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TRAINER (GRD1-1999-10024) Commercial in Confidence Deliverable No2.1
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This deliverable was edited by A. Hoeschen and E. Bekiaris.
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3URMHFW&RRUGLQDWRU Mr. Guido BATEN

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Haachtsesteenweg 1405, 1130 Brussels, BELGIUM
Tel: +32-2-244 15 50
Fax: +32-2-246 13 42
Email: Guido.Baten@bivv.be
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3.1. THE DRIVING TASK FROM A FUNCTIONAL POINT OF VIEW: THREE DRIVING TASKS, FOLLOWING
THE MICHON (1985) MODEL.............................................................................................................. 16
3.2. THE GADGET-MATRIX (2000): HIERARCHICAL LEVELS OF BEHAVIOUR AND REFERRING

STRUCTURE OF DRIVER-TRAINING CONTENTS ................................................................................... 18
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4.1. ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. 22
4.2. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 23
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4.3. INTRODUCTION AND STRUCTURE OF THE LITERATURE SURVEY .............................................. 25
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4.4. CONTROL TASKS ....................................................................................................................... 38
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4.5. MANOEUVRING TASKS.............................................................................................................. 42
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4.6. STRATEGIC TASKS..................................................................................................................... 62
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4.7. BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS ........................................................................................................... 67
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4.8. TABULAR SUMMARY REGARDING BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS ..................................................... 69
4.9. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................. 70
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5.1. ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ 73
5.2. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 74
5.3. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................................ 75
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5.4. NORMALISATION OF ACCIDENT DATA ...................................................................................... 81
5.5. COMPARISON OF YOUNG NOVICE DRIVER ACCIDENT DATA OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES........... 83
5.6. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE YOUNG NOVICE DRIVERS INVOLVED IN AN ACCIDENT .................. 85
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5.7. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ACCIDENTS OF YOUNG NOVICE DRIVERS ....................................... 89
5.8. ACCIDENT DATA ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................... 91
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5.9. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS IN RELATION TO GADGET MATRIX ........................................ 104
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6.1. OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................ 112
6.2. BASIC CONTENT & SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS ..................................................................... 112
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6.3. SUMMARY RESULTS OF PART I (GENERAL SURVEY) ............................................................. 119
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6.4. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS KEY PRODUCTS ....................................................................... 121
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6.5. THE PRODUCTS IN DETAIL ..................................................................................................... 126
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6.6. SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF PART II (KEY PRODUCTS) .......................................................... 159
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7.1. BACKGROUND......................................................................................................................... 161
7.2. OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................ 161
7.3. METHOD ................................................................................................................................. 162
7.4. RESULTS ................................................................................................................................. 162
7.5. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................ 173
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8.1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 177
8.2. ANALYSIS OF EXISTING DRIVER TRAINING METHODS AND PROGRAMS (LEGISLATION) ......... 177
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8.3. ANALYSIS OF DRIVER AND DRIVING INSTRUCTOR’S NEEDS ................................................... 178
8.4. SUGGESTIONS OF DRIVING EXAMINERS AND INSTRUCTORS ................................................... 178
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9.1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 181
9.2. IMPROVEMENT OF DRIVER TRAINING BY USING SIMULATORS AND THEIR LIMITATIONS ....... 181
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9.3. IMPROVEMENT OF DRIVER TRAINING BY USING MULTIMEDIA TOOLS AND LIMITATIONS OF

THEM ............................................................................................................................................... 182
9.4. PROPOSALS FOR THE USE OF TOOLS FOR PARTICULAR TASKS ................................................ 182
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10.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 187
10.2. THE ADAPTED GADGET MATRIX ...................................................................................... 187
10.3. IDENTIFICATION OF GAPS IN DRIVER TRAINING REGARDING CONTROL TASKS .................. 190
10.4. IDENTIFICATION OF GAPS IN DRIVER TRAINING REGARDING MANOEUVRING TASKS ......... 191
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10.5. IDENTIFICATION OF GAPS IN DRIVER TRAINING REGARDING STRATEGIC TASKS................ 193
10.6. IDENTIFICATION OF GAPS IN DRIVER TRAINING REGARDING BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS ...... 194
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11.1. GENERAL CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 196
11.2. CONCLUSIONS: CONTROL TASKS ....................................................................................... 196
11.3. CONCLUSIONS: MANOEUVRING TASKS .............................................................................. 196
11.4. CONCLUSIONS: STRATEGIC TASKS ..................................................................................... 197
11.5. CONCLUSIONS: BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS ........................................................................... 198
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13.1. APPENDIX 1: DATA SHEETS PART I........................................................................................ 209
13.2. APPENDIX 2: DATA SHEETS PART II ...................................................................................... 211
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13.3. APPENDIX 3: RESULTS FROM THE WEB-SEARCH ................................................................ 219
13.4. APPENDIX 4: QUESTIONNAIRE FORM 1 .............................................................................. 222
13.5. APPENDIX 5: QUESTIONNAIRE FORM 2 .............................................................................. 223
13.6. APPENDIX 6: QUESTIONNAIRE FORM 3 (2 PAGES) ............................................................. 224
13.7. APPENDIX 7: ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THREE SIMULATORS ................................... 226
13.8. APPENDIX 8: ADDITIONAL WEBSITES................................................................................. 230
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Table 1: Summary table of driver behaviour model types (after Michon, 1985)
Table 2: Classification of driving tasks (adapted from Hale et al., 1990)
Table 3: The GADGET-matrix (Hatakka et al. 1999)
Table 4: Identified subtasks related to the adapted GADGET-matrix
Table 5: Summary and conclusions regarding control tasks
Table 6: Summary and conclusions regarding manoeuvring tasks related to traffic conditions
Table 7: Summary and conclusions regarding manoeuvring tasks related to roadway characteristics
Table 8: Summary and conclusions regarding manoeuvring tasks related to the environment
Table 9: Summary and conclusions reg. manoeuvring tasks: risk increasing aspects and self-evaluation
Table 10: Summary and conclusions regarding strategic tasks
Table 11: Summary and conclusions regarding behavioural aspects
Table 12: Change in young novice driver injuries and fatalities in Europe (aggregate of 1993-1995)
Table 13: Correlation between young novice driver injuries and fatalities and standardisation variables
Table 14: Location of accident, novice vs. more experienced drivers
Table 15: Location of accident, novice drivers only, valid percentage per group
Table 16: Type of accident; manoeuvre before accident, novice drivers only, percentage per group
Table 17: Type of accident; manoeuvre before accident, novice vs. experienced drivers
Table 18: Proportion of accidents: day of the week, novice vs. more experienced drivers
Table 19: Speed limit, novice vs. more experienced drivers
Table 20: Type of road, novice vs. more experienced drivers
Table 21: Time of day, novice vs. more experienced drivers
Table 22: Weather, novice vs. more experienced drivers
Table 23: Month, novice vs. more experienced drivers
Table 24: Gender, novice vs. more experienced drivers
Table 25: Proportion of accidents per month, Belgian compared with Swedish novice drivers
Table 26: Proportion of accidents contrasted with day of the week, Belgian vs. Swedish data
Table 27: Type of accident
Table 28: Lightcondition, Belgian young vs. Swedish novice drivers
Table 29: Manoeuvre performed at time of accident
Table 30: Young driver’s main factors causing the accident (according to police)
Table 31: Age of participants to questionnaire study
Table 32: Season, day and time at which the accident took place
Table 33: Speed limit of road where accident happened
Table 34: Road and weather conditions at time of accident
Table 35: Type of accident
Table 36: Manoeuvre performed at time of accident
Table 37: Main factor causing the accident (according to novice driver)
Table 38: Received fines for offences
Table 39: Frequency that certain manoeuvres, situations and tasks cause problems
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Table 40: Institutions and companies that replied to the simulators overview questionnaire
Table 41: Answers to simulator questionnaire "form 1"
Table 44: Suggestions of driving examiners and instructors for tasks to be introduced in training
Table 45: Proposals of TRAINER consortium and experts for the use of tools for particular tasks
Table 46: Findings of the several analyses made in D2.1.
Figure 1: The hierarchical structure of the road user task (after Janssen, 1979, Michon 1985)
Figure 2: The tangent point in a curve
Figure 3: Effects of training for a young male high risk driver (after Bartl et al. 2000)
Figure 4: Young novice driver injuries in Europe (aggregate of 1993-1995)
Figure 5: Young novice driver injuries in Europe
Figure 6: Driver injuries in Europe
Figure 7: Young novice driver fatalities in Europe (aggregate of 1993-1995)
Figure 8: Young novice driver fatalities in Europe
Figure 9: Driver fatalities in Europe (aggregate of 1993-1995)
Figure 10: Young novice driver injuries in Europe (aggregate of 1993-1995)
Figure 11: Young novice driver fatalities in Europe (aggregate of 1993-1995)
Figure 12: Police reported Belgian accidents of young drivers (aged 18-24) between 1991 and 1999.
Figure 13: Belgian data of young drivers; proportion of accidents per hour of day.
Figure 14: Presentation media of the surveyed multimedia driver training tools
Figure 15: Control level related contents of the driver training tools surveyed
Figure 16: Manoeuvring level related contents of the driver training tools surveyed
Figure 17: Strategic level related contents of the driver training tools surveyed
Figure 18: Input devices used by the analysed driver training tools
Figure 19: Actions required by the trainee when using the analysed driver training tools
Figure 20: Output modalities of the analysed driver training tools
Figure 21: Output content of the analysed driver training tools
Figure 22: Scenarios supported by different products on the market
Figure 23: Answer to given questions (ZEBRA /VekaBest)
Figure 24: Correct answer (ZEBRA /VekaBest)
Figure 25: Wrong answer (ZEBRA /VekaBest)
Figures 26 a-c: Content of the three Scan & Teach-CD-i
Figures 27 a, b: Animations concerning manoeuvring tasks (Scan & Teach)
Figures 28 a, b: Animations concerning function of technical components (Scan & Teach)
Figure 29 a, b: Animations concerning correct use of the roads (Scan & Teach)
Figure 30: Animation concerning the physical laws of driving
Figures 31 a,b: Videos concerning personal conditions
Figures 32 a, b: Photos and videos concerning technical functionof the car (Scan & Teach)
Figures 33 a-c: Animations and videos concerning scanning techniques (Scan & Teach)
Figures 34 a, b: Videos concerning correct turning
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Figure 35: Cartoon concerning reckless / risky / friendly behaviour (Scan & Teach)
Figures 36 a-c: Videos and animations concerning field of vision at night (Scan & Teach)
Figure 37: Animation concerning the blind spot problem (Scan & Teach)
Figures 38 a-c: Video concerning the blind spot problem (Scan & Teach)
Figures 39 a, b: Animations concerning dynamics (Scan & Teach)
Figures 40 a-c: Photos and videos concerning the problem of rain and slippery road (Scan & Teach)
Figures 41 a-c: Video concerning the danger of not being recognized by others (Scan & Teach)
Figures 42 a, b: Hazard recognition (Interactief Defensief Autorijden)
Figures 43 a, b: Animation and video examples (Interactief Defensief Autorijden)
Figures 44 a, b: Legislative aspects (Interactief Defensief Autorijden)
Figures 45 a, b: Information about the car controls and the 4-second rule
Figure 46 a & b: Examples of video sequences (Bonniers Trafikskola)
Figure 47 a & b: Animation on theory; grading of the theory results. (Bonniers Trafikskola)
Figure 48: Theory questions (Bonniers Trafikskola)
Figure 49: Searching for key words, e.g. alcohol, ABS-brake etc. (Bonniers Trafikskola)
Figure 50: Functions of the car (Bonniers Trafikskola)
Figure 51: Overview of all traffic signs existing (Bonniers Trafikskola)
Figure 52: Ecologic aspects of driving: Choice of car, CO2, driving style (Bonniers Trafikskola)
Figure 53: Human conditions: eye functions, reduction of sight, etc. (Bonniers Trafikskola)
Figure 54: Different aspects of the Autosim seat-box (Autosim)
Figure 55: Different aspects of the Autosim seat-box (continued) (Autosim)
Figure 56: DRIVER-ZED for Teen Drivers Main Screen
Figure 57: Application section main screen (DRIVER ZED)
Figure 58: “Scan” scenario question (DRIVER ZED)
Figure 59: “Spot” scenario scene (DRIVER ZED)
Figure 60: “Spot” scenario user’s answer evaluation (DRIVER ZED)
Figures 61 a & b: “Act” scenario questions (DRIVER ZED)
Figure 62: “Drive” scenario questions (DRIVER ZED)
Figure 63: “Drive” user’s action evaluation (DRIVER ZED)
Figure 64: Feu Vert main screen
Figure 65: General information on how to acquire a driving license (Feu Vert)
Figure 66: Driving theory with photos, schemes and video clips (Feu Vert)
Figure 67: Traffic signs tests (Feu Vert)
Figures 68 a & b: Driving theory tests (correct and wrong answer) (Feu Vert)
Figure 69: Driving theory examinations with time margins (Feu Vert)
Figure 70: Final result of driving theory examinations (Feu Vert)
Figure 71: Parking tips (Feu Vert)
Figure 72 a & b: Scenario 1: 4-road intersection with traffic signs (Feu Vert)
Figure 73 a & b: Scenario 2: 4-road intersection without traffic signs (Feu Vert)
Figure 74 a & b: Scenario 3: 3-road intersection with obstacle (Feu Vert)
Figure 75 a & b: Scenario 4: Intersection with blinking traffic lights (Feu Vert)
Figure 76 a & b: Scenario 5: Intersection with blinking traffic lights and traffic signs (Feu Vert)
Page 9
Figure 77 a & b: Scenario 6: Intersection with traffic lights and traffic policeman (Feu Vert)
Figure 78 a & b: Scenario 7: Intersection with cyclist and crosswalk (Feu Vert)
Figure 79 a & b: Scenario 8: Intersection with tram and emergency vehicle (Feu Vert)
Figure 80 a & b: Scenario 9: Motorcycle and vehicle priorities (Feu Vert)
Figure 81 a & b: Scenario 10: Imparking manoeuvre and crosswalk (Feu Vert)
Figure 82 a & b: Scenario 11: Intersection with bus (Feu Vert)
Figure 83 a & b: Scenario 12: 3-road intersection with motorcycle (Feu Vert)
Figure 84 a & b: Scenario 13: Intersection with rural road (Feu Vert)
Figure 85 a & b: Scenario 14: Intersection with cyclists (Feu Vert)
Figure 86 a & b: Scenario 15: 3-road intersection in the form of a fork (Feu Vert)
Figure 87 a & b: Scenario 16: Intersection with cycling route (1) (Feu Vert)
Figure 88 a & b: Scenario 17: Intersection with cycling route (2) (Feu Vert)
Figure 89 a & b: Scenario 18: Bus imparking from bus stop (Feu Vert)
Figure 90 a & b: Scenario 19: Motorcycle and emergency vehicle priorities (Feu Vert)
Figure 91 a & b: Scenario 20: Intersection with horseman (Feu Vert)
Page 10
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ABS Anti-lock Braking System

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control
ADAS Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (In-Vehicle Telematic Aids)
AIT-FIA Alliance Internationale de Tourisme-Federation Internationale de l’Automobile
AUTH Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
BAC Blood Alcohol
BIVV Belgian Institute for Road Safety
CBT Computer-Based Training
CRF Centro Ricerche FIAT
CIECA Commission Internationale des Examens de Conduite Automobile
D Deliverable
DAN Description and Analysis of Post Licensing Measures for Novice Drivers
DBI Driving Behaviour Inventory
DG TREN Directorate General for Energy and Transport of the European Commission
DKH Driving Know How
EFA Europäische Fahrlehrer Assoziation
EU European Union
EC European Commission
GADGET Guarding Automobile Drivers through Guidance Education and Technology
HSD Head Slaved Display
IAT Institute for Human Factors and Technology Management of the University Stuttgart
IFADo Institut für Arbeitsphysiologie der Universität Dortmund
MUARC Monash University Accident Research Centre
RUG Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
SD Standard Deviation
TH Time Headway
TRAINER System for driver Training and Assessment using Interactive Evaluation tools and
Reliable methodologies
TTC Time To Collision
TTI Time To Intersection
UPV Polytechnic University of Valencia
VIRTUAL Virtual reality systems for perceived ergonomic quality testing of driving task and
design
VTI Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute
WP Work Package
Page 11
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The objectives of the Workpackage 2 of TRAINER project were to identify the problems of novice
drivers in performing particular driving tasks causing their high involvement in accidents and to iden-
tify the most important gaps in current training curricula. Therefore different approaches were selected
in order to gain an as complete as possible overview of this subject. For structuring the analyses the
Michon driver behaviour model and the recently developed hierarchical model of driving behaviour of
the European project GADGET were adapted. Firstly, a comprehensive bibliographical survey on cur-
rent research on driver training and novice drivers as well as on recent developments in training tools
was carried out. Secondly, accidents data, involving novice drivers from different EU countries, were
gathered and analysed systematically, to support, contradict or supplement the hypotheses and sugges-
tions derived from the literature analysis. An internal survey of existing multimedia tools was made in
order to get a detailed overview of recent developments on this field and to establish gaps in the cur-
ricula of these tools. A survey of driving simulators summarises the characteristics of existing simu-
lators found in the internet in order to identify possibilities and limitations of these tools. As a next
stage the results of the survey of existing training methodologies and driver instructors’ needs
(TRAINER D1.2) were summarised to get an overview of existing driver training curricula in Europe.
Lastly, the results of the European TRAINER workshop are presented in which experts from the
transportation area (driving instructors, research institutes, simulator developers, as well as represen-
tatives of ministries and relevant authorities) were invited to comment the presented findings and plans
and to make proposals for using tools regarding particular driving tasks. The results of these extensive
analyses are summarised in order to identify the gaps in current training curricula as well as to draw
conclusions for further development of the planned TRAINER training tools, i.e. the multimedia
training tool and the driving simulator tool, and training curricula.
A general conclusion deriving from the analyses is that future driver training should take into account
or intensify training of perceptual and cognitive skills, i.e. scanning skills, and hazard detection. With
regard to the GADGET matrix the driving task should be understood as a task involving also deci-
sional and motivational aspects. That these higher level (i.e. strategic and behavioural) aspects play an
important role in the involvement of novice drivers in accidents is clearly stated by recent research
literature as well as by those experts participating in the TRAINER workshop: Novice drivers can
have superior manoeuvring skills and still have many crashes. Teaching scanning and anticipating as
well as self-evaluation skills appear to be promising ways to reduce accident rates of novice drivers.
Page 12
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In April 2000, DG TREN of the European Commission decided to grant a project entitled “System for
driver Training and Assessment using Interactive Evaluation tools and Reliable methodologies
(TRAINER)” to an international consortium of 12 partners. The aim of the project was to analyse cur-
rent and to develop new methods for driver training, especially with the use of multimedia and simu-
lator tools. The 12 partners in this project are:
- Belgian Institute for Road Safety (BIVV), Belgium
- Aristotle University of Thessalonica (AUTh), Greece
- International Committee of Driver Testing Authorities (CIECA), International
- CRF, Italy
- DKH, Belgium
- European Driving Schools Association (EFA), International
- Institut für Arbeitsphysiologie an der Universität Dortmund (IFADO), Germany
- IAT, Germany
- Dr.Foerst GmbH, Germany
- Rijksuniversiteit Groningen (RUG), Netherlands
- Polytechnic University of Valencia (UPV), (Spain)
- Swedish Traffic Safety Board (VTI), Sweden
In order to assess the training needs of novice drivers and to identify gaps in existing driver training
several approaches were selected. Firstly, a bibliographical survey on current research on driver train-
ing and novice drivers as well as on recent developments in training tools was carried out in order to
get an overview of current knowledge related to the driving task, driver behaviour and driver training
(Chapter 4). Over 250 articles and books were analysed, and relevant results and suggestions were in-
serted into the survey in order to draw conclusions from recent research. Proposals and results as well
can be used as an information basis for the purposes of the TRAINER-project: Developing scenarios
for the multimedia PC and simulator devices (WP 3 and 4), for the development of assessment criteria
(WP 5), for the pilot tests (WP 6), and for the development of best practice guidelines (WP 7).
Secondly, accidents data, involving novice drivers from different EU countries, were gathered and
analysed systematically, to support, contradict or supplement the hypotheses and suggestions derived
from the literature analysis (Chapter 5). Relevant statistics on accident rates of young novice drivers in
several European countries are presented. Secondly, characteristics of young novice driver, that con-
tribute to the high probability of being involved in an accident, are explored. And, in the third place,
the characteristics of the accidents in which young novice drivers are involved are explored. As more
detailed reference cases, a Swedish data base with accident data of a time period of 6 years was used
to compare novice driver’s accidents with more experienced driver’s accidents. Also, two Belgian da-
tabases were analysed, one with novice driver’s accidents, and one with answers to questions obtained
at a post-licence training course for drivers with a licence for maximum 5 years.
Chapter 6 contains a detailed survey of computer based training tools, further named Multimedia tools.
In order to get an overview of the state of art in this field 17 questionnaires about such tools were
analysed and evaluated. At a second stage, seven key products were analysed in detail. The focus is on
the content of the scenarios, the means of interaction and information presentation in order to get an
information basis for TRAINER WP 3 'Development of interactive multimedia training tool'.
A survey of existing driving simulators is presented in Chapter 7. This report summarises the charac-
teristics of the existing simulators found on the Internet in order to give an understanding of the exist-
Page 13
ing simulators possibilities and limitations, which is a prerequisite for the aim of the TRAINER proj-
ect to develop cost-effective driving simulators for training purposes (WP 4).
Following this, the results of the survey of existing training methodologies and driver instructors’
needs (TRAINER D1.2) were summarised to get an overview of the existing driver training curricula
in Europe (Chapter 8).
Lastly the results of the European TRAINER workshop are presented, in which experts from the
transportation area (driving instructors, research institutes, simulator developers, as well as represen-
tatives of ministries and relevant authorities) were invited to comment the presented findings and plans
and to make proposals for using tools regarding particular driving tasks (Chapter 9, for a detailed re-
port on the workshop see TRAINER D1.2).
The results of these extensive analyses were summarised in order to identify the gaps in current train-
ing curricula (Chapter 10).
Conclusions for further development of the planned TRAINER training tools, i.e. the multimedia
training tool and the driving simulator tool, and training curricula are presented in Chapter 11.
Page 14
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Page 15
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As stated by Rothengatter (1997), models of road user behaviour involve driver task analyses, func-
tional control models, and motivational models focused on risk taking and risk acceptance. The rela-
tion between accident occurrence and the preceding behaviour is largely unclear: performance aspects
as well as motivational aspects, individual differences and momentary state variables all appear to be
relevant. He cites Michon (1989b) who proposes a classification distinguishing between models that
are input-output, or behaviour oriented and those that are internal state oriented, and distinguishing
between taxonomic models and those that are functional (see below).
Taxonomic input-output models concern task analyses. However these approaches offer very little un-
derstanding of the driver’s actual task performance. Functional models that consider internal states
now are a major focus of attention. Michon (1998b) distinguishes two types of functional models: mo-
tivational models and cognitive process models. Motivational models have focused on how road users
deal with risk: These theories assume that road users adapt their behaviour on the basis of perceived
(or anticipated) risk in comparison to acceptable or no-risk situations. But they cannot explain why
drivers are willing to accept a certain level of risk at all.
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Michon (1985) divided the general problem solving task of the driver in three levels of skills and con-
trol: strategical (planning), tactical (manoeuvring), and operational (control) respectively (see Figure
1):
Page 16
The strategical level defines the general planning stage of a trip, including the determination of trip
goals, route, and modal choice, plus an evaluation of the costs and risks involved. Plans derive further
from general considerations about transport and mobility, and also from concomitant factors such as
aesthetic satisfaction and comfort.
At the manoeuvring or tactical level drivers exercise manoeuvre control allowing them to negotiate the
directly prevailing circumstances. Although largely constrained by the demands of the actual situation,
manoeuvres must meet the criteria derived from the general goals set at the strategical level. At this
level the driver negotiates prevailing circumstances such as traffic signs, traffic conditions, and be-
haviour of other road users.
The control or operational level is concerned with the ’real’ handling of the vehicle such as steering,
changing gears, and speed control.
If driving behaviour is analysed in the light of cognitive psychology three stages in the acquisition of
skills are assumed (Lewin, 1982):
(1) The cognitive stage: This stage is heavily loaded with intellectualisation (understanding the task,
recognising the important cues to be attended to and identifying the major actions to be performed
(this phase corresponds to the driving trainee).
(2) The associative stage: The correct patterns of the driver’s motor actions are refined and co-
ordinated as errors in initial understanding are eliminated by experience and practice (this phase corre-
sponds to the novice driver).
(3) The autonomous stage: The skill becomes increasingly automatic and rapid; errors are at mini-
mum; other activities, which may be performed concurrently (talking, listening to radio etc.), don’t
interfere with driving skills. With advancement of mastery of the task the conscious awareness of the
activities (e.g. gearing) is gradually reduced (this phase corresponds to the experienced driver).
Taking into account the theory of skill learning by Rasmussen (1983), we could distinguish three lev-
els of trained behaviour corresponding to the stages of Lewin:
(1) Knowledge-based (negotiating with unknown situations and formulating conscious actions)
(2) Rule-based (dealing with traffic regulations following rules that have been learned)
(3) Skill based (vehicle stabilisation, that is normally done unconsciously to a certain extent)
If we relate the Michon-Model to the Rasmussen-Model the following classification of driving tasks
results (see Table 2):
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According to Gregersen & Bjurulf (1996) a typical feature of the first stage (’knowledge’) of learning
to drive is the importance of formal rules and the instructions given by the teacher. As more and more
tasks are automated, attention will be directed towards interactions with other road users. The behav-
iour at this stage will be heavily rule-based. In the final stage, the formal rules and the control skills
will become more integrated and the traffic itself will provide more and more guidance for driving
behaviour. In this stage, more and more tasks may be carried out simultaneously, since they do not
demand so much cognitive capacity.
According to Ranney (1994) the conceptualisation of driving as a concurrent activity at three different
levels suggest that the driver’s motivation may also have components relating to different levels of
Page 17
control. Motives concerning the purpose and importance of a trip may influence behaviour throughout
the trip; however situations encountered en route may create shorter term goals that motivate tactical
problem solving. For example , although a driver has selected a route and departure time to ensure a
leisurely, relatively uneventful drive, the presence of excessively slow traffic ahead may motivate the
driver to speed up and pass. Compensatory behaviour may also operate at different levels of control.
Examples of strategic-level compensations are changes in trip plans, such as the avoidance of rush-
hour or night-time driving by older drivers. Adjustments of safety margins during conditions of poor
visibility are manoeuvre-level compensations. Momentary adjustments to steering and acceleration in
response to slippery roads are examples of compensation at the vehicle-control level.
Recently there were two European projects, both finished in 2000, which are highly relevant to the
TRAINER-project:
- GADGET: Guarding Automobile Drivers through Guidance Education and Technology
- DAN: Description and Analysis of Post Licensing Measures for Novice Drivers
For the reason that both projects used a model which is a further development of the Michon-model
(the so called GADGET-model) it was decided to adapt the Michon-Model to the GADGET one. The
use of a model compatible to GADGET/DAN projects will allow TRAINER results to be also easily
comparable to them and these projects’ experience will be transferable to TRAINER.
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The GADGET-matrix is based on the assumption that the driving task may be described as an hierar-
chy. The idea of the hierarchical approach is that abilities and preconditions in a higher level influence
the demand and preconditions on a lower level. The hierarchy is developed by Keskinen (1996) and
shows many similarities with the Michon hierarchy. The most important difference is the addition of a
fourth level relating to personal preconditions and ambitions in life in general, which have shown to be
of great importance for driving and road safety. The following four levels are described by Keskinen
and were later also applied in the EU-project GADGET (Hatakka et al. 1999) (see Table 3):
- Goals for life and skills for living
- Goals and context of driving
- Mastering traffic situations
- Vehicle manoeuvring
The highest level refers to personal motives and tendencies in a broader perspective. This level is
based on knowledge that lifestyle, social background, gender, age and other individual preconditions
has an influence on attitudes, driving behaviour and accident involvement.
On the next level, the focus is on the goals behind driving and context in which driving is performed.
The focus is on why, where, when and with whom driving is carried out. Examples on more detailed
aspects are the choice between car or bus, day-time or night-time driving, rush-hours or not, decision
to drive under the influence of alcohol, fatigue or stress etc., all in relation to purpose of the trip.
The next level is about mastering driving in traffic situations, which are defined as more limited than
driving context above. A driver must be able to adjust his/her driving in accordance with the constant
changes in traffic, for example in junctions, when overtaking or when encountering unprotected road
users. To be able to identify potential hazards in traffic is also on this level. Driver education and
training is traditionally focussing on this level.
Page 18
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driving
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Page 19
The bottom level is focusing on the vehicle, its construction and how it is manoeuvred. To know how
to start, shift gears and stop the car good enough to be able to use the car in traffic belongs to this level
as well as more complex evasive manoeuvres, reducing skids on low friction and understanding the
laws of nature. The functioning and benefits of injury preventive systems such as seat belts and air-
bags also belong here.
A safe driver is, however, not only skilled but also aware of risks and of own abilities and precondi-
tions. In order to cover these different dimensions the matrix includes three dimensions as follows:
- Knowledge and skills
- Risk increasing factors
- Self assessment
The content of the first column describes the knowledge and skills that a driver needs for driving un-
der normal circumstances, that is, on the lower hierarchical levels how to manoeuvre the car, how to
drive in traffic and what rules must be followed. On the higher levels the column relates to how trips
should be planned and how personal preconditions may influence behaviour and safety.
In the second column about risk increasing factors the focus is on awareness of aspects of traffic and
life that can be associated with higher risk. On the basic level it may be worn-out tyres, poor brakes,
lack of routine in performing basic manoeuvring etc. Higher in the hierarchy the column refers to risky
driving in darkness, on low friction, among unprotected road users, excessive speeding, mental over-
load, etc. It also relates to dangerous motives and risk increasing aspects of lifestyle and personality.
The third column is about how the driver is assessing his/her own situation on the four levels. It points
out the calibration of own skills on the basic levels and awareness of own personal preconditions and
tendencies as well as abilities in decision making about trips and in life in general on the upper levels.
Page 20
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Page 21
$%675$&7
This literature survey has two main purposes. Firstly, to get an overview of the current knowledge re-
lated to driving training, the driving task, and driver behaviour. The second aim is to use it for deter-
mining gaps in current driver training. Based on the GADGET-model, which defines the driving task
as an hierarchy of four levels (behavioural aspects, strategical level, manoeuvring level, and control
level) and three skill dimensions (skill and knowledge, awareness of risk-related aspects, and aware-
ness of own personal tendencies), driving tasks for the driver training were identified.
The road-safety research literature of the last two decades indicates a shift from training manoeuvring
skills to training higher-order skills, i.e. hazard perception and anticipation skills, risk perception, as
well as self-assessment. It appeared that combining practical exercises, theory and self-evaluation of
one’s own behaviour may increase safety of novice drivers. A promising way to train cognitive skills
are multimedia PCs and driving simulators. The main advantage of using these devices, instead of
real-car and/or theoretical training, is that trainees can experience the consequences of their own deci-
sions and actions in risk-inducing and hazardous scenarios, which is impossible on the real road.
Trainees can develop these skills even before they have fully automated their manoeuvring and vehicle
control skills. The aim of such a novel training approach is accelerating the development of key safety
skills that novice drivers lack due to inexperience, and to make young drivers aware of the effects of
their personal conditions on actual driving behaviour.
Page 22
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This literature survey has two main purposes: First, to get an overview of the research literature in as
far as it relates to driver training. The second aim is to use it for determining gaps in current driver
training that should get attention, or more attention, in future training curricula. The research literature
used comes from a wide range of fields. There are articles about driving behaviour in general, influ-
encing psychological factors and underlying skills, studies on traffic accidents and accident counter-
measures, adaptations for persons with special needs, simulator validation studies, and, of course,
driver training and licensing systems. Together, this broad range of literature sources allows prelimi-
nary conclusions on the following questions: What skills are important for driving (and especially for
safe driving)? What needs do young drivers have in particular? What skills are trained in traditional
training curricula? Which training tools have proved to be suitable for driving? What driving tasks are
not trained? And, are there relevant factors to which no attention has been devoted in current training
practices?
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We used the GADGET matrix to structure our literature survey and obtain a systematic overview of
the broad range of literature on driving research.
Various sources in the literature emphasise the fact that learning manoeuvring skills does not contrib-
ute to safe driving and reducing accident rates of novices drivers. There is evidence that young drivers
can have superior vehicle handling skills and still have many crashes. It is suggested that teaching safe
driving strategies and training recognition of hazards and of higher order skills will be promising in
reaching the aim of lower accident rates with novice drivers.
Attempts to teach trainees safe-driving strategies during training often failed probably because the in-
formation processing capacity of novice drivers is already overloaded by vehicle control and interact-
ing with other traffic participants: Trainees have to make conscious decisions for every move and
every action they take, so they are not able to use improvements of defensive or risk minimising
strategies.
Another finding is that drivers after extensive skill training underestimate the risk in a certain situation
and overestimate their manoeuvring skills in negotiating certain situations. This was found for exam-
ple with Scandinavian skid-control-courses, that appeared to increase traffic accident rates signifi-
cantly. This negative effect was interpreted as a result of focussing on coping with skidding situations
instead of focussing on how to avoid these situations. The focus on coping seems to create reduced
respect for low friction and results in overconfidence of the own skills, leading to more risky driving
and more accidents.
Indeed, as Evans (1991) and other authors have emphasised, it is not crucial for safety how skilled a
driver is, but to what extent drivers use their skill in driving safely. In some countries (e.g. Germany)
theory lessons have started to focus on such higher level aspects of decision making and on motiva-
tional tendencies. Specific themes are search for independence and autonomy, coping with impatience,
self-assertion in groups, behaviour in competitive situations, making decisions and time planning. The
idea behind these approaches is that driver training should focus not only on skills and knowledge, but
also on driver attitudes.
Taking these results together, it appears necessary to train cognitive skills and to learn trainees to as-
sess their own skills so that they can better judge the consequences of what they choose to do. Mean-
while PC-based training programs are developed, in which trainees are asked for what they see, expect
Page 23
and what they will do. Also comprehensive feedback about the consequences of their decisions is or
should be provided. Through the combination of opportunity to practice with feedback on those skills
trainees can come to their own understanding of how clues in traffic and outcomes are related.
These skills can be learned in a driving simulator as well. In this case the trainee has not only to an-
ticipate traffic situations but also to react directly and is able to experience the consequences of his/her
driving behaviour in a realistic way. Simulators offer, beside others, the following advantages: safety
(some hazardous tasks can not be learned on the road), possibility of control of the type and timing of
training events (the task can be adapted to the trainee’s performance), objective measurements of
driving behaviour. Also basic vehicle handling skills can be learned without the need to drive in a real
car. In the meanwhile software-developments have improved the fidelity of the simulator in terms of
network, interactivity, and autonomous intelligence algorithms.
Recent research indicates that accidents of novice drivers are caused more by false personal tendencies
than by lack of handling skill: Young drivers often have risky habits (e.g. testing limits of own skill),
safety-negative motives (like competing or pleasure), and are prone to social pressure by peers (use of
alcohol and drugs etc.). Exercises should be developed to make trainees aware that assessment of their
own abilities to negotiate critical situations may be false, especially in the beginning. Another prom-
ising way to teach safe driving behaviour is including group discussions into the curriculum, in which
trainees are asked to evaluate their own attitudes and the consequences on decisions taken during
driving. Trainees should discover themselves, by discussion, observation and activity, the validity of
their own beliefs and the critical nature of the decisions that they have to make in modern traffic.
As found in the road-safety research literature of the last two decades there is a shift from emphasising
training manoeuvring skills to training higher-order skills, i.e. recognition and anticipation skills, in-
cluding risk perception, as well as self-assessment. It has been demonstrated that connecting practical
exercises to theory and evaluation of one’s own behaviour may work.
Page 24
,QWURGXFWLRQDQGVWUXFWXUHRIWKHOLWHUDWXUHVXUYH\
This literature survey has two main purposes: the first aim is to get an overview of the current knowl-
edge related to the driving task, driver behaviour and driver training. The second aim is to use it as an
information basis for the identification of gaps in the current driver training curricula. The literature
which was identified as relevant comes from a wide range of research fields. There are articles about
driving behaviour in general, influencing psychological factors and underlying skills, accident-factor
analysis studies, accident countermeasures, special needs (of disabled persons), simulator validation
studies, driving training and licensing systems.
Over 250 articles and books were analysed, and relevant results and suggestions were inserted into the
survey in order to draw conclusions from existing results regarding the following questions: Which
skills are important for driving tasks (and especially for safe driving)? Which are the needs of young
drivers? Which skills have been trained in the past? Which training tools have proved to be suitable
for the respective task? For which tasks has no training attempt been made yet? Are there relevant in-
fluencing factors (psychological or basic skills) which have not been trained yet? Also it should be
noted that not all cited literature actually reports training projects but rather research projects, i.e. not
every publication uses the methodological approach of a training tool, but of a research instrument.
Suggestions and results as well can be used as an information basis for relevant literature regarding the
purposes of the TRAINER-project: Developing scenarios for the multimedia PC and simulator devices
(WP 3 and 4), for the development of assessment criteria (WP 5), for the pilot tests (WP 6), and for the
development of best practice guidelines (WP 7).
6WUXFWXUHRIWKHVXUYH\
In order to structure the data gathered in scanning the literature a model was employed that takes into
account all relevant aspects of the driving task. As a general basis for this structure we choose the
GADGET model that includes the well-known Michon model (1985). Michon divided driving in part
tasks at three levels: the planning (strategic), the tactical (manoeuvring), and the operational (control)
level. The strategic level defines the general planning stage of a trip. It includes trip goals, route, and
modal choice, plus an evaluation of the costs and risks involved. This planning is further based on
general considerations about transport and mobility, and also on concomitant factors such as aesthetic
satisfaction and comfort. At the manoeuvring or tactical level drivers consider the directly prevailing
driving circumstances in order to properly interact with other traffic participants. Although largely
constrained by the demands of the actual situation, manoeuvres must meet the criteria derived from the
general goals set at the strategic level. Finally, the control or operational level is concerned with the
’real’ handling of vehicle and includes steering, changing gears, and speed control.
The recently finished European project GADGET expanded the Michon-model. This involved adding
a fourth level relating to personal preconditions and ambitions, that have shown to be of great impor-
tance for driving. This fourth level refers to personal motives and tendencies in a broader perspective,
and is based on insights that lifestyle, social background, gender, age and other individual precondi-
tions influence attitudes, driving behaviour and accident involvement. The authors also emphasised
that a safe driver is not only skilled but also aware of risks and of own abilities and personal tenden-
cies. So the matrix consists of four levels and three dimensions (skill and knowledge, risk increasing
aspects, self-evaluation). The constructors of the matrix indicate that driver training should take into
account as much as possible of the entire matrix. This contrasts with traditional training that focus
mainly on knowledge and skills at the lower levels (For a more detailed description of the Michon-
model and the GADGET-matrix see Chapter 3: Driver behaviour models).
Driving, especially in the presence of other vehicles, requires the performance of a non-trivial set of
subtasks of the driving task. These tasks can be subjected to a task requirement analysis, specifying in
Page 25
detail the tasks to be performed and the subtasks required for adequate performance. For driving, such
an analysis has been carried out by McKnight and Adams (1970) for the purpose of developing a
driver education curriculum. They distinguish 45 separate main tasks which are further broken down
into some 1700 subtasks. Each of them is further classified into the required activities for a successful
performance. For reasons of clarity it seemed not useful to structure the survey into these small com-
ponents, but suitable to compare the McKnight and Adams main tasks with recent task analyses and
internal TRAINER task analyses, i.e. CIECA-list of driving tasks, proposals of the simulator design by
CARA, VTI-simulator scenarios, IAT-internal survey, EFTHITA-accident statistics, TRAINER-
questionnaire of AUTh, VIRtual test plan.
9HKLFOHFRQWUROWDVNV 0DQRHXYULQJWDVNV 6WUDWHJLFWDVNV %HKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV
.QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOV .QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOV .QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOV .QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOV
1 Starting Tasks related to traffic condi- 1 Determination of trip goals, 1 Knowing about the general
2 Shifting gears tions: route and modal choice relations between life-
3 Accelerating/ decelerating 2 Preparation and technical style/age/gender and driving
4 Steering / lane keeping 1 Following & Tailgating check style
5 Speed control 2 Overtaking 3 Safety issues 2 Knowledge about the influ-
6 Braking/ stopping (incl. 3 Entering/leaving the traffic 4 Maintenance tasks ence of personal values and
distance estimation) 4 Lane changing 5 Economic driving social background
7 Use of new car control aids 5 Reacting to other vehicles
(ABS, ACC etc.) 6 Reacting to pedestrians 5LVNLQFUHDVLQJIDFWRUV
7 Parking
1 Drivers condition (stress, 5LVNLQFUHDVLQJIDFWRUV
Tasks related to roadway mood, fatigue)

