into another

boiling tube. Precaution !
3. Add half a spatula of magnesium oxide into each boiling
tube. Sulphur dioxide gas can
irritate the eyes and the
4. Heat gently the boiling tube and stir with a glass rod. respiratory system.
Conduct the experiment
5. Shake the boiling tube gently and record the observation. in the fume-chamber.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 for aluminium oxide.
7. Pour 10 cm³ of nitric acid 2 mol dm-3 into the boiling tube
containing sulphur dioxide gas.
8. Shake the boiling tube and record the observation.
9. Pour 10 cm³ sodium hydroxide 2 mol dm-3 into another boiling tube containing sulphur
dioxide gas.
10. Shake the boiling tube and record the observation in table 3.10.
Observation:
Table 3.10 Properties of period 3 oxides results
Observation
Period 3 oxides
Nitric acid Sodium hydroxide
Magnesium oxide
Aluminium oxide
Sulphur dioxide

Activity 3.11 clearly shows the changes from left to right for the oxide properties of
Period 3 elements from basic oxide, amphoteric oxide to acidic oxide.
Alkali and Base Base

What do you understand about alkali and base? All alkali
are bases but not all bases are alkali. Figure 3.26 and
Figure 3.27 explained clearly the meaning of alkali and Alkali
base.
Across Curriculum Kiosk (Mathematics)

Alkali is a subset of base because all alkali are bases
Figure 3.26 Alkali vs base
Base
Base that is Base that is

soluble in insoluble in
water (alkali) water
Sodium Magnesium
hydroxide, oxide,
Potassium Aluminium
hydroxide oxide
Figure 3.27 Categories of Alkali and Base

21st
Century
Activity 3.12
Aim: To distinguish between alkali and base.
Method: Hot Seat
Instructions:
1. All pupils are given 5 minutes to discuss the topic on the differences between alkali and
base.
2. The “pupil expert" is appointed among students and given time to do preparation.
3. The chair is placed in front of the class and the "student expert" will be seated.
4. Other pupils will ask questions and the experts will try to answer them and discuss with
pupils during the time given.
5. Time allocated is 10 minutes
3.5.3
3.5,4 Uses of semi-metals in daily life
Semi-metal elements are also known as metalloids.
Science Fact
Silicone is the only semi-metal element found in Period
3.Metaloid means that this element is a conductor when Polonium is the rarest
heated and is an insulator at room temperature. element. This element is
very radioactive and toxic to
humans.
Uses of semi-metal element for silicone
Transistor
• Manufactured in the form of n-type and p-type on the surface of silicon chips.
• Used widely in micro circuit such as computers and calculators.
Solar cell
• Functions to change solar energy to electrical energy.
• This cell is used widely in water heaters, lights, solar cell calculators, watches and
is the energy resource for remote areas where there is no electricity supply.
Steel
• There are many types of steel produced with the silicone element like alloy steel.
Glass
• Silicone compound is used to produce glass.
Contact lense
• Manufactured from silicone element, that is silicone hydrogel.
Figure 3.28 Uses of semi-metal elements in daily life

3.5.4

21st
Century
Activity 3.13
Aim: To communicate on the uses of semi-metal elements.
Method: Team Word-Web
Instructions:
1. Form a group of five.
2. A pupil will write a name of a semi-metal element.
3. Other group members will then write the uses of the semi-metal element with different
colours to show their contribution of ideas.
Mind Test 3.5

1. List down the Period 3 elements which are:
(a) Metal
(b) Semi-metal
(c) Non-metal
2. Describe the changes in the physical properties that occur across Period 3, in terms of
atomic size, number of protons, state of matter, melting point, boiling point and density.
3. Give examples of basic oxides, amphoteric oxides and acidic oxides. Explain.
4. Based on the description below, what is the semi-metal element?
• Widely used in the manufacturing of computer chips.

• Form polymer with oxygen to produce water proof material.
5. What is the product of the reaction between amphoteric oxide and sodium hydroxide?
6. Differentiate between base and alkali.

3.6 Transition elements
3.6.1 The transition element in the
Periodic Table of Elements
Transition elements consist of elements found in Group 3 to
Group 12. All transition elements are metals. Most transition
metals are metals commonly used in everyday life such as Coins
chromium, copper, cobalt, iron, nickel and manganese.
What are the elements used to produce the coins and
the cooking pot as in Photograph 3.2? Both are made from
transition elements. Are you able to name the transition
elements involved in the manufacturing of these objects?
Where is the position of the transition elements in the
Periodic Table of Elements? Figure 3.29 shows the position
of the transition elements in the Periodic Table of Elements.
Cooking Pot
Photograph 3.2 Uses of

transition elements
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
4 Sc 45
Ti
48
V51
Cr 52
Mn 55
Fe 56
Co 59
Ni 59
Cu 64
Zn 65
Scandium Titanium Vanadium chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
5 Y
89
Zr 91
Nb Mo93 96
Tc 98
Ru 101
Rh 103
Pd 106
Ag 108
Cd 112
Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Tecnetium Ruthenium Rhodium Paladium Silver Cadmium
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
6 57 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
71 178.5
Hafnium
181
Tantalum
184
Tungsten
186
Rhenium
190
Osmium
192
Iridium
195
Platinum
197
Gold
201
Mercury
104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
7 89 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
103 257
Rutherfodium
260
Dubnium
262
Seaborgium
262
Bohrium
265
Hassium
266
Meitnerium
281
Darmstadtium
281
Roentgenium
285
Copernicium
Figure 3.29 Position of transition elements in the Periodic Table of Elements
3.6.1

3.6.2 Special characteristics of Transition Element
The transition metals have the same characteristics as other metals like high melting point
and high density. However, there are some characteristics of transition elements that are
not present in other metals as shown in Figure 3.30.
Different oxidation
numbers in a compound
Tips to remember
easily !
Special
Feature of transition
Characteristics
of Transition
elements: Triple C
Elements Colour
Forms complex Complex
ions and coloured Act as a catalyst Catalyst
compounds
Figure 3.30 The special characteristics of the transition element.
Different oxidation numbers in a compound

Most transition elements have more than one oxidation number. Table 3.11 shows several
examples of different oxidation numbers for transition elements
Table 3.11 The oxidation number of transition elements
Transition element Oxidation number
Chromium +3, +6
Manganese +2, +4, +7
Iron +2, +3
Cobalt +2, +3
Copper +1, +2
Act as a good catalyst in a chemical reaction

The transition element acts as a catalyst especially in the industrial field to produce
products in large quantities and in a short time. Examples of transition elements used as
catalysts are shown in Figure 3.31.

The Haber Process
Iron is used to produce ammonia
Hydrogenation Process
Nickel is used to produce margarine
Figure 3.31 Examples of the use of transition elements as catalysts
Form complex ions and coloured compounds

Transition elements form complex ions, which are large ionic structures and can be
combined with other compounds during reaction. Table 3.12 shows examples of complex
ion formations using transition elements.
Table 3.12 The oxidation number of transition elements
Transition Elements Ion Complex ion
hexacyanoferrate(II) [Fe(CN)6]4-
Iron
hexacyanoferrate(III) [Fe(CN)6]3-
Copper Tetraamminecopper(II) [Cu(NH3)4]2+
Transition elements also form coloured ions. Coloured compound shows the presence
of transition metal ion. Table 3.13 shows the colours for the transition element ions.
Table 3.13 Colours of Compounds indicating the presence of transition metal ions
Ion Colour
Chromium(III) Green
Chromate(VI) Yellow
Dichromate(VI) Orange
Manganese(II) Pale pink
Manganate(VII) Purple
Iron(II) Pale green
Iron(III) Brown
Cobalt(II) Pink
Nickel(II) Green
Copper(II) Blue
3.6.2

3.6.3 Physical properties of transition elements and their uses
How do the physical properties of transition elements relate to our daily lives? Let's examine
the physical properties of transition elements. All transition elements are metals. Thus,
each transition element has the properties of metal as shown in Figure 3.32.
The longest bridge in Malaysia and Southeast Asia is the Sultan

Abdul Halim Muadzam Shah Bridge, Penang. The length of the
bridge is 23.37 km.
High
density
Hard
Ductile and
solid Malleable
Physical
properties
High strain of transition Good heat
strength elements and electric
conductors
Shiny High melting

Surface point and
boiling point
Figure 3.32 Physical properties of transition elements.

The physical properties of transition elements and their uses in daily life
Shiny surface
Gemstones that contain transition elements look beautiful
and shiny. Example is emerald gemstone
Hard solid
These elements can be alloyed by mixing with
other metals to produce hard and stainless alloys.
For example mixing iron with carbon and
chromium to produce hard stainless steel.
Ductile and malleable

Mixing the element copper and zinc produces brass alloy
that is ductile and easily malleable. For example, keys and
musical instruments.
High boiling point and melting point

Able to act as a catalyst in high temperature reactions
due to its high melting point and boiling point. For example
ferrum is widely used in the Haber process for the production
of ammonia at a temperature of 400 °C - 450 °C and a
pressure of 250 atm.
High strain strength

Transition elements have the properties of being able to
support pressure or load. For example, Ferum element is
widely used in building bridges and railways.
Good heat conductor and electric conductor

Cooking utensils are mostly made of stainless steel because
of it is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
High density
Transition metals have high density. For this reason,
nickel is used to make coins.
3.6.3

3.6.4 Present innovations that utilise transition elements
The transition elements are elements that have various
special characteristics. The properties of this element
enable a variety of uses in our daily lives due to its
Grateful to God’s favour in granting
physical properties. Innovation can be done using
human with transition elements for
transition elements to make better devices.
the continuance of everyday life.
Stainless steel innovation
The presence of air and water will cause iron to rust, which forms iron oxide. For example,
fences made of iron will rust easily. This is because iron or ferrum is one of the transition
element, hence innovation has been done to overcome the rusting of iron.
Stainless steel is an innovation that is done to steel. Resistance to corrosion depends

on the percentage of chromium elements found in steel.
Activity 3.14
Aim: To create multimedia presentations on innovation materials made of transition elements.
Transition elements are widely used and varied in

everyday life such as in electrical wires and alloys that
can withstand rusting.
Instructions:
2. Gather information and suggest an innovative equipment by using transition elements to
make the equipment more efficient in terms of function and environment friendly.
3. Present using multimedia presentation.
Mind Test 3.6

1. List the six names of transition elements found in the Periodic Table of Elements.
2. List three special characteristics of transition elements.
3. What is the transition element that exists in a ruby gemstone ring that gives the red colour
to the ruby?
3.6.4
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
Summary

History Period 3 Transition Element
Historical Development Properties Special charactersitics

• Jabir Ibnu • Metal • Different
Hayyan oxidation
• Semi-metal
number in a
• Antoine
• Non-metal compound
Lavoisier
• Form complex
• John Newlands
ions and
• Dmitri coloured
Mendeleev Group compound
• Henry Moseley • Act as a
CHAPTER 3 PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

catalyst
Group 1 Group 17 Group 18
Scan me • Physical • Physical • Physical
properties properties properties
• Chemical • Chemical • Chemical
properties properties properties
• Uses • Uses • Uses
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81
Self Reflection

Describe the historical development of the Periodic Table of Elements.
3.2 Group 1
List the elements in Group 1.
Explain the physical properties and chemical properties of elements in Group 1 that is
lithium, sodium and potassium.
Arrange in order the reactivity of lithium, sodium and potassium.
Predict the physical properties and chemical properties of other elements in Group 1.
Communicate the uses of Group 1 elements in daily life.
3.3 Group 17
Identify the elements in Group 17.
Explain the physical properties and chemical properties of the elements in Group 17 that
is chlorine, bromine and iodine.
Arrange in order the reactivity of chlorine, bromine and iodine.
Predict the chemical properties and physical properties of other elements in Group 17.
3.4 Group 18
Identify elements of Group 18.
Explain the physical properties of elements in Group 18.
Explain the trends of physical properties of elements in the Group 18.
Explain the inert chemical properties of elements in group 18 and relate to their
electron arrangement.
3.5 Period 3
List elements of Period 3 that are metals, semi-metals and non-metals.
Explain the physical properties in Period 3 from sodium to argon.
Explain with examples basic oxide, amphoteric oxide and acidic oxide.
Communicate about the uses of semi-metals in daily life.
3.6 Transition Elements
Identify the transition elements in the Periodic Table.
Explain the special characteristics of transition elements besides its metallic
characteristics.
Relate physical properties of transition elements with their uses
Innovate existing devices by using transition elements.

1. Figure 1 shows the position of several elements in the Periodic Table of Elements.
(The letters in the table are not the actual symbols for elements)
A B C
D E
F
Figure 1
(a) Which of the following elements are:
(i) Alkali metal
(ii) Halogen
(iii) Noble gas
(iv) Transition element
(b) State three special characteristics of element F.
(c) State one element that forms amphoteric oxide.
(d) Why is element C inert and does not react with other elements?
2. Figure 2 shows the rusting of a bridge. Suggest a solution to the problem so

that the bridge will be stronger and rust resistant.
Figure 2
Scan Me
ENRICHMENT EXERCISE Chapter 3

1. Metal X is found during mining. Design an investigation Answers
to determine the type of metal X after knowing that this
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CHAPTER 4
Stoichiometry
• Relative atomic mass

• Relative molecular
• How do we solve numerical problems on relative mass
molecular mass and relative formula mass? • Relative formula mass
• What is the mole concept and its relationship to • Mole
the Avogadro Constant (NA)? • Avogadro Constant (NA)
• Chemical formula
• How to write a chemical formula?
• Concentration
• How to write a balanced chemical equation?
84 STOICHIOMETRY CHAPTER 4 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

CONTENT STANDARD
4.1 Relative Atomic Mass, Relative Molecular Mass and Relative
Formula Mass
4.1.1 Describe the relative atomic mass.
4.1.2 Calculate the relative molecular mass and relative formula mass.
4.1.3 Solve numerical problems on the relative molecular mass and
relative formula mass.
4.2 Concept of Mole
4.2.1 Explain the concept of mole.
4.2.2 Relate the number of mole of atom with the relative atomic mass/
relative molecular mass.
4.2.3 Relate the mole number of molecules with molecular mass and the
relative molecular mass.
4.2.4 Explain the meaning of Avogadro constant (NA).
4.2.5 Relate the Avogadro constant (NA) with the number of particles
and the number of moles.
4.2.6 Solve numerical problems that involve the number of moles.
4.3 Chemical Formula
4.3.1 Explain by drawing how positive ion and negative ion are formed.
4.3.2 Write chemical formula of compounds.
4.3.3 Carry out an experiment to obtain the chemical formula of a
compound and the equation of reactions.
4.4 Concept of Mole in a Chemical Equation
4.4.1 Write balanced chemical equations for the chemical reaction.
4.4.2 Solve problems about the concept of mole based on the chemical
equations for a chemical reactions.
4.5 Standard Solution
4.5.1 Determine the concentration of a solution using the number of
mole concept.
4.5.2 Calculate the concentration of a solution using the dilution method.
ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 4 STOICHIOMETRY 85

4.1 Relative Atomic Mass, Relative Molecular Mass
and Relative Formula Mass
4.1.1 Relative atomic mass
Is the mass of these fruits able to be weighed? Based on Figure
4.1, the fruits can be weighed using a weighing balance. What
about an atom? An atom is too small to be weighed. What will be
the solution to this problem? The solution is to compare the mass
of an atom relative to another atom.
The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass
of an atom of an element comparatively to 1 times the mass
of one carbon-12 atom. 12
Figure 4.1 The mass of the
fruits is weighed
Science Fact
Relative atomic mass of an element John Dalton (1766 - 1844) is a
Relative atomic mass RAM
scientist who made an attempt
mass of a carbon atom-12
to determine the relative atomic
mass of each element.
Example 1
1
The mass of aluminium is 27 times greater than carbon-12. 4
Chapter
12
What is the relative atomic mass of the aluminium element?
Solution :
M mass of one carbon-12 atom
Example 2
4
Chapter
If the mass of element A is 4 times greater than the mass of carbon,

what is the relative atomic mass of element A?
(RAM C = 12)
Solution :
M of element
4.1.1
4.1.2 Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass
Previously, we have learned about the relative atomic mass that is relative to the carbon-12
element. What about the relative molecular mass of molecules (RMM)? The relative
molecular mass also uses carbon-12 as the relative element.
mass of one molecule
Relative molecular mass (RMM)
mass of one carbon atom-12
Molecules are made up of atoms. Thus, the relative molecular mass of a molecule
is calculated by summing the relative atomic mass of all the atoms that made up
the substance.
Example 3
4
Chapter
Calculate the relative molecular mass of water, H2 O.
(RAM H = 1, O = 16)
Solution:
MM
The relative formula mass (RFM) is used for non-molecular ionic compounds. An
example of ionic compound is sodium chloride. Sodium chloride consist of sodium ions
and chloride ions in the forming a compound.
Example 4
Calculate the relative formula mass of sodium chloride and copper(II) chloride. 4
Chapter
(RAM Na = 23, Cl = 35.5, Cu = 64)
Solution:
Formula of the sodium chloride compound
RFM
Formula of the copper(II) chloride compound

RFM
Answer
Science Fact Additional
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4.1.2

4.1.3 The numerical problem associated with the relative molecular mass and
relative formula mass.
The solving of numerical problems on relative molecular mass and relative formula mass
is related to what we had learned before. Let's have a look at Example 5.
Example 5
The relative molecular mass of XY2 is 64. If the relative atomic mass of
4
Chapter
element X is 32. Calculate the relative atomic mass of element Y atom.
Solution:
Relative atomic mass

Therefore,
Relative atomic mass of element Y is 16.
Mind Test 4.1

1. What is relative atomic mass?
2. An element Q is 9 times heavier than a lithium atom. Calculate the relative atomic mass
of element Q.
3. Calculate the relative molecular mass of the following molecules:
Substance Molecular formula Relative molecular mass
Nitrogen gas N2
Glucose C6H12O6
4. Calculate the relative formula mass of the following compounds.