5LVNLQFUHDVLQJIDFWRUV characteristics: 1 High level of sensation
2 Motives for driving seeking
1 Insufficient skills and in- 1 Negotiating intersections, 2 Consequences of social
completely automation junctions and roundabouts pressure, use of alcohol and
2 Negotiating hills/ slopes 6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
drugs
3 Negotiating curves
6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
4 Road surface/ obstacles 1 Awareness of personal
5 Turning off/ Turning over planning skills 6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
1 Realistic self-evaluation 7 Approach/ exit of motor- 2 Awareness of typical driving
ways goals and risky driving mo- 1 Awareness of own personal
8 Railroad crossings, bridges, tives tendencies (risky habits,
tunnels safety-negative motives)
9 Reacting to traffic signs and
traffic lights
10 Reacting to direction signs
(incl. in-car devices)
11 Urban driving
12 Country road driving
13 Motorway driving
Tasks related to the environ-
ment
1 Weather conditions (fog,
rain, snow)
2 Night driving
5LVNLQFUHDVLQJIDFWRUV
1 Insufficient skills and in-

completely automation
2 Information overload
3 Insufficient anticipating
skills/ wrong expectations
4 Risky driving style
6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
1 Realistic self-evaluation
2 Awareness of personal
driving style
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Page 26
Also many subtasks are summarised under a few key points in order to have the possibility to insert
findings without leaving many cells empty. And as Rothengatter et al.(1993) pointed out the main
shortcoming of the McKnight and Adams analysis is that it ignores the fact that certain tasks or sub-
tasks have to be carried out continuously whereas other tasks have a discrete nature and that, hence, at
times simultaneous or parallel task execution is necessary.
In Table 4 tasks are identified and related to the adapted GADGET-matrix (for a better reading the
axes were changed and the GADGET-cells integrated). It should be considered that the structure of the
following chapters doesn’t follow exactly the GADGET-Matrix. The findings in the literature could
not always be divided into the three GADGET-cells ’Knowledge and skills’, Risk-increasing factors’
and ’Self evaluation’. In order to relate the identified subtasks directly to the ’risk-factors’ and ’evalua-
tion' dimensions, these aspects were also discussed in the 'knowledge and skills' – section, although it
is to say that mostly risk-increasing factors and self-evaluation competencies in general are important
for all identified driving-subtasks. In the summaries of the separate chapters it was tried to assign the
relevant points to the respective cells.
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According to Harrison (1997) the main purpose of training in general is to “UHGXFHWKHQHHGIRUH[
SHULHQFH by facilitating the effect of smaller amounts of driving experience or by replacing the need
for some driving experience with the product or outcome of the driver-training process”. Training
can’t replace driving experience, but it can reduce the amount of experience needed to reduce crash
risk. The author mentions three assumptions underlying the use of training: (1) there are characteristics
of novice drivers, (2) these characteristics distinguish novice drivers from experienced rivers, (3) these
characteristics are able to be influenced. It could be seen in the following chapters that these charac-
teristics of novice drivers are well identified in the literature and many proposals for influencing them
are made.
Training should guarantee that the trained skills are maintained. Research has shown that procedural
tasks (like driving) tend to be learned quickly, but acquired skill deteriorates rapidly during periods of
no-practice. Van den Bosch (1999) indicates that the ORQJWHUPUHWHQWLRQRIVNLOO in complex proce-
dural tasks can be improved by including functional explanations in the instruction, thus allowing
trainees to acquire a mental model of the system and the task (rather than mechanically reproducing a
memorised action sequence). Another method proposed for promoting the long term retention of skill
is by requiring learners to overcome high task interference during training, for instance by using ran-
dom rather than blocked practice schedules.
Groeger and Clegg (1994) identify six SXUSRVHVRILQVWUXFWLRQ in the driving context: to provide
structured experience of the variety of driving tasks and situations, to supervise performance of driv-
ing procedures, to identify task components that should be attended to, to develop ways of generalis-
ing appropriately to novel situations, to impart desirable beliefs, attitudes and values, and to achieve a
criterion level of performance: the authors point out that little is known about the extent to which some
of these purposes are achieved or attempted (Hall & West, 1996).
For Kappler (1993) cognitive tasks addressing the generation of rule-based behaviour seem most
promising for training purposes: They cover visual perception, recognition, identification and decision
making processes. Examples are training of visual search and orientation strategies and handling of
time pressure. Time and distance estimation as well as eye fixation point position as a function of for-
ward speed training addresses appropriate safety margins.
6XJJHVWLRQVIRUWKHVHTXHQFHRIWUDLQLQJ
The recent literature regards crash reduction as related to the application of VDIHGULYLQJVWUDWHJLHV, QRW
to EDVLFYHKLFOHKDQGOLQJVNLOOV. They do so because there is some evidence that young males can have
superior vehicle handling skills and still have crashes (probably because of poor attitudes, poor deci-
Page 27
sions, risk taking, alcohol impairment, etc.). This suggests that the major safety impact from driver
education will come from teaching safe driving strategies (good decision making resulting in risk re-
duction), not in the teaching of basic vehicle handling skills. Due to experiences with its methods for
driver education the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (1994) suggests that trying to
teach a new driver both basic vehicle control skills and safe driving skills at the same time is probably
inappropriate or, at best, inefficient. The new driver may be so preoccupied with learning basic vehicle
control skills, that he/she does not have the capacity (or motivation) to learn safe driving strategies.
Thus, skills have to be learned first to focus later on the safe driving strategies.
Brown et al. (1987) consider training to be an LQWHUDFWLYHPXOWLSOHOHYHOSURFHVV. At the first level
basic skill training takes place. With this individuals take part in actual traffic under certain restrictions
and gain experience in the second level. At the third level cognitive training takes place in order to
generate behavioural rules. As well Lonero et al. (1998) proposed a PXOWLVWDJHGULYHUHGXFDWLRQ: the
later stage could be a cognitively oriented, risk evaluation, and decision course (addressing high
speeds, night driving or risk acceptance) for those who already have automatised basic driving skills.
According to Kappler (1993) the WUDLQLQJJRDOV for these three levels of automatised behaviour (Ras-
mussen, 1984, see above) may be: for (1) knowledge based behaviour: enable operators to dedicate
more activity to knowledge-based operations by reducing the need for activity on the guidance (i.e.
strategical) and stabilisation (i.e. manoeuvring) task levels; for (2) rule-based behaviour: to generate
internal rules in order to be able to cope with infrequent situations in a standardised manner; for (3)
skill based behaviour: simply train skills. Van Emmerik and van Rooij (1999) described an accumula-
tive training build-up in order to prevent trainee overload. Training starts with basic tasks such as
steering and speed control. When the trainee can handle the training load associated with these tasks
fairly well, a new task is added. This is called WUDQVLWLRQ. The workload is determined by two factors:
the introduction of the new task, and the instruction that is provided on top of it. Instructions may be
expected to be most important during those parts of the learning process where skills have to be inte-
grated or say DFFXPXODWHG. When it is possible to specify what kind of instructional support works best
at a transition, the description in general terms (continuous motor task: e.g. steering, discrete motor
task: e.g. changing gears etc.) will enable generalisation to a lot of other tasks in the domain. A general
conclusion deriving from the suggestion of Van Emmerik and van Rooij (1999) could be to insert
feedback and criteria for skilful task performance in order to enable trainees to evaluate themselves
and to control their transition sequence.
Regarding the optimal time for educating safe driving, Bartl et al. (DAN-Report, 2000) points out that
on the one hand many authors argued that this does not make sense when trainees still have problems
with basic manoeuvring skills. On the other hand there are authors who insist to apply a compulsory
safe driving course before the licence is issued in order to influence young drivers before they enter
the road.
5HDOOLIHWUDLQLQJ
Gregersen (1994) suggests that the perceptional problems of novice drivers (see also 3.4.3) should be
reduced by using the method of "FRPPHQWDU\GULYLQJ" to improve drivers’ scanning behaviour and
risk evaluation. It is based on a strategy that the learner, during driving, reports to the teacher on what
is happening around him/her. Through feedback from the teacher, this scanning skill is expected to be
improved. Gregersen (1995) concluded that driver training has to put more effort in teaching higher
order skills and risk awareness and that it is of high importance that this is done through practical in-
car training. The learner driver must experience the dangers of driving, his/her own limitations, lack of
experience, influence of peers, etc. The training strategy of practical insight creation thus aims at de-
veloping mental models and rules that include possibilities of critical situations and accidents. His
suggestions for applications are to be found in the corresponding chapters. The results of Hall & West
(1996) suggest that informal practise has a positive effect in the acquisition of driving skill as ad-
judged by an instructor while extention of formal tuition above 10 h has an important effect with no
informal practise.
Page 28
3&EDVHGWUDLQLQJWRROV
As a result of the widespread use of Personal Computers there are many developments in this field
regarding training (for detail see Chapter 6: Survey of multimedia tools). One example is the devel-
opment of a didactical model for instruction in traffic theory, using a computer-based PXOWLPHGLD
OHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQW (CBT), reported by Van Berlo & Van den Bosch (1999). One of the most im-
portant assumptions is the notion that the learning environment should be functionally identical to the
actual task environment in which a task has to be performed. Learning is being facilitated by providing
comprehensive feedback. This was shown e.g. in an early study of Schuster (1978) using a device
which provides immediately feedback to the trainees’ answers. Trainees were tested with a multiple
choice format which includes items of safety techniques (accident avoidance and rules of the road
knowledge. Testing trainees twice could enhance long-term memory of safe-driving responses. In ad-
dition Lonero et al. (1998) suggest that LQWHUDFWLYHPHGLD can be used to enhance perceptual and deci-
sion skills, and attentional control that may apply to other tasks beside driving. Interactive, computer-
based instruction holds promise for more effective and efficient learning of basic skills and knowl-
edge. The authors suggest the following development needs: software applications to individualise and
automate the teaching and testing of knowledge; interactive multimedia units for training and testing
the allocation of attention, visual detection, and the perception and evaluation of risk; software appli-
cations to diagnose, clarify, and reinforce modification of risk-taking styles and consequences.
3&EDVHGWUDLQLQJWRROVLQXVH
The AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety has developed a PC-based driver-education programme (Zero
Errors Driving or Driver ZED, for details see 6.5.7) using real footage of risky scenarios. A prelimi-
nary evaluation of the performance of the trained and untrained subjects indicates that the trained
subjects are performing more cautiously than the untrained subjects in some, but not all scenarios. The
instructional content in this program will be delivered as users make their own choices and then expe-
rience the results of their actions (or lack of action). Cognitive studies have shown that learning by
doing yields greater understanding than learning by heart. In this program, users will never be told
what to do. In addition to exposing users to a wide range of potential driving situations, the interactive
driving scenarios will contain "clues" that a bad outcome may be imminent. With the help of peer
feedback following the users’ chosen actions (given by one of four teen "hosts" featured in the pro-
gram), they can come to their own understandings of how the clues and outcome are related. In the
"real world," unsafe driving choices are often rewarded by lack of negative outcomes. This program
will not be equally forgiving. Unsafe choices will have immediate, observable results. In addition, all
scenarios will be staged and displayed as "real" full-motion video sequences (as opposed to game-like
computer animations). While the program may have the structure and challenge of a game, the realis-
tic quality of the video and the immediate peer feedback will enhance direct transfer of users’ experi-
ence to the real driving environment (Fisher et al., 1998). An Australian interactive CD-ROM is Drive
Smart which systematically trains users in the areas of detecting hazards, effective scanning the envi-
ronment and managing the workload of driving in busy traffic. The package is the result of a three-
year research project conducted by the Monash University Accident Research Centre (1999), and aims
to accelerate the development of key safety skills that novice drivers lack through inexperience. It has
been developed to supplement driving experience - and is not a substitute for hands-on experience be-
hind the wheel of a real car. Using scripted video sequences, Drive Smart features interactive exercises
which provide skill practice in a range of areas including: insight, commentary driving, situation
awareness, potential/ actual road hazards, high incidence crash scenarios and learning avoidance skills.
According to Deery et al. (1999) personal computer-based instruction on critical risk perception skill,
combined with the opportunity to practice and obtain feedback on those skills, have been effective in
enhancing the safety of novice drivers around traffic hazards in a driving simulator.
6LPXODWRUV
A method which is not used much in systematic training but which is often held as a potentially good
method of teaching basic control skills is the training simulator. A few experiments have been con-
ducted to measure the traffic-safety value of this approach, but there is thus far nothing to prove any
Page 29
positive traffic-safety effects. In an English study (Shaoul 1975), no difference in accident risk could
be proven between a group of drivers who had learned to drive in a simulator, one which learned to
drive with a conventional driving school in regular traffic and a third group which learned to drive
with the help of parents. Several other studies have shown similar results (Jones 1973, Dreyer and
Janke 1979). However, these studies are fairly old now. In this context it is worth noting that the
simulators in these tests were utilised in a very traditional manner as an alternative way of training
control skills or traffic rules. With a different content, the results may well be different.
In accordance with more modern thinking on the use of simulators for driver instruction, the driving
simulator is instead regarded as a tool for promoting risk awareness and as a way of allowing the stu-
dent to try out various driving situations which cannot be planned in regular traffic or which would by
nature involve excessive danger on the road. New computerised techniques using an interactive ap-
proach and multimedia technology also make it possible to produce more realistic simulation than be-
fore. One of the most advanced training simulators in the world has been built by VTI and is installed
in Sweden at a training centre outside Stockholm. It was used primarily for advanced training for pro-
fessional drivers of heavy goods vehicles. Another example of an advanced training simulator is found
in the state of Victoria in Australia, run by the TAC insurance company. It was used for car drivers
and was built into a trailer so it is completely mobile (Triggs and Stanway 1995).
In addition to these extremely advanced simulators, there is a whole variety of simpler types. The so-
called Roseau simulator resembles the interior of a car with a number of screens, but it is entirely
static and uses a PC-based control system. Personal computers can also be used in applications fea-
turing so-called interactive video, where the trainees’ answers to questions or their ability to discover a
hazard in time regulate which information comes their way next in sequence. This training method is
still in its infancy and the more advanced simulators are far too expensive for more general public use.
The idea of using simulators, however, is rather old in itself. Simulators were used in Sweden, for in-
stance, as long ago as the 1950s. They were rather advanced for the time, but they had none of the in-
teractive potential offered by current technology. However, they did allow students to learn to use a
car’s control systems without tackling real traffic. In this application all the course participants share
the same screen. One stage which is not as drastic as learning to drive in a simulator is to undertake
the first actual driving manoeuvres in a fenced off driving-instruction range. This method is an
obligatory ingredient in many countries and has been evaluated by many researchers. These research-
ers are all in agreement that there do not appear to be any safety benefits when range driving is com-
pared with conventional training (e.g. Brazell 1962, Lund et al 1986). The most common explanation
for this result is that one probably learns the initial basic manoeuvring skills on the road as well as in a
fenced-off range or simulator. Both methods may, however, offer considerable potential for achieving
better traffic safety, provided they are utilised properly and are used to convey the correct message. It
is thus more a matter of content than of outer form.
$GYDQWDJHVRIVLPXODWRUVLQFRPSDULVRQWRUHDOFDUV
According to Reed & Green (1999) there are three primary justifications for using driving simulation
rather than in-vehicle testing: (1) Safety: Some research is too hazardous to be conducted in vehicles
on the road (e.g. studies of collision avoidance, effects of alcohol on driving performance). Multiple-
vehicle scenarios are more safely studied in a simulator. (2) Equipment cost: Simulators allow study of
driver responses to changes in the vehicle without having to construct a vehicle with those features or
performance characteristics. (3) Experimental control: a wider variety of test conditions can be pre-
scribed and consistently applied in a driving simulator than on the road. The influence of the weather
on driving conditions is controllable in the simulator. Further DGYDQWDJHVRIVLPXODWRUV from a didac-
tic point of view are listed by Van Emmerik and van Rooij (1999). (4) It is possible to control the type
and timing of training events and hereby the learning experience. (5) There are more possibilities to
adapt the training task to the performance of the trainee. (6) There are more possibilities as well, to
provide augmented cueing and feedback. (7) The use of a simulator facilitates the recording and diag-
nosing trainee performance. (8) And it is possible to automate the process of training and instruction.
Triggs (1994), who described a simulation and training program of the Transport Accident Commis-
Page 30
sion of the State of Victoria in Australia, mentions, apart from the advantages stated above, the benefit
of providing training feedback either in real time or after completion of a task through environment
manipulation. Simulation is supposed to be able to make a contribution to the training of drivers who
have developed basic skills but are in need of acquiring skills in the cognitive and decision-making
aspects of driving. For this higher level of training, it is likely that at least reasonable simulation fidel-
ity would be required. Such training would be likely to be well-placed immediately prior to licensing.
Based on their experience, the developers of the simulation training program selected four general ar-
eas that can be used to direct the formulation of detailed scenarios for the simulator driver training cur-
riculum: risk perception, calibration, timesharing, attentional control. Blaauw (1980) showed that a
fixed-base simulator could differentiate between inexperienced and experienced drivers with greater
sensitivity than an on-road test.
Kappler (1993) sees the general advantages of simulators stated above, but wants to point to some se-
vere OLPLWDWLRQVWRWKHXVHRIVLPXODWRUV, such as the following: Neither real danger nor real conse-
quences of actions emerge in simulators and the substitution of real situations is not possible. This di-
rects the use of simulators towards cognitive and other tasks that may hardly be trained in the real
world. Regarding the consequences, incentive systems should be discussed. Another disadvantage of
simulator use arises from the lack of social context during training situation. The development of
computer generated autonomous intelligence algorithms in order to substitute human behaviour and to
incorporate interactive drivers and vehicles into simulation could cope with this limitation. It may be
feasible to develop simulator networks, in which several trainees are linked to the same database, or
traffic network.
5HFHQWSURJUHVVLQVLPXODWRUGHVLJQ
In the meanwhile these software-developments (network, interactivity, autonomous intelligence algo-
rithms) are progressed on a large scale as recent research shows (Pean et. al., 2000, Strobl et al., 2000,
Wright, 2000, for details see Reacting to other vehicles (cars, bicycles)). Ahmad et al (2000) establish
that autonomous driver models are widely used in driving simulators as an integral part of microscopic
traffic simulation within the virtual environment. Realistic and believable driver models significantly
enhance the user’s experience and are often necessary for conducting simulator-based research. One
way to increase the traffic fidelity is to extend the behaviours exhibited by driver models. Typically,
behaviours such as vehicle following and lane tracking are augmented with specialised behaviours
such as emergency responses and parking manoeuvres. The paper describes one such behaviour that is
part of the microscopic traffic simulation system developed at the University of Iowa and currently in
use in various driving simulators. Bayarri et al. (1997) stated that the recent developments in many
aspects of driving simulation technology (lower cost visual systems, mobile platforms, commercial
availability of ready-to-use sensorised cockpit elements) allows nowadays to get a complex driving
simulation equipment ready with a small technical effort. This introduces a growing development ef-
fort to be put in the task of experiment scenario and experiment application design. The authors de-
vised a version of the SIRCA driving simulator including a geometry modelling tool. Allen et a.
(2000) describe a low-cost driving simulator, based on personal computer technology, which is fully
interactive with steering, throttle and brake controls. Training and testing scenarios were defined pro-
cedurally, using a scenario definition language (SDL) that required drivers to maintain safe speeds,
negotiate curves and right angle turns, obey traffic control devices (markings, signs and signals) and
interact with traffic and pedestrians that were controlled to represent cognitively challenging hazards.
The SDL also allowed the event sequences in the scenarios to be conveniently rearranged from run to
run to avoid drivers anticipating the occurrence of critical events. Performance measures included
Time-to-Collision (TTC), Traffic Light Stops, Run Length and Total Accidents. Statistically reliable
differences in performance were found between the novice and experienced drivers in terms of total
accidents. Grezlikowski & Schill (2000) describe a PC approach at a driving simulator. For the reason
that the performance of PC’s keeps on growing, nowadays it seems possible to use PC’s instead of spe-
cial hardware even for highest performance requirements. The advantages of PC’s are low cost, the
availability of software and special hardware and the ease of use. Espié & Saad (2000) developed the
ARCHISIM traffic model, the SIM² VLPXODWRUDUFKLWHFWXUH and tools for planning and managing ex-
periments. They emphasise the advantage of driving simulators for measurements of driving behaviour
Page 31
inside the vehicle: behaviour measurements from outside the vehicle do not provide a precise picture
of drivers’ activities, but rather a picture of the results of these activities in terms of interactions with
the road environment. "On-board" behaviour measurements provide more detailed information about
the dynamics of driver actions in response to changes in the environment. Measurements from outside
are less explanatory and have limited potential for exploring the cognitive aspects of driving. Boer et
al. (2000) question the degree to whichdrivers’ behaviour observed in driving simulators is a reflection
of how they drive in reality. To study this question of transfer in a meaningful manner, a means to
quantify driver behaviour in an insight-providing manner is needed, as a means to match experimental
conditions between simulation and reality. The often used time averages and standard deviations of
vehicle state variables (e.g. lateral position and speed) and/or driver control variables (e.g. steering
wheel angle and pedal depression) are inadequate characterisations of driving behaviour because they
are too far removed from the perceptual cues that shape driving behaviour and the way drivers evalu-
ate driving performance. Drivers are hypothesised to base their control and decision-making on a set
of perceptual variables (e.g. splay-rate, bearing-to-tangent-point, time-to-collision, and time-to-
tangent-point) and to constrain their behaviour such that several time-based safety-margins are satis-
fied (e.g. time-to-line-crossing, and time-headway). So the authors propose an evaluation of driving
behaviour based on their driver model and to apply it to assess behavioural difference between driving
simulators and reality.
In a study of Frank et al. (1988) the effects of visual display and motion system delays on performance
and uneasiness in a driving simulator were assessed. The occurrence of simulator transport delay can
result in at least two undesirable consequences, these are degradations in performance and experiences
of discomfort (simulator sickness). Although the precise aetiology of simulator sickness is not known,
it is believed to result from a conflict or mismatch among sensory cues (perceptual conflict theory).
The current philosophy in simulator design (1988) dictates that the onset of the motion subsystem
should lead the visual subsystem for two reasons. Because the position of the simulated vehicle is cal-
culated prior to the updating the new visual scene, it is functionally convenient to allow delay between
the motion and visual subsystems. Second, many engineers believe that humans perceive vestibular
and kinaesthetic cues of motion before they perceive visual cues. The authors point out some findings
that vision may be a more dominant sensory modality than proprioception of movement detection. The
results of the study indicate that when asynchronous delays occur in a simulator, visual system move-
ment should begin before motion system movement in order to produce the least amount of uneasi-
ness. A study of Watson (2000) specifically reviews six VLPXODWRUVLFNQHVV studies that were con-
ducted on a high-fidelity driving simulator at the University of Iowa. The focus is a synthesis of find-
ings across all studies, including a comparison of exposure time, exposure type, and individual sus-
ceptibility, when available. The paper concludes with an overview of how these findings influence
general operating procedures, experimental protocols for other simulator studies, and future research.
Kappé (2000) describes the European ELSTAR project which focussed on a method for developing
cost-effective (driving) simulators. The central idea was to restrict simulator training to those tasks
that can be simulated relatively cheaply, and to those tasks that require the most conventional training.
Tasks that require expensive simulator hardware are better trained on the actual vehicle, just like tasks
that do not require much training at all. The cost-benefit analysis indicated that cost-effective driving
simulators should concentrate on training basic vehicle handling skills and traffic participation. Since
low-cost hardware is available, the major challenge in low-cost driving simulation is now in software
and courseware. Furthermore, cost-effective driving simulators should maximally exploit the training
effectiveness of a given hardware configuration. This not only requires an elaborate set of software to
generate realistically behaving traffic; it also requires a training curriculum that capitalises on the ad-
vantages of simulator training, such as accurate control of the learning events that occur in traffic,
repetition of tasks, playback of situations and novel methods of feedback and instruction.
For an overview of existing simulators and their characteristics, possibilities and limitations see also
Chapter 7: Survey of driving simulators.
Page 32
5HOLDELOLW\YDOLGLW\DQGILGHOLW\
As Bylsma (1997) explains the simulator must meet criteria for reliability and validity. That is, the
simulator must generate consistent findings when the same individual is tested on more than one occa-
sion (test-retest reliability) and when different testers assess the same individual in the same way (in-
terrater-reliability). The validity of the simulator may be established by face validity, in which the
simulator appears to be measuring attributes related to actual driving. Although this type of validity
may be clinically meaningful, it is less valuable statistically than construct validity, which refers to the
extent to which the simulator is actually measuring a variable of interest , such as future crashes. To
establish construct validity, the ability of the simulator to distinguish between safe and unsafe drivers
must be compared to at least one other valid index of driving safety – a "golden standard". This golden
standard measure for driving safety has not yet been established. Predictive validity reflects the accu-
racy of the test's predictions about individuals: if the simulator identifies an individual as likely to
crash his/her car, what is the probability that that person will actually crash his/her car over a given
period (positive predictive value)? Targeted driving simulation tasks that assess aspects of driving that
are related to crashes have been used to identify individuals who have had past accidents. However,
the utility of such tasks for identifying those who are at increased risk for crashing in the near future
has not been demonstrated. Van Emmerik and van Rooij (1999) stated that a simulation is valid when
it succeeds in teaching a trainee the desired behaviour. It is, however, not always necessary that the
simulator looks exactly the same as the real system. Regarding the question of what level of realism is
necessary for efficient transfer of training it has to be distinguished between physical and functional
(psychological) fidelity. Although these goals – i.e. ILGHOLW\RIWKHVLPXODWRUDQGHIILFLHQWWUDQVIHURI
WUDLQLQJ – are certainly related, they are by no means the same. Transfer studies often confound these
two aspects: not only is the experimental group trained on a different system but the way in which
trainees are trained also differs qualitatively from the way trainees are conventionally trained. Also
training and instruction factors determine training effectiveness and efficiency independent of the me-
dium that is used for training. Given the same training simulator, training results may differ widely
depending on the way in which the training program has been designed and delivered. Deliberately
deviating from reality can enhance the transfer of training. For example the trainee can be taught to
focus on certain task relevant aspects of the simulation without being distracted by other information.
This could be especially be beneficial in the early stages of skill learning when the workload imposed
by the complete (simulated) system is simply too high for the trainee to handle. A low-cost simulator
configuration may thus be more efficient for training than a full-blown simulator. In a review of vali-
dation methods for simulators Korteling & Sluimer (1999) point to the fact that the term validity only
makes sense if it is related to the functional aspects of simulators (purpose, tasks, training methods).
Also in a simulator validation study objective and subjective methods should be combined.
Reed & Green (1999) found that YLVXDOVFHQHILGHOLW\ in a simulator has not a strong effect on driving
performance. Previous studies have found that fixed-base simulators are likely to produce poor abso-
lute validity but good relative validity for many measures of driving performance. The driving simu-
lator measures of speed control showed good absolute validity. Lane keeping was considerably less
precise in the simulator, as expected, indicating poor absolute validity. However, the purpose of the
simulator in many human factors studies is to detect differences in performance produced by changes
in the subject's capabilities (e.g. under the influence of alcohol) or differences in secondary-task load-
ing (e.g. use of an in-vehicle route-guidance system).
7KHRUHWLFDOWUDLQLQJ
Traditionally educating the knowledge of relevant characteristics of traffic systems is undertaken by
the novice driver him/herself in learning the contents of the Highway Code. However, declarative,
procedural and conditional knowledge are needed in a real traffic environment, but the Highway Code
often appeared to be learned in a purely declarative manner. Traditional methods of learning the code
usually involve drivers reading the code alone, then having other persons ask them questions from the
book later. Gray et al (1998) developed a board game based on the contents of the code such that it
could be played by individuals on their own, as well as when part of a small group. The use of the
game (under both individual and group conditions) significantly improved learning of the code (incl.
Page 33
road safety issues). The authors mention that this board game is interactive, readily accessible, highly
portable, durable and reliable, and relative inexpensive. According to Lonero et al. (1998) curriculum
integration is important in areas of personal and social values, risk taking, self esteem,
empowerment/optimism, peer pressure, community cohesion, and health protection. These are the
motivational basis of pro-social and self-protective behaviours. Active participation in peer based
teaching activities can help achieve this "healthy values integration". As reported by Lynam & Twisk
(1995) theory training in Germany will not only concentrate on the cognitive aspects but also on moti-
vational tendencies such as search for independence and autonomy. Themes include: coping with im-
patience, self-assertion in groups, behaviour in competitive situations, making decisions and time
planing. The task of driver training requires not only teach skills and knowledge, but also the ability to
develop positive attitudes. Jolly (1986) described the development of a curriculum in traffic education
for the 14-19 age-group at the University of Reading. The purpose of the programme is to reduce ex-
posure to risk, to improve understanding of potential risk situations and to help evolve responsible,
informed ideas about how such situations might be avoided. There are four basic units: Unit 1: "Ready
for the road" is concerned with the choices, the commitments and the responsibilities which young
people have to face when purchasing, owning and driving a motor vehicle, e.g. traffic laws, insurance,
tax, licensing, vehicle selection, financial planning. Unit 2: "Accidents on the road" deals with the
causes, consequences, and prevention of accidents and what to do as a victim or a witness. Unit 3:
"One for the road" is concerned with the problems of teenage drinking and driving. Unit 4: "Reading
the road" is based on carefully graded visual materials including the tape-slide packs and video re-
cordings. It concentrates upon improving the ability to interpret the wide range of visual information
of the traffic environment. The traffic course is almost completely discussion based. It is designed to
stimulate or provoke informed discussion about critical traffic issues. The main task therefore is not so
much of providing information but of creating and maintaining a tolerant learning environment in
which students can discover for themselves by discussion, observation and activity the validity of their
own beliefs and the critical nature of the decisions that they have to make for themselves in modern
traffic.
2WKHUPHWKRGV
Lewin (1982) describes two ways to influence behaviour: (1) Drivers are observed and to those who
violate traffic rules advisory letters are sent, resulting in an observed reduction of 20 – 50% in viola-
tion subsequently, depending on the type of violation. (2) Subjects recorded near-accidents for the pe-
riod of one week, in a meeting those incidents were analysed and suggestions were made how to avoid
that in future. They were asked to use the technique of mental practice (=rehearsal through imagery of
a perceptual-motor task). After 6 weeks a test shows (driving own car along a driving route, rating)
that driving skills improved (proven by a relevant project in Israel). This seems to be very similar to
the DKH (Driving Know How) actual training process. The above near-accident cases could also be
reproduced and verified in a simulator with actual simulator accidents.
Heikkila (2000) stated that there is a pressing need to evaluate driving ability without an actual driving
test but no reliable, standardised procedure is available. In this study drivers were examined using
cognitive and psychomotor tests and standard personality questionnaires as well as an on-road driving
test. The students made significantly fewer errors on the driving test than the experienced drivers,
which is explained that the trainees' performance reflects their skill while the experienced drivers ap-
ply their normal driving style. Experienced drivers have fallen into a routine and conform to the 'eve-
ryday' rules of the traffic rather than to the written regulations. The students' driving performance
could be predicted by errors on the laboratory tests, along with personality factors. Sivak et al. (1984)
suggest (for patients with brain damage), that driving performance is related to perceptual capabilities.
These perceptual skills are amenable to training consisting of simple paper-and-pencil activities (or
comparable computer-based activities). The degree of driving-performance improvement following
such training is directly related to the degree of improvement in perceptual skills.
Two approaches from Germany and Australia have the aim to improve the safe driving skills by ex-
tending the time of contact to the trainees. The elements of a pilot scheme in four German federal
states (probably 95 or 96, participation was voluntary) were the following (Mayntz, 1996): an ex-
Page 34
tended theoretical training in closed courses (instead of the usual system ’Everybody comes whenever
he/she wants’), an exchange of experiences after a half year of driving experience, sending informa-
tional literature 5 times for a period of ½ to 1 ½ years after driving test ('tips for safe driving'). This
moment (of a ½ year after driving test) was chosen on the basis of the assumption, that at that moment
novice drivers give up their cautious style of driving and begin to overestimate their skills. In Australia
the Transport Accident Commission (TAC) has initiated a major longitudinal research project - the
'Learner Driver Trial' - with new learner permit holders and their parents. The aim of the Learner
Driver Trial is to determine if the level and variety of learner driver practice can be significantly in-
creased through individualised support programs for every trainee and his/her parents. Support will
take the form of regular telephone-based contact (with the parent), coupled with the provision of rele-
vant fact sheets and/or progress reports. A recent study in Sweden indicated that substantially in-
creased supervised practice for learners could decrease the incidence of road trauma by up to 35 %.
Through the Learner Driver Trial, the TAC will establish how to support best learner driver progress,
to ensure they are fully prepared for their probationary licence (Deery et al.,1999).
Not very commonly used methods for behavioural change are group discussions and group decision
techniques. In a study Gregersen et al. (1996) test this method developed in Japan (Misumi, 1978,
1982). The strategy was a process of 6 steps as follows: after a 60-minute warming up period, a 40-
minute discussion to identify professional drivers’ problems at their workplaces takes place (step 2). In
the following meeting in the large group the results were reported and a list of 10 items was produced.
Each small group discussed which problems could be solved by themselves and which problems the
company should try to solve (step 4). Again the results were reported and measures and changes in
driving behaviour were discussed. Each driver was asked to write down on a paper what he/she him-
self/herself has determined to practice from now on. The results showed that this technique could re-
duce the accident risk. The discussions may served as an important means of exchanging information
about possible dangers and ways of avoiding them in traffic. Without the group discussion, such in-
formation exchange might not have taken place. Also the discussions served to make the group norms
more explicit which have important effects on the subjects' behavioural intentions. When these inten-
tions are also linked with behaviour by means of personal decisions, positive effects on safety would
follow. It is suggested that this technique may also prove effective among young drivers. Evans (1991)
suggest that emphasis should also be given to discussions and public opinion campaigns to change
some negative driving stereotypes and behaviours.
*HQHUDOSUREOHPVDQGVXJJHVWLRQVUHODWHGWRWKHWUDLQLQJPHWKRGV
Groeger & Biehl (1987) concluded in a review of driver training evaluation studies that there is no
evidence that driver training contributes to safety. The analysis showed that the training is essentially
geared to obtaining the driver's license as quickly as possible, and ignores much of the safety-relevant
behaviour (Groeger, 1993). Mayhew, et al. (1998) discuss the outcomes of an obviously unique study
revealed in the DeKalb county: over 16.000 students had been trained (classroom, simulator, on-
street), and several publications analysed the data. Findings are disappointing to the driver education
community: driver education was not found to be associated with reliable or significant decreases in
crash involvement. More contemporary studies come to a similar conclusion.
But Jolly (1986) remarks that it is very difficult to assess training effects. There is a multiplicity of
factors, quite apart from the educational process, which influence the behaviour of the road user. Also
the teacher's effort, particularly those to attitude formation, may not bear fruit for many months or
even many years. And, as Evans (1991) points out, the fact that there is no reliable evidence so far of
safety benefits from driver training and post-licensure training programs do not prove that training
cannot increase safety, but merely that most of the methods so far applied have not been demonstrated
to be successful. In a survey of car driver licensing and training systems in European countries, un-
dertaken by the Forum of European Road Safety Research Institutes (FERSI) Lynam & Twisk (1995)
made the following conclusions: studies have failed to show the effectiveness of driver training. There
has been a general tendency for all countries to extend the period during which training and testing
authorities have contact with novice drivers. There is no evidence that the differences in the national
systems produce any major differences at the level of national casualty totals. The following recom-
Page 35
mendations were made: training techniques should be improved to include more emphasis on cogni-
tive skills (such as hazard recognition and risk perception), drivers’ ability to assess more closely their
own skills, and development of responsible attitudes towards driving. In Denmark hazard and risk per-
ception are included as a fixed part of the training curriculum, as well as in the tests. There is some
evidence that more attention to risk perception might lead to less accident involvement.
For Brown et al. (1987) it remains of prime importance that trainees keep sensibility for the conse-
quences of their own actions. Excessive skill training may promote overcompetence, or uncritical sen-
sations of safety. These attitudes are undesired and may be repressed if there is a general awareness in
public that traffic is simply threatening and requires a certain behaviour. Consequently, successful
training approaches should be embedded into an overall political frame that considers the long-term
characteristics of changes towards attitudes that are well accepted within the society. These attitudes
are important, because with increased practice (after licensing) novice drivers learn to conform to the
pace of other drivers and follow informal rules: some subtasks of driving improve with practice but
other drop out, depending on the feedback. Hazards and accidents are highly improbable: so safety
skills may gradually decline for reasons of lacking feedback after getting the driver license (Heikkila,
2000).
The findings of Downs et al. (1982) indicate a possible confusion in the minds of trainers about when
to use a ’telling’ or a ’teaching’ style of LQVWUXFWLRQ. ’Telling’ remarks were the ones that involve think-
ing for the trainee and absolve him/her for observing for himself/herself and making his/her own deci-
sions. These remarks were of three main categories: (1) Immediate telling (e.g. ’Change down’, ’Check
your mirror’); (2) Advance telling (e.g. ’Be in second gear at the corner’); and (3) Road reading (e.g.
’The lights are changing’, ’The road narrows here’). Teaching remarks were those that helped the
trainee to form general concepts about road behaviour (which is defined as ’the ability to take an ap-
propriate action in response to hazards when driving’) which he/she could then transfer to other situa-
tions, and those that gave information about the decisions and actions he/she had made in the form of
positive and negative feedback and questions which encouraged the trainee to think for him-
self/herself. These teaching remarks were grouped as follows: (1) Reviews of a general situation or
strategy (e.g. the need on fast dual carriageways to make early judgements about changing lanes), (2)
Opinions which give feedback after an event. They can be positive or negative (e.g. ’That was good,
checking the left mirror in case anything was happening’ or ’That gear change was a little early’), and
(3) Questions which require a response. They may be used to alert the trainee to a hazard or to correct
an error (e.g. ’What was the road sign you just passed?’, ’How far out where you from that cyclist?’)
The main distinction between ’telling’ and ’teaching’ remarks is that telling deny or inhibit any discre-
tion on the part of the trainee. Teaching remarks are designed to encourage the trainee to exercise dis-
cretion and to become critical on his/her own performance. Procedural learning and the development
of motor skills share a number of characteristics which cause them to benefit from a ’telling’ style of
instruction. Training methods such as ”Tell; Show; Practice'' are beneficial for learning procedures or
motor skills. Other learning, however, requires the formation of concepts which can be transferred
from one situation to another. The 'telling' form of instruction is helpful where straightforward proce-
dures have to be learned such as the 'how' of gear changing, but 'where' and 'when' to change the gear
is related to many variables such as visibility, speed, weight and road conditions and so the driver
must be capable of making his/her own decisions. The 'teaching' style is effective as it allows the
trainees the responsibility for developing understanding by means of a series of concepts the trainees
have formulated, tested and amended for themselves.
Harrison (1997) judges that training would never be able to substitute experience in higher order skills
that develop after initial contact with driving (such as risk and hazard perception, attentional control,
attentional or task timesharing and situational awareness). The theoretical hypothesis behind it is the
following: “A substantial effect of experience in the driving environment is the development of an in-
ternal model of the driving environment that more and more closely represents the environment as ex-
perience is accrued. The initial stages of development of this model are based on limited experience
and are likely to be deterministic in nature, reflecting the apparent determinism of the driving envi-
ronment. With increased experience of the probabilistic nature of the environment and the behaviour
of other drivers, the model is thought to develop a more probabilistic nature”. The effect of this model
Page 36
development is that drivers are likely to become less safe in the early stages and then increasingly
safer, as their internal model catches up with the probabilistic nature of reality. So, training of higher
order skills may have adverse effects because: (1) It will lead to an initially-deterministic model of the
driving environment, that will have the effect of reducing the hazard-detection skill of the novice
driver as many potentially-important stimuli will be unprocessed due to their lack of novelty and per-
ceived importance; (2) If (as is believed by the author) the ultimate probabilistic internal model of the
driving environment requires the pre-existence of the earlier deterministic model for its development,
then training techniques might distort such an initial model. Especially the perception that the envi-
ronment simulated (during training) and the real environment are different would lead to the formation
of two internal models, one for the simulation and one for the real world; and (3) Automation is a fun-
damental component of safe driving behaviour because it helps drivers to respond more quickly to
potential hazards and it frees attentional capacity for other tasks. Training, by activating increased at-
tention on the behaviour of the driver and other traffic participants, might reduce the effectiveness of
the automatisation process.
6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQVIURPJHQHUDOILQGLQJV
It is obvious that trainees are at the beginning of the driving course so preoccupied with learning basic
vehicle control skills, that they do not have the capacity (or motivation) to learn higher order skills like
anticipating skills. For that reason many authors suggest that safe driving strategies should be medi-
ated at a later stage of driver training or/and in driver improvement training after a certain time of ex-
perience.
It is suggested that scanning skills which are estimated as highly relevant can be trained in real car by
using the method of commentary driving as well as with multimedia PC-devices. Recent research (e.g.
in USA and Australia) led to the development of PC-based training programs, in which trainees are
instructed to estimate the outcomes of critical and hazardous situations. Trainees make their own
choices and then experience the results of their proposed ’actions’. These programs seem to aim at ac-
celerating the development of safety-related skills that novice drivers lack because of inexperience and
otherwise have to learn only gradually in practice.
An even more powerful way to let trainees experience the consequences of their behaviour is having
them drive in driving simulators. The trainees ’drive’ the car themselves and react to various situations
in realistic ways. The simulator enables driving in hazardous and accident-prone scenarios that can not
be experienced in real-car driving. Even if trainees have not yet fully automated vehicle handling skills
it appears that in a driving simulator they can be taught to improve their anticipation of dangerous
situations (by proper interpretation of the wide range of visual information of the traffic environment)
and to learn to avoid hazardous situations by a defensive driving style. Further advantages of driving
simulator are the possibilities to control the type and timing of training events, to adapt the training
task to the performance of the trainee, to record and diagnose trainee performance, to automate the
process of training and instruction, and to reduce the amount of practice by providing immediate feed-
back .
Another important remark is that two different forms of instruction exist. The ’telling’ form of instruc-
tion is helpful in learning how certain tasks should be performed, the ’teaching’ style is effective to
teach the trainees where and when a certain task should be performed.
Traditionally the theoretical knowledge is learned merely in a declarative manner. New proposals like
games, discussion groups or peer based teaching could improve learning and powers of retention. Also
techniques like mental practice and group decision could influence the behaviour of novice drivers due
to the fact that trainees are forced to make known their own attitudes and reflect them. Reflecting these
attitudes is important, because after licensing, novice drivers learn to adapt their driving behaviour to
the driving style of other drivers.
Page 37
&RQWUROWDVNV
7KHVHYHKLFOHFRQWUROWDVNVDUHWKHEDVLFVNLOOVIRUXVLQJDFDU
6WDUWLQJ
6KLIWLQJJHDUV
To train the very first steps like starting and shifting gears the simulator is a useful device as stated
above (see 4.3.3.4). The training in a simulator is comparable with learning the first actual driving ma-
noeuvres with a real car in a fenced off driving-instruction range. Another important aspect is the
ecological one: fuel is not consumed, the use of a simulator is absolutely exhaust-free. These advan-
tages are valid for all basic vehicle control tasks.
$FFHOHUDWLQJGHFHOHUDWLQJ
A validation study (Fildes et al., 1997) compares the driving performance in an instrumented test vehi-
cle on-road with that in a mid-range driving simulator (at MUARC) for testing perceptual countermea-
sures. The experiments aimed to examine the effectiveness of transverse line treatments at reducing
travel speed. In these tested sites they found that, while deceleration is related to foot braking, it is also
affected by reductions in engine power and the subsequent deceleration influence. A significant nega-
tive correlation was observed between the road and simulator at the stop sign and a weak positive cor-
relation for the left-hand curve, suggesting that the use of the simulator was less reliable in thoses sce-
narios. Nevertheless, for basic skills acquisition accelerating/decelerating can be quite reliable taught
using a driving simulator.
6WHHULQJODQHNHHSLQJ
According to Smiley et al. (1980) the steering control task can be divided into two components: con-
trol of lateral position and control of heading angle. In an experiment over nine days, with an instru-
mented car, experimental variables recorded were as follows: steering wheel angle, velocity, lateral
acceleration and position, heading angle, front tire angle, and the disturbance signal input. It was
found that novice drivers change the strategy during the process of learning steering control. During
the first two days, the subjects tended to mainly control heading angle. Intermittent direct control of
lateral position must have occurred for the car to remain in the lane as it did. On the third day and af-
terwards, the subjects maintained heading angle control, but controlled lateral position indirectly by
modifying heading angle corrections. One application of this research might be the teaching of per-
ceptual-motor tasks. If strategies which change with experience can be identified, the novices may be
shown how to adopt a more efficient strategy at the beginning of the training method. Before applying
this research to driver training or other perceptual motor task, further research on several questions is
needed: Why does the novice drivers adopt a particular control strategy? Do they control the most ob-
vious cues, or the ones which are most easily controlled? How much effect does an instructor have on
the strategy selected by the novice?
1
The reader should be aware of the fact that the findings in the literature could not always be divided into the three GADGET-cells ’Knowl-
edge and skills’, ’Risk-increasing factors’ and ’Self evaluation’. But it was attempted to assign the relevant points to the cells in the summary
of this chapter.
Page 38
Land & Horwood (1995) using a simple road simulator, in which only certain parts of the road are
displayed, show that at moderate to high speeds accurate driving requires that both a distant and a near
region of the road are visible. The former is used to estimate road curvature, (and is optimally 0.75 to
1 seconds ahead of the driver), while the latter region is used to provide position-in-lane feedback (0,5
sec). At lower speeds only the near region is necessary. These results support a two stage model of
driver steering behaviour (distant and near system). And as Dishart (1999) stated, the near section of
the road is used by a feedback mechanism to ’fine tune’ the driver’s position in lane, while the other,
the distant section is used by a feedforward (anticipatory) mechanism which allows the driver to match
the curvature of the road ahead. Experiments have shown that the feedback mechanism is present in
most people regardless of their experience of driving (although experienced drivers perform more ac-
curately), but that the feedforward mechanism is learned through experience of steering tasks which
not necessarily have to be driving tasks: that can include riding a bicycle, computer driving games, etc.
Regarding the validity of simulators for the steering/lane keeping task the following studies were
found: Reed & Green (1999) compare the driving performance in an instrumented car to performance
in a low-cost, fixed-based driving simulator. Subjects drove a motorway route while periodically dial-
ling simulated phone calls. Lane-keeping in the simulator was less precise than on the road, but speed
control performance was comparable. The SD of lane position in normal driving was about twice as
large, on average, in the simulator. Fildes et al. (1997) compare the driving performance in an instru-
mented test vehicle on-road with that in a mid-range driving simulator. Lateral placement was only
relevant to curve negotiation. While neither the left- or right-hand curves were statistically correlated,
their trends were quite similar, albeit less steady on the road. This was a result of the lack of a constant
centreline and the variation this produced in the on-road results compared to those collected with a
constant centreline in the simulator. Importantly, in both test environments, participants moved further
away from the centreline at the treated sites, confirming that this measure was valid in the simulator
trials. This is also relevant to 4.5.2.3. Kappé et al. (1999) use three simulator experiments to evaluate
the effect of virtual viewing directions (head-slaved display [HSD], display surrounded with a less
detailed peripheral image, or both) on lane-keeping performance and spatial orientation. The results
confirm that vehicle control and tracking accuracy are poor when head-slaved images are presented on
a standard display. The introduction of vehicle references improved vehicle control performance but
did not improve tracking accuracy. The introduction of a head slaved display, which provides ex-
traretinal information on the virtual viewing direction, not only improved vehicle control performance
but improved tracking accuracy as well. Performance with the discretely moving HSD was superior to
that with the continuously moving HSD. The results show that low-cost driving simulators can be
equipped with more efficient displays that are as effective as wide displays for lane keeping and spa-
tial orientation.
6SHHGFRQWURO
Evans (1991) states that judgement of speed is consistently underestimated when the speedometer is
concealed. It is further underestimated when hearing is restricted. Under daylight conditions speeds
are much more underestimated than at night. PC-based training is proposed on judging vehicle’s own
speed (both in day and night time scenarios): with the speedometer in front, without speedometer but
with the traffic noise, without speedometer and traffic noise. The aim would be to convince young
drivers to use their speedometers and not trust their own speed judgement. Hirschenberg (1980) (cited
in Van Elslande et al. 1997) shows how the attentional field evolves in relation to speed: the atten-
tional field decreases with increasingly speed. This strong effect should be experienced by the trainees.
According to Fildes et al. (1997) the speed measure in a mid-range driving simulator produced a
strong correlation to an instrumented test vehicle on-road and had very similar pattern of results be-
tween test environments. However, it was less reliable at roundabouts than other test locations. This
was probably the result of a lack of reality in the simulated roundabout and the subsequent discomfort
it generated among the participants. Jamson (2000) examined the effects of the simulator's image
quality on the driving task. Due to financial and computational limitations, the image quality presented
in driving simulators is often a trade-off between resolution, pixel density and field of view. In the first
condition, the virtual environment was displayed at a high resolution but with a narrow field of view.
Page 39
For the second case, the scene was presented with a wide field of view, but at a lower resolution.
Speed and lane position were compared against real road data. 6SHHGFKRLFH of the simulator drivers
PDWFKHGPRUHFORVHO\WKHUHDOZRUOGGULYHUVLQWKHKLJKUHVROXWLRQQDUURZILHOGRIYLHZFRQGLWLRQ;
relative speed validity was also degraded by the poorer image quality. Conclusions were more difficult
to draw in terms of steering behaviour, EXW it appeared that the ODQHSRVLWLRQRIWKHVLPXODWRUGULYHUV
ZDVFORVHUWRWKDWRIWKHUHDOZRUOGGULYHUVLQWKHORZUHVROXWLRQZLGHILHOGRIYLHZFDVH These results
indicate the requirement that, for robust validity, driving simulators should be configurable to the na-
ture of the driving task required. Also relevant to Steering / lane keeping.
%UDNLQJVWRSSLQJLQFOGLVWDQFHHVWLPDWLRQ

Groeger et al. (1999) summarised cognitive factors identified by the literature which influence dis-
tance perception. These include: (a) differences between the paradigm used: methods which rely on
verbal estimates tend to be less accurate and reliable, (b) smaller response sets (i.e. difference between
smallest and largest distances) lead to a greater tendency towards underestimation and (c) the famili-
arity of the observer with the distant object, such that more familiar objects are thought to be further
away than unfamiliar objects as the same eccentricity. In an experimental computer-study by Cavallo
et al. (1997) the systematic underestimation of the time to collision (TTC) is about 20-30% (that was
found in many different TTC estimation tasks). Environmental characteristics affected TTC estimates:
with the enrichment of the visual scene, the collision was perceived as occurring earlier. Higher speeds
generally produce higher estimates, indicating that the collision is perceived as further away in time.
In a study of Van der Horst (1991) drivers had to perform a braking manoeuvre to stop for a stationary
vehicle. The TTC at the moment the brake pedal was pressed was found to increase slightly (and lin-
ear) with approaching speed (see also Following & Tailgating ).
8VHRIQHZFDUFRQWURODLGV$%6$&&HWF