Substance Molecular formula Relative molecular mass
Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Hydrated magnesium sulphate MgSO4.7H2O
5. The manufacturing of wall plaster uses gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O. Show that the relative
formula mass of gypsum is 172.
6. Butane gas, C4Hx is used as a fuel in cooking gas cylinders. The relative molecular mass
of butane gas is 58. What is the value of x?
(RAM Li = 7, N = 14, C = 12, H = 1, O = 16, Ca = 40, Mg = 24, S = 32)
4.1.3
4.2 Concept of Mole
4.2.1 Concept of mole
Science Fact
In 1893, Wilhelm Ostwald
began using the word mole
to explain the concept of
comparison between mass
and substance.
A pair A dozen
Photograph 4.1 The quantities of substances that are found
around us can be measured using pair and dozen.
Quantities are described as pairs, dozen and etc. as in

Photograph 4.1. What about atoms, molecules or ions? www Click Internet
What is the quantity unit that can be used to represent or
measure these substances? Browse the website to
further understand the
Mole is the unit used to measure the quantity of concept of mole and its
substance based on the carbon-12 as the standard. used in stoichiometry.
1 mole of a substance is the quantity that consists of the same number of

particles as the number of atoms found in 12 g of carbon-12
Besides mole, number of particles is also the quantity used to measure atoms,
molecules and ions.
One mole of a substance consists of particles
The value particles is known as Avogadro constant (NA).
4.2.1

4.2.2 The relationship between the number of moles of atom with the mass of
substance and the relative atomic mass.
What is the relationship between the number of moles of atom with the mass of substance
and the relative atomic mass or the relative molecular mass? When one mole of magnesium
atom is placed on the analytical balance, the balance shows a reading of 24.00 g. The
mass of one mol of atom is known as the molar mass (unit, g mol − 1). In this relationship,
the molar mass of magnesium is 24.00 g mol − 1 and equals to the relative mass of the
magnesium atom, that is 24.00 (no unit). Thus, the molar mass has the same value as the
relative atomic mass of all the elements.
Number of moles of atom = Mass of 1 mole of atomic substance
= Molar mass
Table 4.1 Examples of relative atomic mass, mass of 1 mole of substance and molar mass
Relative atomic Mass of 1 mol of Molar mass of
Atom
mass substance (g) substance (g mol–1)
Neon 20 20 20
Sodium 23 23 23
The calculation for the number of mole of an atom is by using the formula:
Number of moles Atomic mass

Molar mass
Example 6
Calculate the number of moles for 0.27 g aluminium 4
Chapter
(RAM Al = 27)
Solution:
Number of moles of Aluminium Atomic mass
Molar mass
What is the relationship between the number of moles, mass and molar mass?
See Figure 4.2
× molar mass
Number of moles Mass of substance
÷ molar mass
Figure 4.2 The relationship between the number of moles,molar mass and mass of substance
4.2.2
4.2.3 Relationship between the number of moles of molecules with mass of
molecule and the relative molecular mass.
What is the relationship between the number of moles of molecules with their molecular
mass and the relative molecular mass? Molecules are made up of two or more atoms.
The chemical formula of a molecule shows the number and types of atoms contained in
the molecule.
Example of chemical formula for carbon dioxide molecules are CO2. This chemical formula
shows that there are 1 carbon atom and 2 oxygen atoms. Thus, if the number of atoms for
a molecule is known, the relative molecular mass of the molecule can be calculated.
Example to calculate the relative molecular mass of AaBb molecules is as follows.
Relative molecular mass = (a x Relative atomic mass A) + (b x Relative atomic mass B)
Table 4.2 Examples of relative molecular mass, mass of 1 mole of substance and molar mass.
Relative molecular Mass of 1 mol molar mass
Substance
mass substance (g) (g mol–1)
Water, H2O 2(1) + 16 = 18 18 18
Sodium chloride, NaCl 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 58.5 58.5
The calculation of the number of moles of a molecule is as follows:
Number of moles, n = Molecular mass

Molar mass
Example 7
Calculate the number of moles of 2.8 g of nitrogen gas, N2. 4
Chapter
(RAM N = 14)
Solution:
Number of moles of nitrogen gas Molecular mass
Molar mass
Example 8
Calculate the mass of 0.05 mol of carbon dioxide gas, CO2 4
Chapter
(RAM C = 12, O = 16)

Solution :
Molar mass
Mass mole
4.2.3

4.2.4 Avogadro constant (NA)
What is Avogadro constant (NA)? Avogadro constant is widely used when molar mass of
a substance is involved. The symbol for Avogadro constant is NA . Avogadro constant was
named after the scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776 - 1856), a renowned Italian scientist.
Avogadro constant (NA) is defined as the number of particles contained in

one mol of a substance, that is mol-1
Thus, one mole of matter (atom, molecule or ion) consists of number

of particles.
1 mole of atomic substance consists of 6.02 x 10 23 atoms
1 mole of molecular substance consists of 6.02 x 10 23 molecules
1 mole of ionic substance consists of 6.02 x 10 23 ions
Example 9
4
Chapter
Calculate the number of magnesium atoms in 2 moles atom of
magnesium
1 mole of atom = atoms
Solution :
Number of magnesium atoms
atoms
Example 10
4
Chapter
Calculate the number of water molecule for 3 moles of water molecule
1 mole of molecule = molecule
Solution:
Number of water molecule
molecules
Number of magnesium atom
Example 11
4
Chapter
Calculate the number of ion for 0.5 mole of bromide ion Br−.
1 mole of ion = ion
Solution:
Number of bromide ion
ions
4.2.4
4.2.5 Relationship of Avogadro constant (NA) with number of particles and
number of moles.
What is the relationship between the number of moles, the number of particles and the
Avogadro constant? Let's look at the relationship in Figure 4.3.
× NA
Number of moIes Number of particles
÷ NA
Figure 4.3 The relationship of number of moles, Avogadro constant and
number of particles.
Example 12
4
Chapter
How many atoms are there in 2.5 moles of gold ?
Solution:
Number of atoms = number of moles
atoms
Example 13
A closed glass container contains 0.5 mole of oxygen gas, O2. 4
Chapter
What is the number of oxygen atoms in the glass container?
(RAM O = 16)
Solution:
Number of oxygen molecule number of moles
molecules
In one oxygen molecule there are 2 oxygen atoms
Therefore, number of atoms of oxygen gas
atoms
Answer
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4.2.5

4.2.6 Solve numericals problems that involve number of moles
Let's solve some problems involving the number of moles using the concepts we had
learned earlier.
Example 14
Two different closed containers have 1 mole of helium atom and 1 mole of
4
Chapter
uranium atom respectively. Which container contains more particles? Which of
the following has a larger mass?
(RAM He = 4, U = 238)
Solution:
The number of particles for helium and uranium atoms is the same because
the number of moles of both atoms is the same.
mass number of moles molar mass
Mass of helium mol mol Mass of uranium
Therefore, uranium atom has the larger mass.
Mind Test 4.2

1. Calculate the mass of:
(a) 2 moles of oxygen atoms
(b) 1 mole of aluminium atom
(c) 0.5 mole of nitrogen atom
2. How many moles are there in 2.8 g of iron?
3. Calculate the number of moles in the molecules
(a) 8 g of bromine gas, Br2
(b) 4.4 g of carbon dioxide gas, CO2
4. Give the definition of Avogadro constant (NA).
5. Calculate the number of moles of nitrogen molecules, N2 which contains 3.01 × 1023
molecules of nitrogen.
6. Between 1 mol of oxygen gas, O2 and 0.5 mol of nitrogen dioxide, NO2 which one contain
more atoms? Explain.
7. A sample of a liquid contains 1.204 × 1023 glucose molecules. How many moles of glucose
is the liquid sample?
(RAM N = 14, Al = 27, O = 16, Fe = 56, Br = 80, C = 12) NA = 6.02 × 1023
4.2.6
4.3.1 Formation of positive ion and negative ion
Does the arrangement of electrons affect the formation of ions? Yes, electron arrangement
will affect the formation of positive and negative ions. Metal atom donates electron to form
positive ion while non-metal atom gains electron to form negative ion.
Formation of Ion
Metal atom Non metal atom

(Group 1, 2, 13) (Group 16, 17)
Donate electron Gain electron
Positive Ion Negative ion
Figure 4.4 The tendency of metal atom and non metal atom forming
positive ion and negative ion.
Every atom of an element will achieve a stable electron arrangement, that is a duplet
arrangement (2 electrons in the outermost shell) or an octet arrangement (8 electrons in
the outermost shell) as shown in Figure 4.5. When an atom has reached a stable electron
arrangement, the atom will not react chemically to form other compounds.
Duplet
Octet Octet
Figure 4.5 Stable electron arrangement of atom

To better understand the formation of positive and negative ions, see Figure 4.6 and
Figure 4.7.
Formation of positive ion

The sodium atom, Na has 1 electron in the outermost shell making it unstable.
Sodium atom, Na forms sodium ion, Na+ and achieve a stable electron arrangement by
donating 1 of its electrons in the outermost shell.
Na Na
The half equation for the formation of sodium ion, Na+

Na → Na+ + e–
Figure 4.6 Formation of positive ion
Formation of negative ion

The chlorine atom, Cl has 7 electrons in the outermost shell making it unstable.
It is easier for the Chlorine atom to gain 1 electron than to donate 7 electrons. Therefore,
the chlorine atom accepts 1 electron to form the chloride ion, Cl – to achieve a stable octet
Cl Cl
–
The half equation for the formation of chloride ions Cl
–
Cl + e– → Cl
Figure 4.7 Formation of negative ion
4.3.1
4.3.2 Chemical formula
Ionic compounds are formed when positive ion and negative ion combine together.
Chemical formula are symbols of elements that are combined and written together to form
a compound.
What information is obtained from the chemical formula? The information to be obtained
from chemical formulas is described in Figure 4.8.
The alphabets K and O indicate the

Tips to remember
symbols of the elements contained in the
compound, that is potassium and oxygen. easily !
• Number of ions is shown
on the subscript number.
• The number 1 for ion is
K2O not written in chemical
formulas.
Subscription number 2 shows that there are two

atoms of potassium and one oxygen atom. This
shows the ratio of atoms for each element in a
compound.
Figure 4.8 Information obtained from chemical formulas
How do we write a chemical formula? The steps to write a chemical formula are
as follows:
• Identify the positive ion and the negative ions symbols present in the compound.
• Balance the number of positive ion charges with the number of negative ion charges
to form a neutral compound.
Example 15
Show the formation of sodium chloride compound, NaCl
4
Chapter
Solution:
Substance Sodium, Na Chlorine, Cl or,
Na+ Cl–
Na+ Cl–
Charge of ions 1 1
+1 –1
Ratio of ions 1 1 1 1
Na Cl
Total charges of compound 1×1 1 × (–1) NaCl
which is neutral =1 = –1
Formula of compound NaCl

Example 16
What is the chemical formula of lithium oxide compound?
4
Chapter
Solution:
Substance Lithium, Li Oxygen, O or,
Li+ O2–
Li+ O2–
Charge of ions
+1 –2 1 2
Ratio of ions 2 1 2 1
Li O
Total charges of compound 2×1 1 × (–2) Li2O
which is neutral =2 = –2
Formula of compound Li2O
21st
century
Activity 4.2
Aim : To write chemical formulae through the Jigzaw Puzzle game.
Material: Manila card, display paper, hole puncher, scissors and marker.
Instructions:
2. Write the ions as shown in Figure 4.9 on the card and cut them out.
Na+ K+ Punch a hole

Al3+
Shade using the
SO42- O2- marker pen
Cl-
Figure 4.9 Example of an ion card
3. Join the shaded Na+, K+ and Al3+ ion cards with the punched hole ion cards that is SO42-, O2-
and Cl- according to Table 4.3 so that all punched hole cards are filled
4. List the chemical formulas formed by the ions above. Complete the table provided. The
winner will be chosen based on the amount of chemical formula that can be formed as fast
as possible.
5. The results are recorded in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3
Ion SO4 2-
O2- Cl-
Na+ Na2SO4
K+
Al3+
6. Present the results of the jigsaw puzzle in front of the class.

4.3.2
4.3.3 Carrying out experiment to obtain the chemical formula of compounds
and the equation of reactions.
Experiment 4.1
Chemical formula of a compound and reaction equation for magnesium oxide.
Problem statement: What is the chemical formula for magnesium oxide?
Aim : To carry out experiment to determine the chemical formula of magnesium oxide.
Materials : 10 cm of magnesium strip and sandpaper.
Apparatus: crucibles, holder, tripod stand, clay triangles, electronic balance and Bunsen
burner.
Procedure:
crucible
1. Weigh the empty crucible with the lid. magnesium
strip
2. Rub 10 cm of magnesium strip using sandpaper
tripod clay
until clean. stand triangle
3. Roll the magnesium strip and place it into the crucible
4. Weigh the crucible with its contents and lid. Heat
5. Prepare the apparatus arrangement as shown in Figure 4.10 Set up of apparatus
Figure 4.10.
6. Heat the crucible strongly until the magnesium strip
begins to burn. Cover the crucible with the lid.
7. Burning is continued and the crucible cover is lifted once in a while and is closed back as
soon as possible.
8. If the magnesium is no longer burning, remove the lid and continue to heat for 4 to 5
minutes.
9. Then leave the crucible with its contents to cool down at room temperature with its lid on.
10. Weigh the crucible with its contents and lid.
11. Repeat steps 1 to 10 until a fixed mass is obtained.
12. Record the weighing readings in Table 4.4.
Results:
Table 4.4
Item Mass (g)
crucible + lid
crucible + lid + magnesium
crucible + lid + magnesium oxide

Interpretation of data:
1. Complete the Table 4.5.
Table 4.5
Element Mg O
Mass (g)
Number of mole
Smallest ratio
(RAM Mg = 24, O = 16)
2. What is the chemical formula for magnesium oxide?
3. What is the equation of the reaction that occured?
Conclusion: What can you conclude?
Example 17
After the combustion of lead strip, the weighing readings are 25.80 g of
lead and 2.00 g of oxygen. What is the chemical formula for lead oxide and 4
Chapter
equation for reaction that occured?
(RAM Pb = 207, O = 16)
Solution:
Element Pb O Write the symbol of every element
Mass (g) 25.80 2.00 Write the mass of every element
Mass is divided with the

Number of moles molar mass
Choose the smallest value

and divide it with every
Ratio number
Smallest ratio 1 1
Thus, 1 mol of lead atom, Pb combines with 1 mol of oxygen atom, O to form
the chemical formula PbO.
Chemical equation: 2Pb + O2 2PbO
Mind Test 4.3

1. How are negative ions formed. Give an example.
2. Figure 4.11 shows the magnesium atom. Explain and draw the formation of ion for
magnesium atom.
Figure 4.11 Electron arrangement of magnesium atom

4.3.3
4.4 Concept of mole in chemical equations.
4.4.1 Balanced Chemical equation for a chemical reaction.
How to write a balanced chemical equation for a reaction? In a chemical equation there
must be a reactant and a product. The reactant and the product must have the same
number of atoms as shown in Example 19. Example 18 shows steps to write a balanced
chemical equation.
Example 18
The reaction between zinc and oxygen produces zinc oxide
4
Chapter
Step 1: Identify the reactants and products
Reactants: Zinc and oxygen gas
Product: Zinc oxide
Step 2: Write the chemical formula for the reactants and the products
Reactants: Zn, O2
Product : ZnO
Step 3: Write the chemical equation for the reaction
Zn + O2 ZnO
Step 4: Identify the number of atoms for every element in the reactant and
the product.
Reactants of reaction: Product of reaction :
1 zinc atom, Zn + O2 ZnO 1 zinc atom ,
2 oxygen atoms 1 oxygen atom
Step 5: Balance the number of atoms of the reactant and the product by
changing the coefficient (the number before the chemical formula) until the
chemical equation is balanced.
2Zn + O2 2ZnO
Example 19
4
Chapter
Balance the following chemical equation:

(a) H + O HO Solution :
2 2 2
(b) Al + Cl2 AlCl3 (a) 2H2 + O2 2H2O
(c) KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + H2O (b) 2Al + 3Cl2 2AlCl3
(c) 2KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2H2O

21ST
CENTURY
Activity 4.3
Aim : To write a simple balanced chemical equation and use the mole concept to balance the
chemical equation.
Method: Fan-n-Pick
Instructions:
1. Form a group of five.
2. Each group chooses one card from a set of cards arranged like a fan.
3. Each card contains a question. Answer the questions on the cards within the time set by
the teacher.
Neutralisation between hydrochloric The formation of copper (ll) sulphate in

acid and sodium hydroxide produces the reaction between copper (ll) oxide and
sodium chloride and water. sulphuric acid.
Reaction between sodium metal and Ammonia gas is produced when nitrogen
water produces sodium hydroxide and gas reacts with hydrogen gas.
hydrogen gas.
4. Present your answers infront of the class.
4.4.2 Concept of Mole based on the chemical equation for chemical reactions.
In chemical equations, you can obtain the number of moles of compounds or substances
involved. Previously, we have learned how to calculate the number of moles and their
chemical equations. This is called stoichiometry, which is the quantitative relationship
between the reactant and the product for a chemical reaction.
Example 20
4
Chapter
4 atoms or 2 molecules or
4 moles of Na 4Na + O2 2Na2O 2 moles of Na2O
1 molecule or
1 mole of O2
For the equation in Example 20, the coefficient in the equation shows that 4 sodium
atoms react with 1 molecule of oxygen gas producing 2 molecules of sodium oxide. In the
concept of mole, 4 moles of sodium atoms react with 1 mole of oxygen gas producing
2 moles of sodium oxide.
4.4.1 4.4.2
In order to produce a product or a chemical substance, the quantity of the reactants
needs to be relatively known. The coefficients in the chemical equation will provide the
information to solve the problem in any chemical reaction. Example 21 shows how to solve
problems related to the concept of mole based on chemical equations.
Example 21
The following equation shows the reaction when 40 g of calcium carbonate
is heated strongly. Here's is the reaction that occurs.
4
Bab
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Calculate the mass of calcium oxide produced
(RAM: Ca = 40, O = 16, C = 12)
Solution:
Step 1
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 Write the number of moles
1 mol 1 mol of reactant and product.
Step 2
Number of moles CaCO3 = 40g Write the number of moles
[(40 + 12 + (3 × 16)] g mol–1 of reactant and product.
= 40 g
atom mass (g)
100 g mol–1 n=
= 0.4 mol molar mass (g mol–1)
Step 3
From the chemical equation, 1 mole of calcium carbonate Calculate the mass of
produces 1 mole of calcium oxide. Therefore, the number calcium oxide
of moles of calcium oxide is equal to the number of
moles of calcium carbonate.
Number of moles of calcium oxide = Number of moles
of calcium carbonate
= 0.4 mol
Step 4
Thus, the mass of calcium oxide produce is Calculate the mass of
Mass of calcium oxide = 0.4 mol × (40 + 16) g mol–1 calcium oxide
= 22.4 g
Mind Test 4.4