Hoedemaeker & Brookhuis (1998) examine the influence of an Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) on
driving behaviour. Four groups of participants differed on driving styles concerning speed and focus
(the ability to ignore distractions). For all groups the results show behavioural adaptation with an ACC
in terms of higher speed, smaller minimum time headway and larger brake force. Evans and Gerrish
(1995) suggest that drivers with ABS take larger risks when driving. These risks include shorter head-
ways and higher speeds.
,QVXIILFLHQWVNLOOVDQGLQFRPSOHWHO\DXWRPDWLRQ
As research and common sense indicate it is an essential prerequisite for all driving tasks on the road
to control the basic vehicle handling skills. So as stated above (see 4.3.3.1) at the first level in driver
training basic skill training should take place. After a certain degree of experience individuals are able
to take part in actual traffic under certain restrictions and gain experience in the manoeuvring tasks.
5HDOLVWLFVHOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Following the training strategy of practical insight Gregersen (1995) suggest different applications
regarding the self-evaluation dimension. One is to reduce the overestimation of own control skill by
making trainees aware of the real reaction time, reaction distance, braking distance and total stopping
distance by showing them their own performance under critical circumstances on the road. The real
outcome may also be compared to how the trainee estimates the outcome before performance. An ex-
ample of an application is to ask the trainee, on the basis of the stopping distance achieved on a dry
Page 40
road, to assess the stopping distance on a slippery road and to compare it with real outcome. The pur-
pose is to show that stopping distances on slippery roads are often longer than one might believe.
7DEXODUVXPPDU\UHJDUGLQJFRQWUROWDVNV
Summarising the above results and/ or suggestions and applying them to the GADGET-model results
in the following matrix.
6XPPDU\RIILQGLQJVIRUFRQWUROWDVNV
7DVNV .QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOO 5LVNLQFUHDVLQJDVSHFWV 6HOIDVVHVVPHQW
starting/ shifting Simulator:

gears These tasks can be taught using a
simulator.
accelerating/ Simulator: To prevent overestimation of own
decelerating Accelerating/decelerating can be driving skill in relation to physical
taught with a simulator. In specific laws trainees could be made aware of
sites (in the reported experiment: stop reaction time (by showing them their
sign and left hand curve) the simula- own reaction distance, braking dis-
tor seems to be less reliable. tance and total stopping distance etc.).
Trainees also should compare self
steering and lane At slower speeds only the near region, estimated outcome with real outcome.
keeping at higher speeds the near as well as
the distant region is important. train-
ing sequence of visual perception
should be adequately.
Simulator:
Lane keeping is less precise in the
simulator than on the road, so this
task should not be trained exclusively
in simulators.
Trainees could be more effective in
controlling lateral position by modi-
fying heading angle corrections.
A standard display leads to poor per-
formance; extraretinal information on
the virtual viewing direction is neces-
sary.
speed control Simulator: Trainees should experience the fol-
Speed control is valid in the simula- lowing aspects:
tor. Without speedometer or with re-
High resolution/ narrow field of view stricted hearing speed is underesti-
might be more valid for the speeding mated.
task in a simulator, but low resolution/ The attentional field decreases with
wide field of view might be more increasingly speed.
valid for the lane-following task
braking and These tasks should not be trained The systematic underestimation of the
stopping exclusively in simulators, because it time to collision (TTC) should be
was found that braking was less sen- mediated to the trainees (and that
sitive in the simulator than on the road higher speeds generally produce
generally. higher estimates)
use of new car Trainees should learn to cope with It should be mediated to trainees that
control aids these new devices. they might adapt their behaviour with
car control aids like ACC or ABS
7DEOH6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQVUHJDUGLQJFRQWUROWDVNV
Page 41
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UHJDUGLQJEHKDYLRXURIRWKHUURDGXVHUVRUWKHLPPHGLDWHWUDIILFHQYLURQPHQW
0DQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRWUDIILFFRQGLWLRQV.QRZOHGJH
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Drivers maintain headways greater than necessary at low speeds but tend to follow too closely at
higher speeds. Time Headway (TH) is one measure of the temporal safety margin between successive
vehicles: the shorter the TH (for a given speed), the less probable that an accident could be avoided.
The severity of an accident is related to the square of the speed, which is indicative of the amount ki-
netic energy (KE). Ward & Beusman (1998) contend that this relationship between speed and crash
severity may not be apparent to drivers. In a study by Colbourn et al. (1978) drivers were found to
adopt headways of approximately 2 s irrespective of speed of travel, driving experience, or instructed
probability of the leading vehicle’s stopping. The authors remark that the task was much simpler than
the required on the road; subjects being fully aware of what would happen. On the road there is a
wealth of other information to process and reaction times will inevitably not be as fast as in simple
situation used experimentally. It is postulated that the driver’s main problem in safe vehicle following
derives from the difficulty in evaluating risk and hazard, rather than from the limitations on his/her
sensory and perceptual abilities. Evans (1991) reports that novice drivers perceive correctly that a lead
car comes closer, but do not perceive as correctly the actual speed of it. Even worse, they seem to
think that the lead car will continue to travel at constant speed and do not take into account the possi-
bility of sudden acceleration/ deceleration in car following or overtaking situations. The same spacing
is judged to be longer when perceived from a smaller car than from a bigger one. A number of field
and experimental observations have verified that as a norm smaller cars follow at closer headways
than longer cars. 7KHYLHZVIURPGLIIHUHQWW\SHVRIFDUVELJJHUVPDOOHUHWFFDQEHUHFRUGHGDQGEH
LQYROYHGLQDGLVWDQFHHVWLPDWLRQWUDLQLQJWHVWLQD3&HQYLURQPHQW Thus novice drivers will realise
relevant optical illusions and be prepared not to rely so much on their own distance judgement and
keep greater distances. Summala (1987) sums up reasons for short following distances. First, a desired
higher than average speed means an increased need to overtake slower vehicles. The typical strategy
for finding a opportunity for overtaking is tailgating (especially on two-lane roads). Secondly, drivers
often show ’position keeping behaviour’ (Brown, 1982): drivers do not like to let other drivers merge
in front of them. Thirdly, young drivers might be more apt to indicate, by means of tailgating, that the
driver ahead should go faster. Finally, young drivers may show deliberate risk taking more often, and
they may simply not know that higher risks are involved in close following. In a study of McKenna
(1982) a three car platoon was used with the lead car accelerating and decelerating and the subject in
the third car. The lead car was either visible to the subject or screened off. Those who did well on a
test measuring the ability for extracting information from a complex background responded faster
when the lead car was visible, those who performed poorly on the test appeared not to use the avail-
able cues to predict what was going to happen. Van Winsum & Brouwer (1997) studied the relation
between car-following behaviour and braking performance in a driving simulator. The theoretical per-
spective was that individual differences in manoeuvre car-driving behaviour may be related to skills
on the operational level of the driving task via a process of adaptation. Braking performance was ana-
lysed in terms of reaction time component, an open-loop visual-motor component, and a closed-loop
2
The reader should be aware of the fact that the findings in the literature could not always be divided into the three GADGET-cells ’Knowl-
edge and skills’, ’Risk-increasing factors’ and ’Self evaluation’. But it was attempted to assign the relevant points to the cells in the summary
of this chapter.
Page 42
visual-motor component, involving the precise adjustment of braking (timing and force) to the situa-
tion. The efficiency of the visual-motor component of braking was a strong predictor of choice of time
headway to the lead vehicle in such a way that less efficient braking indicated a preference for a longer
time headway. This supports the hypothesis that drivers adapt their manoeuvring behaviour to their
operational skill (see also Braking/ stopping (incl. distance estimation))
7DLOJDWLQJ can produce catastrophic results when a platoon of many consecutive tailgaters forms. If
the lead vehicle slows down, the second vehicle usually responds by slowing drown a bit more rapidly,
until eventually someplace down the platoon braking capability is exceeded. $SODWRRQWDLOJDWLQJWDVN
VLPXODWRUVFHQDULRVKRXOGEHIRUPXODWHG The aim is to teach to the trainee that in this case he/she
should adopt a headway longer than normal (i.e. longer than 2 s), to make safety contributions to the
system and avoid being “unavoidably” involved in a multiple-vehicle pile-up although he/she kept
normal headway. Evans (1991) suggests the following techniques for coping with short tailgating
which can be translated into lessons using a driving simulator and a simulated tailgating car: (1) Fre-
quently using the rear-view mirror and increasing your own headway and level of attention if you are
tailgated; (2) If you are tailgated while about to merge in traffic (more dangerous, because of the tail-
gater’s need to share attention between the merging and following tasks), reduce your speed substan-
tially well before the freeway, and when a potentially acceptable gap comes along, accelerate rapidly;
(3) Flash your brake lights (but not while being in a tailgating platoon, to avoid causing an accident);
(4) Be particularly worry of drivers who locate themselves behind your vehicle in positions in which
they cannot be seen in your rear-view mirrors; (5) When being tailgated on quite rural two-lane road,
pull onto the shoulder, forcing the tailgater to pass.
2YHUWDNLQJ
As Kappé & Korteling (1998) stated in their derivation of the functional low-cost simulator require-
ments to train elementary driving tasks, the minimum distance to the overtaking vehicle that is re-
quired for a safe overtaking manoeuvre depends on the time required for the overtaking manoeuvre
and the relative speed of the oncoming vehicle. Passing is only allowed under certain circumstances,
e.g. when the vehicle that is passed is filtered, on roundabouts, in traffic jams, tram-cars, etc. It refers
to a lead vehicle with a lower speed in the lane left of the driver. This generally occurs at lower
speeds.
Clarke et al. (1998) cite Groeger & Clegg (1994) who showed in their video analysis of manoeuvres in
over 550 hours of driving tuition that practising overtaking typically comprises only 5% of all ma-
noeuvres in lessons, and many of these occasions only involve the overtaking of either stationary or
slow moving vehicles. Björkman (1963) found that drivers expect to meet an oncoming vehicle half-
way, regardless of its speed, suggesting problems with speed perception. Brehmer (1990) found sup-
port for an alternative perceptual strategy: here drivers made variable errors in estimating the meeting
point which showed regression towards the mean. He also predicted that accident rates will depend on
the distribution of vehicle speeds. In another study Farber and Silver (1967) concluded that drivers are
able to make good judgements regarding the distance of an oncoming car, but are unable to respond
effectively to the oncoming vehicle speed. This is because the rate of change of angle has to exceed
0.2 degrees per second before a driver can distinguish a faster from a slower closing speed, and in the
passing situation this threshold is not crossed until just before meeting an oncoming vehicle. These
perceptual errors should be mediated to trainees. Lerner, Steinberg & Hanscom (1999) found misper-
ceptions regarding the time that was actually available during a passing manoeuvre (two vehicles ap-
proaching one another), although this error exceeded 1 s for only 15% of subjects. This error, how-
ever, was compounded by frequent underestimates of the time required to pass a vehicle, especially
when that vehicle was a truck. 3DUWLFLSDQWVUHFRJQLVHGWKDWLWWRRNPRUHWLPHWRSDVVDODUJHWUXFN
WKDQDFDUEXWXQGHUHVWLPDWHGWKHGHJUHHRIWKLVDGGLWLRQDOWLPH with the majority of participants
having safety-negative errors for the truck conditions (58%, for passing a car: 26%). The problem was
more pronounced for younger participants.
Stone & Ellingstad (1975) assess the validity of a laboratory simulation of the car-passing task. Expe-
rienced drivers observed filmed situations in the laboratory and actual situations on the road. The sub-
Page 43
ject’s task was to judge the last possible moment that the car he/she was supposedly driving could pass
the lead car and return to the driving lane without causing the approaching vehicle to take evasive ac-
tion to avoid collision. It was concluded that the filmed passing measure used is a faithful simulation
of critical-interval overtaking situations occurring on road. The authors cited results of Jones and
Heimstra (1964) indicating that drivers are not able to judge the last possible moment for a safe pass-
ing manoeuvre. Lucas et al. (1973), who investigated the effect of training on threshold passing be-
haviour with film-presentation procedure, showed that subjects who were given feedback in the form
of information as to the direction and magnitude of their error of estimate, improved significantly in
their judgements of the minimum safe passing time. In an overtaking behaviour study of Hoyes et al.
(1997), making use of the Aston Driving Simulator, the environmental risk was varied. It was found
that drivers adapt their behaviour within the short time of 10 minutes, resulting in a tendency towards
being over-compensatory. This result provides evidence for the risk homeostasis theory (RHT). More
important in our context is that simulators are able to collapse experience. In real physical risk taking
situations the time-scale of homeostasis spans months or even years. In the experiment a significant
adjustment took place within a short period. The authors suggest two explanations: (1) The partici-
pants recognised and compensated for the risk change as soon as that change was apparent (i.e. they
realised that overtaking would be more or less hazardous). (2) Information regarding accident ocur-
rence, such as other-vehicle collisions, kerb-collisions, or near-misses, must be given to participants
before compensation can occur. The reason compensation can take years in real situations may simply
be a function of delayed feedback.
According to Evans (1991) relevant car following and overtaking simulator scenarios should be built,
where subjects are asked to judge the speed of other cars and their behaviour. Other road participants
in the simulation can exert sudden brake (i.e. to avoid a child that crosses suddenly the road) or accel-
eration (for the on-coming vehicle and the one to be overtaken at the same time during an overtaking
manoeuvre), to allow novice drivers to expect the unexpected and cater for sudden changes in relative
speed while driving.
(QWHULQJDQGOHDYLQJWKHWUDIILF
In a study of Lerner, Steinberg & Hanscom (1999) drivers tended to underestimate the amount of time
available to them for merging from parking lane into traffic lane before a vehicle approaching from
behind reached them. This would result in their being more reluctant to pull out in front of an ap-
proaching vehicle. However, they also underestimated the amount of time it would take them to pull
out and achieve the speed of traffic, which would increase the likelihood of pulling out in front of the
vehicle.
/DQHFKDQJLQJ
According to Kappé & Korteling (1998) the following variables are relevant to the lane changing or
merging task: the presence, the time lag or time headway, and the TTC of objects in the lane the driver
wants to move. Four different situations can be discriminated: (1) & (2) no rear and/or no lead vehicle
in the lane the driver wants to move into 3) when there is a rear vehicle in the lane the driver wants to
move into, signalling to move into the present lane of the driver 3) when there is a lead vehicle in the
lane the driver wants to move into, that is signalling to move into the drivers current lane.
People routinely underestimated how long it would take them to overtake a slower-moving vehicle in
the lane to their right (94 %). The mean estimated time was only about half of the actual time it took
(1.6 vs. 3.1 s). Likewise, participants in these experiments of Lerner, Steinberg & Hanscom (1999)
routinely underestimated how long it actually takes to make a motorway lane change. A short remark
regarding this task was made by Evans (1991) who suggests that the following should communicated
to trainees: If possible do not run for long alongside other vehicles in highways (especially heavy ve-
hicles), because in moments of loose concentrations, drivers do drift out of lanes, change lanes without
sufficient care, skid, tyre blow-outs, etc.
Page 44
5HDFWLQJWRRWKHUYHKLFOHVFDUVELF\FOHV

Gugerty (1998) points out that drivers knowledge of the location of nearby vehicles is an example of
what has been called situation awareness. Situation awareness can be defined as the activated knowl-
edge a person has about a dynamic scene. While driving, operators must keep track of where they are
on their route and the status of their vehicle in addition to nearby traffic. Dynamic spatial knowledge is
an aspect of situation awareness. G. Sperling (1960) and others have investigated memory for briefly
presented stimuli by using a partial versus whole report techniques in which participants sometimes
reported part of a stimulus array and sometimes reported all of it. In the experiment, participants
viewed cars in a low-fidelity driving simulator and they reported the locations of some or all of the
cars in each scene: a significant advantage was found for the partial report trials. This finding suggest
that detailed spatial location information was forgotten from dynamic spatial memory over the 14 s
that it took participants to recall whole report trails. Partial report techniques may give a more accurate
measure of situation awareness. Potential applications of this research include simulator-based meas-
ures of situation awareness ability that can be part of inexpensive test batteries to select people for
real-time tasks (e.g., in a driver licensing battery) and to identify people who need additional training.
Hatterick & Pain (1977) developed a prototype bimodal simulator as a training tool for acquisition of
key perceptual and decision-making skills. After analysis of the most frequent crashes they concluded
that WKHIROORZLQJKD]DUGRXVVLWXDWLRQVVKRXOGEHWUDLQHGLQDVLPXODWRULQWHUVHFWLRQKDQGOLQJRQ
FRPLQJYHKLFOHOHDGYHKLFOHIROORZLQJYHKLFOHDQGFRQYHUJLQJYHKLFOH They found that 45% of the
drivers look up from their steering wheels during avoidance attempt. The authors suggest the follow-
ing tasks to be trained: the accuracy, judging vehicle closure, the clearance between the vehicle and
the other vehicle, determining the direction of the vehicle motion. Evans (1991) suggest that GULYHU
WUDLQLQJSUHVXSSRVHVWKDWWKHRWKHUGULYHUVZLOOGULYHOHJDOO\DQGVDIHZKLFKLVRIWHQQRWWKHFDVH
7KDWLVZK\GHIHQVLYHGULYLQJVKRXOGEHWDXJKWas part of the standard training. Crash-involved driv-
ers should not be classified in two categories, “at fault” and “not at fault”, but rather in three: “at
fault”, “while not legally at fault the driver could still have avoided being involved” and “unavoidable
involved”.
5HFHQWSURJUHVVLQVLPXODWRUGHVLJQ
In the recent years many developments had taken place in the field of producing software to improve
the fidelity of traffic situations in simulators. According to Péan et al (2000) Automatic Traffic Gen-
eration is a key factor for the realism obtained during a Driving Simulation. The interaction of the
driver with his/her environment has to be modelled as precisely as possible, including the behaviour of
the other vehicles participating in the simulation. The author presents the Traffic Module within the
context of PSAs Driving Simulator SHERPA. The software tools include a traffic-dedicated supervi-
sor, enabling to view, test and record the reactions of the vehicles when driving. Based on the input
parameters sent by the supervisor, the Traffic Controller knows at every cycle about the necessary in-
formation related to the driven vehicle and controls other vehicles real-time reactions, in addition to
the execution of the scenario. Although laws of physics drive the vehicles, yielding to a very realistic
behaviour, the overall Traffic Process is a light process in terms of computing needs. Thus, several
hundreds of vehicle may be taken into account with the current hardware generation used in the simu-
lator. At last, optional collision detection is available, between the driven vehicle and the other vehi-
cles. Strobl et al (2000) also emphasise that the realisation of dense and complex traffic plays an es-
sential role in simulators for driver training. The driver has to be confronted with a lot of vehicles and
complex traffic to learn how to behave in real traffic situations. The implementation of a special driver
model allows the set-up of a lot of independent cars in parallel. The virtual drivers of the vehicles con-
sider their driving environment and interact with other road users to achieve their aims, e.g. to drive
along a roughly predefined course. A special technique allows restricting the computation and the
visualisation of vehicles to the near surrounding of the simulator car. The advantage of this method is
to avoid the overhead of computation of cars, which are invisible because of the far distance to the
simulator car. To achieve highest performance the visual representation of the cars had to be tuned,
too. Wright (2000) describes DRIVERSIM (DRiver model for Intelligent VEhicles in Realistic
SIMulation) which mimics realistic driving behaviour based upon a detailed review of the literature.
Probability distributions are employed to characterise speed choice, time-headway choice and gap-
Page 45
acceptance behaviour, whilst simultaneously providing a mechanism for introducing randomness into
the simulation. This manifests as behavioural variation both between drones and within individual
drones. Through combination with a decision history, intra-driver variation is constrained to a unique
and relatively consistent style for each drone. DRIVERSIM also DOORZVGURQHVWREHJLYHQVSHFLILF
FKDUDFWHULVWLFVRUYLUWXDOSHUVRQDOLWLHV(generic, male, female, old, drunk, aggressive, cautious, fa-
tigued). A user-evaluation of the drone traffic concludes that DRIVERSIM’s features contribute sig-
nificantly to the subjective realism of the traffic simulation.
5HDFWLQJWRSHGHVWULDQV
The main results of a study by Summala (1980) are that when meeting a pedestrian on the roadside
drivers do not decrease their speed at all. Instead, they take a driving path clearly closer to the centre
line. According to Summala drivers are unwilling to reduce speed for two reasons. On the one hand
avoiding effort, supposedly, is one of the primary motivational factors in drivers' decision making. An
extra caution as slowing down also induces time delay. On the other hand, the subjective probability of
a pedestrian or another obstacle of being on a driver's path of travel must be, according to his/her ex-
perience, so small that he/she is ready to neglect it altogether. After training with Driver ZED (see also
PC-based training tools) trained subjects brake sooner when approaching a pedestrian crossing (Fisher
et al. (1998)). According to Dobesová (1996) a traffic accident (case study) analysis with a trainees
group is proposed as a way to help novice drivers to notice the signs in the behaviour of other road
users and to understand the rationale behind the actions of pedestrians and other drivers. Such a meth-
odology (six sessions of a 2 hrs each) is supposed to invoke the following changes: On the level of
skills, changes in estimating the behaviour of other road users, foreseeing, adjusting driving style to
the situation and structuring the situation. On the level of knowledge, in providing more information
concerning the possible motives for the behaviour of other traffic agents and about their possible reac-
tions and ways of behaviour. On the level of attitudes, the tolerance towards the behaviour of other
traffic participants is expected to increase. The actual results of the relevant courses given to city
transport drivers (in terms of traffic safety) are not mentioned.
3DUNLQJ
This task is not treated by the literature. More important seems to be that the driver has to check the
possibilities for a parking manoeuvre, i.e. whether traffic allows to leave in order to park or to enter
the traffic from the parking lot (see Entering and leaving the traffic).
0DQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRURDGZD\FKDUDFWHULVWLFV.QRZO
HGJHDQGVNLOOV
1HJRWLDWLQJLQWHUVHFWLRQVMXQFWLRQVDQGURXQGDERXWV
Jones (1977) found that trainees, at the end of their driver training course, scan intersections only
about half the time and check their mirrors even less; they are flying blind a good deal of the time and
tend to stare straight ahead with unmoving eyes. They generally do not look back while they are
backing up in a turnabout situation. As other authors Jones presumes that these trainees cannot ade-
quately scan because they have not yet developed sufficiently sure and automatic responses to auto-
mobile control. Lerner, Steinberg & Hanscom (1999) found several serious misperceptions while ne-
gotiating a signalised intersection. More than 30 percent of participants over-estimated the amount of
yellow phase time available. More than 80 percent underestimated the time it would take them to
reach an intersection. When these two errors are considered together, 59 percent of all participants had
a combined error in the safety-negative direction. That is, it would appear to them that they could
more easily clear the intersection in the remaining signal phase time than is actually the case. Com-
pounding this problem, substantial numbers of participants underestimated the distance required to
Page 46
make a smooth, safe stop. The frequent substantial perceptual errors in both directions suggest that
there will be many traffic conflicts and misjudgements about another driver’s likely actions. Kappé &
Korteling (1998) remark that, when the TTI (Time to Intersection) is less than 4 s, the driver is no
longer just approaching an intersection, but he/she has to decide whether he/she should stop or go.
Van den Bosch et al. (1999) investigated, whether low-cost driving simulator configurations can be
used to train principal driving tasks, and whether acquired skill transfers to practice. Using a single-
channel image system the study addressed whether three viewpoints (driver's-, god's-, and stalking-
perspectives) make it possible to effectively train a standard traffic participation task. College students
were trained in negotiating an intersection in one of three perspectives (driver's-, god's-, and stalking-).
Subjects viewed their "own" car, and a vehicle on the crossing road, approaching an intersection. They
had to decide whether to VWRS or JR using two main skills: application of rules (do I have right of way
given the set of priority rules?) and predicting the near-future situation (if the crossing car has right of
way, do I need to stop or will I pass behind it safely?). Training was assessed using a wide-screen.
Subjects in the GULYHU
VSHUVSHFWLYHcondition needed more training trials to achieve the criterion than
subjects in the VWDONLQJSHUVSHFWLYH condition. The VLWXDWLRQSUHGLFWLRQWDVN was more difficult than the
UXOHDSSOLFDWLRQWDVN. No differential effects of viewing perspectives were found. Trained groups per-
formed significantly better than a control group. Tasks can be learned with a simplified, low-fidelity,
representation of the environment. In a validation study of Fildes et al. (1997), one disconcerting as-
pect of the simulator trials was the relatively high number of participants who were unable to complete
their trial because of sickness or reported a degree of discomfort after completion. Modifying the
practice sequence prior to experimentation did reduce the incidence of discomfort substantially. How-
ever, most of the difficulty seemed to arise from the URXQGDERXW intersection and from other exces-
sive steering movements. It was noted by many participants that feelings of discomfort were not really
felt before they reached the roundabout. While the roundabout was important for the current study as
part of the validation process, it is not likely to be necessary when testing the range of measures con-
templated. While there was no evidence that this discomfort influenced the validation of the simulator,
it is important to ensure that future trials be aware of the potential problem and reduce the need for
excessive steering wheel movements.
1HJRWLDWLQJKLOOVVORSHV
This task is mentioned in the chapter 'Insufficient anticipating skills and wrong expectations'. While
negotiating hills and slopes the closest attention of the driver should be paid to the possibility of cars
and obstacles suddenly appearing.
1HJRWLDWLQJFXUYHV
Underwood et al. (1999) examine where drivers look when negotiating curves. Curves were either
open, with full visibility of the roadway ahead, or were closed, with trees and bushes obstructing the
view around the curve. The results suggested that experienced drivers fixate the tangent point less than
novice drivers and spend more time looking around them at roadway features directly in front and at
the oncoming traffic. And experienced drivers look at it more accurately (see Figure 2). In closed
curves, in which there is limited preview of potential hazards, the novice drivers look around them to a
lesser extent than do experienced drivers, who reduce fixation of the tangent point and so appear to be
more aware of the possibility of obstructions and erratic oncoming traffic. The authors recommend for
driver education that the more extensive all-round inspection of the surrounding traffic environment
should be encouraged.
Due to the experience gained in experiments in the MUARC-simulator, Fildes et al. (1997) stated that
future perceptual countermeasures experiments should be able to reduce the levels of simulator dis-
comfort to a minimum. The main cause of discomfort was turning and braking, presumably due to the
disparity between the sense of visual reality (gained from the 180º visual display) and the lack of lat-
eral and longitudinal motion normally experienced when cornering and decelerating. Thus, it was
found that the more experienced the driver was with real vehicles, the greater the tendency was to feel
disoriented on the simulator and to drop out before finishing the experiment. In testing future percep-
Page 47
tual countermeasures in the simulator, it should be possible to avoid many of the causes behind dis-
comfort through the nature of the road features used as well as through practice. Sharp corners were
seen to result in disorientating feelings and these too should be able to be avoided. Simulator discom-
fort was minimised through the use of practice sessions
and ensuring that the participant exits the vehicle and
walks around between trials. Thus, even if simulator de-
velopment is slow to alleviate the problem, it should not
hamper further research into perceptual countermea-
sures.
5RDGVXUIDFHDQGREVWUXFWLRQVVNLG

FRQWUROREVWDFOHDYRLGDQFH
Katila et al. (1996) identified the following DQWLFLSDWLQJ
VNLOOV needed in slippery conditions: to recognise traffic
situations that may easily lead to an accident, to avoid
dangerous situations, to understand the meaning of tyre
grip, to detect the changes in tyre grip, to adjust the
driving speed to the road conditions, to adjust the driv-
ing speed so that sufficient braking distance is main-
tained to prevent an accident, to avoid making mistakes
on a slippery road that may lead to loss of control of the
car. The PDQRHXYULQJVNLOOV needed in slippery conditions were: to correct a sideways skid, to avoid
accelerating or breaking in a curve, to use the clutch and steer in the correct way in a sideways skid, to
correct a sideways skid caused by driving too fast, to use slippery condition driving skills in real traffic
situations, to steer clear of an obstacle when the braking distance is too short for stopping, to maintain
tyre grip with the correct driving technique in different situations and at different speeds, and to know
what to do on a slippery road when an accident has already happened.
Norwegian slippery surface driving courses have increased traffic accident rates significantly. The
drivers seem to overestimate the driving risk before they pass the courses, which reduce driver’s risk
perception relatively more than they reduce the objective risk of skidding. Glad (1988) interpreted this
negative effect as a result of focussing on coping with skidding situations instead of emphasising how
to avoid them. He believes that the focus on coping creates reduced respect for low friction, overesti-
mation of own skills, more risky driving and more accidents. Hatakka (DAN-Report, 2000) reported a
procedure to create a realistic view about the drivers possibilities when driving on a slippery road. The
typical strategy in exercises is, that after some practising when the driver is starting to learn the re-
quired manoeuvres, the instructor asks him or her to increase the speed by 5-10 km/h that leads to fail-
ure. Bartl et al (DAN-Report, 2000) conclude from the results of the Finnish studies that the method to
demonstrate dangerous situations should rather be emphasised than simple anti-skid training, to avoid
overestimation.
7XUQLQJRII7XUQLQJRYHU
Lerner, Steinberg & Hanscom (1999) found several serious misperceptions regarding turning left or
right from stop on higher-speed roadways. Participants generally underestimated the time they had
available before a conflicting vehicle from the left or the right reached them. This tendency existed for
both urban and rural locations, and the typical magnitude of the misjudgement was on the order of
about 1 s (or 10 to 28%). In contrast, participants frequently underestimated the time it would take to
accelerate and achieve traffic speed during left or right turns, and this underestimate was both more
frequent and more extreme for the turn onto the higher speed rural highway (4.7 s for left turn, 4.8 s
for right turn, or about a 40%). As a result, when the two judgements were considered jointly, the large
majority of participants (>90%) had net safety-negative combined estimates. This type of error would
result in potential conflicts with approaching vehicles, causing them to slow down in order to avoid a
Page 48
rear end collision. In addition to the threat of collision with the subject vehicle, this could also result in
conflicts with vehicles following the initial approaching vehicle.
$SSURDFKH[LWRIPRWRUZD\V
Two types of errors for the merging manoeuvre on the motorway were identified by Lerner, Steinberg
& Hanscom (1999). First, participants in their experiments grossly underestimated the time required to
achieve traffic speed from the initial 48.3 km/h ramp speed. The average error exceeded 5 s, and virtu-
ally all participants (97 percent) had negative safety errors. Compounding this problem, participants
also permitted unacceptably short following headways while travelling on the ramp. With a target
headway value of 32.6 m participants yielded a mean value of 13.4 m. Evans (1991) stated that after
prolonged driving at highway speeds, lower speeds seem even lower than they really are (speed adap-
tation phenomenon). The proposed PC-based training on speed judgement (see 2.2.5) could be adapted
to formulate also a driving simulator-based WUDLQLQJRQVSHHGDGDSWDWLRQEDVHGRQWKHIROORZLQJUH
SRUWHGVFHQDULR After simulated driving at about 70 mph for three minutes, subjects underestimated a
simulated 30 mph by between 5 to 15 mph; the perception that the speed is lower than actual persisted
for at least 4 minutes.
5DLOURDGFURVVLQJVEULGJHVWXQQHOV
A validation study by Törnros (1998) showed that driving behaviour in a simulated tunnel is compara-
ble with behaviour in a real tunnel. The behavioural validity in absolute terms was not quite satisfac-
tory, due to differences in choice of speed. Speed in the simulated condition was about 8,6 km/h
higher. But relative validity was good for both speed and lateral postion. i.e. all variations (speedome-
ter information, driving lanes) showed the same effects both in real and simulated environment.
5HDFWLQJWRWUDIILFVLJQVDQGWUDIILFOLJKWV
Evans (1991) suggests XVHIXOGHIHQVLYHGULYLQJEHKDYLRXUV that could be taught using driving simu-
lator (better than with theoretical lessons). 6FHQDULRVSURSRVHGZHUH (1) While braking for a traffic
light rather than proceeding at your prior cruising speed and braking strongly just in front of the stop
line, gently brake gradually, with the goal to arrive in front of the stop line just as the light turns green,
having reduced your speed as little as possible. This strategy minimises vehicle wear and saves fuel. It
is also safer, as a moving vehicle is more visible than a stationary one. (2) While being stopped at a
traffic light, keep an eye at the rear view mirror. If any vehicle approaches in a threatening way, flash
your brake lights off and on because visual sensitivity to dynamic cues is greater than to static cues,
especially in peripheral vision. (3) If you are the first in line in crossing an intersection with traffic
light, glance left and then right before proceeding when the light turns green. The presence of station-
ery or stopping vehicles, in each lane crossing in front of you confirms that it is safe to proceed. This
is especially important if you are able to approach the intersection without stopping just as the light
turns green. In this case, by reaching the centre of the roadway in less time than an initially stationery
vehicle, you could surprise a driver running the light.
5HDFWLQJWRGLUHFWLRQVLJQVLQFOXVHRILQFDUGHYLFHV