1. Calculate the mass of water produced from the oxidation of 2.00 g of glucose, C6H12O6.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
2. The decomposition of potassium chlorate, KClO3 is commonly used in the preparation of
small-scale oxygen gas in the laboratory. Calculate the mass of oxygen gas produced from
5.50 g of potassium chlorate, KClO3.
2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2
3. Smoke pollution from industrial plants causes air pollution. One of the content of the factory
smoke is sulphur dioxide. When the sulphur dioxide reacts with the oxygen gas in the air it
produces sulphur trioxide which is one of the causes of acid rain. Write a balanced chemical
equation for this reaction. 4.4.2

4.5.1 Concentration of solution using the number of mole concept.
Why is it important for us to know the concentration of a liquid or solution? The concentration
of a solution depends on the solute in the solvent. Industrial fields require a certain amount of
solute and solvent to produce a product. Therefore, the chemist uses the calculation method
to obtain the solution concentration using the exact mole concept. Standard solution is a
solution where the concentration is accurately known. There are ways to prepare standard
solutions as shown in Figure 4.12.
Glass rod
Solute Distilled water Solution
Volumetric
flask
Electronic balance Solute
1. Weigh the solute 2. Place the solute in 3. Dissolve the solute 4. Transfer the solution
a beaker and add in distilled water by into a volumetric
distilled water. stirring the solution flask. Rinse the
with a glass rod. beaker with distilled
water a few times and
pour the solution into
the volumetric flask.
dropper
Filter Stopper
Distilled funnel
water Calibrated
Line
Volumetric Volumetric Standard

flask flask solution
5. Rinse the filter funnel with 6. Add distilled water to just 7. Cover the volume flask with
distilled water a few times. below the calibrated line. a stopper and shake the
Use a dropper to add distilled standard solution until it
water until it reaches the is homogeneous.
calibrated line on the neck of
the volumetric flask.
Figure 4.12 Methods to prepare standard solution

After learning how to prepare standard solution, we will learn how to calculate the
concentration of standard solution. The unit used for concentration of standard solution is
mol dm–3.The symbol for molarity is M.
Number of moles of solute (mol)
Molarity (M) =
Volume of solution (dm3)
Example 22
Calculate the concentration of 250 cm3 of 0.5 mol of standard solution of 4
Chapter
lead (ll) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2 that has been prepared.
Solution:
Volume of Convert unit cm3 to dm3
Number of moles By using formula

Concentration of
Volume of solution Number of moles of solute (mol)
Molarity (M)
Volume of Solution
Activity 4.4
Aim : To prepare a 250 cm3 solution of 0.1 M, 0.5 M and 1 M from solid sodium chloride, NaCl.
Substances: Solid sodium chloride, NaCl and distilled water.
Apparatus: 250 cm3 volumeric flask, filter funnel and 50 ml beaker.
1. Calculate the mass of sodium chloride required to prepare each standard solution. Record
in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6
Concentration of
0.1 0.5 1.0
solution (M)
Number of moles
Mass Number of Moles Molar mass
Mass of NaCl

2. Weigh the sodium chloride, NaCl for each concentration of standard solution.
3. Put solid sodium chloride, NaCl into a beaker and dissolve it in distilled water.
4. Transfer the solution into a volumetric flask. Rinse the beaker with distilled water a few times
and pour the solution into a volumetric flask.
5. Add distilled water just below the calibrated line. Use a dropper to add distilled water until it
reaches the calibrated line on the volumetric flask.
6. Insert a stopper to the volumetric flask and shake the standard solution until homogeneous.
4.5.2 Dilution method

Mind
Challenge
Water has been added to a
sweet drink. Now the drink
tastes less sweet. Is the
sugar content in the drink
now reduced?
Photograph 4.2 A concentrated drink

when added with water will produce
more diluted drinks.
The concentrated drink can be diluted by adding water to it. This method is called dilution.
How do we calculate a specific volume or concentration using the dilution method?
M1V1 = M2V2
M1 = The concentration of the solution before the water is added

V1 = The volume of the solution before the water is added
M2 = The concentration of the solution after the water is added
V2 = The volume of the solution after water is added
Adding water to a concentrated solution will change the concentration of the solution but
will not change the mass of the solute. This causes the number of moles of solution before
and after dilution to be the same.
4.5.1 4.5.2
Example 23
Calculate the new concentration of potassium hydroxide, KOH, if 200 cm3 of
distilled water is added to 100 cm3 of potassium hydroxide, KOH 2 mol dm–3. 4
Chapter
Solution:
. .
By using the dilution formula
. .
. .
.
.
Activity 4.5
Aim : To prepare a 100 cm3 0.1 M and 0.5 M solution of 1 M copper(ll) sulphate, CuSO4.
Materials: 250 cm3 copper(ll) sulphate standard solution, CuSO4 and distilled water.
Apparatus: 100 cm3 volume flask, filter funnel, pipette 10 ml, pipette 50 ml and beaker 50 ml.
Calculate the volume of the standard solution of copper (ll) sulphate, CuSO4 which will be used
to prepare solutions with 0.1 M and 0.5 M concentration using the dilution method as shown in
Table 4.7.
Table 4.7
Concentration (M) 0.1 0.5
Volume CuSO4
(Formula M1V1 = M2V2)
The procedure for the preparation of 0.1 M standard solution of copper (ll) sulphate,
CuSO4
1. Measure 10 cm3 copper (II) sulphate standard solution, CuSO4 by using 10 ml pipette and
put it into the volumetric flask.
2. Add distilled water until it reaches to just below the calibrated line. Use a dropper to add
distilled water until it reaches to just below the calibrated line in the volumetric flask.
3. Cover the volumetric flask with a stopper and shake the solution until homogenous.
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for the preparation of 0.5 M standard solution of copper (ll) sulphate,
CuSO4.
Mind Test 4.5

1. 50 cm3 sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH 0.5 mol dm–3 is diluted with 40 cm3 distilled water.
Calculate the concentration of the resulting solution.
2. Calculate the volume of hydrochloric acid, HCl 2.0 mol dm–3 required to prepare 200 cm3
hydrochloric acid, HCl 1.0 mol dm–3.

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108
Quick
Quiz 4
Summary
STOICHIOMETRY
11/7/2019.
Accessible on
Mass Chemical Equation Standard Solution
Relative Mass Method Formation Dilution Method

• Relative atomic • Positive ion M1V1 = M2V2
mass • Negative ion
• Relative molecular
mass
• Relative formula
mass
Concept of Mole
Mass Avogadro constant
Mass = particles
Number of moles
Molar mass Number of particles
Mole
STOICHIOMETRY CHAPTER 4 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

Avogadro constant
Self-Reflection
At the end of this chapter, pupils will be able to:
4.1 Relative Atomic Mass, Relative Molecular Mass and Relative Formula Mass
Describe relative atomic mass.
Calculate relative molecular mass and relative formula mass.
Solve numerical problem regarding relative molecular mass and relative formula mass.
4.2 Concept of Mole
Explain concept of mole
Relate the number of moles of atom with the mass of substance and the relative atomic
mass/relative molecular mass
Relate the number of moles of molecule with molecular mass and relative
molecula mass.
Explain the meaning of Avogadro constant (NA).
Relate Avogadro constant (NA) with number of particles and number of moles.
Solve numerical problems that involve the number of moles.
Explain by drawing how the positive ion and negative ion are formed.
Write the chemical formula of compounds.
Carry out an experiment to obtain the chemical formula of compounds and the equation
of reactions.
4.4 Concept of Mole in Chemical Equations
Write balanced equations for chemical reactions.
Solve problems about the concept of mole based on the chemical equations for
chemical reactions.
Determine the concentration of solution using the number of moles concept.
Calculate the concentration of solution using the dilution method.

1. Calculate the volume of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 1 mol dm–3 in cm3 required to prepare
2.0 dm3 of sulphuric acid solution, H2SO4 0.4 mol dm–3.
2. What is the mass of sodium in grams required to react with 0.5 mole of chlorine
atoms to form a compound with the chemical formula NaCl.
(RAM Na = 23, Cl = 35.5)
3. The following chemical equations are unbalanced:

Fe + Cl2 FeCl3

(a) State the reactants and the product of the above reaction.
(b) Balance the equation above.
(c) Calculate:
(i) Number of moles of chlorine gas, Cl2 which reacts with 11.2 g iron, Fe
(ii) Mass of iron(III) chloride formed
(RAM: Fe = 56, Cl = 35.5)
4. Solid sodium hydroxide is used to prepare standard solutions.

Solid sodium
hydroxide
Figure 1

(a) Calculate the mass of solid sodium hydroxide required to prepare a standard
solution of 2.0 mol dm–3 of 250 cm3.
(b) Explain briefly how to prepare a standard solution of 2.0 mol dm–3 sodium
hydroxide with volume of 250 cm3.
(c) What are the precaution that should be taken to ensure that all the sodium hydroxide
is transferred into the volumetric flask?

ENRICHMENT EXERCISE
1.
Figure 2
Figure 2 shows smoke emission from industrial areas. The smoke released from the
industrial plant causes air pollution. Among the contents of the factory smoke is nitrogen
oxide. When nitrogen oxide reacts with oxygen gas in the air, the reaction produces
nitrogen dioxide which is one of the causes of acid rain.
(a) Write the chemical equation involved in the situation above.
(b) Suggest the steps that the plant operator should take to overcome the acid rain
problem.
(c) What steps should be taken by the goverment to raise public awareness on the
importance of protecting the environment?
Scan me
Chapter 4
answers
Accessible on
11/7/2019.

CHAPTER 5
Chemical
Bond
• Duplet
• Octet
• What is the bond that is formed between
• Electron arrangement
positive ion and negative ion?
• Positive ion
• What are the uses of ionic and covalent • Negative ion
compounds in daily life?
• Ionic bond
• How can we draw the electron arrangement of a • Covalent bond
compound formed?
112 CHEMICAL BOND CHAPTER 5 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

CONTENT STANDARD
5.1 Stability of Element
5.1.1 Draw and explain the duplet and octet
electron arrangements of noble gases.
5.1.2 Explain the properties of
noble gases.
5.1.3 Relate the stability of noble gases with
its electron arrangements.
5.1.4 Explain with examples how other
elements achieve stable
electron arrangements.
5.2 Ionic Bond
5.2.1 Explain the formation of
positive ion and negative ion by
drawing electron arrangements.
5.2.2 Describe the formation of
ionic bonds in the ionic compounds.
5.2.3 Conclude the physical
properties of ionic compounds.
5.2.4 Explain with examples
ionic compounds in daily life.
5.3 Covalent Bond
5.3.1 Explain the formation of single covalent
bonds and double bonds.
5.3.2 Draw the electron arrangements of
covalent bonds.
5.3.3 Conclude the physical properties of
covalent compounds.
5.3.4 Explain with examples covalent
compounds in daily life.
ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 5 CHEMICAL BOND 113

5.1 Stability of Element
5.1.1 Duplet and octet electron arrangements of noble gases.
Do you still remember the electron arrangements of the noble gases or Group 18? Noble
gases have reached the duplet or octet electron arrangement which is stable. What is
exactly meant by a duplet and octet electron arrangement?
The duplet electron arrangement is for an atom that has

two valence electrons in the outermost shell as shown in
Figure 5.1. He
The octet electron arrangement is for an atom Figure 5.1 Duplet

that has eight valence electrons in the outermost electron arrangement
shell as shown in Figure 5.2.
Ar
Ne
Figure 5.2 Octet electron arrangement
Activity 5.1
Aim : To draw the duplet and octet electron arrangement for the gases helium, neon and argon
Instructions:
2. Complete the table below:
Table 5.1
Helium Neon Argon

Electron
2.8
arrangement
Electron
arrangement He
drawing
3. Present the finding of the group discussion infront of the class.

5.1.1
Science Facts
5.1.2 Properties of noble gases In 1919, scientist Irving
Langmuir introduced the
Two main properties of noble gases are stable and inert.
octet theory which is still
Electrons in the outermost shell have achieved being used until today.
Stable
duplet or octet electron arrangements.
• Do not react chemically with other elements.
Inert • Not reactive.

• Exist as monoatom.
5.1.3 Stability of noble gases with its electron arrangements.

Stability of an atom is achieved in two ways, that are:
Sharing of electrons Donating and gaining of electrons
Why are noble gases stable? Noble gases are stable because the electrons in the
outermost shell have achieved the duplet or octet electron arrangement. This cause the
atoms of noble gases to not share or donate and gain electrons.
Activity 5.2
Aim : To create a pamphlet on the properties of noble gases.
Instructions:
2. Gather information on the properties of noble gases which make them stable gases.
3. Present your findings in a pamphlet form.
5.1.2 5.1.3

5.1.4 Other elements that achieve stable electron arrangements.
A stable electron arrangement of atom is achieved through sharing, donating and gaining
of electrons.
Sodium atom has one electron in its

outermost shell.
It is easier for sodium atom to donate
Donating of
one electron than gaining seven
electrons
electrons in achieving a stable octet 2.8.1 2.8
Figure 5.3 Sodium atom donates one
electron forming sodium ion
Fluorine atom has seven electrons in its

outermost shell.
It is easier for fluorine atom to gain one
Gaining of
electron than to donate seven electrons
electrons 2.7 2.8
in achieving a stable octet electron
arrangement. Figure 5.4 Fluorine atom gains one
electron forming fluoride ion.
Chlorine atom has seven electrons in its

outermost shell.
2.8.7 2.8.7
If there are two chlorine atoms, it will be
Sharing of
easier for both atoms to share electrons
electrons
in achieving a stable octet electron
arrangement.
2.8.8 2.8.8
Figure 5.5 Two chlorine atoms share
two electrons in its
outermost shell.
Mind Test 5.1

1. State two properties of noble gases.
2. Why do noble gases exist as monoatoms?
3. State the way for the following elements to achieve its stable electron arrangement:
(a) Aluminium atom b) Chlorine atom (c) Chlorine molecule
4. What is the way for a sodium atom and a chlorine atom to achieve a stable electron
arrangement?
5.1.4
5.2 Ionic Bond
5.2.1 Formation of positive ion and negative ion
Every atom will try to achieve a stable electron arrangement. A neutral atom has equal
number of protons and electrons. When an atom donates or gains an electron, then the
number of proton is no longer equal to the number of electron. This leads to the formation
of positive ions or negative ions. Ionic bonds are formed when electrons are transfered
between metal atoms and non-metal atoms. Metal atoms donate electrons while non-
metal atoms gain electrons to achieve a stable electron arrangement.
Positive ion
• The formation of positive ion is by donating electrons.

• For example magnesium atom, Mg has an electron arrangement of 2.8.2.
• It is easier for the two electrons in the outermost shell to be donated than it is to gain six
electrons to achieve a stable octet electron arrangement to form a magnesium ion, Mg2+.
2e–
2.8.2 2.8
Figure 5.6 Formation of magnesium ion
Negative Ion
• The formation of negative ion is due to electron gain.
• Take for example a sulphur atom, S that has an electron arrangement of 2.8.6.
• It is easier for the sulphur atom to gain two electrons than it is to donate six electrons to
achieve a stable octet electron arrangement forming a sulphide ion, S2–.
2e–
2.8.6 2.8.8
Figure 5.7 Formation of sulphide ion 5.2.1

5.2.2 Formation of ionic bonds in the ionic compounds
The formation of ionic bonds in ionic compound must involve electron donation and electron
gain to produce a compound which is neutral and has a stable electron arrangement. Let's
look at an example of an ionic compound formation such as sodium chloride, NaCl and
magnesium oxide, MgO.
Sodium atom electron arrangement is 2.8.1.
Sodium atom will donate one electron forming

sodium ion, Na+.
2.8.1 2.8.7
Chlorine atom electron arrangement is 2.8.7.
Chlorine atom will gain one electron forming

chloride ion, Cl .
Thus, the ionic compound formed is

sodium chloride, NaCl.
2.8 2.8.8
Figure 5.8 Formation of ionic
compound of sodium chloride
Magnesium electron arrangement is 2.8.2.
Magnesium atom will donate two electrons forming, magnesium ion, Mg2+.
Oxygen atom electron arrangement is 2.6.
Oxygen atom will gain two electrons forming oxide ion, O2-.
Thus, the ionic compound formed is magnesium oxide, MgO.

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Formation of
ionic compound
magnesium oxide
2.8.2 2.6 Accessible on

11/7/2019.
Mind
Challenge
Explain the formation of ionic
2.8 2.8 compound of aluminium oxide?
Figure 5.9 Formation of ionic compound
of magnesium oxide 5.2.2
5.2.3 Physical properties of ionic compounds
Ionic compounds have physical properties that are different from covalent compounds.
Figure 5.10 shows the physical properties of ionic compounds.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
Electrical conductivity Melting point and Solubility

boiling point
Conduct electricity in Soluble in water but
molten state and aqueous High melting and insoluble in organic
solution boiling point solvent
Figure 5.10 Physical properties of ionic compound
5.2.4 Ionic compounds in daily life

What are the examples of ionic compounds used in your daily life? Table 5.2 consists of
examples of ionic compounds used in our daily life.
Table 5.2 Uses of ionic compounds in our daily lives
Calcium oxide Sodium chloride Magnesium oxide
Use: Use: Use:
Neutralises acidic soil In cooking to add flavour. As an antacid to relieve

heartburn and indigestion
5.2.3 5.2.4

21st
Century
Activity 5.3
Aim : To list down ionic compounds and its uses in daily life.
Method: Gallery Walk
Instructions:
2. Each group is given a card on one type of industry, either food,construction or medicine.
3. Gather information from the library or the Internet about the ionic compounds involved in
their respective industry.
4. Discuss and write your group's findings on a piece of display paper.
5. Stick the completed display paper on the classroom wall.
6. Read each other groups finding in a clockwise manner until the end of the gallery.
7. Discuss with the teacher on the findings of the Gallery Walk for each group and
draw conclusions.
Mind Test 5.2

1. Complete the table below:
Electron Electron
Atom Number of proton arrangement of Ion arrangement of
atom Ion
Potassium, K 19
Magnesium, Mg 12 2.8.2 Mg2+ 2.8
Oxygen, O 8
2. Form six ionic compounds for the following ion:
Li+ K+ Mg2+
O2-
F-
Cl-
3. List down three physical properties of ionic compounds.

4. List down five ionic compounds which you use in our daily lives.
5.2.4
5.3 Covalent bond
5.3.1 Single and double covalent bonds
Covalent bonds are formed when non-metallic atoms share
Science Fact electrons to achieve a duplet or octet electron arrangement.
There are two types of covalent bonds that we will study
Gilbert Newton Lewis in this topic.
(1875 - 1946)
is a chemist who
• Single covalent bond
discovered covalent bonds. • Double covalent bond
Single covalent bond

• Form when a pair of electrons are shared between
atoms to achieve a stable duplet or octet electron
arrangement.
• An example is two hydrogen atoms where each
hydrogen atom requires 1 electron to achieve a stable
duplet electron arrangement.
• Therefore, each hydrogen atom contributes 1 electron
and forms 1 single covalent bond.
• This produces 1 molecule of hydrogen, H2 as shown in
Figure 5.11 Formation of
Figure 5.11.
single covalent bond
Double covalent bonds
• There are some atoms that need to share 2 pairs of
electrons to achieve a stable duplet or octet electron
arrangement.
• An example is two oxygen atoms where each oxygen
atom needs 2 electrons to achieve a stable octet
• Therefore, each oxygen atom contributes 2 electrons
and forms a double bond.
• This produces 1 molecule of oxygen, O2 as shown in
Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.12 Formation of
double covalent bond
Mind
Challenge
Is a triple bond able to be formed? If so, give an example of a
triple covalent bond formation.

5.3.2 Electron arrangements of covalent compounds
The formation of covalent compounds involves the sharing of electrons between non-
metal elements. The formation of single or double covalent bonds is to achieve a stable
duplet or octet electron arrangement.
Formation of covalent compound, H2O

Formation of a
Scan Me
A hydrogen atom requires 1 electron to achieve a stable water molecule
duplet electron arrangement. covalent
compound of
water molecule
An oxygen atom requires 2 electrons to achieve a stable
Accessible on
octet electron arrangement.
11/7/2019.
Figure 5.13 Formation of a water covalent compound of water molecule
A hydrogen atom cannot donate electron because they have only 1 electron. Therefore, hydrogen
atoms need to share electrons. An oxygen atom contributes 1 electron to each hydrogen atom and
a hydrogen atom contributes 1 electron each to form a covalent bond between the hydrogen and
oxygen atoms.
Activity 5.4
Aim: Drawing covalent compounds which are formed by pairs of atoms.
Instructions:
1. In pairs, draw covalent compounds which are formed by the following pairs of atoms
(a) hydrogen atom and nitrogen atom
(b) hydrogen atom and chlorine atom
(c) carbon atom and oxygen atom
(d) nitrogen atom and oxygen atom
(e) carbon atom and hydrogen atom
(f) carbon atom and chlorine atom.
2. Check your answers with your partner.

5.3.2
5.3.3 Physical properties of covalent compounds
What are the physical properties of covalent compounds? Are the physical properties of
covalent compounds different from those of ionic compounds? Let's look at Figure 5.14.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Electrical conductivity Melting point and Solubility

boiling point
Insoluble in water but soluble
Do not conduct
Low melting point in organic solvent.
electricity
and boiling point
Figure 5.14 Physical properties of covalent compound
Activity 5.5
Aim: To investigate covalent and ionic compounds according to its electrical conductivity,
melting point and solubility in water.
A. Electrical conductivity
Materials : Lead(ll) bromide powder, PbBr2 and glucose powder, C6H12O6.
Apparatus: Battery, connecting wires, crocodile clip, ammeter, crucible, carbon electrodes,
clay triangle, tripod stand, Bunsen burner, switch and spatula.
battery
switch ammeter Precaution !

lead(II) bromide Be careful when handling
carbon hot crucibles. Make sure
powder
electrode
you use a wooden
holder to move it
Heat
Procedure :
1. Connect the battery to the carbon electrode using connecting wires.
2. Put two spatulas of solid lead(ll) bromide powder into the crucible.
3. Turn off the switch.
4. Observe and record the initial reading of the ammeter.
5. Heat the lead(ll) bromide powder until it melts.
6. Observe the ammeter needle and record ammeter readings.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 by using glucose powder, C6H12O6 .

Observation:
Table 5.3
Material Physical state Ammeter reading Inference
Solid
Lead(ll) bromide
Molten
Solid
Glucose
Molten
B. Melting point
Material : Sodium chloride powder, NaCl and sulphur powder, S.
Apparatus: crucibles, tripod stand, Bunsen burner, clay triangle and spatula.
Procedure:
1. Put two spatulas of sodium chloride powder into a crucible and put two spatulas of sulphur
powder into another crucible.
2. Heat both crucibles simultaneously.
3. Observe the changes that occur and record the observations.
Observation:
Table 5.4
Material Observation Inference
Sodium chloride
Sulphur
C. Solubility in water
Material: water, sodium chloride powder, NaCl dan napthalene powder, C10H8.
Apparatus: test tubes, glass rod and spatula.
Procedure:
1. Put a small amount of sodium chloride powder into a test tube containing 5 cm3 water
using a spatula.
2. Stir and observe the changes that occur.
3. Repeat steps 1 to 2 with napthalene powder and record the changes that occur.
Observation:
Table 5.5
Material Observation Inference

Sodium chloride
Napthalene
5.2.3 5.3.3
5.3.4 Covalent compounds in daily life
There are many uses of covalent compounds in daily life because they are insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents. Most covalent compounds are solvents such as
alcohol. Figure 5.16 shows the uses of covalent compounds in daily life.
Medicine
Cosmetic
Manufacturing of paints
Figure 5.16 The uses of covalent compounds in daily life.
Mind Test 5.3

1. Explain the formation of a single covalent bond for two chlorine atoms. The number of
proton for chlorine is 17.
2. What is covalent bond?
3. Draw the electron arrangement for the formation of ammonia, NH3. The number of proton
for nitrogen, N is 7, while hydrogen, H is 1.
4. Perfumes are made of esters, which is the product of the reaction between carboxylic acid
and alcohol. What is the property of ester that makes it suitable as a perfume?

126
CHEMICAL BOND Summary
Stability of Element Covalent bond
Group18 Formation Physical properties Uses

• Stable duplet and octet • Single bond • Does not conduct • Industry
arrangement shares a pair of electricity for all
• Cosmetic
electrons. conditions
• Not reactive in reactions
• Medicine
• Double bond • Low boiling point
• Exist as monoatomic
shares two and melting point
gases
pairs of
• Insoluble in water
electrons
but soluble in
organic solvents.
Ionic bond
Formation Physical properties Uses

• Donate • Conduct electricity • Industry
electron to form in molten state and Scan Me
• Nutrition
positive ion. aqueous solutions
• Skin care
• Gain electron • High boiling and
to form melting point
negative ion.
• Soluble in water
and insoluble in
CHEMICAL BOND CHAPTER 5 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

organic solvent.
Quick
Quiz 5
11/7/2019.
Accessible on
Self Reflection
At the end of this chapter, the pupils are able to:
5.1 Stability of element

Draw and explain the arrangement of duplet and octet electrons for noble gases.
Describe the properties of noble gases.
Relate the stability of noble gases to the arrangement of its electrons.
Explain with example how other elements achieve stable electron arrangement.
5.2 Ionic bond
Describe the formation of positive ions and negative ions by the electron arrangement
drawings.
Describe the formation of ionic bonds in ionic compounds.
Conclude the physical properties of ionic compounds.
Explain with examples the ionic compounds in daily life.
5.3 Covalent bond
Describe the formation of single and double covalent bonds.
Draw the electron arrangement of covalent compounds.
Conclude the physical properties of covalent compounds.
Explain with examples the covalent compounds in daily life.
1. Figure 1 shows the electron arrangement of A.

Figure 1
(a) Write the electron arrangement of element A.
(b) The atom of element A forms an ionic bond with chlorine atom, Cl.
(i) Draw formation of the ionic compound. Number of proton for chlorine is 17.
(ii) Write the chemical formula for the compound formed.
(iii) State three physical properties of the compound formed.
Scan Me
Chapter 5
2. The properties of substance B are that it is insoluble Answers
in water and has a low melting point.
(a) Is substance B an ionic or covalent compound?
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(b) State another physical property of substance B. 11/7/2019.

CHAPTER 6
Energy and
Chemical
Changes
• Oxidation
• Reduction
• Simple voltaic cell
• What is the process of oxidation and reduction?
• Redox reaction
• How do you set up a simple voltaic cell? • Electrode
• How does a redox reaction occur? • Electrical energy
• Can redox processes generate energy?
128 ENERGY AND CHEMICAL CHANGES CHAPTER 6 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

CONTENT STANDARD
6.1 Production of Electrical Energy from Chemical Reaction
6.1.1 Describe the process of oxidation and reduction.
6.1.2 Build and describe the operation of simple voltaic cell.
6.1.3 Identify the reaction of oxidation and reduction at electrodes.
6.2 Redox Reactions

6.2.1 Explain the redox reactions in term of gaining and losing electrons.
6.2.2 Describe the uses of redox reaction in daily life.
6.2.3 Create an energy source by using redox reaction to produce energy.
ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER6 ENERGY AND CHEMICAL CHANGES 129

6.1 Production of Electrical Energy from Chemical Reaction
6.1.1 The process of oxidation and reduction
Science Facts What is the process of oxidation and reduction? How do

you define the process of oxidation and reduction? Figure
Rusting is an example of 6.1 shows the ways of defining oxidation and reduction in
an oxidation and reduction a chemical reaction.
reaction. It is also known
as redox reaction.
Oxidation Reduction
Gain of oxygen Oxygen Loss of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen Hydrogen Gain of hydrogen
Loss of electrons Electrons Gain of electrons
Increase in oxidation Decrease in oxidation

Oxidation number
number number
Figure 6.1 The characteristics of oxidation and reduction.
What is oxidising agent and reducing agent?

• An oxidising agent is a substance that oxidises other substances and is reduced in a
chemical reaction.
• A reducing agent is a substance that reduces other substances and is oxidised in a
chemical reaction.
Let us take a look at the following examples to further understand what oxidation, reduction,
oxidising agent and reducing agent are.
Gain and loss of oxygen

An oxidation process takes place when magnesium
gains oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
Mg : Reducing agent
2Mg + CO2 2MgO + C
CO2 : Oxidising agent
A reduction process takes place when there is a loss of

oxygen from carbon dioxide to form carbon.

Gain and loss of hydrogen
An oxidation process takes place when
there is a loss of hydrogen from hydrogen
sulphide to form sulphur.
H2S : Reducing agent
Cl2 : Oxidising agent H2S + Cl2 S + HCl
A reduction process takes place

when chlorine gains hydrogen to form
hydrochloric acid.
Loss and gain of electrons

An oxidation process takes place when magnesium loses
electrons.
Mg Mg2+ + 2e–
Mg : Reducing agent
O2 : Oxidising agent 2Mg + O2 2MgO
A reduction process takes place when there is

a gain of electrons.
O2 + 4e– 2O2–
Change in oxidation number
An oxidation process takes place when there is an

increase in the oxidation number from 0 to 2.
Mg : Reducing agent
O2 : Oxidising agent 2Mg + O2 2MgO
A reduction process takes place when there is a

decrease in oxidation number from 0 to -2.

Activity 6.1
Aim: To collect information in order to understand the definition of oxidation, reduction,
oxidising agent and reducing agent.
Instructions:
2. Surf the Internet to collect information on oxidation, reduction, oxidising agent and
reducing agent.
3. Present your findings in a multimedia presentation in front of the class.
6.1.2 Simple voltaic cell Voltmeter
A simple voltaic cell is an electrochemical cell that

produces electrical energy from a chemical reaction. It
comprises of two types of metal dipped in an electrolyte
and are connected to the connecting wires of an external
Metal
circuit as shown in Figure 6.2. The metal strips that are strips
connected to the connecting wires are called electrodes.
The positive terminal (cathode) and the negative Electrolyte
terminal (anode) are determined from the electrochemical Figure 6.2 A simple voltaic cell.
series. The metal which is placed higher in the
electrochemical series will have a tendency to donate
electrons, making it a negative terminal. On the other hand, the metal which is placed
lower in the electrochemical series will have a tendency to accept electrons, making it a
positive terminal. Figure 6.3 shows the electrochemical series.
Metal
Easy to
K Remember
Na
Electrochemical series
Ca
K King
Mg
Na Nancy
Al Easier to Ca Can do
Zn donate electrons Mg Magic, go to
Al Alaska and
Fe
Zn Zanzibar,
Sn Fe Feed
Pb Sn Snakes but the
Pb Problem is she
Cu
Cu Couldn't do
Ag Ag Algebra
Figure 6.3 The electrochemical series 6.1.1 6.1.2
Let us have a look at what happens in a voltaic cell as shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 The changes that take place in a voltaic cell
Negative terminal (anode) Positive terminal (cathode)

A metal that is placed higher in the A metal that is placed lower in the
electrochemical series. electrochemical series.
Releases electrons and dissolves to form The positive ions in the electrolyte will
metal ions. accept electrons and form metal solids.
Oxidation process. Reduction process.
Voltmeter
Magnesium electrode Copper electrode
Copper(II) sulphate solution
Figure 6.4 A simple voltaic cell.
Figure 6.4 shows a simple voltaic cell that comprises of magnesium and copper
electrodes dipped in a copper(II) sulphate solution. Based on the electrochemical series,
magnesium is placed higher than copper. This means that the magnesium electrode is the
negative terminal and the copper electrode is the positive terminal.
Magnesium will release two electrons to form magnesium ion, Mg2+. So the magnesium
electrode becomes thinner.
Mg Mg2+ + 2e–
Electrons will flow through the external circuit from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal. Copper ion will accept two electrons to form copper atom, Cu. So the copper
electrode become thicker .
Cu2+ + 2e– Cu
When there is a flow of electrons, electricity is generated. The electric current flows in the
opposite direction of the electrons. The energy change that takes place in the voltaic cell
involves the conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy.
6.1.2

6.1.3 Reaction of oxidation and reduction at electrodes
How do we know that the process of oxidation and reduction has taken place in the simple
voltaic cell as shown in Figure 6.4? Let us look back at the half-equations that took place
at the anode and cathode.
Half-equation at anode: 1 Magnesium loses electrons.

2 Magnesium is oxidised to magnesium
Mg Mg2+ + 2e–
ion.
3 Oxidation process takes place.
Half-equation at cathode: 1 Copper ion gains electrons.
Cu2+ + 2e– Cu 2 Copper ion is reduced to copper metal.

3 Reduction process takes place.
Mind Test 6.1

1. What is meant by oxidation and reduction?
2. Define
(a) oxidising agent
(b) reducing agent
3. Draw a diagram of a simple voltaic cell consisting of aluminium and copper metal strips
and copper (II) sulphate as electrolyte.
(a) Determine the negative terminal.
(b) Explain the production of electrical energy generated from the voltaic cell.
4. Below are the half-equations at the electrodes. Identify and write whether oxidation
process or reduction process took place.
Electrode Half-equation Oxidation process or reduction process
Anode Zn Zn2+ + 2e–
Cathode 2H+ + 2e– H2
6.1.3
6.2 Redox Reaction
6.2.1 Redox reactions in terms of gaining and losing electrons
What is the meaning of redox reaction? A redox reaction

Science Facts is a chemical reaction where both oxidation and reduction
occur at the same time. Figure 6.5 shows examples of
The word redox is the
redox reactions.
combination of two words,
RED-reduction and
OX-oxidation.
Displacement of
metals
Electrochemistry
Types
Combustion of
of redox metals
reactions
Extraction of
metals
Corrosion of
metals
Figure 6.5 Types of redox reactions
6.2.1

Let us have a look at an example of a redox reaction in terms of gaining and losing
electrons for the reaction between solid sodium and chlorine gas.
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl

The half-equations for this reaction are:
Half-equation for sodium metal

Increase in oxidation number
0 +1
Na Na+ + e– • Sodium atom releases an electron
• Sodium is oxidised to form sodium ion
• Oxidation process takes place
Half-equation for chlorine gas

Reduction in oxidation number
0 –1
Cl2 + 2e– 2Cl– • Chlorine atom accepts an electron
• Chlorine is reduced to chloride ion
• Reduction process takes place
Following is an example of redox reaction in an aqueous solution. A piece of magnesium

strip is dipped into a copper(II) sulphate solution. At the end of the reaction, the blue colour
of the copper(II) sulphate solution becomes colourless.
Mg + CuSO4 MgSO4 + Cu
The equation above is a reaction between solid magnesium and a copper(II) sulphate
solution to form magnesium sulphate solution and copper precipitate. The half-equations
for this reaction are:
Half-equation for magnesium

Increase in oxidation number
0 +2
Mg Mg2+ + 2e– • Magnesium atom releases two electrons
• Magnesium is oxidised to magnesium ion
• Oxidation process takes place
Half-equation for copper ion
Reduction in oxidation number
+2 0
Cu2+ + 2e– Cu • Copper ion accepts two electrons
• Copper ion is reduced to copper atom
• Reduction process takes place 6.2.1
6.2.2 The uses of redox reactions in daily life
There are many uses of redox reactions in life particularly in the industrial manufacturing
sector. Some of the uses of redox reaction in daily life are as follows:
Gas Gas
Extraction of tin Ore of tin
+
Charcoal
In the extraction of tin, tin(IV) oxide in the ore is reduced to

+
Limestone
tin by carbon. Thus, carbon is the reducing agent.