Srinivasan & Jovanis (1997) conduct experiments in a fixed-base, high-fidelity simulator to evaluate
selected in vehicle route guidance systems. Drivers navigated a simulated network. Driving perform-
ance was measured in terms of reaction time, navigation errors, workload, and perception ratings.
Drivers were able to react faster to external events with the electronic devices compared with the paper
map. As well they were able to react faster with the audio system compared with the visual system. It
should be mentioned to trainees that these systems and especially the use of a paper map impair atten-
tion. De Waard et al. (1999) examined the influence of an in-car enforcement and tutoring system in
an advanced driving simulator. Young drivers only made fewer violations if the system gave feedback
messages. Even though they were convinced that the system had positive effects on traffic safety, they
Page 49
disliked it. In contrast, elderly drivers were pleased with the system. Exploring the effects of an ad-
vanced traveller information system (ATIS) on driving Dingus et al. (1997) found that young drivers
(16-18) had very few safety-related incidents while using ATIS in comparison with older drivers.
They had the easiest time learning and using ATIS, presumably because they had more computer ex-
perience.
8UEDQGULYLQJ&RXQWU\URDGGULYLQJ0RWRUZD\GULYLQJ
These tasks contain manoeuvres which are analysed in the other manoeuvring tasks chapters.
0DQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRWKHHQYLURQPHQW.QRZOHGJH
DQGVNLOOV
:HDWKHUFRQGLWLRQVIRJUDLQVQRZ

Kappé & Korteling (1998) point out that a driver has to be able to adapt speed and steering to lateral
control disturbances. Therefore the driver has to detect factors that affect steering performance (e.g.
sudden wind gusts, dense fog, curves, changes in lane width, insufficient road friction).
1LJKWGULYLQJ
Gillberg et al. (1996) compared daytime and night-time performance of professional drivers on a
simulated truck driving task. The conditions were day driving, night driving with a 30 minute rest and
night driving with a 30 minute nap. Mean speed, standard deviation of speed, standard deviation of
lane position were recorded. Self ratings of sleepiness were obtained before and after each 30-min pe-
riod. Reaction time tests and 10 minute standardised EEG/EOG recordings were obtained before and
after each condition. The effects on driving were small but significant: night driving was slower, with
a higher variability of speed and lane position. Subjective and EEG/EOG sleepiness were clearly
higher during the night conditions. Reaction time performance was not significantly affected by con-
ditions. Neither the nap nor the rest pause seemed to have any effect. The authors speculated that ex-
perienced drivers could be less vulnerable to continuous driving to inexperienced drivers.
,QVXIILFLHQWVNLOOVDQGLQFRPSOHWHO\DXWRPDWLRQ
As stated often in the literature (e.g. Lewin, 1982) the inexperience or lack of knowledge of novice
drivers is the main problem. Trainees learn how to drive under normal and daily conditions. When an
unexpected and unusual situation does occur, they don't know how to react adequately. According to
Triggs & Smith (1996) vehicle control skills appear to improve fairly rapidly with experience, but
their development may be incomplete even after several years of driving. Less skilled drivers have to
devote a greater proportion of their available attention resources to higher level decision making and
monitoring of their driving. This requires different strategies of attention allocation between different
aspects of the task. As drivers develop cognitive schemata (mental ‘maps’ or models of the road and
traffic environment) associated with the task, the demands on a driver’s attentional capacity is re-
duced. The development of more accurate and detailed schemata of traffic situations means that the
expectancies of young drivers gradually come to correspond more closely with reality. While their
cognitive schemata are less well developed, young drivers tend to show an over-reliance on formal
road rules or laws. Under such circumstances, their direction and prioritisation of attentional resources
is less well suited to the contingencies of the driving task. One result is that young drivers are less able
Page 50
to appreciate and allow for the fact that others do not always obey rules or behave in expected ways.
The literature suggests that drivers at lesser levels of experience are not as able to perceive hazards
and risks well. When young drivers underestimate risk, this can be attributed to either their failure to
recognise the degree of potential danger, or their overestimation of their own coping ability, or both
Triggs (1994) emphasises two aspects of attention that are important for the driving task (e.g. in regard
to the tasks judging gap clearance, using rear vision mirrors). The first aspect, attention-switching, is
concerned with the time required to reorient attention from one information source to another. This
aspect was emphasised by Erlander, West and French (1993), too, who cited evidence indicating a sig-
nificant correlation between attention switching and accident rate. The second aspect, suggested to be
important for safe driving, is attention-sharing. Sharing addresses the capacity to divide attention
across more than one source of information. An indication of the importance of attention sharing is the
following finding from Victorian accident data: Higher proportion of accidents when the novice driver
is carrying two or more passengers compared to drivers with more than 2 years of experience.
(Drummond, 1989). The division of attention performance between two simulated road-based sources
of information was investigated using an attention-operating characteristic approach (Kantowitz,
1985). The results suggest that attention-sharing capabilities are very important. Lerner, Steinberg &
Hanscom (1999) recently examined the amount of misjudgements of drivers in order to develop envi-
ronmental and technical countermeasures. Drivers may make errors that result in a collision with an-
other vehicle, even when they are aware of the presence of the conflicting vehicle. This is because
perceptual judgements about time, space, and speed are imperfect. Drivers may err in thinking there is
more time available for the manoeuvre than is actually the case; or err in thinking the manoeuvre takes
less time to execute than it actually does. Either misperception could lead to a decision to go ahead
with a manoeuvre with less margin of safety than the driver assumes. Using a laboratory (filmed video
scenes) and on-road testing the study found a general tendency for people to underestimate the time
required to complete a manoeuvre. Across a range of manoeuvres, about 60 percent of all time or dis-
tance required judgements were underestimated, relative to engineering and empirical estimates. For
judgements of the time available for a manoeuvre, the error was usually in a safety-conservative di-
rection. That is, people felt they had less time than they actually did, so would be less likely to attempt
a manoeuvre. However, even for time available judgements, there were meaningful numbers of safety-
critical errors (overestimates of time available), especially for estimates of yellow signal phase time
remaining and estimates related to a passing scenario. Details of the results of this study are reported
in the respective task chapters above.
,QIRUPDWLRQRYHUORDG
Since novice drivers have to make conscious decisions for every move and every action they take,
their capacity will sometimes be overloaded. For Gregersen (1994) it is probable that the reduction of
demands upon cognitive capacity will take some time and that much behaviour must be changed from
conscious to automatic, i.e. much of the technical manoeuvring of the car, many of the traffic rules,
etc. This cognitive overload works against the way in which the novice driver makes use of the im-
provements. Even if the education succeeds in making the learner understand the problems and risks,
it is not obvious that he/she will make use of this awareness. On the contrary, it is possible that these
aspects will become additional demands to take into account in difficult situations, which may confuse
the driver even more. The learners accept the messages, but cannot fully make use of them until later.
And McKnight (1985) thinks also that this is one reason that driver education is less effective: trainees
lack the skill in vehicle handling needed to make instruction in safety and efficiency fully effective.
The effectiveness might be increased by delaying that portion of dealing with safety and efficiency
until after basic vehicle handling skills have been mastered. The lowering of the 16 years age limit for
practising in Sweden was based on the Rasmussen theory and the assumption that more pre-licence
practising would create more experienced drivers with lower mental workload during driving. In the
evaluation Berg et al (1999) showed that the novice drivers who utilised the new age limit of 16 years
achieved more experience and that drivers with low amount of practice (those who did not utilise the
new age limit) experienced higher workload and had higher accident risk than those who had more
pre-licence training.
Page 51
It is obvious that additional tasks impair the cognitive capacity for the driving tasks. Some studies ex-
plored this fact with different experiments. Jancke et al. (1994) show that monitoring of radio broad-
casts while driving in a computer-controlled, simulated driving task diminishes performance even if
subjects are familiar with this kind of concurrent activity. Alm & Nilsson (1995) studied the effects of
a mobile telephone task on drivers’ behaviour in two driving conditions (easy vs. hard driving task).
The strongest effects were found when the subjects were exposed to the easy driving task: the mobile
telephone task had a negative effect on reaction time etc. The authors discussed the results in terms of
which subtask (driving or telephone) the subjects gave the highest priority, i.e. subjects in the easy
driving task may have turned the telephone task into their primary task. Using mobile phones while
driving increases the risk of being involved in a vehicle crash (Donoho, 1996). A study using an epi-
demiological case-control design found that talking on mobile phones in the car for more than 50 min-
utes a month was associated with a 5.59-fold increased risk of being involved in a crash (Violanti and
Marshall, 1996). Another study indicates that talking on a mobile phone while driving quadruples the
risk of having a crash. This is the same risk as driving with a BAC at the legal limit. The study also
indicates that hands-free devices offer no advantage over traditional hand-held devices. Reed & Green
(1999) compare the driving performance in an instrumented car to performance in a low-cost, fixed-
based driving simulator. Subjects drove a motorway route while periodically dialling simulated phone
calls. Lane-keeping in the simulator was less precise than on the road, but speed control performance
was comparable. The SD of lane position in normal driving was about twice as large, on average, in
the simulator. Lane keeping and speed control were less precise when dialling the phone than in nor-
mal driving, both on the road and in the simulator (greater). The addition of the phone task increased
the mean lateral speed in the car by about 43%, while in the simulator by 158%.
,QVXIILFLHQWDQWLFLSDWLQJVNLOOVDQGZURQJH[SHFWDWLRQV
Mayhew and Simpson (1995) reviewed the literature on the perceptual skills of novice drivers, in-
cluding visual information gathering strategies. Novice drivers scan the road with a smaller range of
horizontal glances, look closer to the front and more to the right of the car, check their mirrors less
frequently, glance at objects less frequently, utilise peripheral vision less efficiently, and fixate on
fewer objects. Also they fixate more on stationary objects instead on moving objects, like experienced
drivers. They made pursuit eye movements on the motorway route while the experienced drivers made
only eye fixation (Mourant & Rockwell, 1972). The study indicates that learning to sample the driving
environment visually requires a great amount of visual perceptual training. Cohen (1994) emphasises
the importance of the enhancement of visual orientation gained by driving experience: novice drivers
fail to adjust their eye movement appropriately to the distribution of information, and they fail to an-
ticipate distant requirements of capacity. The skilled driver is one who accurately processes and or-
ganises the information from the driving scene in terms of the field of safe travel and the minimum
stopping zone. He/she maintains the heading and direction of the vehicle so as to maintain a safe ratio
of the field of safe travel to the minimum stopping zone, over time. The skills required to accomplish
this task are detection of changes in the driving scene, identification of these changes and estimation
of their consequences, decision making and executing the decisions. Search subtasks may be further
subdivided into at least three components: focus of attention, search rate and search pattern. As expe-
rience is gained, peripheral vision is used more to locate the vehicle in the lane, with fixations focused
further down the road to allow more time to process information that becomes of increasing relevance
as the driver’s speed increases. Because of all the above, young drivers are relatively poor at identify-
ing distant hazards, although they compare well with older drivers in identifying near hazards (Schle-
singer, 1967). According to Deery (1999), who reviewed the literature regarding hazard and risk per-
ception, experienced drivers perceive holistically, whereas novices perceive piecemeal and independ-
ent of context. Benda and Hoyos (1983) found that novice drivers assess traffic hazards on the basis of
a single characteristic, so that all situations that share a certain characteristic, such as wet roads, are
perceived as equally dangerous. In contrast, experienced drivers perceive situations on the basis of
multiple characteristics, which they use to differentiate their degree of potential risk. This indicates
that with growing experience drivers are more able to integrate information quickly and consider haz-
ardousness as a holistic attribute of the environment. Consequently, novice drivers fail to discover ob-
stacles and critical situations on the road (Gregersen, 1994). After Drummond (1989) young drivers
Page 52
have the tendency to associate higher levels of hazard with non-moving factors, and have difficulty in
integrating diverse information into an overall assessment of dangerousness. Another factor was iden-
tified by McKenna (1982): two groups appear to co-exist. Those, who process information in an active
manner, and those, who process information in a more passive manner. Drivers in the first one seem to
use cues, which the others use not, in order to anticipate the road situation and preparing to respond
accordingly. And as Evans (1991) stated, higher level visual search and pattern recognition skills are
probably more important in driving than optimum performance at simple visual tasks. This also in-
cludes driver information-processing abilities. Lonero et al. (1998) point out that new drivers are less
able to control attention, and maintain full attention. They underestimate the danger in some relatively
risky situations, and they overestimate the danger in some less risky situations.
Deery (1999) stated that a likely reason for the lack of success of previous driver training programs is
that drivers have not been trained on those skills that are important in crash causation, i.e. hazard per-
ception. More recently, however, several approaches to train these skills have shown a great deal of
promise: Commentary driving is one method that has been employed to train hazard and risk percep-
tion (Marek & Sten, 1997). The novice drivers maintains a running verbal commentary while driving,
explaining to the driving instructor what he/ she sees, which risks may arise and what measures should
be taken to avoid those risks. Regan, Deery & Triggs (1998) recently found that precautionary behav-
iour can be enhanced through PC-based mediated instruction. A 30 minute training program was de-
veloped which introduced participants to underlying concepts and provided part-task practice in criti-
cal elements of hazard detection and risk perception. The materials consisted of digitised still images
and video clips of actual driving situations as seen from the driver’s perspective. After practising these
tasks trainees have to deal with a potentially hazardous situation in a driving simulator and self-
critiqued their performances in a structured manner. Compared to a group of controls, trainees dis-
played a more gradual and controlled anticipatory response to a range of potentially hazardous situa-
tion. McKenna and Crick (1997) also designed a risk perception training program that included
watching video segments of potential traffic hazards. The video was paused as the hazards were un-
folding and participants were instructed to make predictions about what might happen next in the se-
quence of events. Risk perception skills were enhanced by this prediction training.
Recent driving simulator research at the Monash University Accident Research Centre (Regan, Deery
& Triggs, 1998a) has shown that the attentional control skills of novice drivers can be enhanced using
a training technique called Variable Priority Training (VPT). With VPT, participants perform two or
more tasks concurrently. They are instructed to systematically vary the relative amount of attention
that they give to each task across training trials. The research at MUARC has shown that, in addition
to attentional control, the ability to detect, perceive and respond safely to potential traffic hazards can
be enhanced with VPT (Deery, 1999). This suggests that attentional control may be an important com-
ponent of risk perception: Drivers who are able to allocate their limited attentional resources to several
tasks while driving are likely to exercise more efficient risk perception skills than drivers with less
well-developed attentional control skills. Maltz & Shinar (1999) focus on eye-movements to explain
driving-related visual performance. In the first task participants’ eye movements were monitored as
they viewed a traffic scene image with a numeric overlay and visually located the numbers in their
sequential order. In the second task, participants viewed pictures of traffic scenes photographed from
the driver’s perspective. Their task was to assume the role of the driver and regard the image accord-
ingly. Although this research was done in the context of improving performance of older drivers, this
could be an applicable method for training effective visual search.
Mills et al. (1998) has shown in a three-year study that experienced drivers, and those with good acci-
dent records, score well on hazard perception tests. Learner drivers and those with poor accident rec-
ords get much lower scores. Drivers will be able to enhance these skills in a number of ways, using
either professional driving instructors or one of a range of multimedia products, which are being de-
veloped in the UK. The test would consist of a series of digitised video clips, to which the candidate
must respond. The findings show that the results found in the laboratory are clearly reflected in the
findings from the on-road data. This supports the laboratory hazard perception test as a valid tool for
assessing (young) drivers’ hazard awareness, which can be related to their actual on-road driving per-
formance. In England and Ireland it is intended that candidates will take the hazard perception test at
Page 53
the same time as the theory test and it will be introduced by the Year 2002. Crundall & Underwood
(1997) aimed to investigate in a PC-based experiment whether concurrent verbalisation affects the
search strategy or fixation pattern of drivers; and whether any effects are passed on to higher order
skills such as hazard perception. It also examined the utility of verbalisation in regard to its relation-
ship with what subjects actually look at in the driving scene. The results showed that the use of con-
current verbalisation did not affect the visual search strategy of drivers, neither did it reflect it.
Wachtel (1996) reports that three US states (California, Oregon and Washington) are working with a
simulator developer to create scenarios which generically represent the current road test plus traffic
conditions and hazard situations which have been identified as relevant to the test by numerous
sources over the years but which, for obvious reasons have not been included on actual road tests to
date. Examples include: driving at night, merging onto high speed freeways, cresting a hill and en-
countering an oncoming vehicle in one’s lane, facing opposing traffic turning across one’s path without
warning, suddenly seeing pedestrians running into the road between parked cars. Scenarios such as
these (and many others) are being developed and integrated into a driving test which includes urban,
suburban and rural components that may require up to 30 minutes to administer. A study by Crundall
et al. (1999) attempted to distinguish between people of varying driving experience on the basis of
their functional fields of view. Participants searched video clips taken from a moving driver’s perspec-
tive for potential hazards while responding to peripheral target lights. Hit rates for peripheral targets
decreased for all participant groups as processing demands increased (i.e. when hazards occurred) and
as the eccentricity of the target increased, though there was no interaction. An effect of experience was
also found which suggests that this paradigm measures a perceptual skill or strategy that develops with
driving experience.
A potentially QHJDWLYHHIIHFWRIH[SHULHQFH on anticipating skills was shown by Van Elslande &
Faucher-Alberton (1997). This effect may appear by drivers tending to revert to operating rules they
know but which are inappropriate to the problem in hand. This is caused by the fact that the high de-
gree of automaticity produced by expertise can, in some cases, result in a lack of flexibility. Based on
an accident study they suggest three types of malfunctions which lead to failures: (1) perceptive negli-
gence: familiarity with a situation may lead a driver to no longer take certain information into account,
insofar as it fails to fit into the ’mould’ of analytical schemata he/she has developed on the basis of
previous experience; (2) interpretation errors: drivers over-emphasise the knowledge they already have
available of this type of situation and, for this reason, expect the situation to evolve in a different way
than it actually does; (3) caused by familiarity with a situation a temporary breakdown of observation
of the road environment in an activity where this observation is the very essence of safe driving.
Harrison (1997) introduces the notion that instead of providing a set of fixed rules to the driver that
he/she should always follow (skill development), we should provide him/her with alternative risk sce-
narios and build insecurities that are close to the real world and might help him/her build a probabilis-
tic view of the traffic environment. It might be possible to use a simulation approach to assist the de-
velopment of an internal representation of the driving environment that includes some probabilistic
components in addition to the more predictable aspects of the environment.
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Crashes are caused by what drivers choose to do as much as by what they are able (or unable) to do.
Most of novice drivers’ increased risk comes from inappropriate behaviour - deliberately taking risky
actions, seeking stimulation, driving at high speeds, and driving while impaired (Lonero et al., 1998).
But risk acceptance is not the same as crash acceptance. Few drivers will take a risky action if they
know it will result in a crash. Instead, risky choices result from poor risk perception and inability to
detect hazards, often coupled with overconfidence (Gregersen & Bjurulf, 1996). An example for a
countermeasure is a Swedish traffic safety course of young drivers (aged 18-24) called "Pilot" which
was implemented and evaluated. The basic idea behind Pilot is that young drivers usually drive with
safety margins that are too small. So the aim of the course is to motivate young drivers to increase the
safety margins. The intervention consists of an one-day traffic safety course where the content is fo-
cused on risk-awareness and defensive driving. The content is systematically varied according to the
components "training/demonstrations" and "monetary reward". Preliminary results are promising ac-
Page 54
cording to interviews with participants and accidents reported. Another example for a post-licensing is
a second phase safe driver training in Luxembourg (Pannacci, DAN-Report, 2000). The key idea is to
prolong the educational supervision beyond getting the driving licence. Young drivers have the actual
possibility to experience potential dangerous situations in simulated conditions close to reality. They
should learn that the only parameter to reduce the risks are reduction of speed and avoiding dangerous
situations. This is because current research suggests that as speed increases (and the road environment
remains the same) the possibility for road users to communicate and perceive the intentions of other
road users in time to react appropriately decreases, as does the ability to detect hazards. As a conse-
quence stopping distances increase and other manoeuvres to avoid accidents become more difficult,
and the severity of outcome of an impact increases.
Much research suggest that overconfidence of novice drivers has a great influence to their involvement
in accident. Drivers who are overconfident about their level of driving skill may not attend to or seek
information about their driving performance. Ward & Beusman (1998) summarise many studies which
show, that drivers tend to consistently XQGHUHVWLPDWH the risks involved with driving, and
RYHUHVWLPDWH their driving skills and capabilities. Humans may not be sensitive to the determinants of
accident risk and may not be able to judge what levels of risk are still acceptable. Also Evans (1991)
mentions that most drivers classify themselves as above average. Young drivers estimate their own
probability of being involved in an accident as lower as the risk of other young drivers, as well as of
other drivers on the whole (Gregersen & Bjurulf, 1996). These systematic misjudgements seem not to
be corrected by personal experiences (McKenna et al, 1991): also drivers who have been involved in
accidents still tend to think that they are more skilful than most other drivers. Every time they take a
risk and get away with it, without undesirable consequences, their behaviour will be reinforced.
Katila et al. (1996) sum up that efforts to make novice drivers drive more safely on slippery roads by
means of special courses have many failed. New ideas about the nature of driving suggest that
motives, anticipation, self confidence and other factors might be even more important in safe driving
than the skills themselves. An important question is KRZWRLQFUHDVHGULYLQJVNLOOVZLWKRXW
LQFUHDVLQJWKHFRQILGHQFHLQWKHVHVNLOOV and without promoting the use of them for satisfying extra
motives like competitive needs or sensation seeking. The authors suggest that the manoeuvring
component should not be over-emphasised. One solution could be to use more demonstrations. Trials,
combined with the evaluation of these trials, could also be increased. The starting point could be the
trainees’ own everyday experiences and the evaluation of these in order to promote safe behaviour.
Repeated exercises should be omitted and they should be planned in such a way that it is possible to
succeed only by anticipating and safe driving behaviour. This means adding variation to the exercises
and making the learning tasks more difficult. Exercises where fast reactions are emphasised should be
avoided. Because of the fact that trainees overestimate the benefit of manoeuvring skills, trainer and/or
training media should inform trainees about the importance of higher level skills. Learning must be
rewarding in skid training, but the rewards should come primarily from learning anticipating skills and
not just manoeuvring skills. The exercises must be planned in such a way that it is not possible to learn
routines for managing a situation.
To reduce overestimation, Gregersen (1994) suggests that the drivers should be put in situations in
which they should not practice driving skill, but rather experience their own limitations better. Practi-
cal training could be developed with the purpose of surprising the learners and making them fail in
driving tasks that they normally believe they can handle. In a study, combining three measures (theory
lessons, commentary driving, tasks to reduce overestimation) no risk reducing effects were achieved
until the second year.
Page 55
According to the training strategy of practical insight (Gregersen, 1995) the following applications are
introduced: to prevent trainees from overestimating their own driving skill in relation to sudden critical
situations: a dummy (an object of soft material) is placed in the way of the learner’s car in darkness.
He/she discovers it too late and runs into it. It was shown that most of the trainees that did not know
about the obstacle drove into it. To show trainees their lack of experience and their high mental work-
load they have developed a complicated driving situation in a closed driving range which was found to
provoke a "blackout"-reaction. To show trainees their lack of experience and their limitations in visual
search pattern they have used dummy animals placed along a forest road near the edge of the road.
After driving a road the trainees are asked how many of the dummies they had seen. Then trainees
drove the course for a second (how much do they detect now?) and a third time (the instructor pointed
out all the dummies). As well Gregersen (1996) investigates how different educational strategies influ-
ence the drivers’ overestimation of their own skill. Drivers with skill training had higher overestima-
tion of their own ability than those with training focusing on the divers’ insight into their own limita-
tions. Learners typically overestimate effects of advanced training programs. So the skill training may
be complemented or even exchanged for insight training. Skill training does not seem to improve the
actual drivers skills for even slightly changed situations. Evans (1991) believes that for novice drivers
that think they that are really “quick and
ready” or for retraining of aggressive driv-
ers, they should be presented with unex-
pected situations after at least 30 minutes of
driving in the simulator, to reduce their
readiness and concentration. As a risk sce-
nario a side-parked car opening unexpect-
edly the door has been proposed.
A very important fact that should be medi-
ated or better experienced by the trainees
was found by Summala et al. (1998). Driv-
ing experience improves peripheral vision,
so that experienced drivers are able to per-
form in-car tasks like looking at the speed-
ometer, adjusting radio and heat, searching
for street names etc., while keeping the car
in lane. Nevertheless even experienced
drivers are not able to detect a closing
headway while performing in-car tasks.
Drivers rather reported that the lead car
suddenly emerged in the peripheral vision.
So looking away from the head car results
in a substantial delay in brake reaction
times. This was also stated by Evans
(1991), who summarised the results of
many studies. Mean driver reaction time is
reported to be around 1,6 s in driving
simulator and equipped vehicle experi-
ments. However reaction time is enhanced
to around 2,5 s (reported up to 4 s for some
drivers) for surprised drivers, who are not
fully focusing on the driving task. It is stated by many authors that drivers adapt their behaviour to
changes in their skills, and improved lane-keeping performance may make them attend increasingly to
non-traffic targets (e.g. mobile telephones). As well, the subjective feeling of control caused by the
improved lane-keeping behaviour is often thought to contribute to accident involvement through high
speed and short safety margins.
In conclusion it should be noted that overestimation/ overconfidence of young drivers is a phenome-
non, which seems to occur after a certain time of driving experience. In the final chapter of the report
Page 56
of the DAN-project (Bartl et al., 2000), which analysed post licensing measures for novice drivers, the
optimal time for safe driving courses is discussed. On the one hand experts argued that training safe
driving and self evaluation skills could not be part of driver training due to the fact that trainees are not
automated in manoeuvring skills, and on the other hand it is insisted that young drivers should be in-
fluenced before they enter the road. The authors stated that this question is not solved since evalua-
tions of these two viewpoints do not exist. However, training is only successful if improvement of
skills as well as development of adequate self-estimation take place to prevent the undesired overesti-
mation of young drivers (see Figure 3).
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According to Evans (1991) racing drivers, young drivers and male drivers, the groups with the highest
levels of perceptual-motor skills and the greatest interest in driving, are groups which have higher than
average crash involvement rates. This demonstrates that increased driving skill and knowledge are not
the most important factors associated with avoiding traffic crashes. What is crucial is not how the
driver can driver (driver performance), but how the driver does drive (driver behaviour). Rothengatter
(1997) emphasises that the distinction between HUURUDQGYLRODWLRQ, or unintended and intended de-
viation from normative, reference behaviour is not just a theoretic issue. Driver training should distin-
guish between the two. Addressing the affective component implies recognition of this mechanism,
and in fact, implies an attempt to manipulate safety-related attitudes. Kappler (1993) believes that in
driving operations, external factors, i.e. rules, are not as restrictive as in airline piloting, e.g., so that
drivers are rather free to make decisions and take actions on any level. As a consequence attitude and
behaviour, including motivation, have more effect on driver actions than his/her skills. Social behav-
iour issues are obviously of prime importance and should be addressed by any driver training program.
Lewin (1982) suggests as a major source of causes of driving errors “established improper and wrong
habits” (e.g. filtering across stop signs). %DGKDELWV that are carried over or formulated in the autono-
mous phase are extremely difficult to be modified as they take place without thought (that is why mass
communication and penalties are ineffective). After Lewin the only way to change inappropriate driv-
ing habits may be to arouse the awareness and attention of individual persons just prior to their exe-
cuting those specific (inappropriate) behavioural units. This will transfer a behaviour from its autono-
mous mode to a cognitive-intentional mode. This procedure has to be consistently repeated in order to
offset the incorrect autonomous behavioural unit, until the new, more desirable behavioural unit itself
passes through the cognitive and associative stages into the autonomous stage. Delhomme & Meyer
(1997) showed that an increased control motivation would seem to lead individuals to engage in a
more attentive and deliberate exploration of the driving environment. An increased control motivation
should limit risk taking and therefore limit speed. Photographed driving situations were shown; sub-
jects had to decide, by using a joystick, whether to maintain speed, accelerate, decelerate or stop.
Novices make speed regulations less as a function of critical cues in driving situations. They are more
dependent on their motivational state of the moment. The training of drivers should develop driver's
abilities to regulate their own motivational state, even when the source of motivation is extrinsic to
driving. The trainees must be aware that in some situations their decisions could be influenced by ex-
trinsic motivation. Hatakka (DAN-Report, 2000) reported a project which is called 'Mirroring' and its
based on self-reflective processes. Young drivers are interviewed about their driving habits and ideas
concerning cars and driving. These interviews were recorded, and samples of them were presented in
sessions. The drivers listen to those and after that made a self-evaluation of their personal habits and
risk-factors. A significant reduction of speed and a positive trend in safety belt use was reported. What
is essential, is that the youngsters were not told what are the right things to do, etc. They simply re-
flected their personal habits.
Bliersbach & Dellen (1980), citing Wilde (1974), emphasise the importance of social factors and that
much of the behaviour of people in traffic is influenced by that which they see in others. Using in-
depth interviews they determine different GULYLQJSDWWHUQV, which could switch within one person: (1)
the driving pattern of the thrill: drivers find pleasure here in travelling at top speed in order to test the
limit of the car's capabilities as well as of their own driving potentials; (2) for the driving pattern of
power display the most important thing is the pleasure in displaying the capabilities of the own car; (3)
Page 57
the driving pattern of self-testing is orientated towards the robust youthful idea of ’crafty’ or ’snappy’
driving, permanently to outsmart other drivers; (4) with the pattern of smoothly driving along the
driver is mainly concerned that no hindrances appear in his/her path; (5) the idea behind the driving
pattern of piloting is to cope with traffic as masterfully and as close to the rules as possible. Apart
from the fifth pattern drivers of the other four patterns develop a typical egocentricity that produces a
filtering of awareness. This is the reason why the anger and rage at being held up are always fixed on
the other driver, but not relativized by considering the intentions of others. They conclude that it
would be important for a traffic educational programme to work out the patterns of driving as well as
the involved interaction conflicts didactically, so that the processes of driving can be transmitted. Es-
sential is a language by which the psycho-social processes of driving could be communicated and
which at the same time would give drivers an instrument for identifying their own patterns of driving –
and for realising the interaction effects which are caused by their driving patterns.
7DEXODUVXPPDU\UHJDUGLQJPDQRHXYULQJWDVNV
in the following matrices.
6XPPDU\RIILQGLQJVIRUPDQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRWUDIILFFRQGLWLRQV
7DVNV .QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOO 5LVNLQFUHDVLQJDVSHFWV 6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Following & Novice drivers perceive correctly that The relationship between speed and Trainees should be aware of the fact
Tailgating a lead car comes closer, but do not crash severity should be mediated in that on the road there is a wealth of
perceive as correctly the actual speed order to establish higher headways at other information to process and
of it. high speeds. reaction times will inevitably not be
as fast as in simple training situation.
The ability for extracting information The possibility of sudden accelera-
from a complex background seems tion/ deceleration in car following or Views from different types of cars can
beneficial for performance in a pla- overtaking situations should be expe- be involved in a distance estimation
toon task. rienced in simulator scenarios. training test (PC) in order to show
relevant optical illusions and be pre-
Simulator lessons for coping with A platoon tailgating task simulator pared not to rely so much on their
tailgating are suggested regarding: scenario should be formulated. The own distance judgement and keep
- use of rear-view mirror aim is to teach to the trainee that in greater distances.
- selecting headway this case he/she should adopt a head-
- merge in traffic way longer than normal (i.e. longer
- flashing your brake than 2 s).
- unable to see tailgaters
- forcing the tailgater to pass.
Drivers adapt their manoeuvring
behaviour to their operational skill
(less efficient braking indicated
longer time headway).
Overtaking Drivers are not able to judge the last The filmed passing measure is a faith- Drivers expect to meet an oncoming
possible moment for a safe passing ful simulation of critical-interval vehicle halfway, regardless of its
manoeuvre. overtaking situations occurring on speed. The errors in estimating the
road. meeting point showed regression
Subjects who were given feedback in towards the mean.
the form of information as to the Varying the risk of a overtaking ma-
direction and magnitude of their error noeuvre in a simulator and giving Drivers are able to make good judge-
of estimate, improved significantly in feedback leads to adjustment within a ments regarding the distance of an
their judgements of the minimum safe short period of 10 min. oncoming car, but are unable to re-
passing time. spond effectively to the oncoming
vehicle speed. These perceptual errors
should be mediated to trainees.
Entering & Drivers tended to underestimate the
leaving the traf- amount of time available to them for
fic merging from parking lane into traffic
lane before a vehicle approaching
from behind reached them. They also
under-estimated the amount of time it
would take them to pull out and
achieve the speed of traffic.
Page 58
Lane changing Drivers underestimate the time It should be communicated to trainees