Hot air Hot air
Slag is Molten
removed tin
Figure 6.6 Blast furnace
Battery
Electroplating
The process of electroplating of an iron spoon uses a
metal that is less electropositive.This is to prevent the iron Silver Spoon
spoon from rusting and making it more attractive. electrode
AgNO3
solution
Figure 6.7 Electrolysis
Sunlight
O2
CO2 Leaf containing

Photosynthesis chlorophy
The hydroxide ions in water undergo oxidation process to

form oxygen gas. The carbon in carbon dioxide undergo Water from roots
reduction to form glucose.
Figure 6.8 Photosynthesis
Activity 6.2
Aim: To understand the uses of redox reactions in daily life.

Instructions:
2. Surf the Internet to collect information on the uses of redox reaction in daily life.
3. Present the information gathered in the form of a multimedia presentation.
6,2,2

6.2.3 Creating energy source that uses redox reaction to produce energy
Upon learning about redox reactions, we have discovered various processes that can be
used to produce energy. Venturing into the search for new energy is important due to the
rapidly growing world population.
This knowledge gives pupils an opportunity to think critically and creatively. For
example, a mobile battery can be made by using materials found at home.
Household items that can be used are spoons, forks, knives, etc. Meanwhile, piped
water, salt water and vinegar can be used as electrolytes.The materials mentioned above
can be used to apply the concept of redox reaction to build a mobile battery suitable for
emergency situations.
Activity 6.3
Aim: To invent a source of energy from two types of metals and an electrolyte.
Chemical reactions produce electrical energy which are important in our

daily lives.
Instructions:
2. Each group is to design a source of electrical energy from different types of metals and
an electrolyte.
3. Surf the Internet to gather relevant information required.
4. Present the information gathered in the form of multimedia presentation and a portfolio.
Mind Test 6.2

Cu + Cl2 CuCl2
1. Based on the equation above, explain the redox reaction that takes place in terms of the
gain and loss of electrons.
2. State three uses of redox reactions in daily life.

Scan me
ENERGY AND CHEMICAL
Quick
Quiz 6
CHANGES
Summary
11/7/2019.
Accessible on
Chemical reactions Redox reaction
Uses
Oxidation Reduction Simple voltaic cell
• Extraction of tin
• Gain of oxygen • Loss of oxygen • The terminal
is determined • Electroplating
• Loss of • Gain of
by the • Photosynthesis
hydrogen hydrogen
electrochemical
• Loss of • Gain of series
ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER6 ENERGY AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

electrons electrons
• Increase in • Decrease
oxidation in oxidation
number number
139
Self Reflection
6.1 Production of Electrical Energy from Chemical Reactions

Describe the process of oxidation and reduction.
Build and describe the operation of simple voltaic cell.
Identify the reaction of oxidation and reduction at electrodes.
6.2 Redox Reactions
Explain the redox reactions in terms of gaining and losing electrons.
Describe the uses of redox reaction in daily life.
Create an energy source by using redox reaction to produce energy.
A colourless
A blue solution of solution of
copper(II) sulphate magnesium
sulphate
Magnesium Copper
Before After
Figure 1
1. Figure 1 shows the change occured when a copper(II) sulphate aqueous solution reacts with
magnesium.
The equation for the reaction above is
Mg + CuSO4 MgSO4 + Cu
(a) Give the half-equations for the following processes:
(i) Oxidation
(ii) Reduction
Scan me
(b) Identify the oxidising agent and reducing agent in this

reaction.
(c) Explain the redox reaction that takes place in terms of the Chapter 6
gain and loss of electrons. Answers
2. List two uses of redox reaction in daily life.

Accessible on
11/7/2019.

THEME
3
ENERGY AND
SUSTAINABILITY OF LIFE
This theme provides an understanding about the impact of force involves
in motion in human daily life. This theme also shows the relationship
between force and motion to understand the concepts of momentum and
impulse. Pupils are also given an understanding on thermal equilibrium,
specific heat capacity and specific latent heat, especially those involving
activities in daily life.
ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 7 FORCE AND MOTION 141

CHAPTER 7
Force and
Motion
• Scalar quantity
• Vector quantity
• Force
• Equilibrium of
forces
• Resultant force
• Direction
• What is the difference between a scalar quantity • Acceleration
• Momentum
and a vector quantity?
• Principle of
• How does force affect the acceleration of the Conservation of
same object? Momentum
• Impulse
• Why is a bowling ball designed to be heavy?
142 FORCE AND MOTION CHAPTER 7 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

CONTENT STANDARD
7.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities
7.1.1 Explain with examples scalar and vector quantities.
7.1.2 Describe resultant vectors and resolving vectors.
7.1.3 Solve problems involving resultant vectors and resolving vectors.
7.2 Force
7.2.1 Carry out an experiment to formulate the equation F = ma.
7.2.2 Describe the equilibrium of forces.
7.2.3 Solve problems involving resultant force in daily life.
7.3 Momentum
7.3.1 Explain momentum (p) as a product of mass (m) and velocity (v), p = mv.
7.3.2 Communicate the Principle of Conservation of Momentum in one dimension for collisions
and explosions.
7.4 Impulse
7.4.1 Explain impulsive force and some example of situations involving impulsive force.
7.4.2 Describe impulsive as a change in momentum, that is: Ft mv – mu.
7.4.3 Conclude that impulsive force is the rate of change of momentum in collisions or
explosion occurring in a short time, that is :
7.4.4 Solve problems involving impulsive force.

7.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities
7.1.1 Examples of scalar and vector quantities
Farid just moved from Sabah to Kuala Lumpur. One evening, Farid set out to find his new
school not far from his home. As Farid looks for the direction to school, Farid meets Ah
Chong and Muthu. Farid asks for their help in pointing out the new school.
N
Continue for 500 m, and then
you'll find the school.
Continue for 500 m east, and
then you'll find the school.
Which direction?
Ah Chong
Thank you.
Farid
Muthu Farid
Situation A Situation B
Figure 7.1 Examples of situations involving scalar quantities and vector quantities
From the situations in Figure 7.1, direction given by which friend could help Farid find
his new school? Why?
Directions given by Ah Chong are scalar quantities while Muthu's directions are vector
quantities. What is a scalar quantity and a vector quantity?
Scalar quantity
Physical quantity with magnitude only such as length, mass, time, temperature and
electric current.
Vector quantity
Physical quantity with magnitude and direction such as displacement, velocity and
force.

The magnitude and direction of a vector are represented by arrows. Figure 7.2 shows
the magnitude and directions.
N
• The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector

(the scale of the figure is 1 cm representing 20 km h–1)
50 km h–1
• The direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector
Figure 7.2 Arrows in vector quantity
Based on Figure 7.2, information obtained is that the car was travelling at a speed of
50 km h-1 to the east.
Activity 7.1
Aim: To identify scalar quantity and vector quantity.
Apparatus: Thermometer, ruler, spring balance and wooden block.
Procedure: Carry out the activity at each station.
A. Station 1
Then, determine whether the quantity obtained is a scalar quantity or a vector quantity.
Explain why.
Situation Type of quantity Explanation
Using a thermometer, take the reading of your body temperature.
Using a ruler, measure the length of your text book.
Walk about 3 meters to the east from your original position.
B. Station 2
1. Place a wooden block on the table.
2. Connect the wooden block to the spring balance as shown in Figure 7.3.
3. Pull the balance 30 cm away from the wooden block and record the value of force obtained.
Spring balance
Wooden block Pull
30 cm
Figure 7.3 Set up of apparatus.
C. Station 3
Using an i-Think maps, separate the following physical quantities into scalar quantity and
vector quantity.
Velocity Length Volume Impulse Distance Acceleration Mass Momentum
Time Displacement Electric charge Force Temperature Speed Density Power
7.1.1

7.1.2 Resultant vectors and resolving vectors
There are many situations involving resultant vectors and resolving vectors in solving
everyday life problems.
Resultant vectors
Resultant vector is a combination of two vectors to form a single vector.
Force of 3 N Force of 5 N
pushed to the right pulled to the right
Resultant Vector
Figure 7.4 Example of a resultant vector
Figure 7.4 shows a wooden block pulled with a force of 5 N to the right. Then, 3 N
of force is pushed in the same direction. The combination of both vectors produce a
resultant vector.
Resolving vectors
Resolving vector is when one vector is separated by two components perpendicular to
the other or at perpendicular to each other but have the same effect as the original vector.
Fy F
F is the original vector
Fx and Fy are the resolving vectors
Fx
Figure 7.5 Example of a resolving vector
Figure 7.5 shows that the original vector is resolved into two components, which are
the horizontal component, cos and the vertical component, .
7.1.2
7.1.3 Solving problems involving resultant vectors and resolving vectors
Resultant vector
There are two types of resultant vectors commonly used in daily life, which are resultant
parallel vectors and resultant perpendicular vectors.
Example 1 : Resultant Parallel Vectors
Figure 7.6 shows Ahmad and Zi Hong pushing a trolley with F1 = 400 N
400 N and 300 N of force respectively, in the same direction.
What is the resultant vector produced?
Solution:
Resultant parallel vectors are obtained by adding both vectors. F2 = 300 N
Resultant force,
Figure 7.6 Ahmad and Zi
Total resultant force produce,
Hong pushing a trolley with
different forces
Resultant force produced has the same direction with the two forces acting on it.
Example 2: Resultant Perpendicular Vectors

60 N N
Figure 7.7 shows a trolley pushed to the east, suddenly being
pushed at the side.
Solution:
Resultant perpendicular vectors can be obtained using two 80 N
methods:
Figure 7.7 Force acting on a trolley
being pushed with two perpendicular
Method 1: Triangle of forces with scaled diagram forces.
1. Determine the appropriate scale. 1 cm : 20 N.
2. Draw force F1 according to scale and
direction.
3. Draw force F2 according to scale and

direction, starting from the end of F1.
A
4. Complete the triangle by connecting both
forces.

5. Measure length of AB Length of AB = 5 cm
Based on scale, 1 cm is equivalent to 20 N, so

6. Convert the measurement to the scale used.
5 cm is equivalent to 100 N
7. Calculate angle θ using a protractor 37o from east
Therefore, the force acted on the trolley is 100 N to the direction of 37o from the east.
Method 2: Calculations based on The Pythagoras Theorem
Resultant vector, F = F12 + F22

= 80 2 + 60 2
= 10 000
= 100 N
While, to determine the direction of the resultant force a trigonometry formula is used.
This shows that the resultant vector the trolley moves is 37o from the east. Therefore, the resultant
force acting on the trolley is 100 N to the direction of 37o from the east.
Resolving vector
The trigonometry method used to resolve vectors into two perpendicular components are
shown in Figure 7.8.
C B
F Fy F
O A
Fx cos
Figure 7.8 Trigonometry method used to resolve two perpendicular vectors

Example 3:
A trolley is pulled with a force of 45 N as shown in Figure F = 45 N
7.9. The force applied is at an angle of 20o from the
horizontal line. Calculate the force in the horizontal and
vertical directions.
Figure 7.9 Trolley pulled with a force of
Solutions: 45 N and at an angle of 20o from the
1. Draw a vector diagram. horizontal line
Fy
F = 45 N
Fx
2. Calculate the resolving vectors in the horizontal and vertical directions using the trigonometry
formula.

c
c
Mind Test 7.1

1. What is the meaning of scalar quantity and vector quantity?
2. State the difference between resultant vector and resolving vector.
3. Two forces, 40 N and 30 N respectively acted on one N

point. State the resultant force for the two forces if
2.5 ms–1
the angle between the two forces is 90o.
4. A ship is travelling at a speed of 5 ms–1 to the west.

The ship is facing a water current of 2.5 ms–1 towards
the south. Determine the magnitude and direction of
5 ms–1
the velocity of the ship.
5. A tourist pulls his bag with a force of 100 N at an angle of 55o from the horizontal line.
(a) Show and label:
(i) Force F.
(ii) Force of horizontal component, Fx.
(iii) Force of vertical component, Fy .
(b) Find:
(i) The horizontal force of the bag which enables it to move forward
(ii) The vertical force of the bag.
7.1.3

7.2 Force
Effects of
Scan Me
force in daily
There are a few terms to keep in mind when studying force. life
What is meant by force? Force is a pull or a push acted
on an object. Force will affect an object such as changing Accessible on
direction, moving a stationary object and increasing the 11/7/2019.
speed of a moving object.
Distance is defined as the total length travelled by an object Kudat
moving from one place to another. Distance is a scalar

Kota Belud
Kota Kinabalu Beluran
quantity.
Sandakan
Keningau
Beaufort
Displacement is the distance travelled by a continuous Pensiangan

Keningau
Lahad Datu
Kudat
object moving along the shortest path connecting two Tawau

Semporna
locations in a certain direction. Displacement is a vector Distance

quantity. SI unit for distance and displacement is metre (m). Displacement
Figure 7.10 An example of

difference between distance
and displacement
What is speed?
Speed is the distance travelled per unit time or the rate of change of distance.
Total distance travelled, s (m)

Average speed, v =
Time taken, t (s)
Velocity is speed in a given direction or the rate of change of displacement.
Displacement, s (m)
Average velocity,v =
Time taken, t (s)
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity and it is a vector quantity.

SI unit for acceleration is metre per second or ms–2 .
Rate of change of velocity, v

Acceleration, a =
Time taken, t
Final velocity - Initial velocity
=
Time taken
v–u
=
t

All of these terms are inter-related to produce motion. A ticker timer is a device
used to study motion. The ticker timer is able to print dots on the ticker tape at a uniform
rate. The distance between two consecutive dots on the ticker tape represents the change
in position of the object.
Science Fact
Uniform velocity
Acceleration
Interpretation of ticker timer readings Photograph 7.1 Ticker timer
7.2.1 Experiment to formulate the equation F = ma
Experiment 7.1
Problem statement: What is the relationship between force, mass and acceleration?
Aim: To determine the relationship between force, mass and acceleration.
Apparatus: Ticker tape, elastic rope, trolley, ticker timer, power supply, friction compensated
runway, slotted weight, wooden block and meter ruler
Trolley
Ticker tape
A.C power supply Elastic rope
Ticker timer
Wooden block Smooth pulley
Slotted weight
Friction compensated runway
A. Relationship between Acceleration and Force

Inference: Acceleration depends on the force applied.
Hypothesis: The more the force, the faster the acceleration.
Variables
Manipulated: Force
Responding: Acceleration
Constant : Mass

Procedure:
1. Hook an elastic rope to the trolley.
2. Stretch the elastic rope to the end of the trolley.
3. Pull the trolley down the runway by the elastic rope which is stretched with the same
amount of force.
4. Determine the acceleration of the trolley by analysing the ticker tape obtained.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 using two, three, four and five elastic ropes.
Results:
Table 7.1
Force / Number of elastic rope Acceleration (ms–2)
1. Plot the acceleration graph against force.
Conclusion: Is the hypothesis accepted? Why?
B. Relationship between Acceleration and Mass
Inference: Acceleration depends on the mass of object.
Hypothesis: The more the mass of the object, the faster the acceleration.
Variables
Manipulated: Mass
Responding: Acceleration
Constant: Force
Procedure:
1. Hook an elastic rope to a trolley.
2. Stretch the elastic rope to the end of the trolley.
3. Pull the trolley down the runway by the elastic rope which is stretched with the same amount
of force.
4. Determine the acceleration of the trolley by analysing the ticker tape obtained.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 using two, three, four and five trolleys.
Results:
Table 7.2
Mass/ Number of trolleys Acceleration (ms–2)
1. Plot the acceleration graph against mass.
Conclusion: Is the hypothesis accepted? Why?

Based on Experiment 7.1, can you state the relationship between force, mass and
acceleration?

Acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force.
Acceleration, a ∝ Resultant force ,F
For a force exerted on an object, the acceleration produced is inversely proportional to
the mass.
1
Acceleration, a ∝
Mass,m
1
By combining the relationship , a ∝ F and a ∝ m
F
It is found that a ∝ m
F = force
When it is rearranged, F ∝ m × a m = mass
so, F = km × a a = accelaration
= kma k = constant
SI unit for force is newton (N) and we define one newton (1 N) as the force required to
cause 1 kg of object to move with acceleration of 1 ms-2.
Replace in the equation F = kma
1 N = k × 1 kg × 1 ms-2
And we will get the constant k = 1
Therefore, the relationship between force, F, mass, m and acceleration, a, can be

written as: F = ma
7.2.2 Equilibrium forces

Ask a friend to stand in front of the class. Can you tell where are the forces acting on
your friend? You may seem to see as though there is no force acting. Actually there is a
gravitational pull that acts downward and causes your friend to be pulled down. However,
your friend did not move down. This indicates that there is
a similar force acting upwards. The effects of both forces
cancelled each other out causing your friend to stop moving.
This condition is called the equilibrium of forces.
Body weight, W
Normal
A stationary object reaction, R
When a gymnast is stationary as in Photograph 7.1, the Photograph 7.2 A gymnast

resultant force acting on her is zero. This is because achieves equilibrium when at
the weight of the gymnast, W is balanced by the normal stationary position
reaction, R from the runway. 7.2.1 7.2.2

A moving object with a constant
velocity Lift force, U
The aeroplane in Photograph 7.3 moves

at constant velocity. The net force acting
on it is zero. This is because thrust, T
is balanced by drag, G. Lift force, U is Thrust, T Drag, G
balanced by weight, W. Weight, W
Photograph 7.3 Aeroplane with constant

velocity achieves equilibrium
When forces act on an object in an equilibrium state, it will cancel each other out. Thus,
the resultant force of this condition is zero, F = 0, so, the acceleration of the object is also
zero, a = 0.
Therefore, in the equilibrium of the forces, the object is said to be at rest
(velocity, v = 0) or moving at constant velocity (a = 0).
7.2.3 Problems involving resultant force in daily life

Resultant force is a combination of all forces acting on an object. When the forces involved are
in equilibrium, the resultant force is zero and there is no change in the motion of the object, as
if no force is applied to it.
When the forces involved are not in equilibrium, resultant force is the result of the difference
between the forces acting on it in the opposite direction. In this case, the resultant force
produces acceleration. Look at Figure 7.12.
30 N 30 N 50 N 30 N
(a) Resultant force = 0 (b) Resultant force = 20 N to the left
Figure 7.12 Resultant force is different when force applied is different
In Figure 7.12, the resultant force in Figure (a) is zero because the forces acting in both
directions are in the opposite direction, while in Figure (b) the resultant force is not zero
because the forces acting on the object are unbalanced. The change in direction of motion
occurs towards the resultant.

Let's look at some situations that involve resultant force in our daily lives.
Elevator
A girl is in an elevator. She stands on a weighing balance. The weight of the girl, W = mg
acting downwards and normal reaction, R acting upwards.
When the elevator is stationary (did not move)
Stationary
Resultant force F = 0
F = R −W = 0
R
∴ R = mg
W Reading of weighing balance= weight of girl
The elevator moves upwards with acceleration, a
Acceleration, a (upwards) Resultant force, F upwards

R > mg = 0
F = ma
F = R − mg = ma
R
R = mg + ma
W ∴ R = m (g + a)
a Reading of weighing balance > weight of girl
Direction of resultant force = direction of acceleration (upwards)
The elevator moves downwards with acceleration, a
Acceleration, a (downwards) Resultant force, F downwards

mg > F = 0
F = ma
F = mg − R = ma
R R = mg − ma
a W ∴ R = m (g − a)

Reading of weighing balance < weight of girl
Direction of resultant force = direction of acceleration (downwards)

Pulley
The mass of the load is the same
When
The system is in a state of rest (not moving)
Pulley
T T
Key
m = mass of load
m1 m2 T = extension
W = Weight of load
W1 W2
The mass of m1 is higher

When
A moves downward B moves upward
Pulley with acceleration, a with acceleration, a
Resultant force at A, Resultant force at B,
T
a T
B
m2
A
Mind
W2 Challenge
m1
What will happen if the mass of B is
W1 higher than the mass of A?
Inclined plane
When an object is placed on an inclined plane, the weight of the object can be divided
into two:
1. The weight component is parallel to the inclined plane,
2. The weight component is perpendicular to the inclined plane, cos
Fg
io n,
Normal reaction, R ict
Fr
cos
Weight, W
Figure 7.13 Weight components of an inclined plane
To solve the problem involving an inclined plane, the weight will be resolved into two
perpendicular components.
2. Object accelerates downwards on a

1. Object in equilibrium on a rough inclined smooth inclined plane (frictional force,
plane Fg = 0)
R Fg R
io n,
Fr ict
c c
Total perpendicular force components to Resultant force is perpendicular to the

the inclined plane = 0 inclined plane = 0
c Resultant force is parallel to the inclined
Total parallel force components to the plane = ma
inclined plane = 0 Use resultant
Since the object is stationary, the resultant

force is perpendicular to the inclined Therefore:
plane = 0
Therefore: c The bigger the angle of the inclined plane,

the higher the acceleration of an object.
Activity 7.1
Aim: To draw a force diagram.
Instructions:
1. Form three groups.
2. Each group is given a problem that involves resultant force in everyday life such as a car climbing
a hill, water being transported from a well using a pulley and a motorcycle moving at constant
speed.
3. Draw a force diagram on a piece of display paper to determine the resultant force and
acceleration of the object in each problem.
4. Present your group work in front of the class.

Mind Test 7.2
1. State the meaning of force?
2. State four effects of force on an object.
3. The diagrams below show the condition of an equilibrium of forces acting on an object.
Mark and label the forces.
(a) Books on a table (c) A moving car at constant velocity
(b) An aeroplane flying with constant velocity
4. Calculate the resultant force. Which direction does the object moves?
(a) 8N
15 N
(b)
8N 15 N
5. A diver is descending from a tall building with the same velocity. Does the diver has an
equilibrium force? Give your reason.
6. The picture shows a girl weighing 60 kg in an elevator. Calculate

the weight of the girl, if the elevator
(a) is stationary
(b) accelerates 0.4 ms–2 upwards
(c) accelerates 0.4 ms–2 downwards
(Gravitational acceleration, g = 10 ms–2)
7. A cat with a mass of 3.5 kg sits on the roof with an inclination

of 30o from the horizontal line. What is the frictional force
between the cat and the roof? (assume g =10 ms–2)
30
7.2.3
7.3 Momentum
7.3.1 Definition of momentum
Why do we feel afraid when a big lorry
accelerates behind us at high speed? We
would definitely imagine the huge impact it
would have if the lorry hits our car. This is
related to momentum.
Photograph 7.4 A big lorry with high speed

exhibits high momentum if it hit a car.
What is momentum?
All moving objects have momentum. Imagine a lorry with a heavy load and a car moving
at the same velocity both wanting to stop. The lorry will find it more difficult to stop than the
car because the lorry has greater momentum than the car.
Definition:
The product of mass and velocity of an object
Unit: Momentum Formula:

kg ms–1 or N s p = mv
p = momentum
m = mass
v = velocity
Type of quantity:
Vector quantity
Figure 7.14 Definition of momentum.

Activity 7.2
Aim: To investigate how the velocity and mass of an object influence the effort to stop a
moving object
Apparatus: Steel ball and marble of the same diameter, plasticine and meter rule
A. Two objects of equal mass but of different height
Procedure:
1. Release the steel ball at a height of 50 cm and 100 cm above the surface of the plasticine
as shown in Figure 7.15.
steel ball
steel ball 100 cm
50 cm
plasticine

2. Observe and compare the depth and size of the dents in the plasticine made by the
released steel balls.
Observation: Record the depth and the size of the dent in the plasticine made by the two
steel balls.
Conclusion: What is your conclusion?
B. Two objects of different mass but at the same height

Procedure:
1. Release a steel ball and a marble of the same diameter at the same height which is 50 cm
above the surface of the plasticine as shown in Figure 7.16.
steel ball
marble
50 cm
plasticine

2. Observe and compare the depth and size of the dent in the plasticine made by the
released steel ball and the marble.
Observation: Record the depth and size of the dent on the plasticine made by the steel ball
and marble.
Conclusion: What is your conclusion?
7.3.1
7.3.2 Principle of Conservation of Momentum
up = 0
Figure 7.17 shows the collision between a bowling ball and ub
a bowling pin. The bowling ball has mass, mb and initial
velocity, ub. The bowling ball collides with a bowling pin
with mass of mp and has an initial velocity, up zero. After
collision, the velocity of the bowling ball decreases, vb and
the bowling pin move at high velocity, vp.
The Principle of Conservation of Momentum states

that the amount of momentum before the collision Fp
Fb
equals the amount of momentum after the collision if
there is no external force acting on it.
This formula of this principle is as follows:

vb vp
which are :
mb = mass of bowling ball
mp = mass of bowling pin
Figure 7.17 Collision of
ub = initial velocity of bowling ball bowling ball and bowling pin
up = initial velocity of bowling pin
vb = final velocity of bowling ball
vp = final velocity of bowling pin
The Principle of Conservation of Momentum of a closed system is the total external

forces acting on the system which is zero. There are two situations that apply the Principle
of Conservation of Momentum as shown in Figure 7.18.
Situations of the Principle of

Conservation of Momentum
Collisions Explosions
The amount of momentum of an The amount of momentum remains
object before the collision is equal zero before and after the explosion.
to the amount of momentum after
the collision.
Figure 7.18 Situations that apply the Principle of Conservation of Momentum

Collisions
There are two types of collisions, which are, elastic collision and non-elastic collision.
Let's look at the similarities and differences between the two types of collisions as shown
in Figure 7.19.
Total kinetic energy Total momentum Total kinetic energy

conserved conserved not conserved
Total energy Non-elastic

Elastic collision
conserved collision
After the collision, two Total mass After the collision,

objects will separate conserved two objects will move
and move at different together at the same
velocity. velocity.
m1 m2 → m1 m2 m1 m2 → m1 m2
u1 u2 v1 v2 u1 u2 v
Figure 7.19 Similarities and differences between elastic collision and non-elastic collision
Explosions
Before the explosion, the two objects are together and as though in a conditions of being
at rest. After the explosion, the two objects move in opposite directions as shown in Figure
7.20.
v1
m1 m2 m1 m2
Figure 7.20 Situation before and after explosion.

The object is stationary before the explosion. Therefore the Example
amount of momentum before the explosion is zero. Based calculation
Scan Me
on the Principle of Conservation of Momentum, the amount of Principle

of Conservation
of momentum before an explosion is equal to the amount of of Momentum
momentum after an explosion.
Accessible On
Therefore, 11/7/2019.

Activity 7.3
Investigate the Principle of Conservation of Momentum in an elastic collision
Problem statement: Is the amount of momentum in a closed system constant in an
elastic collision?
Aim:To prove that the amount of momentum for a closed system is constant in an
elastic collision.
Apparatus: Ticker timer, 12V a.c power supply, runway, retort stand, cellophane tape, piston
spring, ticker tape and two trolleys.
Ticker tape
Trolley A Trolley B
To a 12V a.c power supply
Ticker timer
Retort stand Piston spring Runway
Procedure:
1. Set up a runway by adjusting its gradient so that the runway is friction compensated, so the
trolley can move down the runway at a constant velocity.
2. Label two trolleys with the same mass as Trolley A and Trolley B. Trolley A with a spring
piston is placed at the higher end of the runway. Place Trolley B at the lower end of the
runway. Place a ticker tape on both trolleys as shown in Figure 7.21.
3. Push Trolley A slightly when the ticker timer is switched on so that it can move at a uniform
velocity and collide with the Trolley B.
4. After the collision, the two trolleys move separately. Use the ticker tape to calculate the
velocity of Trolley A and Trolley B before and after the collision.
5. Assuming that the mass of each trolley is 1 kg, calculate and record the momentum before
and after collision in Table 7.3.
Observation:
Table 7.3
Before Collision After Collision
Mass of Mass of Initial Total initial Final Final Total final
Trolley A, Trolley B, velocity of momentum, velocity of velocity of momentum,
mA (kg) mB (kg) Trolley A, uA mAuA + mBuB Trolley A, vA Trolley B, vB mAvA + mBvB
(ms–1) (kg ms–1) (ms–1) (ms–1) (kg ms–1)
Conclusion : What is your conclusion?

Activity 7.4
Investigate the Principle of Conservation of Momentum in a non-elastic collision
Problem statement: Is the amount of momentum in a closed system constant in a non-elastic
collision?
Aim: To prove that the amount of momentum for a closed system is constant in a non-elastic
collision.
Apparatus: Ticker timer, power supply a.c 12V, runway, retort stand, plasticine, cellophane
tape, ticker tape and two trolleys
Ticker tape
Trolley A Trolley B
To a power supply a.c 12 V
Ticker timer
Retort stand Runway

Plasticine
Figure 7.22 Set up of apparatus.
Procedure:
1. Place Trolley A at the higher end of the runway and Trolley B at the lower end of the runway.
2. Stick the plasticine on both trolleys. Place a ticker tape on Trolley A and Trolley B as shown
in Figure 7.22.
3. When the ticker timer is switched on, push Trolley A slightly so that it can move downwards
at a uniform velocity and collides with Trolley B.
4. After the collision, the two trolleys move together. Use the ticker tape to calculate the velocity
of Trolley A and Trolley B before and after the collision.
and after collision in Table 7.4.
Observation:
Table 7.4
Before collision After collision
Initial mass of Initial velocity Total initial Final mass, Final velocity, Total final
trolley A, trolley B, momentum, mA + mB (kg) v (ms–1) momentum,
mA (kg) uA (ms–1) mAuA + mBuB (mA + mB)v
(kg ms–1) (kg ms–1)

Activity 7.5
To investigate the Principle of Conservation of Momentum in a an explosion
Problem statement: Is the amount of momentum in a closed system constant in an explosion?
Aim: To prove that the amount of momentum for a closed system is constant in an explosion.
Apparatus: Two trolleys, 2 ticker timer, ticker tape, piston spring, hammer, 12V a.c power
supply and meter rule, wooden blocks
To a 12V a.c power supply

Wooden block
Ticker timer
Trolley A Ticker tape
Trolley B
Piston spring
Wooden block
Procedure:
1. Put Trolley A and Trolley B closely to each other on a flat surface and compress the piston
spring to Trolley B.
2. Hit the releasing pin on trolley B slowly to remove the piston spring that separates both
trolleys. The trolleys collides with the wooden block.
and after explosion in Table 7.5.
Observation:
Table 7.5
Before
After collision
explosion
Initial total Mass of Trolley Mass of Trolley Velocity of Velocity of Total final
momentum, A, mA (kg) B, mB (kg) Trolley A, Trolley B, momentum,
p (kg ms–1) vA (ms–1) vB (ms–1) mAvA + mBvB
(kg ms–1)

Activity 7.6
Aim: To study situations involving the Principle of Conservation of Momentum in daily life.
Instructions:
2. Each group will be given some examples of situations that apply the Principles of Conservation
of Momentum:
(a) Launching of a rocket (c) Movement of an octopus
(b) The operation of a jet engine (d) The shooting of a gun
3. Gather information on each situation from various sources such as books, magazines,
newspapers or the Internet.
4. Present your findings using a multimedia presentations.
STEM
Activity 7.7
Aim: To launch a water rocket using the Principle of Conservation of Momentum in the form
of explosions.
Apparatus: 1.5 L plastic water bottle, cellophane tape, glue, scissors, knife, thick paper, ruler
and rocket launcher.
Instructions:
1. Carry out this activity in groups.
2. Find information on rocket launch technology from the Internet, books
and magazines.
3. Draw a sketch of the water rocket construction which you would like to
build.
4. Build a water rocket based on the sketch.
5. You and your team members can innovate your water rocket such as
adding a parachute.
6. Launch the rocket in an open space. Photograph 7.5
Example of a water rocket
Science Facts
During the launching of a rocket, the mixture of hydrogen fuel and oxygen burns with an
explosion in the combustion chamber. The hot gas in the rocket engine is released at a very
high speed through the exhaust. The high speed of this hot gas produces a large momentum
downwards. Based on the Principle of Conservation of Momentum, a similar momentum but in
an opposite direction is generated and moves the rocket upwards.
Mind Test 7.3

1. What is the definition for momentum?
2. Describe a situation that involves the Principle of Conservation of Momentum?
3. Trolley A with mass 500 g moves at a velocity of 2.0 ms -1 collides with Trolley B with mass
400 g in a stationary state. If Trolley B moves with a velocity of 1.0 ms -1 and the same
direction as Trolley A, what is the velocity of Trolley A after collision?
7.3.2
7.4 Impulse
7.4.1 Situations involving impulsive force
Look at the situations involving impulsive force.
The mortar and pestle are made of a hard material. This will shorten the impact
period. Thus, the resulting impulsive force is large and helps to crush the food
in the mortar.
Making helmets from soft and thick material on the inside helps to prolong
the time of impact in the event of an accident.
The playground is covered with soft, dense synthetic flooring to extend the
time of impact when children fall on the floor thus reducing impulsive force.
Figure 7.24 Examples of situations involving impulse in daily life
Can you describe other situations involving impulsive force? Discuss it with your
classmates.
Activity 7.8
Aim: To generate ideas about impulsive forces from collisions and explosions.
Instructions:
1. Your teacher shows a video on collisions that involve different time periods.
2. Observe, compare and contrast the impact of collisions for short and long period of time.
3. Discuss with your friends whether the time period plays a role on the impact of collision.