needed for a motorway lane change that driving alongside other vehicles
manoeuvre. in highways (especially heavy vehi-
cles) for long is hazardous.
Reacting to other Partial report techniques (instead of The following hazardous situations
vehicles (cars, whole report) may give a more accu- could be trained in a simulator: inter-
bicycles) rate measure of situation awareness in section handling, oncoming vehicle,
the simulator. lead vehicle, following vehicle and
converging vehicle. 45% of the driv-
$XWRPDWLF7UDIILF*HQHUDWLRQ
ers look up their wheels during avoid-
$XWRQRPRXV'ULYHUPRGHOV enhance ance attempts.
the fidelity of a simulator.
Reacting to A traffic accident (case study) analy- While seeing clips containing hazard- When meeting a pedestrian on the
pedestrians sis with a trainees group is proposed ous events (e.g. football rolling across roadside drivers do not decrease their
as a way to help novice drivers to the road, sudden braking of a car in speed at all. They do so, because extra
notice the signs in the behaviour of front) drivers have to respond to pe- caution, as slowing down, also in-
other road users and to understand the ripheral target lights. A found effect duces time delay, and the subjective
rationale behind the actions of pedes- of experience suggests that this para- probability of a pedestrian or another
trians and other drivers. This could digm measures a perceptual skill or obstacle of being on a driver’s path of
also be provided through informative strategy that develops with driving travel must be, according to his/her
short videos/sketches with the PC- experience. experience, so small that he/she is
based tool of TRAINER. ready to neglect it altogether.
After training with ZED the trained Therefore trainees should experience
subjects brake sooner when ap- improbable situations.
proaching a pedestrian crossing.
7DEOH6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQVUHJDUGLQJPDQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRWUDIILFFRQGLWLRQV
6XPPDU\RIILQGLQJVIRUPDQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRURDGZD\FKDUDFWHULVWLFV
Negotiating Tasks can be learned with a simpli- ,QVXIILFLHQWDXWRPDWLRQ More than 30 percent of participants
intersections, fied, low-fidelity, representation of Trainees scan intersections only about over-estimated the amount of yellow
junctions and the environment (a single-channel half the time, check their mirrors even phase time that was available.
roundabouts image system). less, and tend to stare straight ahead More than 80 percent underestimated
with unmoving eyes. the time it would take them to reach
Roundabout intersection and other an intersection.
excessive steering movements should A part of drivers underestimated the
not be trained in simulators, because distance required to make a smooth,
of simulator sickness. safe stop.
Negotiating While negotiating hills and slopes the
hills/ slopes closest attention of the driver should
be paid to the possibility of cars and
obstacles suddenly appearing.
Negotiating Sharp corners were seen to result in ,QVXIILFLHQWDXWRPDWLRQ
curves disorientating feelings and these Experienced drivers fixate the tangent
should be avoided. Simulator discom- point less than novice drivers and
fort was minimised through the use of spend more time looking around them
practice sessions and ensuring that the at roadway features directly in front
participant exits the vehicle and walks and at the oncoming traffic.
around between trials.
Turning off/ Drivers generally underestimated the ,QVXIILFLHQWDXWRPDWLRQ
turning over time they had available before a con- Novices generally do not look back
flicting vehicle from the left or the while they are backing up in a turn-
right reached them. As well they about situation.
frequently underestimated the time it
would take to accelerate and achieve
traffic speed.
Road surface All relevant manoeuvring and antici- Drivers seem to overestimate the In order to create a realistic view
and obstructions pating skills are listed. driving risk before they pass skid about the drivers possibilities when
control courses. After visiting the driving on a slippery road, the typical
course they overestimate their skills, strategy in exercises is, that after
and underestimate the objective risk some practising the instructor asks
of skidding. him or her to increase the speed by 5-
10 km/h that ultimately leads to fail-
ure.
Training should focus on emphasising
how to avoid skidding situations,
instead of coping with them.
Page 59
Approach/ exit Drivers underestimated the time re- A simulator-based training on speed
of motorway quired to achieve traffic speed from adaptation is suggested.
the initial ramp speed. They also
permitted unacceptably short follow-
ing headways while travelling on the
ramp.
Railroad cross- Driving behaviour in a simulated
ings, bridges, tunnel is comparable with behaviour
tunnels in a real tunnel.
Reacting to Useful defensive driving behaviours
traffic signs and that could be taught using driving
traffic lights simulator are suggested:
- approaching traffic light,
- stopping at traffic light,
- scanning intersection.
Reacting to signs It should be mentioned to trainees that
in-car information systems and espe-
cially the use of a paper map impair
attention.
7DEOH6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQVUHJDUGLQJPDQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRURDGZD\FKDUDFWHULVWLFV
6XPPDU\RIILQGLQJVIRUPDQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRWKHHQYLURQPHQW
Weather condi- The driver has to detect factors that

tions affect steering performance in order to
adapt speed and steering accordingly.
Night driving Fatigue disrupts matching of effort to
task demands, such that the fatigued
driver fails to regulate effort effec-
tively when the task appears easy.
7DEOH6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQVUHJDUGLQJPDQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRWKHHQYLURQPHQW
Risk increasing aspects and self-evaluation aspects which appear to be important for all manoeuvring
tasks are listed in the following matrix:
6XPPDU\RIILQGLQJVIRUPDQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHJDUGLQJWR
5LVNLQFUHDVLQJDVSHFWV 6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
,QVXIILFLHQWVNLOOVDQGLQFRPSOHWHO\DXWRPDWLRQ 5HDOLVWLFVHOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Trainees learn how to drive under normal and daily conditions. Drivers tend to consistently underestimate the risks involved with
When an unexpected and unusual situation does occur, they don’t driving, and overestimate their driving skills and capabilities.
know how to react adequately. Young drivers estimate their own probability of being involved in
an accident as lower as the risk of other young drivers, as well as of
It should be experienced by the trainees that other drivers do not other drivers on the whole.
always obey rules or behave in expected ways.
In order to increase driving skills without increasing the confidence
in these skills the following is suggested: The manoeuvring compo-
,QIRUPDWLRQRYHUORDG
nent should not be overemphasised: One solution could be to use
more demonstrations. Repeated exercises should be omitted and
Trainees lack the skill in vehicle handling needed to make instruc- they should be planned in such a way that it is possible to succeed
tion in safety and efficiency fully effective. The effectiveness might only by anticipating and safe driving behaviour. The exercises must
be increased by delaying that portion of dealing with safety and be planned in such a way that it is not possible to learn routines for
efficiency until after basic vehicle handling skills have been mas- managing a situation.
tered.
The training concept “Insight" includes seeing the head from a crash
Novice drivers have a higher proportion of accidents when carrying test dummy, a crash sledge, a roll-over simulator, different video
two or more passengers compared to drivers with more than 2 years films, after crash vehicles and discussing these items: This has
of experience. So, attention-sharing capabilities are very important positive effects on pupils’ attitude towards and their use of seat
and should be learned. belts. However, the visit did not cause these pupils to think any
differently about the distance to the vehicle in front, speed or road
Additional tasks, like monitoring of radio broadcasts and phoning conditions.
impair the cognitive capacity for the driving tasks and enhance the
probability of accident involvement.
Page 60
,QVXIILFLHQWDQWLFLSDWLQJVNLOOVDQGZURQJH[SHFWDWLRQV 5HDOLVWLFVHOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Novice drivers have the following failings: Training strategy of practical insight:
- they do not make use of their peripheral vision, - Dummy (an object of soft material) is placed in the way of the car.
- they focus on the road, close to the front and more to the Trainee discovers it too late and runs into it.
right of the car, - Creating a difficult situation to provoke a "blackout"-reaction.
- they sampled their mirrors less frequently, To show limitations in visual search pattern the use of dummy ani-
- glance at objects less frequently, mals is proposed.
- they fixate more on stationary instead on moving objects, All this applications could be inserted in PC/Simulator-scenarios.
- they perform wider ranges of eye movements end hereby
fixate objects containing little importance regarding traffic.
$ZDUHQHVVRISHUVRQDOGULYLQJVW\OH
Because of all the above, young drivers are relatively poor at identi-
fying distant hazards, although they compare well with older drivers Driver training should distinguish between the error and violation.
in identifying near hazards. Addressing the affective component implies recognition of this
Learning to sample the driving environment visually requires a great mechanism an an attempt to manipulate safety-related attitudes
amount of visual perceptual training. A way to change inappropriate driving habits may be to arouse the
Higher level visual search and pattern recognition skills are proba- awareness and attention of individual persons just prior to their
bly more important in driving than optimum performance at simple executing those specific (inappropriate) behavioural units. This
visual tasks. Experienced drivers are more able to integrate infor- procedure has to be consistently repeated in order to offset the in-
mation quickly and consider hazardousness as a holistic attribute of correct unit, until the new unit itself is automated.
the environment. The training of drivers should develop driver’s abilities to regulate
Novices have a tendency to associate higher levels of hazard with their own motivational state, even when the source of motivation is
non-moving factors, and have difficulty in integrating diverse in- extrinsic to driving.
formation into an overall assessment of dangerousness. ’Mirroring’-procedure:
Methods to improve hazard perception: Recorded samples of interviews were presented in sessions. The
- Commentary driving drivers listen to those and after that make a self-evaluation of their
- PC-based mediated instruction: digitised still images and video personal habits and risk-factors.
clips of actual driving situations as seen from the driver’s The psycho-social processes of driving should be communicated. As
perspective well drivers should be given an instrument for identifying their own
- The ability to detect, perceive and respond safely to potential patterns of driving and for realising the interaction effects which are
traffic hazards can be enhanced with VPT (Variable Priority caused by their driving patterns.
Training)
Negative effects of experience:
- In environments where the stimuli do not change very much,
drivers may turn to automated perception and thus lose scanning
for critical events.
- Other negative effects of experience include perceptive
negligence, interpretational errors, temporary breakdown
of observation.
Training should provide students with alternative risk scenarios and
build insecurities that are close to the real world and might help
them build a probabilistic view of the traffic environment.
5LVN\GULYLQJVW\OH
Risky choices result from poor risk perception and inability to de-
tect hazards, often coupled with overconfidence.
The aim of the course ’Pilot’ is to motivate young drivers to increase
the safety margins. The intervention consist of an one-day traffic
safety course where the content is focused on risk-awareness and
defensive driving.
In simulated conditions young drivers have the possibility to experi-
ence potential dangerous situations. They should learn that the only
parameter to reduce the risks are reduction of speed and avoiding
dangerous situations.
7DEOH6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQVUHJDUGLQJPDQRHXYULQJWDVNVULVNLQFUHDVLQJDVSHFWVDQGVHOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Page 61
6WUDWHJLFWDVNV
7KHVWUDWHJLFDOOHYHOGHILQHVWKHJHQHUDOSODQQLQJVWDJHRIDWULS
'HWHUPLQDWLRQRIWULSJRDOVURXWHDQGPRGDOFKRLFHHYDOXDWLRQRIWKHFRVWV

DQGULVNVLQYROYHG
3UHSDUDWLRQDQGWHFKQLFDOFKHFNRIWKHYHKLFOHEHDULQJURDGVDIHW\LQPLQG
Although these tasks are not named explicitly in the analysed literature, it is obvious that trainees
should be skilled in these tasks. As well trainees should get to know (or better experience) the risk in-
creasing aspects deriving from ’wrong’ or unsafe behaviour in the preparation stage of driving.
6DIHW\LVVXHV
It has been established that young drivers are over-represented among those who do not use seat belts.
This is partly a reflection of a "rebellious" youthful nature, of not wanting to be told what to do, but it
may also stem from over-estimation — they feel that they are strong enough to hold tight in a crash.
The goal of a training programme on this topic should be to make the drivers understand that this is
not possible at normal speeds. The purpose is to make the drivers aware of the need to use a seat belt.
Practically this could be done by using the so-called “Convincer” which is a crash sledge that makes
the trainee feel the forces on the body at a 7 km/h crash. Another application is to let the trainees ex-
amine and discuss a video sequence of a car with belted and unbelted dummies, which is crashed in a
special crash laboratory. Afterwards the actual car itself could be studied on site. The purpose is to
show the trainees the consequences of an accident with and without wearing seat belts (Nolén et al
1995, Gregersen 1995). The Stora Holm Driver Training Centre implemented these proposals in a
training concept known as “Insight”. This comprises of six different stations, the purposes of which
are to raise pupils’ awareness of the benefit to be gained from using safety equipment in cars and to
get them to appreciate the importance of speed and large safety distances in order to be able to drive
safely in traffic. The stations include the head from a crash test dummy, a crash sledge, a roll-over
simulator and three different video films. Pupils are also shown the vehicles involved in the crashes
portrayed in two of the films. A discussion also takes place at each station between the pupils and the
instructor. The results of the evaluation indicate among other things that a visit to “Insight” has posi-
tive effects on pupils’ attitude regarding the use of seat belts. However, the visit did not cause these
pupils to think any differently about the distance to the vehicle in front, speed or road conditions,
compared with pupils who did not visit “Insight” (Nyberg & Engström 1999).
Fockler et al. (1998) tested three types of driver educational strategies for motivating drivers to adjust
their head restraints to the correct vertical position: (1) a personal contact with a member of a trained
head restraint adjustment team, (2) a passive video presentation of the consequences of correct and
incorrect head restraint adjustment, and (3) an interactive three-dimensional kinetic model showing the
consequences of correct and incorrect head restraint adjustment. The human intervention led to sig-
nificantly more drivers actually adjusting their head restraints immediately after the intervention, than
the passive video or interactive kinetic model approaches, which were both no different from the con-
trol group. But the authors suggest that the influence of the video could probably be improved if a hu-
man voice delivered the message instead of only displaying a printed warning. Also using photographs
of human drivers instead of an animated cartoon character should increase the success through the so-
Page 62
cial identification and influence of seeing a real life role model. These results should be kept in mind
when safety issues will be mediated to the trainees.
0DLQWHQDQFHWDVNVURXWLQHFDUVHUYLQJSHULRGLFLQVSHFWLRQDQGVHUYLFLQJ

UHSDLULQJFDUVXEV\VWHPV
See Preparation and technical check of the vehicle, bearing road safety in mind.
(FRQRPLFGULYLQJ
As reported by Hatakka in the DAN-Report (2000) the training of economical driving style is easier
after the first training phase because the drivers have already some personal experiences and skills are
better. A good method could be to show a video or an animation, which shows two drivers, one driv-
ing ecologically and the other driving uneconomically fast, to demonstrate trainees that due to dense
traffic and traffic signs the imaginary time-saving regarding a certain distance is negligible (only a few
seconds or minutes), but that the fuel consumption is much higher and as well the driver is under a
great deal of strain due to braking manoeuvres etc.
'ULYHUVFRQGLWLRQVWUHVVPRRGIDWLJXH

Evans (1991) stated in a simple and clear way that people drive as they live. Involvement in traffic
crashes is correlated with being emotionally unstable, unhappy, asocial, anti-social, impulsive, aggres-
sive and being under stress. As a consequence the author suggests that information correlating emo-
tional stress to bad driving should be given to novice drivers, trying to make them aware of the traffic
consequences that “bad days” may have. Lewin (1982) also emphasises on the temporary lowering of
skill efficiency as a source of driving errors: Certain psychological and psycho-physiological factors
operate to reduce driving skill temporarily, i.e. fatigue, alcohol and drug intoxication, tension and dif-
ficulties caused by family problems, sexual relationships, work etc. and frustration about the driving
itself due to heavy traffic, unexpected hindrances or inconsiderate behaviour of other drivers. As
Matthews et al. (1998) stated, accident likelihood is connected to personality characteristics that are
associated with stress vulnerability, such as personal maladjustment, depression, anxiety, and aggres-
sion. Dislike of driving is related to reduced control skills and to errors during vehicle following, and
is also associated with caution in overtaking. Different types of stress-vulnerable drivers exhibit dif-
ferent patterns of impairment and might be most at risk in differing traffic situations.
(IIHFWVRIVWUHVV on driving can depend on the nature of drivers' stress reactions and on the traffic en-
vironment. Matthews et al. (1998) found that drivers who have experienced a recent stressful event are
five times more likely to cause fatal accidents than unstressed drivers. A multifactoral questionnaire,
called the Driving Behaviour Inventory (DBI) measures aggression, dislike of driving and hazard
monitoring (alertness) of the driver. These factors (especially aggression) seem, to impair driving.
Novice drivers should be assessed (using DBI or another form); and those who have a high stress syn-
drome should undergo specific training: Stress management techniques should be taught to high-
dislike drivers, to reduce negative effects, without however generating a falsely positive view of per-
sonal competence. Aggressive trainees should be instructed on coping strategies for safely dealing
with feelings of anger and frustration.
Ulrich (1978) describes a US “driver education for stress conditions” program. In effect this program
teaches with 24 hours of theory, fixed-based simulator and in-car manoeuvres the proper driver’s be-
haviour to the following emergency occasions (called “stress conditions”): serpentine steering (among
cones), evasive manoeuvring (as an alternative to braking for obstacle avoidance), controlled (maxi-
mum) braking, off-road recovery (getting back onto the pavement at highway speed when either two
or four wheel drop off the pavement into the shoulder), skid control, and tyre blow-out. The method is
Page 63
supposed to have reduced accidents by 50% and the average cost per accident by 20% in a controlled
group of 60 police officers. The fact that this evaluation took place within 18 months leaves open
some reliability questions (total number of accidents in tests and control groups are missing). It is not
obvious whether the method only helps the driver to learn effective vehicle control under the above
adverse circumstances or if it also enhances his/her overall driving skills, as the trainee understands
better the underlying vehicle dynamic behaviour. Nevertheless some of the proposed task might be
interesting to be performed within TRAINER education program. The practical part could be given in
the dynamic driving simulator, if skid, tyre blow-out and serpentine steering lateral forces can be
simulated. For blow-out control a mechanical device (called blow-out simulator) was used to suddenly
remove air from tyre in approximately one quarter of a second. Maybe such a device performance
could be simulated (as well as a wet surface friction and skidding). All such tasks could be clustered
under “emergency manoeuvring”. However there are two important considerations not mentioned in
the article: Would such a training lead the drivers to overestimate their capabilities and undertake eva-
sive manoeuvres for pleasure (i.e. as show-off)? Would the resulting simulated accidents actually
teach the trainees their vehicles’ and own limitations?
The U.S. AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety provides a test of aggressive driving on the internet
(http://www.aaafoundation.org/Text/aggressive.cfm), using the following scales: anger, impatience,
competing, punishing. After filling in the form participants get the driver stress profile results, the
score and the current average score. If the participant has a moderate or high result on the scales, some
descriptions of behaviour and key reminders to control anger etc. are presented, which could be useful
to adapt for the TRAINER-devices.
Nilsson et al. (1997) investigate why do people sometimes allow themselves to be overcome by ID
WLJXHAncient human survival may have depended on ignoring fatigue. Its modern occurrence in the
absence of strain may further render us insensitive to its warning value. To test whether deliberate
monitoring of certain symptoms may help drivers and other workers realise when they need to rest to
avoid hazard, the development of fatigue while driving a simulator was objectively measured in terms
of how many persons quit driving as a function of time. Some subjects asked to stop after 90 minutes;
others lasted 240 minutes. Grouping data from an adapted Pearson (1957) fatigue checklist revealed a
curious phenomenon. No matter how long subjects drove before wanting to quit, they still developed
much the same subjective level of fatigue at the end. This suggests that people do not differ greatly in
how much fatigue they can tolerate but rather how quickly they reach a certain critical level of fatigue.
Averaging fatigue scores backwards from the time subjects quit produced a function similar to the
quitting function. Similar treatment of the other data revealed certain clusters of symptoms whose de-
velopment also paralleled the development of fatigue. Dawson and Reid (1997) conducted a laboratory
study to measure cognitive psychomotor performance using a hand-eye co-ordination task. It was
found that moderate levels of fatigue produced higher levels of impairment than the proscribed level
of alcohol intoxication. In a separate laboratory study in which subjects were required to drive a driv-
ing simulator, 24 to 36 hours of sleep loss was found to produce greater impairments to driving skill
than alcohol at around 0.04% BAC, depending on the time of day (Lenné et al., 1998). Desmond &
Matthews (1997) report two driving simulator studies which investigate the variation of fatigue effects
with task demands and provide recommendations for system design to counteract driver fatigue. In
both studies, drivers performed both a fatiguing drive, in the first part of which they were required to
perform a secondary detection task, and a control drive with no additional secondary task. In the last
part of both drives, drivers were required to detect movement in pedestrian stimuli presented on both
sides of the road. Vehicle control and steering movements were logged throughout both drives. The
findings indicate that when the task is relatively difficult (curved road), fatigued drivers are able to
cope with increased demands but when it is easy (straight road) performance tends to deteriorate, im-
plying that fatigued drivers are failing to mobilise their effort effectively. It should be mentioned to the
trainees that they are at particular risk when the task demands are low. The authors suggest that stimuli
which engage the driver's interest and intrinsic motivation, which was reduced by fatigue, would be
more effective than instructions acting on extrinsic motivation and voluntary effort. For example, a
navigation system might react to fatigue-related impairment by presenting auditory route related in-
formation, or other information pre-programmed by the driver.
Page 64
0RWLYHVIRUGULYLQJ
Gregersen & Bjurulf (1996) distinguish WZRGULYLQJUHODWHGPRWLYHV which both influence driving
behaviour: motives for why we drive and motives for how we drive. Examples of motives why we
drive are: to transport something, but also to drive simply for the purpose of driving. The last may be a
purely individual motive such as pleasure, relaxation, but it may also be a social motive, influenced by
group pressure etc. The motives for how we drive include on the one hand safety, economy and envi-
ronmental care, and on the other hand hurrying, showing off, testing limits or competing, which are
emphasised by Lewin (1982) as major reasons for accidents. The influence of these motives on driving
is governed by the reinforcement connected with the behaviour. A driving style that is statistically
dangerous may not be considered dangerous by the driver as an individual. If a driver exceeds the
speed limits, the most probable result will be that he/she is not stopped by the police, that no accident
will happen and that he/she will arrive at his/her destination faster. This reinforces unsafe driving hab-
its. The safety motive may be regarded as a "negative" motive. Reinforcement is either neutral or
negative. There are never any immediate rewards if a driver tries to drive more safely. As soon as a
negative reinforcement (e.g. police checks) fails to appear, the motive may be regarded as satisfied.
On the contrary, the mobility motive may be regarded as a "positive" motive. Driving fast may also
give positive reinforcement regarding the pleasure motive. According to Lonero et al. (1998) novice
drivers are at especially high risk on recreational trips and when carrying teenage passengers. They are
quite safe when driving on purposeful trips, suggesting that fundamental skill deficits are not the most
important factors in their excess risk.
$ZDUHQHVVRISHUVRQDOSODQQLQJVNLOOV
As noted earlier, it should be borne in mind that trainees should not only be trained in skills but also in
self-evaluation in order to prevent them from overestimating their abilities.
$ZDUHQHVVRIW\SLFDOGULYLQJJRDOVDQGULVN\GULYLQJPRWLYHV
A high OHYHORIFRQWURO would be said to be experienced if there is little difference between the pre-
dicted road situations and the actual road situations or it’s judged that differences which do occur can
be coped with by a driver. The level of control which a driver accepts will vary over time. The level of
control will in general be lower at faster speeds because the driver has less time to construct an accu-
rate assessment of the factors, so expectancies will be less accurate. Reasons for accepting a lower
level of control are e.g.: drivers may experience this as excitement, drivers have to hurry or want to
minimise their travel time. In training an emphasis would be placed on anticipation, encouraging the
driver to predict what is going to happen, the deviations supplying the road user with an estimate of
their level of control. (McKenna, 1982)
Page 65
7DEXODUVXPPDU\UHJDUGLQJVWUDWHJLFWDVNV
in the following matrices.
6XPPDU\RIILQGLQJVIRUVWUDWHJLFWDVNV
.QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOO 5LVNLQFUHDVLQJDVSHFWV 6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
6DIHW\LVVXHV 'ULYHUVFRQGLWLRQVWUHVVPRRGIDWLJXH $ZDUHQHVVRIW\SLFDOGULYLQJJRDOVDQG
ULVN\GULYLQJPRWLYHV
Training concept “Insight”: The traffic consequences that “bad days”
To show the trainees the consequences of an may have should be mentioned. In training, emphasis could be placed on
accident with and without wearing seat anticipation, encouraging the driver to pre-
belts: Stress vulnerability (such as personal mal- dict what is going to happen, the deviations
“Convincer” which is a crash sledge that adjustment, depression, anxiety, and aggres- supplying the road user with an estimate of
makes the trainee feel the forces on the body sion) should be communicated and/or dis- their level of control.
at a 7 km/h crash. cussed.
Another application is to let the trainees Novice drivers could be assessed (e.g. with
examine and discuss a video sequence of a DBI) and those who have a high stress syn-
car with belted and unbelted dummies, drome should undergo specific training.
which is crashed in a special crash labora-
tory. Afterwards the actual car itself could Stress management techniques should be
be studied on site. taught to high-dislike drivers, to reduce
negative effects, without however generat-
ing a falsely positive view of personal com-
(FRQRPLFGULYLQJ
petence.
Training of economical driving style is A simulator may be a useful tool to test
easier after the first training phase, because different “difficult” traffic situations (other
the drivers have already some personal aggressive traffic participants, high traffic
experiences and skills are better. density for long periods, etc.) with the
To show the benefits of economic driving trainee, to spot his/her particular stress
and the disadvantage of hurrying a video or habits and teach him/her how to overcome
an animation could be presented. them.
Aggressive trainees should be instructed on 0RWLYHVIRUGULYLQJ
coping strategies for safely dealing with

feelings of anger and frustration. The difference between motives for why we
drive and motives for how we drive and the
US “driver education for stress conditions” influence of these motives on driving should
program teaches with 24 hours of theory, be communicated.
fixed-based simulator and in-car manoeu-
vres the proper driver’s behaviour to emer- The motives for how we drive include on
gency occasions. the one hand safety, economy and environ-
mental care, and on the other hand hurrying,
The findings indicate that when the task is showing off, testing limits or competing.
relatively difficult (curved road), fatigued
drivers are able to cope with increased de- Novice drivers are at especially high risk on
mands but when it is easy (straight road) recreational trips and when carrying teenage
performance tends to deteriorate, implying passengers. They are quite safe when driv-
that fatigued drivers are failing to mobilise ing on purposeful trips. Competing motiva-
their effort effectively. It should be mention is also a major source for accidents:
tioned to the trainees that they are at par- The influence of other motives which may
ticular risk when the task demands are low. override the safety motive sometimes (e.g.
The authors suggest that stimuli which hurrying or willingness to show off) should
engage the driver's interest (e.g. a navigation be communicated.
system by presenting auditory route related
information, or other information pre-
programmed by the driver) might react to
fatigue-related impairment.
7DEOH6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQVUHJDUGLQJVWUDWHJLFWDVNV
Page 66
%HKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV
.QRZLQJDERXWWKHJHQHUDOUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQOLIHVW\OHDJHJHQGHUDQGGULY
LQJVW\OH
Keskinen et al. (1998) have shown that students find evaluation and feedback of their personal driving
skills and style very useful. A conclusion might be that while young drivers want to learn to handle
their vehicle on a practical level, they are also interested in the more cognitive and social aspects of
their own driving. Connecting practical exercises to theory and self-evaluation of one’s own behaviour
seems to work. According to the training strategy of practical insight, Gregersen (1995) suggests the
following application to make trainees aware that they belong to high risk groups with regard to per-
sonal and social preconditions: after filling in a self-diagnostic test including relevant aspects trainees
discuss why some are high-risk and others low-risk drivers under consideration of accident statistics,
etc. At the end each driver is asked to make a personal decision about how to improve his/her behav-
iour towards safety.
.QRZOHGJHDERXWWKHLQIOXHQFHRISHUVRQDOYDOXHVDQGVRFLDOEDFNJURXQG
Asher & Dodson (1971) show that the socio-economic-education dimension and it’s correlates are
among the most important predictors of accidents; the higher the subject on this scale, the fewer the
accidents. This holds true except when the family resources are of such magnitude as to give the sub-
ject very high access to a car. Exposure to the hazard increases the probability of accidents. Such vari-
ables as staying up on weekends, interest in cars, frequent driving, and learning to drive early are indi-
cators of this exposure.
+LJKOHYHORIVHQVDWLRQVHHNLQJ
As many other authors, Katila et al. (1996) emphasises that sensation seeking is an extra motive which
enhances accident probability.
&RQVHTXHQFHVRIVRFLDOSUHVVXUHXVHRIDOFRKRODQGGUXJV
According to the training strategy of practical insight, Gregersen (1995) suggests the following appli-
cation to demonstrate drivers the influence of JURXSSUHVVXUH: driving with passengers in the car,
which puts pressure on the trainee so that he/she probably fails an avoidance test.
Studies have found that consuming moderate amounts of DOFRKRO can also impact on skills necessary
for driving. Results of Dawson and Reid (1997) demonstrated that for each 0.01% increase in BAC,
performance decreased on average by 1.16%. Lenné, Triggs and Redman (1998) examined the effects
of moderate consumption of alcohol on driving performance in a simulator. Driving performance was
measured by lateral deviation of the simulator car. Lateral deviation was found to be significantly
higher for those with peak BACs of between 0.036% and 0.048% compared to the same participants at
times when they had not consumed any alcohol.
Page 67
$ZDUHQHVVRIRZQSHUVRQDOWHQGHQFLHVULVN\KDELWVVDIHW\QHJDWLYHPR

WLYHV
Evans (1991), as well as Matthews et al. (1998) emphasise that a distinction should be made between a
person’s maximum driving skill and how well drivers apply their skill. Young drivers, for various rea-
sons, choose not to apply or use driving skills acquired through driver education and training. Moti-
vating them to do so is a key to safe driving. Mayhew et al. (1998) suggest that designing a program
that effectively addresses lifestyle and psychosocial factors that relate to how young people eventually
choose to drive may be more challenging than designing a program that effectively addresses critical
skills. As e.g. Lund & Williams (1985) can show, a Defensive Driving Course (DDC) does not de-
crease the likelihood of motor vehicle crashes. It is assumed, that those drivers who take the course
may have little intention of changing their behaviour – they take the course because they have been
ordered to do so by traffic courts or employers or because they want to remove points from their li-
censes or to obtain discounts on their insurance. Another important fact is that according to the social
psychological comparison theory (Festinger, 1954), drivers will be more likely to make violations if
other traffic participants also violate rules (De Waard et al., 1999). Incorrect or inadequate driving be-
haviour will be reinforced and established as long as no undesirable effects occur (Lewin, 1982).
Deery et al. (1999) compared several subgroups of novice drivers with regard to their performance in a
simulator. The subgroups were described in terms of driving-related attitudes, general personality
traits, hostility and aggression. Results showed differences between these subgroups in the way they
responded both to an emergency situation and to several potential traffic hazards in the simulator. Dif-
ferences were also evident in the proficiency with which they could control their attention among
competing tasks while driving in high workload situations. Implications for driver training may be the
identification of subtypes of novice drivers and matching them with specific training or education pro-
grams.
Evans (1991) makes some suggestions for simulated accidents (in driving simulators): the estimated
outcome of the accident (i.e. “you would have been killed” or “your legs would have been broken”,
etc.) should be communicated to the trainee. In the simulator (as well as the PC?) scenarios, a young
child (as realistic as possible) “jumping in front” of the vehicle should be in one or more of the sce-
narios. The impact of the accident to his/her health should be clearly stated and highlighted. This
should be done, because young drivers, following misconcepted stereotypes (i.e. from worries) accept
to risk their own life in the pursuit of pleasure and in defiance of authority. It may possibly be more
easy and fruitful to persuade them that risking the life of innocent bystanders, especially young chil-
dren, is hardly an admirable conduct.
According to Hatakka (DAN-Report, 2000) the educational methods, that might be appropriate to in-
creasing driver's skills for self evaluation, are: improved feedback during training, self-assessment
tools like questionnaires and scales, discussions with other youngsters about personal experiences and
evaluations made by instructors or examiners.
Driver training alone is not sufficient to changing attitudes, it is also a task of society to alter the social
views. Evans (1991) noted that many people deny themselves the pleasure of eating various foods or
do exercises (i.e. jogging), in the expectancy that they will stay healthier and live longer, a motivation
which never stigmatise them as being more cowardly than other less afraid of dying. This analogy
should be conveyed to the general public about driving. The costs of risky driving seem out of all pro-
portions to the benefits, especially when considered in the context of sacrifices so many people are
willing to make for more modest life expectancy gains.
Page 68
7DEXODUVXPPDU\UHJDUGLQJEHKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV
6XPPDU\RIILQGLQJVIRUEHKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV
.QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOO 5LVNLQFUHDVLQJDVSHFWV 6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
.QRZLQJDERXWWKHJHQHUDOUHODWLRQV +LJKOHYHORIVHQVDWLRQVHHNLQJ $ZDUHQHVVRIRZQSHUVRQDOWHQGHQFLHV
EHWZHHQOLIHVW\OHDJHJHQGHUDQGGULYLQJ ULVN\KDELWVVDIHW\QHJDWLYHPRWLYHV
VW\OH
Sensation seeking is an extra motive, which
enhances accident probability. Novice drivers choose not to apply driving
Connecting practical exercises to theory and skills acquired through driver training. Mo-
self-evaluation of one’s own behaviour tivating them to do so is a key to safe driv-
seems to work. &RQVHTXHQFHVRIVRFLDOSUHVVXUHXVHRI
ing.
DOFRKRODQGGUXJV
Training strategy of practical insight: start- Drivers will be more likely to make viola-
ing with a self diagnostic test including Training strategy of practical insight: To tions if other traffic participants also violate
relevant aspects; then trainees discuss why demonstrate to drivers the influence of rules. Also incorrect or inadequate driving
some are high-risk and others low-risk driv- group pressure: driving with passengers in behaviour will be reinforced and established
ers under consideration of accident statistics the car puts pressure on the trainee, so that as long as no undesirable effects occur. The
etc. At the end each driver is asked to make he/she probably fails an avoidance test. fatal consequences of these tendencies
a personal decision about how to improve should be discussed.
his/her behaviour towards safety. Consuming moderate amounts of alcohol
can also impact on skills necessary for Subtypes of novice drivers could be identi-
.QRZOHGJHDERXWWKHLQIOXHQFHRISHU
driving. fied and be matched with specific training
VRQDOYDOXHVDQGVRFLDOEDFNJURXQG or education programs.
The influence of the socio-economic- The impact of simulated accidents to his/her
education dimension and it’s correlates on health should be clearly stated. It may pos-
driving could be communicated and dis- sibly be more fruitful to persuade them that
cussed. risking the life of innocent bystanders, espe-
cially young children, is hardly an admira-
ble conduct.
Appropriate educational methods: feedback
during training, self-assessment tools like
questionnaires and scales, discussions with
other youngsters about personal experiences
and evaluations made by instructors or
examiners
7DEOH6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQVUHJDUGLQJEHKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV
Page 69
6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQV
&RQWUROWDVNV
Training the basic vehicle handling skills is a natural feature of driver training. But in order to enable
trainees to cope with new technical devices, like ACC or ABS, it is necessary to implement lessons
which take these new developments into account. As stated above (4.3.3.4), the simulator is a useful
device for training the very first steps of vehicle handling. The advantages are not only safety related –
trainees could learn these skills without endangering themselves or other road users (like learning with
a real car in a fenced off driving-instruction range), but also ecological related: fuel is not consumed,
the use of a simulator is absolutely exhaust-free.
Trainees should learn to know or better experience the risk increasing aspects of the tasks, especially
underestimation of speed and of TTC, as well the interaction of these two parameters. To enable train-
ees to evaluate their skills in a realistic way they should have the possibility to compare their estimates
with the real outcome. Especially the connection between reaction, braking and total stopping distance
should be understood.
0DQRHXYULQJWDVNV
Insufficient skills and incomplete automation of manoeuvring skills lead to a greater involvement of
novice drivers in accidents. Furthermore, research shows that novice drivers (and for some tasks driv-
ers in general) lack essential perceptual skills. On the one hand they don't use peripheral vision, on the
other hand they underestimate the time needed for many manoeuvring tasks like overtaking, merging,
lane changing, reaching an intersection, stopping, turning off. They have problems to estimate the be-
haviour of other road users as well, i.e. how much time these drivers need to perform the tasks men-
tioned above. When an unexpected and unusual situation does occur, they do not know how to react
adequately. To train these FRJQLWLYHVNLOOV it is suggested to use filmed clips, videos or digital media,
where the trainee has to detect certain cues, to predict, what could happen and what he/she would do.
Trainees should also be given comprehensive feedback whether the task is an estimate or a perform-
ance prediction. It is also possible to train this with simulators. The main DGYDQWDJHVRIVLPXODWRUV
compared with real cars are that trainees can experience scenarios which are too dangerous to create
on the road, and that trainees can train cognitive skills without fully automated manoeuvring skills.
Recent developments in software make it possible that drivers in a simulator could behave in very re-
alistic way. Automatic Traffic Generation and Autonomous Driver models reproduce the circum-
stances in real traffic, and enable the users to repeat and therefore train certain tasks in changing envi-
ronments, with varying risk, and different road users, with variable behaviour. With these devices it is
possible to train anticipating skills, like risk or hazard perception, which are highlighted by recent re-
search as very important for safe driving. Through the combination of opportunity to practice and ob-
taining feedback on those skills trainees can come to their own understandings of how cues in traffic
and outcome are related. Moreover trainees can experience the results of their own risky choices.
However a ULVN\GULYLQJ behaviour results not only from poor perception, but also from RYHUHVWLPD
WLRQof own skills. In order to increase driving skills without increasing the confidence in these skills
the manoeuvring component should not be overemphasised. As some projects and methodologies in
Sweden, like 'Pilot' and 'Insight', have shown it could be better to use more demonstrations and exer-
cises in which novice drivers fail in order to develop a UHDOLVWLFVHOIHYDOXDWLRQof their capabilities.
Page 70
6WUDWHJLFWDVNV
Demonstrations should also be used to convince trainees of following safety instructions (e.g. use of
seat belt). Trainees should know or better experience (in a simulator) which harmful influences on
driving behaviour factors like stress and mood could have and how drivers can cope with these risk
increasing aspects. Techniques like mental practice and group decision could influence the behaviour
of novice drivers due to the fact that trainees are forced to make known their own attitudes and reflect
them. So trainees are aware of their own conditions and can discuss the influence of their and other
road-users’ conditions on the interactive task of driving. They should know that certain motives for
driving, like competing or showing off, have serious effects on driving performance.
%HKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV
Knowing the relations between driving style on the one hand and personal tendencies, social pressure
and lifestyle on the other hand, could enhance the trainees’ awareness of their higher risk in accident
involvement. Feedback during training, self-assessment tools like questionnaires and scales, discus-
sions with other youngsters about personal experiences and evaluations made by instructors or exam-
iners seem to be appropriate educational methods.
It should be borne in mind that every training of manoeuvring skills (and probably this is as well rele-
vant to cognitive skills like e.g. hazard perception) may result in overconfidence of young drivers.
Therefore, training safe driving strategies can only be successful, if driver training covers the whole
range of contents, and consequently should also include motivational and self-evaluative aspects.
Page 71
&KDSWHU$FFLGHQWDQDO\VLV
Page 72
$EVWUDFW
Within WP 2.2 of TRAINER project, an overview of results of accident analysis of novice drivers was
presented. There are clear differences between European countries in novice driver injury and fatality
rate. Then, some specific country cases are considered in more detail afterwards, following a course
approach.
Firstly, a Swedish data base with accident data of a time period of 6 years was used to compare novice
driver’s accidents with more experienced driver’s accidents. Two Belgian databases were analysed,
one with novice driver’s accidents, and one with answers to questions obtained at a post-licence train-
ing course for drivers with a licence for maximum 5 years. In Sweden less novice driver accidents
happen than in Belgium. Per 100 000 persons between 18-24 years, 15 Belgian fatal accidents happen
compared with only 4 Swedish.
In a concluding section results are classified according to the “Gadget matrix”.
Page 73
,QWURGXFWLRQ
Throughout Europe 15.000 young people die each year due to road accidents (Gadget Final Report,
2000). In many European countries traffic accidents are even the leading cause of death of young peo-
ple. Regarding their fatality rate young drivers are over-represented in comparison to other age groups
of drivers. The graphical representation of the fatality rate plotted against driver age shows a distinct
U-shaped curve; fatality rates are highest for young drivers as well as for old drivers (70+ years old).
The size of the problem makes clear that action is needed. It is important yet difficult to identify the
causes of the high accident risk of young novice drivers, since many factors can be imagined to con-
tribute to the high accident risk. Moreover almost none of these factors seems to operate alone. This
analysis of the accidents of young novice drivers approaches the subject in a threefold manner. First of
all relevant statistics on the accident rate of young novice drivers in several European countries will be
presented. Secondly the characteristics of the young novice driver that contribute to the high probabil-
ity of being involved in an accident will be explored. And in the third place the characteristics of the
accidents in which young novice drivers are involved will be explored. In this report a young novice
driver can be defined as a person who is between 18 and 25 years of age and/or possesses his or her
driving license for less than one year.
Page 74
3UREOHPGHVFULSWLRQ
Figure 4 depicts the percentage of young novice driver injuries in several countries of the European
Union. The represented percentage is an aggregate of the proportion of young novice driver injuries of
the total number of driver injuries in 1993, 1994 and 1995.
UK
Sweden
Spain
Portugal
Netherlands
Italy
Greece
Germany
France
Finland
Denmark
Belgium
Austria
0,00 5,00 10,00 15,00 20,00 25,00 30,00 35,00

RIWRWDOQXPEHURIGULYHULQMXULHV
)LJXUH<RXQJQRYLFHGULYHULQMXULHVLQ(XURSHDJJUHJDWHRI
Figure 4 shows that the chance of an injury for young novice drivers in several European countries
varies from 0.2 to 0.3. This chance is relatively high in Austria (32.5%) and Germany (30.3%), in
every three driver injuries there is (almost) one involving a young novice driver. In the UK (25.7%),
Belgium (24.7%), Finland (24.6%), France (24.6%), Portugal (24.0%), the Netherlands (23.9%), Spain
(23.6%) and Italy (23.3%) approximately one out of every four driver injuries involves a young novice
driver. Denmark (28.2%) belongs, regarding the chance of a young novice driver injury, somewhere in
between of these groups of countries. In Greece (22.2%) and Sweden (21.0%) approximately one out
of every five driver injuries involves a young novice driver.
In order to evaluate the changes in young novice driver injuries over the years absolute numbers
should be considered. Figure 2 depicts the absolute number of young novice driver injuries of the
same European countries in 1993, 1994 and 1995.
Figure 5 shows that in Belgium and France the number of young novice driver injuries decreases
more; with a decrease of respectively 15.1% and 11.9% in 1995 compared to 1993. In Portugal, Aus-
tria and the Netherlands the number of young novice driver injuries is also decreasing: respectively
9.5%, 9.2% and 7.9% less in 1995/1994 (P) compared to 1993. In Germany and Sweden the number of
young novice driver injuries decreases by respectively 3.5% and 1.5% in 1995 compared to 1993.
Page 75

UK

Sweden

Spain

Portugal

Netherlands

Italy

Greece

Germany

France

Finland

Denmark

Belgium

Austria

0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000 45000 50000 55000 60000 65000
1993 1994 1995
)LJXUH<RXQJQRYLFHGULYHULQMXULHVLQ(XURSH
The strongest increase in the number of young novice driver injuries is observed in Greece followed
by Finland and Italy; respectively an increase of 63.7%, 31.5% and 14.4% in 1995/1994 (Gr) com-
pared to 1993. In Denmark and the UK the number of young novice driver injuries also increases; re-
spectively 5.1% and 4.7% more in 1995 compared to 1993. The number of young novice driver inju-
ries in Spain seems to be relatively stable (increase of 0.1% in 1995 compared to 1993). In order to
facilitate the evaluation of these trends, their perspective to the total number of driver injuries are de-
picted in Figure 6.

UK

Sweden

Spain

Portugal

Netherlands

Italy

Greece

Germany

France

Finland

Denmark

Belgium

Austria

0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000 160000 180000 200000 220000
1993 1994 1995
)LJXUH'ULYHULQMXULHVLQ(XURSH
In general the number of driver injuries in Europe seems to be increasing. This is especially the case in
Finland and Italy; increase of respectively 39.4% and 21.5% in 1995 compared to 1993. The UK and
Page 76
Sweden are also characterised by an increase in the number of driver injuries, respectively 8.9% and
8.0% more injuries in 1995 compared to 1993. In the Netherlands, Spain, Denmark, France and Ger-
many the increase is less strongly but still substantial; an increase of respectively 5.5%, 5.4%, 3.3%,
3.2% and 1.6% in 1995 compared to 1993. The number of driver injuries in Greece remains relatively
stable; increase of 0.4% in 1994 compared to 1993. Only in three of the thirteen evaluated countries a
decrease in the number of driver injuries can be observed. In Portugal, and Belgium there is a decrease
of respectively 10.2% and 9.2% in 1995/1994 (P) compared to 1993 and in Austria the number of
driver injuries is 1.7% lower in 1995 than in 1993.
Comparing the percentages presented along with Figure 5, the following remarks can be made. In It-
aly, Finland, Spain and the UK the number of young novice driver injuries increases but fortunately
less strongly than the total number of driver injuries. In France, the Netherlands, Germany and Sweden
the number of young novice driver injuries even decreases in spite of an increase in the total number
of driver injuries. In Denmark and especially Greece3 it is the other way around, the number of young
novice driver injuries increases more strongly than the total number of driver injuries. For Austria and
Belgium the comparison is far more positive, not only decreases the number of driver injuries in gen-
eral as well as the number of young novice driver injuries but the last mentioned even decreases more
strongly. In Portugal both the general number of driver injuries and the number of young novice driver
injuries are decreasing almost at the same pace.
<RXQJQRYLFHGULYHUIDWDOLWLHVLQ(XURSH
Figure 7 depicts the percentage of young novice driver fatalities in several countries of the European
Union. The represented percentage is an aggregate of the proportion of young novice driver injuries of
the total number of driver injuries in 1993, 1994 and 1995.
UK
Sweden
Spain
Portugal
Netherlands
Italy
Greece
Germany
France
Finland
Denmark
Belgium
Austria
0,00 5,00 10,00 15,00 20,00 25,00 30,00 35,00

RIWRWDOQXPEHURIGULYHUIDWDOLWLHV
)LJXUH<RXQJQRYLFHGULYHUIDWDOLWLHVLQ(XURSHDJJUHJDWHRI
3
In 1994 compared to 1993 the number of driver injuries in general in Greece increases by 0.4% but the number of young novice driver
injuries increases by 63.7% (!). It should however be mentioned that it concerns a trend calculated only over two years.
Page 77
Figure 7 shows that the chance of a fatality for young novice drivers varies from 0.16 to 0.33. In Aus-
tria (33.3%) and Germany (29.8%) a young novice driver has the highest chance to be killed in an ac-
cident, in one third of all fatalities a young novice driver is involved. In Belgium (24.8%), the UK
(23.7%), Denmark (23.6%), the Netherlands (23.1%), Finland (22.9%) and France (22.7%) a young
novice driver is involved in almost one of every four driver fatalities. In Italy (22.0%), Spain (22.0%)
and Portugal (20.8%) a young novice driver is involved in one of every five fatal accidents. In Greece
(17.7%) and Sweden (16.3%) one of every six driver fatalities involves a young novice driver.
In order to evaluate changes in young novice driver fatalities over the years absolute numbers should
be considered. Figure 8 depicts the absolute number of young novice driver fatalities of the same
European countries in 1993, 1994 and 1995.

UK

Sweden

Spain

Portugal

Netherlands

Italy

Greece

Germany

France

Finland

Denmark

Belgium

Austria

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
1993 1994 1995
)LJXUH<RXQJQRYLFHGULYHUIDWDOLWLHVLQ(XURSH
Figure 8 shows that the number of young novice driver fatalities is increasing in six of the thirteen
evaluated countries. The strongest increase in young novice driver fatalities is found in Denmark and
Belgium; an increase of respectively 28.2% and 19.7% in 1995/1994 (B) compared to 1993. The num-
ber of young novice driver fatalities is also increasing in the UK, Italy, Greece and the Netherlands
albeit less strongly; with an increase of respectively 7.7%, 6.2%, 5.9% and 2.9% in 1995/1994 (Gr)
compared to 1993. The strongest decrease in the number of young novice driver fatalities is observed
in Spain followed by Finland, Austria, Sweden and France; respectively 22.4%, 17.5%, 14.0%, 12.8%
and 9.7% less in 1995 compared to 1993. The number of young novice driver fatalities is also de-
creasing in Germany and Portugal albeit slightly; decrease of respectively 3.0% and 1.3% in
1995/1994 (P) compared to 1993. In order to compare these trends with changes in driver fatalities in
general the latter are depicted in Figure 9.
Page 78

UK

Sweden

Spain

Portugal

Netherlands

Italy

Greece

Germany

France

Finland

Denmark

Belgium

Austria

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
1993 1994 1995
)LJXUH'ULYHUIDWDOLWLHVLQ(XURSH
In general the number of driver fatalities seems to be decreasing. This is especially the case in Finland,
Spain and Greece; with a decrease of respectively 14.8%, 12.0% and 9.8% in 1995/1994 (Gr) com-
pared to 1993. Portugal, France and Sweden are following closely; with a decrease of respectively
8.9%, 8.0% and 6.4% in 1995/1994 (P) compared to 1993. In Germany and Austria the number of
driver fatalities is also decreasing albeit less strongly; with a decrease of respectively 3.8% and 3.7%
in 1995 compared to 1993. In Italy and the Netherlands the number of driver fatalities is increasing,
respectively by 8.9% and 8.6% in 1995 compared to 1993. This is also the case for Belgium, Denmark
and the UK, respectively by 4.3%, 2.7% and 2.7% in 1995/1994 (B) compared to 1993.
Based on the comparison of Figure 5 and 6 the following remarks can be made. Although the number
of driver fatalities in general is decreasing in Greece the number of young novice driver fatalities is
increasing. In Denmark and Belgium the number of young novice driver fatalities increases far more
strongly than the number of driver fatalities in general. Also in the UK the number of young novice
driver fatalities is increasing more strongly than the driver fatalities in general, but the difference in
pace is less extreme. Luckily this is not the case in the Netherlands and Italy where, although there is
an increase in the number of young novice driver fatalities, it is less strongly than the increase in the
number of driver fatalities in general. In Spain, Austria and Sweden the decrease in young novice
driver fatalities is far more stronger than the decrease in driver fatalities in general. In Finland and
France this is also the case albeit less stronger. In Germany and Portugal the number of young novice
driver fatalities decreases but unfortunately not as strongly as the driver fatalities in general in these
countries.
Page 79
<RXQJQRYLFHGULYHULQMXULHVFRPSDUHGWR\RXQJQRYLFHGULYHU
IDWDOLWLHVLQ(XURSH
Table 12 gives an overview of the changes in the number of young novice driver injuries and fatalities
in relation to driver injuries and fatalities in general as described above.
&KDQJH\RXQJQRYLFHGULYHULQ &KDQJH\RXQJQRYLFHGULYHUIDWDOL
MXULHV WLHV
$XVWULD -9.2% -14.0%
%HOJLXP -15.1%* +19.7%*
'HQPDUN +5.1% +28.2%
)LQODQG +31.5% -17.5%
)UDQFH -11.9% -9.7%
*HUPDQ\ -3.5% -3.0%
*UHHFH +63.7%* +5.9%*
,WDO\ +14.4% +6.2%
1HWKHUODQGV -7.9% +2.9%
3RUWXJDO -9.5%* -1.3%*
6SDLQ +0.1% -22.4%
6ZHGHQ -1.5% -12.8%
8. +4.7% +7.7%
*
aggregate of 1993 and 1994
7DEOH&KDQJHLQ\RXQJQRYLFHGULYHULQMXULHVDQGIDWDOLWLHVLQ(XURSHDJJUHJDWHRI
Table 12 shows that in Austria, France, Sweden, Portugal and Germany both the number of young
novice driver injuries and the number of young novice driver fatalities are decreasing. In Greece,
Denmark, Italy and the UK the opposite is true; the number of young novice driver injuries and fatali-
ties are increasing. In Belgium and the Netherlands the number of young novice driver injuries de-
creases but the number of young novice driver fatalities is increasing. In Finland the number of young
novice driver fatalities is decreasing but the number of young novice driver injuries is increasing. In
Spain the number of young novice driver injuries remains almost the same and the number of young
novice driver fatalities is decreasing.
Page 80
1RUPDOLVDWLRQRIDFFLGHQWGDWD
In sections 5 and 6 several factors will be outlined that may be more or less responsible for differences
in accident involvement of drivers of different age groups or of different countries. However other
factors, more or less irrelevant to the causes of an accident, can give lead to illusory differences in ac-
cident involvement. An example of such a factor, for this study, is the number of people in a country
between 18 and 24 years of age. For instance in Germany about 11% of the population is between 18
and 24 years old, whereas in Portugal about 15% of the population is between 18 and 24 years of age.
The observed difference in the number of fatalities and injuries of young novice drivers in these coun-
tries can thus be partly due to the larger portion of the population that can be regarded to be a young
driver. In order to facilitate a thorough comparison of accident data of different age groups or coun-
tries it is therefore important that the influence of these factors is standardised.
Several standardisation methods have been used in accident research. Most researchers prefer to ana-
lyse data on the number of fatalities and injuries per a chosen amount of kilometres driven or a chosen
number of vehicles. Others standardise the data by taking into account the number of licensed drivers
in a country or the size of (a relevant part of) the population. Since the objective of this analysis is to
establish a relationship between accident involvement of young novice drivers and its causes, stan-
dardisation should be done on the basis of variables that are outside the control of the individual.
These variables can be roughly divided into four categories: population related variables, traffic-
related variables, road network related variables and climate-related variables. Population related vari-
ables are variables like population density, size of the population, size of a relevant part of the popula-
tion. Examples of traffic-related variables are the number of vehicles and the number of driving li-
censes. Road network related variables are variables like the total length of public roads and the state
of the road network. Examples of climate-related variables are the number of rainfall or snowfall days
and the average temperature. Table 2 displays the correlation between the number of young novice
driver injuries and fatalities in the thirteen selected European Union countries and some variables
within the four mentioned categories.
Table 13 shows that especially population-related and traffic-related variables correlate strongly with
the accident involvement of young novice drivers. However it should be clear that the selection of
variables in the other two categories is not optimal. It can be imagined that it is possible to select or
construct variables that have a stronger relationship with accident involvement.
The most likely standardisation variable is not only one that correlates strongly with accident in-
volvement but also one that takes into account the relevant features of the subject that is being ana-
lysed. In this case the analysis concerns young novice drivers who are defined as people between 18
and 24 years of age and/or who have a driving license for one year or less. In this light it seems most
likely to standardise the data on the basis of the proportion of the population between 18 and 24 years
of age or the number of driving licenses issued for this age group. Information on the latter however is
scarce, so in this study comparisons between age groups or countries will be made on the basis of ac-
cident data standardised by relevant proportions of the population.
Page 81
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Figure 10 depicts the number of young novice driver injuries in several countries of the European
Union per 100.000 persons between 18 and 24 years of age. The represented number is an aggregate
over 1993, 1994 and 1995.
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Figure 10 shows that compared with the other depicted countries, relatively many young novice driv-
ers in Austria, Germany and Belgium are involved and injured in an accident. In the UK and Italy the
number of young novice driver injuries per 100.000 persons between 18 and 24 years of age is lower
but still relatively high. In the Netherlands relatively few young novice drivers are injured in an acci-
dent.
Figure 11 depicts the number of young novice driver fatalities in several countries of the European
Union per 100.000 persons between 18 and 24 years of age. The represented number is an aggregate
over 1993, 1994 and 1995.
Page 83
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Figure 11 shows that compared with the other European countries, the young novice drivers in Aus-
tria, Belgium, Germany and France are relatively often fatally injured in an accident. In the UK and
Sweden relatively less young novice drivers die in an accident compared to young novice drivers in
the other European countries, but the differences are not very large.
Figures 10 and 11 combined indicate that for further investigation of the young novice driver problem
it can be meaningful to focus the attention on countries like Austria, Belgium and Germany on the one
hand and countries like the Netherlands on the other. In the former countries relatively more young
novice drivers are injured or even die in an accident, whereas in the latter countries relatively few
novice drivers are (fatally) injured. If it is possible to map the circumstances under which young nov-
ice drivers in these countries participate in traffic, then it should be possible to find causes for the ob-
served differences in accident involvement.
Page 84
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Most of the characteristics of young novice drivers that contribute to the high probability of being in-
volved in an accident stem from two crucial factors that are difficult to separate; experience and age.
The task of driving is extremely complex, even though drivers frequently have the impression it is not.
The acquisition of the basic vehicle handling skills is relatively straightforward. It has been suggested
that novice drivers learn the basic traffic rules and learn to shift gear, accelerate, steer and brake after
only 15 hours of driving (Hall & West, 1996). These skills are important for driving but in order to
drive safely drivers should be able to perform higher-order perceptual and cognitive skills. Novice
drivers have to learn what information is important to pay attention to, they have to judge incoming
cues on their relevance and have to evaluate the information in terms of potential danger or hazard.
Especially these skills take time to develop and they require a lot of practice and experience. But
imagine a young novice driver learning to drive and at a certain moment in time he or she is able to
control the car with a minimum of mistakes. As long as the environment co-operates and as long as the
young novice driver does not encounter situations in which he or she has to avoid an accident, then it
is not surprising that the young novice driver develops the attitude that he or she is a good driver.
The characteristics of young novice drivers that are related to experience and age will be discussed in
the following.
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Hazard perception can be described as detection, recognition and dealing with traffic hazards. This
definition makes it clear that the concept reflects young novice drivers subjective experiences and thus
should be distinguished from objective risk. Novice drivers are more likely to fail to detect a hazards
altogether and if they detect a hazard, detection takes more time (Summala, 1987). Young novice driv-
ers identify distant hazards relatively poor (Drummond, 1995). Young novice drivers perceive less
holistically, they perceive more piecemeal and independent of the context (Milech, Glencross & Har-
tley, 1989). Young novice drivers display a smaller range of horizontal scanning of the surroundings,
look closer in front of the vehicle; check mirrors less frequently; glance at objects less frequently;
utilise peripheral vision less efficiently; fixate on fewer objects and fixate more on stationary objects
(see Mayhew & Simpson, 1995). Benda and Hoyos (1983) found that young novice drivers assess traf-
fic hazards on the basis of a single characteristic.
5LVNSHUFHSWLRQ
Risk perception refers to the subjective experience of risk in potential traffic hazards. Young novice
drivers perceive relatively low levels of risk in specific driving situations, e.g. young male drivers as-
sessed lower levels of risk when they were responsible for the situation (Brown & Copeman, 1975).
This however also suggests that young novice drivers perceive themselves as able to deal with poten-
tially dangerous situations. Quimby (1988) found that drivers with a risky driving style perceive low
levels of risk in certain traffic conditions. Drivers taking the most risk also tend to be the youngest.
Page 85
5LVNDFFHSWDQFH
Risk acceptance can be described as the risk threshold, the level of perceived risk a driver is willing to
accept (Stein & Allen, 1987). Evidence of greater risk acceptance is mostly indirect. Researchers have
been able to establish a relationship between youth and speeding, tailgating, smaller gap acceptance
and running yellow lights, which leads to the conclusion that novice drivers are more likely to adopt a
riskier driving style than experienced drivers (Elander, West & French, 1993). These results can be
explained by the notion that young novice drivers are willing to accept higher levels of risk, but it can
also be that young novice drivers have more difficulty to perceive the risk to its full extent (Deery,
1999). Age related factors could also contribute to higher risk acceptance of young novice drivers.
Personality traits like sensation seeking, impulsiveness as well as a risky lifestyle are more prevalent
among young people and can motivate a driver to accept higher levels of risk or even to seek risk to
satisfy the need. Another contributing factor is that illusion of control or unrealistic optimism is more
strongly present in young novice drivers (McKenna, 1993). This can lead to an overestimation of their
own driving skill (Matthews & Moran 1986) and/or an underestimation of the probability of encoun-
tering negative events (e.g. an accident) (Finn & Bragg, 1986). If a person believes that it is not likely
that he or she will be involved in an accident and that he or she is a good driver, then it is most likely
that this person is willing to accept greater risks.
'LYLGHGDWWHQWLRQ
Divided attention refers to the ability to fulfil several tasks simultaneously, which depends on the
quantity and type of processing resources that are available or can be allocated. The less resources a
task needs, the easier it is to perform simultaneously with other tasks. In line with the theories of An-
derson (1982) and of Rasmussen (1984) on the development of skills, a typical feature of the first
stage of learning to drive is the importance of formal rules and the instructions given by the instructor.
As more and more tasks are automated attention will be devoted to higher levels and to the behaviour
of other road users. Driving behaviour in this stage will still be rule-based. In the final stage, the for-
mal rules and the control skills will become more integrated and the traffic itself will provide more
and more guidance for driving behaviour. In this stage more and more tasks may be carried out simul-
taneously, since they do demand less cognitive capacity (Gregersen & Bjurulf, 1996).
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Attentional focus refers to the extent a person is capable to attend to the right things, in the right
amount and at the right time. As described above young novice drivers scanning techniques differ
from more experienced drivers. Young novice driver display a smaller range of horizontal scanning of
the surroundings, look closer in front of the vehicle; check mirrors less frequently; glance at objects
less frequently; utilise peripheral vision less efficiently; fixate on fewer objects and fixate more on
stationary objects (see Mayhew & Simpson, 1995). If the focus of attention is more or less directed
away from the possibly hazardous aspects of the driving task, then the driver will be more susceptible
to becoming involved in an accident. A contributing factor can be the lack of the ability to perform
several tasks simultaneously. Attention will be focused on the most demanding task or the most de-
manding part of the task and other also significant aspects of the task will be ignored or not be noticed
altogether.
6HOIDVVHVVPHQWRIVNLOO
An accurate assessment of one’s own driving skill is obviously very important. An overestimation can
lead to higher risk acceptance or even risk seeking behaviour. Underestimation of one’s own driving
skill can lead to unnecessary careful behaviour which may endanger other road users, like drastically
slowing down far before an exit on the highway. Young novice drivers tend to overestimate their skill
and subsequently estimate their chance of an accident as low, too (Matthews & Moran, 1986).
Page 86
&DOLEUDWLRQ
Calibration refers to the extent that a person is capable of matching his or her performance with the
demands of the task at hand. In order to drive safely it is important to direct attention and effort where
and when needed. An underestimation of the required effort for a certain task can have serious conse-
quences. When a driver approaches a junction he or she has to increase the invested effort since more
aspects have to be regarded at the same time than when the same driver is driving down a straight
highway.
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Maycock, Lockwood & Lester (1991) untangled the age/experience entanglement and stress that other
age-influenced aspects are also important. In their research they found that accident involvement is
initially high in all age groups and decreases during the first few years. However the initial level of
risk is reduced with higher licensing age. They found that the initial risk during the first few years de-
creased by 59% due to experience and 31% due to age factors. Age factors are especially important
among young men.
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There has not been done much research on the relationship between attitudes and accident involve-
ment in general and accident involvement of young novice drivers in particular. Assum (1997) did
investigate this relationship and came to the conclusion that drivers with ’right’ attitudes towards road
safety, speeding, consideration towards other road users and responsibility have a considerably and
statistically significant lower accident risk than drivers with ’wrong’ attitudes. The relationship be-
tween attitudes and accident risk is stronger when young novice drivers are concerned. However As-
sum stresses that the relationship between attitudes and accident risk is a complex one, since those
drivers that have the highest annual mileage, hold the most negative attitudes towards the investigated
subject matter but have the lowest accident risk. This finding can be interpreted as an indication that
experience can overrule the negative effect of age factors or at least of attitudes on accident involve-
ment of young novice drivers.
Parker, Manstead, Stradling & Reason (1992) found that young drivers underline the positive aspect of
speeding and dangerous overtaking more strongly than older drivers, while older drivers underline the
negative aspect more strongly than young drivers. Also young drivers evaluated the outcome of close
following, getting to destination quicker more positively, and the outcomes of dangerous overtaking
less negatively than older drivers did. With regard to sex specific differences, they found that female
drivers underline the negative consequences of speeding more strongly than male drivers.
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Two motives that are identified in several studies are sensation seeking and aggressiveness (Arnett,
Offer & Fine, 1997). Arnett et al. suggest that the basis of the risk-taking tendency of adolescents
while driving lies in part in the traits of sensation seeking and aggressiveness. They found that reckless
driving variables like driving over 80 mph, driving 20 mph over speed limit, racing another car, pass-
ing a car in a no-passing zone and driving while intoxicated are strongly correlated to the two person-
ality variables, mentioned above.
The motives for how we drive include safety, economy and environmental care. Other examples are
showing off, testing limits or competing with others. The safety motive may be regarded as a ‘nega-
tive’ motive. Reinforcement is either neutral or negative. There are no immediate rewards if a driver
tries to drive more safely. On the contrary motives like pleasure seeking may be regarded as ‘positive’
Page 87
motives. For these motives it is possible to achieve a reward. Driving fast may give positive rein-
forcement regarding the pleasure motive (Gregersen & Bjurulf, 1996). Since sensation seeking, etc.
are more strongly represented in young people this may also be a contributing factor to the observed
high accident risk of young novice drivers.
6RFLDOLQIOXHQFHV
Parker et al. (1992) found that young drivers reported more social pressure to commit violations like
speeding, drink-driving and dangerous overtaking than older drivers, from their same-sex friends
(speeding) and their partners (drink-driving, speeding and dangerous overtaking). However this is not
the same for both sexes, female drivers reported less pressure from same-sex friends to speed than
males did and reported more pressure from their partners to close follow than males did. This finding
can be interpreted as an indication that men are more likely to exert pressure on others at least as far as
driving a vehicle is concerned.
Parker et al. also investigated differences in the degree to which accident-free drivers and accident-
involved drivers are pressurised. They found that drivers who had not had an accident for over three
years reported, in comparison to accident-involved drivers, less pressure from other drivers in general,
from same-sex friends towards drink-driving and from the ’typical young male driver’ with respect to
dangerous overtaking. The accident-free drivers however did also report more pressure of the ’typical
young male driver’ to close follow. This finding can be interpreted as an indication that social pressure
can indeed be regarded as a contributing factor to the chance of a driver getting involved in an acci-
dent.
Page 88
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McGwin & Brown (1999) performed an extensive research on the characteristics of accidents of
young drivers in the US. They found that the primary contributing circumstances for crashes in which
a young driver is responsible for the accident are, in descending order of importance, driver not in
control, fail to yield right of way, misjudge stopping distance, following too close, unseen ob-
ject/person/vehicle, fail to heed sign/signal, avoid object/person/vehicle, improper driving environ-
ment and speed over the speed limit. In accidents in which a young driver is responsible, the driver
manoeuvres that leaded to the accident are, in descending order of importance, going straight, turning
left, turning right, entering traffic, changing lanes, backing up, passing on left and avoiding an object
on the road.
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Young drivers’ accidents are typically single vehicle accidents and are often preceded by risky driv-
ing. Young drivers are not over-represented in alcohol accidents. In comparison with older drivers
they are even under-represented. Exception to these findings is the weekend-nights, in which the
young drivers tend to be over-represented. Young drivers are often characterised by driving too fast
for the prevailing conditions. This may also account for the high proportion of accidents in curves, and
single accidents. Young drivers are more often involved in the more serious accidents, partly because
of the presence of many passengers. Furthermore young drivers drive more often with inappropriate
speeds. Speed is directly related to the seriousness of the accident (Twisk, 1994).
Speeding and driving under the influence of alcohol have often been reported to be the most important
risk factors in single vehicle accidents (Brorsson, Rydgen & Ifver, 1993; Twisk, 1994).
'D\RIWKHZHHN 7LPHRIGD\
Night-time driving is more risky than driving during day-time for all driver groups but it is dispropor-
tionately high for young novice drivers (Williams, 1985). Young novice drivers are also over-
represented in crashes during weekends (Twisk, 1994). Moreover, there is evidence for an interaction
of these two temporal variables, since young drivers’ single vehicle accidents occur typically during
weekend evenings and nights (White 1988; Brorsson et al., 1993). The over-representation is partly
caused by the mere fact that young drivers drive more kilometres in the weekend night than other age
groups. Also young drivers drive primarily during the weekend nights.
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Young drivers’ single vehicle accidents occur typically in dry weather and road conditions (Öström &
Eriksson, 1993). Laapotti & Keskinen (1998) compared the factors behind loss-of-control accidents
and non-loss-of control accidents and found that a combination of excessive speed, driving under the
influence of alcohol and driving on a non slippery road surface accounted for 40% of all young male
drivers loss-of-control accidents (70% of which were single vehicle accidents) but only for 3% of their
non loss of control accidents. Excessive speed and especially driving under the influence of alcohol
were rare background factors in young female drivers’ accidents. Slippery road was the factor that
contribute to female drivers’ accident involvement.
Page 89
3UHVHQFHRIRWKHUV
Preusser, Ferguson & Williams (1998) propose that risk taking is not a general characteristic of teen-
age driving but is situational and/or otherwise dependent on the driving context. This conclusion is
based on the findings that young drivers are capable of driving safely in some contexts (e.g. when par-
ents are present or when avoiding contact with the police), while taking unnecessary risks in other
situations, especially when other teenage passengers are present. The higher risk of accidents when
driving with other teenage passengers is on the one hand associated with driver errors but on the other
hand the passengers can also induce risk taking to young drivers. This includes for instance passengers
urging drivers to speed or take corners too quickly, showing off, drivers looking at and talking to pas-
sengers and physical interference with the driver. Doherty, Andrey & MacGregor (1998) compared
male and female drivers’ accidents of three different age groups; 16-19 year old, 20-24 year old and
25-59 year old. They concluded that while the accident involvement rates of 16-19 year old drivers are
higher than those of the other two age groups in all situations that were examined (i.e. weekdays and
weekends, during the day and at night, with and without passengers), they were disproportionately
high on weekends, at night-time and with passengers. This SDVVHQJHUHIIHFW is particularly interesting
because, unlike weekends and night-time (which affect all driver groups negatively), the negative ef-
fect of passengers on overall accident rates was evident only for 16-19 year old driver groups.
Page 90
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VTI in Sweden provided access for the TRAINER project to a large accident database with data from
1994-1999. The database covers only accidents with private cars, which caused personal injury, and
contains only accidents that were reported to the police. Tables 14 and 15 below show the location
where the accident took place and table 16 and 17 show the type of accident. Tables 15 and 16 display
novice drivers only, a total of 6272 cases that were selected from the database. $OO these drivers held
their licence for a maximum of 1 year. Data are displayed for four age groups, 18-24 years (N = 4746),
25-44 years (N = 1210), 45-65 years (N = 220) and above 65 years of age (N = 28). In tables 14 and
17, novice drivers are compared with more experienced drivers, i.e. drivers that held their licence for
more than one year and were above 25 years of age.
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In Table 14, the group ’Experienced drivers’ is actually the group of relatively experienced drivers as
selection criterion is only “held licence more than 1 year and were 25+ years of age”.
Table 14 indicates that novice drivers, compared to more experienced drivers, are more strongly repre-
sented in accidents that happen while driving on a straight or curved road. Experienced drivers are
more strongly represented in accidents that happen on junctions (χ2(df=8)=111, p = 0.000).
Table 15 below displays the location where the accident of novice drivers take place in relation to the
age of the driver.
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Page 91
Table 15 shows that about 50% of the accidents of novice drivers in all age groups happen while
driving on a straight or curved road, without a junction present, while 45% of the accidents happen on
junctions. Young novice drivers have relatively few accidents at entrances/exits compared with older
novice drivers, although even in these groups the proportion of accidents at these sections is still low
(6-7% of all accidents). The oldest novice drivers have relatively more accidents on roundabouts.
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Again data from table 16 and 17 show that a large proportion of novice driver’s accidents happen
without a conflict with other traffic or while performing a specific manoeuvre. Two types of collisions
are predominant: crossing a junction and rear-end collisions. Differences in type of accident between
novice and more experienced drivers are statistically significant (χ2(df=12)=750, p=0.000).
Page 92
7DEOH3URSRUWLRQRIDFFLGHQWVFRQWUDVWHGZLWKGD\RIWKHZHHNQRYLFH1 YVPRUHH[SHULHQFHGGULYHUV1