7.4.2 Impulse as a change in momentum
Photograph 7.6 shows a ping pong player hitting a
ball. A force is applied to the ball at time interval t and
resulting in a change of momentum on the ping pong
ball as it moves in the opposite direction.
Impulse is a change of momentum or product

of forces, F applied to an object with mass, m
at time interval, t.
Photograph 7.6 A ping pong
player produces impulsive force
Definition:
Change in
momentum
The product
Formula:
of impulsive
force and time Impulse
of impact
Impulse
Vector
quantity
Unit:
kg ms-1 or
Ns
Figure 7.25 Definition of impulse
7.4.3 Relationship between impulse, momentum and impulsive force

Newton's Second Law states that the rate of change of momentum is proportional to the
force, F acting on the object at time, t.
From the relationship between force, mass and acceleration
Change in momentum
Impulsive force
Time
Therefore, impulsive force is defined as the rate of change of momentum in a collision

or an explosion. 7.4.2 7.4.3
There are two factors that influence impulsive force, which are momentum change and
impact time.
As momentum change increases, impulsive

Momentum change
force increase.
As impact time increases, the impulsive

Impact time
force decreases.
7.4.4 Problems involving impulsive force

Impulsive force is divided into the impulsive force to be reduced and the impulsive force to
be increased as shown in Figures 7.26 and 7.27.
In a long jump event, athletes have to bend Thick mattresses are used in the high
their knees when they land on the ground. jump to prolong the athlete's landing time.
This extends the impact time so that the This will reduce the impulsive force, thus
impulsive force can be reduced to avoid reducing injuries.
injury.
Impulsive force to be
reduced
The Polystyrene is used in packaging to protect the

content against damage when the packaging drops thus
extending the impact time.
Figure 7.26 Impulse force to be reduced
7.4.3 7.4.4

An expert in karate can break a thick stone Food like chillies and onions can be crushed
slab with their bare hand moving at high using the mortar and pestle. The pestle will
speed and causing the slab to split into two. be moved downwards at high speed and stop
at the mortar within a short period of time.
This will produce high impulsive force, thus
crushing the food easily.
Impulsive force to be
increased
A football should have enough air pressure to shorten the

action time when it is kicked by the player. The impulsive force
produced is large and allows the ball to move far.
Figure 7.27 Impulsive force to be increased
Activity 7.9
Aim: To study the impact of impulsive force on fragile objects in packaging methods.
Instructions:
1. Find information on packaging methods for breakable objects such as eggs and
electrical appliances.
2. Discuss the purpose of the packaging.
3. Then, create a model using waste material to show the different effects of impulsive
force such as the use of thick paper and the use of plastic bags in packing eggs or other
fragile objects.
Mind Test 7.4

1. What is meant by impulsive force?
2. How can time influence impulsive force?
7.4.4
FORCE AND MOTION
Summary

Physical Quantity Momentum
Definition The Principle of

Scalar Vector Conservation of Momentum
CHAPTER 7
• Has • Momentum, • Collisions
• Has magnitude
magnitude p = mv • Explosions
and direction
only
• Divided into
resultant and
resolving Impulse
vectors
FORCE AND MOTION

Definition
• Change of
Force momentum
or product
Scan Me of forces, F
applied to an
Definition Equilibrium of forces object with
Problem solving
mass, m at
• Force, F = ma • Stationary • Resultant time interval, t.
object force
• Object moving • Resolving
Quick
at a constant
Quiz 7
force
velocity
11/7/2019.
Accessible on
171
Self Reflection
7.1 Scalar Quantity and Vector Quantity

Explain with examples scalar and vector quantities.
Describe resultant vectors and resolving vectors.
Solve problems involving resultant vectors and resolving vectors.
7.2 Force
Carry out an experiment to formulate the equation F = ma.
Describe the equilibrium forces.
Solve problems involving resultant force in daily life.
7.3 Momentum
Explain momentum (p) as the product of mass (m) and velocity (v), p = mv.
Communicate the Principle of Conservation of Momentum in one dimension for collisions
and explosions.
7.4 Impulse
Explain impulsive force and some examples of situations involving impulsive force.
Describe impulse as a change in momentum, that is: .
Conclude that impulsive force is the rate of change of momentum in collisions or

explosions occurring in a short time, that is
Solve problems involving impulsive force.

1. Figure 1 shows a girl with a mass of 50 kg in an elevator.

Calculate the weight of the girl if the elevator:
(Gravitational acceleration, g = 10 ms–2)
(a) is stationary
(b) accelerates 0.5 ms-2 upwards
(c) accelerates 0.5 ms-2 downwards.
Figure 1
2. Based on Figure 2, determine:

(a) resultant force, F
(b) a moving mass, m
(c) acceleration, a 4 kg
3 kg
(d) extension of rope, T Figure 2
3. A force is applied to an object with a mass of 2 kg. The object moves at an increasing
velocity of 1 ms-1 to 9 ms-1. Calculate the impulse of the object.
4. The velocity of an object with a mass of 6 kg changes from a stationary state to

2 ms-1 within 6 s when moving on a smooth surface. What is the value of the force?
5. Figure 3 shows a helicopter dropping a 60 kg mass aid

box at a velocity of 12 ms-1. The box takes 2 s to stop
when it touches the ground. What is the magnitude of
the impulsive force acting on the box?
6. A pole vault sportsman with a weight of 50 kg landed

on a thick mattress with a force 250 N in 2 s. Determine
the speed of the sportsman before landing on the
mattress.
Figure 3
Scan me
Answers
Chapter 7
Accessible on
11/7/2019.

CHAPTER 8
Heat
• Thermal
• Specific heat capacity
• How to achieve thermal equilibrium? • Specific latent heat
• What is the meaning of specific heat capacity?
174 HEAT CHAPTER 8 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

CONTENT STANDARD
8.1 Thermal Equilibrium
8.1.1 Explain with examples thermal
equilibrium.
8.1.2 Explain the application of thermal
equilibrium in daily life.
8.2 Specific Heat Capacity

8.2.1 Describe specific heat capacity
8.2.2 Carry out an experiment to
determine the specific heat capacity
of a solid and a liquid.
8.2.3 Communicate about the application
of specific heat capacity in dailylife
and natural phenomena
8.3 Specific Latent Heat

8.3.1 Describe specific latent heat
of fusion and the specific latent heat
of vapourization.
determine the specific latent heat
of ice.
determine the specific latent heat of
vapourisation of water.
8.3.4 Compare the specific latent heat
of fusion and specific latent heat of
vapourisation for a material in terms
of molecular bonding.
8.3.5 Communicate the application of
specific latent heat in daily life.
ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 8 HEAT 175

8.1.1 The Concept of Thermal Equilibrium
According to the Kinetic Theory of Matter, matter is made up of particles that are constantly
in random motion. When an object is heated, the particles in the hot object have more
thermal energy than a cold object as in Figure 8.1.
Particles of a hot object Particles of a cold object

Figure 8.1 Heat energy in a hot and cold object
Figure 8.2 shows the heat transfer process that takes place until thermal equilibrium
is reached.
90oC 30oC 60oC
A B A B A B
Before thermal contact During thermal contact At thermal equilibrium

• Object A is hotter than • Heat energy will transfer • The rate of heat transfer
object B. from object A to object B. from object A to object B and
object B to object A is the
• At the same time, heat
same.
energy will transfer from
object B to object A. • The temperatures of the two
objects are the same.
• The rate of heat transfer
will be higher from a hotter • Object A and object B are in
object than from a colder thermal equilibrium.
object.
• The temperature of object
A decreases and the
temperature of object B
increases.
Figure 8.2 Heat transfer to achieve thermal equilibrium 8.1.1
8.1.2 Application of thermal equilibrium in daily life
The concept of thermal equilibrium can be applied in daily life. The following are examples
of the application of thermal equilibrium.
The use of an electric kettle thermostat

When the thermostat is in thermal equilibrium with the
electric kettle heating element, that is when the water has
boiled, the electric current will turn off automatically.
Measuring body temperature using a clinical

thermometer
When mercury in the thermometer bulb reaches
thermal equilibrium with the body temperature, mercury
stops expanding and the body temperature can be
accurately measured.
Increasing the temperature of cold milk

Breast milk that is cooled in the refrigerator is firstly
immersed in hot water to reach thermal equilibrium.
Activity 8.1
Aim: To understand the concept of thermal equilibrium.
Instructions:
2. Discuss the application of thermal equilibrium in appliances such as ovens and
refrigerators.
3. Present your group's findings in the form of a multimedia presentation.
Mind Test 8.1

1. What is thermal equilibrium?
2. Give two examples for the applications of thermal equilibrium in daily life
8.1.2

8.2.1 The Concept of Specific Heat Capacity
If you heat an empty pan, the pan heats up faster than a pan containing water. Why does
this happen?
This is related to the ability of a substance to heat or
store heat energy. This is known as heat capacity.
Heat capacity of an object is defined as the quantity of
heat required to increase the temperature of the object by
1 °C.
In Figure 8.3, the water in the pan has a higher heat
capacity than the empty heated pan as it requires more
heat energy to increase its temperature by 1 °C.
Specific heat capacity is the physical quantity used
to compare the heat capacity of a substance of the
same mass. Specific heat capacity (c),is defined as the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg
of substance to 1°C or 1 K.
Figure 8.3 An empty pan heats
faster than a pan containing
water.
Heat capacity calculations use the following formula:
Science Fact
c = Specific heat capacity
Substance Specific Heat
Q = Heat quantity required, Capacity
m = Mass of Substance (Jkg–1 °C–1)
Human Body 3500
= temperature change Air 1000
SI unit for specific heat capacity is Aluminium 900
J kg–1 °C–1. Glass 840
Iron 440
Copper 390
For an example, specific heat capacity of
Lead 130
water is 4200 J kg–1 °C–1. This means that Mercury 140
4200 J heat energy is required to increase Ice 2100
the temperature of 1 kg water by 1 °C. Water 4200
Water vapour 2000
Examples of specific heat capacity
values for some substances.

Activity 8.2
Aim: To create a poster on specific heat capacity of a substance.
Instructions:
2. Gather information on the specific heat capacity values of different substances.
3. Create a poster and put it up at the corner of your laboratory.
Activity 8.3
Aim : To compare the temperature increase of several subtances with the same mass
heated by the same quantity of heat.
Apparatus: beakers, thermometer, stopwatch, retort stand, wire gauze and bunsen burner.
Materials: 1 l water and 1 l paraffin. Thermometer
Instructions:
1. Fill two beakers with 1 l of water and 1l of paraffin as in
Figure 8.4.
1l
2. Heat both beakers for 5 minutes with the same 1 l parafin water
flame size.
3. Record the initial temperature readings of both beakers.
4. Take the final temperature readings of both beakers.
5. Record the difference between the initial and the final
Bunsen burner
temperatures. Figure 8.4 Set up of apparatus
Observation:
Table 8.1
Type of liquid Initial temperature (°C) Final temperature(°C) Temperature difference (°C)
1 l water
1 l paraffin
Data interpretation:
Discuss the increase in temperature with specific heat capacities of the substances.
Activity 8.4
Aim: Discuss the relationship between heat insulators and heat conductors with its specific
heat capacity
Instructions:
2. Discuss with your group members the relationship between the insulators and conductors
with its specific heat capacity.
3. Present the results of your discussion in the form of a multimedia presentation. 8.2.1

8.2.2 Determining Specific heat Capacity of liquid and solid
Experiment 8.1
Problem statement: What is the specific heat capacity of a liquid?
Aim: To determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid (water)
Apparatus: Immersion heater, beaker, thermometer, cotton wool, stopwatch,
12 V power supply, polystyrene sheet, stirrer and electronic balance.
Materials : Distilled water.
Procedure: Thermometer
1. Weigh the mass of an empty beaker with a
Immersion
stirrer and record it as m1. heater
2. Fill the beaker with water until half full.
Stirrer
Record the new mass,m2.
3. Wrap the beaker with a layer of cotton wool Beaker
and place it on a sheet of polystyrene to Cotton Polystyrene
prevent heat loss to the surroundings. wool sheet
4. Immerse the heater and thermometer into
the water as shown in Figure 8.5.
5. Record the initial temperature of the water, .
6. Turn on the heater and start the stopwatch simultaneously and stir the water constantly
with a stirrer.
7. Record the maximum water temperature reached , after the heater is turned on for t
seconds.
8. Calculate the temperature change, .
Observation:
Table 8.2
Mass of empty beaker, m1 (kg)
Mass of beaker and water, m2 (kg)
Mass of water, m2 – m1 (kg)
Intial temperature, (°C)
Final temperature, (°C)
Temperature change,
Power of immersion heater, P (W)
Time period of immersion heater switched on, t (s)
Data Interpretation:
1. Calculate the heat energy released by immersion heater, power time
2. Calculate the heat energy Q absorbed by water,
3. Assuming no heat was lost to the surroundings, heat released = heat absorbed,
Therefore, specific heat capacity, J kg–1 °C–1
Conclusion: What is the specific heat capacity of water?

Experiment 8.2
Problem statement: What is the specific heat capacity of a solid?
Aim : To determine the specific heat capacity of a solid.
Apparatus: Immersion heater, thermometer, cotton wool, electronic balance, stopwatch, 12 V
a.c power supply and polystyrene sheet.
Thermometer
Materials: Aluminium block and oil.
Aluminium
Procedure: block
1. Weigh an aluminium block with two
cavities and record its mass, m. 12 V a.c Cotton
Power supply wool
2. Wrap the aluminium block with
Oil
cotton wool and place it on top of the
polystyrene sheet to prevent heat loss to Immersion heater
the surrondings.
Polystyrene sheet
3. Put the heater in one of the cavities
while the thermometer is placed in the Figure 8.6 Set up of apparatus
other cavity as shown in Figure 8.6.
4. Add oil into both the cavities to ensure uniform heating
5. Record the initial temperature of the aluminum block, .
6. Turn on the power supply and start the stopwatch simultaneously.
7. Turn off the power supply after heating for t seconds and record the highest thermometer
reading of temperature, .
8. Calculate the temperature change .
Observation:
Table 8.3
Mass of aluminium block, m (kg)
Initial temperature, (°C)
Final temperature, (°C)
Temperature changes,
Power immersion heater, P (W)
Time Period of immersion heater switched on, t (s)
1. Calculate the heat energy released by the immersion heater, power time
2. Calculate the heat energy, Q absorbed by water
3. With the assumption, no heat loss to the surroundings, heat released = heat absorbed,
Therefore, specific heat capacity, J kg–1 °C–1
Conclusion: What is the specific heat capacity of the aluminium block?
8.2.2

8.2.3 Application of specific heat capacity in daily life and natural phenomena
House appliances
The handle is made of a substance with a high specific heat

capacity so that it :
• is able to absorb high quantities of heat
• has low temperature increment.
Therefore, the handle is not easily heated and can be held
safely
Made of a substance with low specific heat capacity so that:

• temperature increases very fast.
Figure 8.7 Application of specific heat capacity in life
Car engine cooling

In car engines, water is used as a cooling
agent. This is because, the high heat
capacity of the water allows it to absorb Science Facts
a large amount of heat from the engine
Differences in physical properties
cylinder without boiling. of substances with different specific
heat capacity.
Small Specific Large

heat
capacity
temperature temperature
increases Heated increases
very fast slowly
Cool water
is streamed temperature temperature
decreases Cooled decreases
through the very fast slowly
engine block.
Figure 8.8 Water as the cooling Example of water,
metal
agent in a car engine substance wood

Sea breeze and land breeze
Land breeze occurs at night when the land cools faster
than the sea because the specific heat capacity of land is
lower than that of the sea.
Figure 8.9 Land Breeze

Sea breeze occurs during the day when the sun warms
the land surface faster than the sea surface because the
specific heat capacity of land is lower than the specific heat
capacity of sea water.
Figure 8.10 Sea Breeze
Activity 8.5
Aim : To create a folio on the application of specific heat capacity
Instructions:
2. Gather information on specific heat capacity applications in daily life such as car radiators,
cooking equipments and natural phenomena such as land and sea breeze.
3. Present your group's findings in the form of a folio
Activity 8.6 STEM
A house has a roof that plays an important role in ensuring that the house is protected
from the effects of the hot sun and rain. Most houses in the village use zinc as roofs.
However, problems arise in the middle of the day due to the sudden increase in temperature
causing discomfort to those living in the house. This is because zinc has a low specific
heat capacity.
Instructions:
1. Form a group of six.
2. Discuss the application of green technology in the concept of specific heat capacity to solve
the given problem.
3. You need to sketch out the given situation and a solution for the problem.
Mind Test 8.2

1. What is the meaning of specific heat capacity?
2. Explain the relationship between specific heat capacity with land breeze and sea breeze.
8.2.3

8.3.1 Specific latent heat of fusion and vapourisation.
Latent Heat is the heat absorbed or released at a constant temperature during a change
of state for substances. For example, when water is heated, its temperature rises to
100 °C. Once the water starts to boil, the temperature will remain constant at 100 °C
despite constant heat absorption. This heat is the energy needed to change water from
liquid to gas.
Since the heat required for a change of state occurs without any increase in temperature,
the heat seems to be latent or hidden.
Heat absorbed
melting boiling
latent heat of latent heat of

fusion vapourisation
freezing condensation
Solid (ice) Liquid (water) Gas (steam)
Heat is released
Figure 8.11 The process of phases changes
During the process of change from one phase to another, the state of particles have
the characteristics as described in Figure 8.12 below.
Characteristics for phase to phase changes
Occur at a specific
Constant temperature Latent heat is required
temperature and pressure
Figure 8.12 Characteristics for the change of phase processes
Specific latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to change 1 kg of substance
from a solid phase to a liquid phase without changing the temperature or vice versa.
Specific latent heat of vapourisation is the amount of heat required to change 1 kg of
substance from a liquid phase to a gas phase without changing the temperature or vice
versa.
Formula
Phase Specific Specific latent Phase
change heat change
latent heat
from solid to of from liquid
liquid
of fusion
vapourisation to gas
Unit
J kg–1
Figure 8.13 Similarities and differences of specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent heat of
vapourisation.
Heating and Cooling Curve
Figure 8.14 shows the heating curve of a substance heated at a constant rate.
CD
Temperature
F
• State of matter : Liquid
AB • Heat is absorbed to
increase kinetic energy
• State of matter: of particle
Solid • Temperature increases
• Heat is absorbed D E
to increase kinetic
energy of particle DE
• Temperature
increases • State of matter: Liquid and gas
• Heat is absorbed to overcome the bond
between particles.
C • Temperature is constant
B
BC EF
• State of matter: Solid and liquid • State of matter: Gas
• Heat is absorbed to overcome • Heat is absorbed to increase the
the bond between solid particles. kinetic energy of particles.
• Temperature is constant. • Temperature increases
Time
A
Figure 8.14 Heating curve
Figure 8.15 shows the cooling curve of a substance cooled at a constant rate.
Temperature BC EF
A • State of matter: Gas and liquid • State of matter: Solid
• Heat is released to form attraction force • Heat is released to decrease the kinetic
between particles energy of particles.
• Temperature is constant • Temperature decreases
B C
DE
• State of matter: Liquid and solid
AB
• Heat is released to form bonds between particles.
• State of matter: • Temperature is constant
Gas
• Heat is released
D E
to decrease the
kinetic energy
CD
of particles.
• Temperature • State of matter: Liquid
decreases • Heat is released to decrease the kinetic
energy of particles.
• Temperature decreases
F
Time
Figure 8.15 Cooling curve 8.3.1

8.3.2 Determining the specific latent heat of fusion of ice
Experiment 8.3
Problem statement: What is the specific latent heat of fusion of ice?
Aim: To determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
Hypothesis: Ice is melted by heat released by the immersion heater.
Variables:
Manipulated: Heat supply
Responding Variable: Mass of melted ice Immersion
Ice
Constant Variable: Time period of heating Heater
Apparatus: Power supply, beaker,
immersion heater, filter funnel,
electronic balance and retort stand.
Materials: Ice Power supply
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus and
substances as shown in Figure 8.16. Beaker A Beaker B
2. Reset mass of the empty
Beakers A and B by using an electronic Figure 8.16 Set up of apparatus
balance to zero reading.
3. Connect the power supply and immersion heater
in Beaker A only.
4. Beaker B is used as a control, therefore no heater is used.
5. Turn on the power supply.
6. When water starts to drip from the filter funnel at a constant rate, start the stopwatch.
7. Collect water that drips from the filter funnel in Beakers A and B.
8. Turn off the power supply of the heater and the stopwatch simultaneously after a t second.
9. Weigh the mass of water in both beakers using an electronic balance.
Observation:
Table 8.4
Data Value Obtained
Time of heating, t (s)
Mass of water in beaker A, mA (g)
Mass of water in beaker B, mB (g)
Mass of water from melted ice melting by the heater, mA (g)
1. Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of the ice.
2. Why beaker B is not supplied with the heater?
3. Is ice or water more effective for cooling hot water? Why?
Conclusion: What conclusion can you draw?
8.3.2
8.3.3 Determining the Specific Latent Heat of Vapourisation of Water
Experiment 8.4
Problem statement: What is the value of specific latent heat of vapourisation of water ?
Aim: To determine the specific latent heat of vapourisation of water.
Hypothesis: Heat is used to change water to water vapour.
Apparatus: Retort stand, beakers, power supply
immersion heater, electronic balance and stopwatch.
Materials: Distilled water.
Retort stand
Immersion heater
Procedure: Power supply
2. Immerse the heater into a beaker containing
water which is placed on an electronic balance.
3. Turn on the heater to heat the water to a boiling point. Electronics
balance
4. When the water starts to boil at a constant rate,
record the electronicbalance readings, m1 and start Figure 8.17 Set up of apparatus
the stopwatch.
5. After heating for t second, stop the stopwatch and record the final mass of water, m2.
Observation:
Table 8.5
Data Value obtained
Heating time, t (s)
Mass of water when boiling is completed, m1 (g)
Mass of water after heating, m2 (g)
Mass of water which vapourises, m = m1 - m2 (g)
1. Calculate the specific latent heat of vapourisation of water.
2. Why must the heater be completely immersed into the water during the experiment?
3. The burning effects of water vapour is worse than boiling water. Why?
Conclusion: What conclusion can you draw?
8.3.3

8.3.4 Comparison between specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent
heat of vapourisation.
• Solid starts to melt • Liquid starts to boil

• Specific latent heat of • Specific latent heat of
fusion is absorbed by the vapourisation is absorbed
solid to break the bond by the particles in the liquid
between particles to acquire more kinetic
energy and move with
• Particles move freely when
greater speed.
the physical state changes
• The heat energy acquired
• The kinetic energy of the
allows the particles to
particles does not change
overcome the attraction
and the temperature
between the particles
remains constant
and release as gas at a
constant temperature
Temperature
Gas
D E
Boiling
point Liquid + gas
B C Liquid
Melting
point A Solid +
Solid Liquid
Time
t1 t2
Melting Melting Boiling Boiling
starts completes starts completes
Figure 8.18 Graph of temperature with heating time.

8.3.4
8.3.5 Application of specific latent heat in daily life
• Drinks can be cooled by adding a few cubes of ice.

• This is because when the ice melts, the fused heat is
absorbed from the drink.
• A quantity of heat is required to change several ice
cubes to liquid.
• The temperature of ice does not change but the
temperature of the drink decreases
• A polystyrene box is used to keep the fish fresh.

• Polystyrene boxes prevent heat absorption from
the surroundings.
• Ice is used to cool the content in the box and to
absorb the latent heat of fusion during the melting
process.
• A large amount of heat is required to change water

to steam.
• By applying the principle of conservation of energy,
large amounts of heat are released when the steam
is condensed into water.
• Food such as fish, pies and cakes absorb large amount
of heat energy when latent heat of vapourisation is
released from the condensed steam
• Sweat is released by our body to cool the body when

we do heavy activities.
• This is because when sweat evaporates, the heat
from our body is released.
• This will cause our body temperature to decrease.

Activity 8.7
Aim : To investigate the application of specific latent heat in daily life
Instructions:
2. Each group is asked to gather information and to study how the concept of latent heat can
be applied in daily life such as:
(a) refrigeration system in the refrigerator
(b) lowering the body temperature with a wet cloth
(c) vapour which can cause skin burns
3. Report your study in the form of a multimedia presentation
Mind Test 8.3

1. State the differences between specific latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vapourisation
in terms of the bond between particles.
8.3.5
HEAT
Summary

Thermal Specific Latent Heat
equilibrium
Concept Application Type Uses

• Heat transfer • Electric kettle • Specific latent • Cooling of drink
occurs from heat of fusion
CHAPTER 8 HEAT
• Polystyrene
warmer objects • Thermometer • Specific boxes
to cooler • Heating of cold latent heat of • Sweating
objects milk vapourisation
• Transfer the rate
of heat transfer
is the same
when thermal
equilibrium is Specific Heat Capacity
reached
• Temperature of
both objects are Concept Application Scan me
the same.
• Quantity of heat • Cooling of car
is required to engines
increase 1 kg • Land breeze
of substance by and sea breeze
1 oC or 1 K. • Kitchen
appliances
11/7/2019.
Quick Quiz 8
Accessible on
191
Self Reflection
Explain with example thermal equilibrium.
Explain the application of thermal equilibrium in life.
Describe specific heat capacity
Carry out an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid and a solid.
Communicate the application of specific heat capacity in life and natural phenomena
Describe the specific latent heat of fusion and the specific latent heat of vapourization.
Carry out an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
Carry out an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of vapourisation of water.
Compare the specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent heat of vapourisation for a
substance in terms of the bond between particles.
Communicate the application of specific latent heat in daily life.
1. Calculate the amount of heat that must be transferred to a 2 kg metal block to increase the
temperature from 30 oC to 70 oC.
(specific heat capacity of metal = 500 J kg–1 oC–1)
2. About 0.2 kg of water at 100 oC is mixed with 0.25 kg of water at 10 oC. What is the final
temperature of the mixture?
3. How much heat is required to be released from 4.0 kg of water at 20 oC to produce ice at 0 oC?
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 × 103 J kg–1 oC–1, specific latent heat of fusion of ice =
3.34 × 105 J kg–1)
4. A solid block of 0.5 kg is heated by a 100 W immersion heater. The graph shows the change of
temperature with time. Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of the solid.
Temperature (oC)
100
80
60 Chapter 8
Answers
Scan Me
40
20
0 Time(s) Accessible On
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 10001100 11/7/2019.

GLOSSARY
acidic oxide an oxide that reacts with alkali to produce salt and water.
amphibian a cold-blooded animal class that can live in water and on land such as frogs.
amphoteric oxide an oxide that has both acidic and basic properties. They can react both as acids
and as alkali to produce salt and water.
analogous organs performing a similar function but having different basic structures.
autotroph organisms that are able to directly synthesise organic nutrients from simple inorganic
substances such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
basic oxide an oxide that reacts with acid to produce salt and water.
community several animal and plant populations living and interacting with each other.
decomposers microorganisms that break down complex compounds such as proteins and
carbohydrates in dead organisms or from waste products into simpler inorganic materials.
duplet electron arrangement the electron arrangement of a stable helium gas atom with the
outermost shell of the atom (first shell) filled with two electrons.
ecosystem several communities that live and interact with one another as well as with the
non-living environment.
electrochemical series an arrangement of metals based on the tendency of each metal atom to
donate electrons.
electrolyte a substance that can conduct electricity either in the molten state or in
aqueous solution.
electrolytic cell a cell that consists of a battery, electrolytes and two electrodes. The electrodes
are connected to the battery during electrolysis.
element the simplest substance that cannot be physically nor chemically broken down.
endemic organisms that are prevalent in a geographical area and cannot be found elsewhere.
enzyme a complex protein that acts as a catalyst in a biochemical reaction. Enzymes are important
in the build up or break down of molecules.
evolution the study of the gradual development of a species that adapts to a specific time
and place.
fossil hard remains of an animal or plant of a prehistoric age that are buried in the earth in the
form of rocks etc.
habitat a natural environment where organism live that meets their basic needs such as food,
shelter and safety.
homologue an organ or structure that has similar characteristics and ancestry.
impulse a change in momentum.
inert gas unreactive gas in Group 18, also known as noble gas.
193
mass a quantity of matter contained in an object.
momentum the product of mass and velocity.
mutualism a specific and close interaction between two different organisms in which both
organisms benefit.
niche the role and activities of an organism in an ecosystem.
octet electron arrangement the electron arrangement of stable noble gases with the outermost
shell of atoms filled with eight electrons.
ontogeny the development of an individual from a single cell to adulthood.
parasitism the relationship between a parasite and its host that is harmful to the host.
phenotype a physical characteristic of an organism as a result of the interaction of its genes and
the environment.
phylogeny a gradual development of organisms from lower level organisms (unicellular) to higher
level organisms (multicellular).
phylum a main category in the classification of animals.
population a group of organisms of the same species living and reproducing in the same area.
primary consumers organisms that feed on producers.
quadrat a small square of a specific area. This area is randomly chosen to analyse plant or animal
communities in the area.
saprophytes organisms (plants or fungi) that feed on dead or decaying organic matter.
scalar quantity a physical quantity that only has magnitude.
secondary consumers organisms that feed on primary consumers.
species a group of organisms that look alike and share common characteristics.
symbiosis the interaction between two or more species.
taxonomy a system in identifying and classifying living organisms sharing common characteristics
in the same class.
tertiary consumers carnivores that feed on secondary consumers.
tetrapod animals with four limbs.
thermal equilibrium a condition in which heat is transferred between two objects of different
temperatures placed in contact with each other.
transition elements elements in Group 3 to Group 12 of the Periodic Table.
vector quantity a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
vestige an organ that is reduced or part of a common function from a homologous organ of a well
developed species.
viviparity development of the embryo, in the case of a seedling, with continuous growth. The
opposite of germination from seeds.
194
REFERENCES
Ahmad, I.A., (2011). Saintis Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Sabunai Media Sdn. Bhd.
Brown, T.L., Eugene, L.H. Bursten, B.E. & Murphy, C.J. (2006). Chemistry the Central Science
(10th ed). United States of America: Pearson Education, Inc.
Chang, R. (2008). Chemistry (9th ed.). Singapore: McGraw Hill International Editions.
Cutnell, J.D & Johnson K.W. (2007). Physics (7th ed.). Singapore: John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte.
Ltd.
Hickman, C.P., Roberts, L.S., Keen, S.L., Larson, A. & Eisenhour, D. (2007). Animal Diversity (4th
ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Johnson, P. (2006). 21st Century Science, Science GCSE Foundation. United Kingdom: Pearson
Education Limited.
Kamus Dewan Edisi Keempat. (2007). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Mark, R. (2004). Evolution (3rd ed.). United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
Raul, S., Bernard, R. & Peter, S., (2009) Chemistry for the Life Sciences. United States of America:
CRC Press.
Wertheim, J. Oxlade, C. & Stockley, C. (2003). Illustrated Dictionary of Chemistry. Malaysia:
Penerbitan Pelangi.
Young, H.D. & Freeman, R.A. (2008). University of Physics (12th ed.). San Francisco: Addison
Wesley.
195
INDEX
A I
Inert 115 S
Abiotic 21, 22, 23, 41, 42
Ionic compound 97, 119 Saprophyte 27
Alkali 72
Silicon 73
Argon 63, 65, 66, 70, 114
Single bond 126
Astatin 60 L
Sodium hydroxide 55, 71, 72
Avogadro Constant 84, 85, 89, Latent heat 174, 184, 188, 191
Solar energy 40
92, 93, 94, 108, 109
Solution 58, 85, 104, 108, 109,
M
133, 137, 140,
B Magnesium 71, 72, 88, 119, 120,
Specific heat capacity 174, 178,
Biotic 21, 22, 23, 24, 41, 42 133, 134, 136, 140
182, 192
Bunsen burner 179 Mass 28, 64, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88,
Standard solution 104
90, 91, 93, 99, 100, 103, 105,
State of matter 54, 60, 63, 69,
C 108, 109, 110, 145, 151, 152,
185
Cathode 134 153, 156, 163, 164, 165, 173,
Sulphate 91, 92, 93
Chemical formula 84, 91, 97, 99 178, 180, 181, 186, 187
Covalent bond 112, 121 Melting point 49, 52, 63, 64, 69,
T
Crystal 55, 57, 58 78, 119, 123, 124, 188
Thermometer 145, 179, 180,
Metal 44, 50, 51, 55, 68, 74, 76,
181, 191
D 81, 83, 132, 133, 137, 182
Density 49, 52, 54, 60, 63, 64, Molar mass 90, 91, 103
U
67, 69, 78, 79, 145
Uranium atom 76, 80
Double bond 126 N
Duplet 95, 112 Nickel 77
V
Nitric acid 71
Valence electron 118, 119
E Number of moles 85, 90, 91, 93,
Variable 28, 29, 151, 152, 186,
Ecosystem 20, 21, 22, 23, 38, 94, 102, 103, 104, 106, 109
187
41, 42
Vector 143, 144, 147, 171, 172
Electricity 129, 130, 140 O
Velocity 150, 151, 163, 164, 165,
Octet 95, 112
173
F Ontogeny 6
Vestige 7, 18
Filter funnel 104, 105, 107, 186
Fossil 5 P
Phylum 15, 18
G Potassium 51, 72, 120
Group 13, 22, 44, 45, 48, 49, 50, Proton number 120
51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 59, 60, 61, 62,
63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 74, 75, 81, 82, Q
95, 114, 126, 193, 194 Quadrat 35, 36, 41
H R
Habitat 20, 22 Reaction 50, 51, 55, 56, 57, 58,
Homologue 6, 18 59, 101, 102, 128, 135, 138, 139,
Hydrochloric acid 55, 56, 57, 58 153, 156
Hydrogen 130 Relative atomic mass 84, 86, 87,
90, 108
Retort stand 57, 163, 164, 187
196

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DUAL LANGUAGE PROGRAMME

ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

Multi Educational Book Enterprise

The contents of this book are organised as follows:

Engaging Engaging illustration.

Fascinating facts on Keywords.

21st Century Skills

Activities involving the 21st Century skills:

21st 21st Century Learning Activities

Higher Order Exploration Thinking Skills (HEBAT)

HEBAT Developing HOTS through inquiry-based activities,

Science Facts Click Internet Values

My Glorious Malaysia Mind Challenge Precaution

Formative assessments Acronyms are used HOTS questions that

Pupils need to Video

Guide on how to use Quizizz

Summative Assessment Answer Scan

consist of multiple levels which

Summative Assessment Chapter

ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 1 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY 1

2 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY CHAPTER 1 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 1 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY 3

Let's look at the evolution of elephants in Figure 1.1.

• Genus: Moeritherium • Genus: Palaeomastodon • Genus: Platybelodon

• Species Elephas maximus

Figure 1.1 Evolution of an elephant 1.1.1

1.1.3 Examples of evidence that shows process of evolution

Evidence Fossil Record

• Is a species that exists today.

ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 1 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY 5

Figure 1.2 Structural stages for animal embryos

Evidence of structure which is homologue, vestige

Analog is an organ structure that is basically

6 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY CHAPTER 1 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

Mind Test 1.1 48 million

Theory of Evolution of a dolphin

1.2.1 Theory of Evolution presented

Charles Robert Darwin proposed the

ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 1 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY 7

1.2.2 Distribution of endemic animals or plants in a habitat

8 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY CHAPTER 1 ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4

Photograph 1.1 Galapagos Islands

The largest flower Rafflesia sp was recorded to

Photograph 1.3 Galapagos tortoise and

ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 1 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY 9

The tip of the trunk

The tip of the trunk

225 million years ago 200 million years ago

Africa Africa South America South America

Europe North America

65 million years ago

Figure 1.10 Theory of Continental Drift

ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 1 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY 11

1.2.4 Relationship between the mechanism of natural selection and diversity

1 Variation 2 Industrial Revolution

1.2.5 Situations related to the process of evolution

Figure 1.12 Comparison of movement parts of fish, amphibians and reptiles

Mind Test 1.2

ADDITIONAL SCIENCE FORM 4 CHAPTER 1 EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY 13