'D\RIWKHZHHN 1RYLFH ([SHULHQFHG

0RQGD\ 12.2 14.9
7XHVGD\ 12.1 14.4
:HGQHVGD\ 12.4 14.4
7KXUVGD\ 13.5 15.6
)ULGD\ 18.5 17.8
6DWXUGD\ 17.6 12.1
6XQGD\ 13.8 10.8
Table 18 shows that both novice and more experienced drivers have more accidents at the end of the
week. Both groups show the highest number of accidents on Friday. Novice driver differ from more
experienced drivers with respect to the sharper increase in the number of accidents on Friday and Sat-
urday. On Sunday novice drivers are also more involved in accidents. Remarkable is the sharp de-
crease in the number of accidents of more experienced drivers on Saturday and Sunday compared to
the more gradual decrease in accidents of novice drivers. Differences between the two group of drivers
are statistically significant (χ2(df=6)=260, p=0.000).
7DEOH6SHHGOLPLWQRYLFH1 YVPRUHH[SHULHQFHGGULYHUV1
6SHHGOLPLWNPK 1RYLFH ([SHULHQFHG

0.0 0.0
0.7 0.8
44.5 45.7
26.6 25.4
20.4 20.4
6.0 5.5
2WKHU 1.7 2.2
Table 19 shows that novice drivers compared to more experienced drivers have slightly more acci-
dents on roads with a speed limit of 70 km/h and 110 km/h. In this database experienced drivers are
more involved in accidents that occur on a road with a speed limit of 50 km/h. Differences between
groups are significant (χ2(df=6)=15.9, p =0.014).
7DEOH7\SHRIURDGQRYLFH1 YVPRUHH[SHULHQFHGGULYHUV1
5RDGW\SH 1RYLFH ([SHULHQFHG

,QWHUQDWLRQDOKLJKZD\( 16.6 19.2
6WDWHKLJKZD\ 14.7 15.3
0DLQURDG 10.3 11.2
6HFRQGDU\URDG 21.2 18.4
2WKHUURDGW\SH 37.1 35.7
2WKHU 0.1 0.1
Page 93
Table 20 shows that QRYLFHGULYHUVDUHUHODWLYHO\OHVVLQYROYHGLQDFFLGHQWVRQKLJKZD\VDQGPDLQ

URDGVcompared to more experienced drivers. Experienced drivers are relatively less involved in acci-
dents occurring on secondary and tertiary road types(χ2(df=5)=52, p= 0.000), which indicates that QRYLFH
GULYHUVKDYHUHODWLYHO\PRUHDFFLGHQWVRQPLQRUURDGW\SHV compared to more experienced drivers.
7DEOH7LPHRIGD\QRYLFH1 YVPRUHH[SHULHQFHGGULYHUV1
7LPHRIGD\ 1RYLFH ([SHULHQFHG

'DZQ 59.9 70.3
'D\WLPH 31.6 22.0
'XVN 7.4 6.6
2WKHU 1.1 1.1
Table 21 shows that novice drivers have relatively more accident during daytime and dusk compared
to more experienced drivers. The latter have relatively more accidents during dawn. Novice driver ac-
cidents occur later during the day compared with experienced driver accidents (χ2(df=3)=313, p=0.000).
7DEOH:HDWKHUQRYLFH1 YVPRUHH[SHULHQFHGGULYHUV1
:HDWKHU 1RYLFH ([SHULHQFHG

&OHDU 77.3 78.4
)RJ 2.7 2.7
5DLQ 11.5 10.5
)UR]HQUDLQ 2.2 2.2
6QRZ 4.3 4.1
2WKHU 2.0 2.2
Although Table 22 gives the impression that novice drivers have relatively more accidents during rain-
fall and snowfall, compared to more experienced drivers, and experienced drivers have relatively more
accidents during clear weather, these differences are not statistically significant (χ2(df=5)=7.5, NS).
7DEOH0RQWKQRYLFH1 YVPRUHH[SHULHQFHGGULYHUV1
0RQWK 1RYLFH ([SHULHQFHG

-DQXDU\ 7.3 7.7
)HEUXDU\ 6.6 7.6
0DUFK 7.5 7.4
$SULO 7.0 6.6
0D\ 8.0 8.1
-XQH 9.5 8.7
-XO\ 9.9 8.1
$XJXVW 9.1 9.0
6HSWHPEHU 8.2 9.0
2FWREHU 8.9 9.8
1RYHPEHU 8.1 8.6
'HFHPEHU 9.8 9.6
Page 94
Table 23 shows that both novice and more experienced drivers have less accidents during the first four
months of the year than during the other months.
7DEOH*HQGHUQRYLFH1 YVPRUHH[SHULHQFHGGULYHUV1
*HQGHU 1RYLFH ([SHULHQFHG

0DOH 75.5 68.3
)HPDOH 24.5 31.6
Table 24 shows that in both novice and more experienced driver accidents the driver is mostly male. In
novice driver accidents however the male population is stronger represented.
%HOJLDQGDWD$FFLGHQWGDWDEDVH
The Belgian Road Safety Institute BIVV/ISBR had access to police reports on 153,379 accidents of
young drivers (aged 18-24) who have had an accident between 1991 and 1999.
From figure 12 it is clear that the number of young drivers involved in an accident has declined in
Belgium between 1991 and 1996 (see also figures 5 and 6). From 1996 on the annual number of acci-
dents is stable.
<RXQJGULYHU
VDFFLGHQWV
25000
20000
1XPEHU
15000
10000
5000
0
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
<HDU
)LJXUH3ROLFHUHSRUWHG%HOJLDQDFFLGHQWVRI\RXQJGULYHUVDJHGEHWZHHQDQG
Page 95
7DEOH3URSRUWLRQRIDFFLGHQWVSHUPRQWK%HOJLDQQRYLFHGULYHUV1 FRPSDUHGZLWK 6ZHGLVK QRYLFH GULY
HUV1 GDWDIURPWDEOH
$FFLGHQWVLQ%HO $FFLGHQWVLQ6ZH
0RQWK JLXP GHQ

-DQXDU\ 7.8 7.3
)HEUXDU\ 7.2 6.6
0DUFK 8.1 7.5
$SULO 8.2 7.0
0D\ 8.4 8.0
-XQH 8.8 9.5
-XO\ 7.9 9.9
$XJXVW 8.2 9.1
6HSWHPEHU 8.9 8.2
2FWREHU 9.4 8.9
1RYHPEHU 8.8 8.1
'HFHPEHU 8.2 9.8
The pattern of accidents is in Belgium somewhat more stable over the months, peaks are in summer,
while in Sweden in December.
In Table 26 accidents are listed by day of the week. More accidents happen in the weekend in Sweden,
except Sunday. Please note that Sunday accidents include the late Saturday to Sunday night weekend
accidents.
7DEOH3URSRUWLRQRIDFFLGHQWVFRQWUDVWHGZLWKGD\RIWKHZHHNQRYLFHGULYHUV%HOJLDQ1 YV6ZHGLVKGDWD
1 WDNHQIURPWDEOH
'D\RIWKHZHHN %HOJLDQGDWD 6ZHGLVKGDWD

0RQGD\ 12.7 12.2
7XHVGD\ 11.9 12.1
:HGQHVGD\ 12.7 12.4
7KXUVGD\ 12.7 13.5
)ULGD\ 16.0 18.5
6DWXUGD\ 17.8 17.6
6XQGD\ 16.2 13.8
Page 96
3URSRUWLRQRIDFFLGHQWV
9
8
7
6
5

4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
KRXU
)LJXUH%HOJLDQGDWDRI\RXQJGULYHUVSURSRUWLRQRIDFFLGHQWVSHUKRXURIGD\
In figure 13, the proportion of accidents in Belgium is depicted by time of the day. Evidently, WKHUH
DUHSHDNVDWWKHUXVKKRXUVZKHQWUDIILFSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGYROXPHLVKLJK Taking into account the
traffic flow, the number of accidents during the night is high (as high as e.g. at 9 and 10 o’clock in the
morning). When time of day and hour of accident are combined, it turns out that 7% of the accidents
happen during a night (22-6h) in the week, compared with 14.4% of the accidents during a weekend-
night. In this comparison the larger number of weekdays, five, compared with two weekend days is
not taken into account.
The Belgian data also show that relatively few accidents happen on the motorway (6.8%). 2QHLQ
HYHU\WZRDFFLGHQWVKDSSHQVLQWKHEXLOWXSDUHD
In Table 27 the type of accident is listed. The weather at the time of accident was in most cases clear
(77%), whereas only in 18% it was raining.
7DEOH7\SHRIDFFLGHQW
7\SH 3HUFHQW
Frontal collision 13.1
Rear-end 23.0
Flank collision 38.5
Multiple collision 2.3
With object 18.0
With pedestrian 3.9
other 1.4
Page 97
7DEOH/LJKWFRQGLWLRQ%HOJLDQ\RXQJ1 YV6ZHGLVKQRYLFH1 GULYHUV
7LPHRIGD\ %HOJLDQGDWD 6ZHGLVKGDWD

'DZQ 5.4 59.9
'D\WLPH 59.5 31.6
'DUNQHVV 34.8 7.4
2WKHUXQNQRZQ 0.3 1.1
In Table 28 light condition during the accident is compared between Sweden and Belgium. Remark-
able is the high percentage of accidents during dawn in Sweden, and the relatively high percentage of
accidents during the hours of darkness in Belgium.
The Belgian data showed that 73% of the drivers who had an accident were male. In 67% of the cases
they were alone in their car, in 23% of them one passenger accompanied them, in 6% two, in 3%
three, and in 1% more than three passengers were present in the car during the accident. The conse-
quences of the accident were as follows; in 1% there were fatal casualties, in 9% serious injuries, and
in 42% only minor injuries.
In 63% no test on alcohol was performed, in 0.2% the test was refused, and in 4.3 % the test was posi-
tive (in 32.5% negative). Driver state was judged to be normal in 90%, while the driver was evidently
drunk in 3.7%. In 0.2 the driver was under the influence of drugs, DQGLQLOORUIDWLJXHG
In Table 29 the manoeuvre performed at the time of the accident is shown.
7DEOH0DQRHXYUHSHUIRUPHGDWWLPHRIDFFLGHQWSHUFHQW<RXQJGULYHUUHIHUVWRWKHVHOHFWHGLQYROYHG\RXQJGULYHU
RWKHU GULYHU WR WKH PDQRHXYUH WKH RWKHU GULYHU LQYROYHG LQ WKH DFFLGHQW LI VR SHUIRUPHG 7KH RWKHU GULYHU FRXOG RI
FRXUVHDOVREHDQRYLFHGULYHUEXWWKDWLVKHUHLUUHOHYDQW
PDQRHXYUH <RXQJGULYHU 2WKHUGULYHU

Drove straight on 50.7 65.4
Drove in opposite direction 0.7 1.2
Lost control, moved to left 13.8 3.8
Lost control, moved to right 12.9 2.1
Turned left 8.5 12.6
Turned right 2.9 2.0
Overtook on left-hand side 3.3 3.9
Overtook on right-hand side 0.9 0.7
Made U-turn 0.6 0.9
Was reversing 0.5 0.3
Stopped on emergency lane 0.0 0.1
Was road side parked 0.5 0.4
Parked, or drove away from parking place 1.0 1.0
Entered/left private entrance/garage 0.6 0.8
Other 1.3 2.1
Unknown 1.5 2.7
7RWDO
³G\QDPLFV´
Continued at constant speed 66.4 52.3
Braked to stop 11.8 10.9
Started, accelerated 10.1 17.7
Was standing still 1.6 9.1
Unknown 10.0 9.9
7RWDO
Page 98
7DEOH<RXQJGULYHU¶VPDLQIDFWRUVFDXVLQJWKHDFFLGHQWDFFRUGLQJWRSROLFH3HUFHQW
%HKDYLRXU )DFWRU
Red light violation 1.4
Did not yield 14.5
Exceeded solid line 1.1
Misjudged overtaking ma- 1.6
noeuvre
Late avoidance manoeuvre 5.4
Wrong position in carriageway 3.3
Lost control 29.4
Insufficient headway 6.1
Unknown 37.0
Remarkable is that in 37% of the accidents the cause is unknown. For the conditions where the police
could find a main reason for having the the accident, losing control is leading the list of causes, fol-
lowed by “not yielding” priority.
%HOJLDQGDWD7UDLQHHTXHVWLRQQDLUH
DKH/BIVV also asked students who visited a half-day driver training course in November 2000 to fill
in a questionnaire. A total of 525 students completed this questionnaire. The students were young and
all hold their licence for no longer than 5 years (see table 31).
7DEOH$JHRISDUWLFLSDQWVWRTXHVWLRQQDLUHVWXG\
Age frequency Valid percent Years held frequency Valid percent

licence
18 26 5 <1 142 27
19 127 24 1 155 30
20 148 28 2 104 20
21 105 20 3 58 11
22 61 12 4 31 6
23 27 5 5 28 5
24 15 3 Missing 7
25 8 2
26+ 7 1
Missing 1
Of these 525 students, 76 % had had no accident, while of the remaining 124 students 27 had had 2
accidents, and 12 had had 3 accidents or more. Details about the accidents are given in the Table 32:
season, day of the week, time of day. 29% of the accidents were reported to police (or gendarmerie),
while 74% were only reported to the insurance company. Ten persons (9%) received a fine for the of-
Page 99
fence committed during the accident. Out of 118 cases the driver was at fault in 60% (in 5% liability
was shared by both parties).
7DEOH6HDVRQGD\DQGWLPHDWZKLFKWKHDFFLGHQWWRRNSODFH1
6HDVRQPRQWK IUHTXHQF\ 9DOLGSHUFHQWDJH

Winter (01-03) 26 23
Spring (04-06) 24 22
Summer (07-09) 31 28
Autumn (10-12) 30 27
Day of week IUHTXHQF\ 9DOLGSHUFHQWDJH

Monday 9 8
Tuesday 12 11
Wednesday 11 10
Thursday 18 16
Friday 23 21
Saturday 26 24
Sunday 11 10
Time of day )UHTXHQF\ 9DOLGSHUFHQWDJH

Daytime (10-16 hrs) 32 28
Rush (7-10 and 16-19 hrs) 38 33
Night (19-7 hrs) 44 39
Light conditions )UHTXHQF\ 9DOLGSHUFHQWDJH

Daylight 48 47
Dusk 16 16
Night 39 38
From Table 32 it can be seen that (again) most accidents happen on Friday and Saturday, and that they
occur relatively more often during night than during the day.
In 21% of the cases, the accident was a single vehicle accident, while in 72% of them one other vehi-
cle was involved. In less than 10% a vulnerable road user (pedestrian, cyclist) was involved in the ac-
cident. 39% (48 cases in total) of the accidents took place at or near a junction, of these 41 % had traf-
fic lights, 29 % were intersections with right-of-way, on 23% traffic from the right had right of way,
and 7 % occurred at a roundabout.
In Table 33 the speed limit of the road where the accident happened is listed
7DEOH6SHHGOLPLWRIURDGZKHUHDFFLGHQWKDSSHQHG1
6SHHGOLPLW )UHTXHQF\ 3HUFHQW

30 km/h 21 18
50 km/h 61 51
70 km/h 14 12
90 km/h 17 14
120 km/h 6 5
Page 100
Again it can be seen that relatively few accidents happen on motorways (5%) compared with built-up
areas (69%). In Table 34 the road surface condition, and weather conditions at the time of the accident
are listed. The majority of accidents happened on a dry road under good atmospheric conditions.
7DEOH5RDGDQGZHDWKHUFRQGLWLRQVDWWLPHRIDFFLGHQW
5RDGVXUIDFHFRQGLWLRQV )UHTXHQF\ 3HUFHQW

Dry 63 52
Humid/wet 51 42
Icy, snow 7 6
$WPRVSKHULFFRQGLWLRQV )UHTXHQF\ 3HUFHQW

Normal 74 60
Rain 40 33
Fog (visibility < 100 me- 3 2
tres)
Snow, hail 4 3
Unknown 2 2
Most accidents happened in a familiar area. 69% of the students that had had an accident indicated that
it happened on a (more or less) well-known road.
7DEOH7\SHRIDFFLGHQW1
7\SHRIDFFLGHQW )UHTXHQF\ 3HUFHQW

With other vehicle: flank 43 36
With other vehicle: rear-end 30 25
With other vehicle: multiple 5 4
collision
With other vehicle: frontal 4 3
With object 32 27
Other 6 5
Page 101
7DEOH0DQRHXYUHSHUIRUPHGDWWLPHRIDFFLGHQW1RYLFHGULYHUUHIHUVWRWKHVWXGHQWZKRILOOHGRXWWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUH
RWKHU GULYHU WR WKH PDQRHXYUH WKH RWKHU GULYHU LQYROYHG LQ WKH DFFLGHQW LI VR SHUIRUPHG 7KH RWKHU GULYHU FRXOG RI
FRXUVHDOVREHDQRYLFHGULYHUEXWDJDLQWKDWLVLUUHOHYDQWKHUH
0DQRHXYUH 1RYLFH 1RYLFH 2WKHU 2WKHU

GULYHU GULYHU GULYHU GULYHU
IUHTXHQF\ SHUFHQW IUHTXHQF\ SHUFHQW
Drive straight on 56 46 42 54
Drove in illegal direction 1 1 3 4
Lost control, went off the road 19 16 1 1
(started to) turn left or right 16 13 7 9
Made U-turn 0 0 2 3
Was overtaking 3 3 2 3
Was reversing 6 5 2 3
Stopped on emergency lane 1 1 1 1
Was road side parked 2 2 4 5
Parked, or drove away from 3 3 4 5
parking place
Entered/left private entrance 3 3 2 3
Other 11 9 8 10
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Drove at constant speed 34 28 24 32
Braked 44 36 20 27
Speeded up 30 25 15 20
Was standing still 12 10 15 20
Unknown 1 1 0 0
7RWDO
7DEOH0DLQIDFWRUFDXVLQJWKHDFFLGHQWDFFRUGLQJWRQRYLFHGULYHU
%HKDYLRXU 1RYLFH 1RYLFH 2WKHU 2WKHU

GULYHU GULYHU GULYHU GULYHU
IUHTXHQF\ SHUFHQW IUHTXHQF\ SHUFHQW
Red light violation 2 3 4 10
Did not yield 14 19 13 31
Exceeded solid line 2 3 2 5
Misjudged overtaking ma- 4 5 2 5
noeuvre
Late avoidance manoeuvre 10 13 0 0
Wrong position in carriageway 4 5 5 12
Lost control 27 36 4 10
Insufficient headway 12 16 12 29
7RWDO
From the tables 36 and 37 it can be seen that most drivers were driving straight on. Loss of control is a
factor that is most regularly mentioned preceding the accident. In only 4 cases (less than 4%) the
driver stated to have used alcohol.
Page 102
7DEOH5HFHLYHGILQHVIRURIIHQFHV1XPEHULQEUDFNHWVYDOLGSHUFHQWDJH1WRWDO 1YDOLG DSSUR[
2IIHQFH 1RILQHV ILQH RUPRUHILQHV

Speeding (built-up area) 420 (90 %) 34 (7 %) 12 (3%)
Speeding (not built up area) 432 (95 %) 19 (4 %) 6 (1 %)
Speeding (motorway) 438 (97 %) 13 (3%) 3 (1 %)
DWI (alcohol) 447 (100 %) 1 (0 %) 0 (0 %)
DWI (other drugs) 448 (100 %) 0 (0 %) 0 (0 %)
Yielding 443 (99 %) 5 (1 %) 1 (0 %)
Red light running 439 (98 %) 8 (2 %) 3 (1 %)
Seat belt use 440 (98 %) 6 (1 %) 2 (0 %)
No insurance 447 (100 %) 1 (0 %) 0 (0 %)
Driving without licence 446 (100 %) 0 (0 %) 2 (0 %)
Use GSM 441 (99 %) 4 (1 %) 2 (0 %)
Students were asked what manoeuvre, tasks or situations caused problems, and results of this question
are listed in table 39.
7DEOH)UHTXHQF\WKDWFHUWDLQPDQRHXYUHVVLWXDWLRQVDQGWDVNVFDXVHSUREOHPVQXPEHU SHUFHQWDJHLQEUDFNHWV
6LWXDWLRQ 1HYHUVHOGRP VRPHWLPHV 2IWHQYHU\RIWHQ

Changing lane 405 (79 %) 82 (16 %) 23 (5 %)
Driving in adverse weather 357 (70 %) 111 (22 %) 46 (9 %)
conditions
Adapting to infrastruc- 455 (89 %) 45 (9 %) 10 (2 %)
ture/state (e.g. potholes,
speedhumps)
Adapting to slow(er) vehi- 354 (70 %) 88 (17 %) 67 (13 %)
cles
Adapting to other driver’s 299 (59 %) 117 (23 %) 94 (18 %)
carelessness (e.g. when
they do not use indicators)
Adapting to aggressive be- 331 (65 %) 108 (21 %) 72 (14 %)
haviour of other drivers
Driving in presence of lor- 402 (79 %) 75 (15 %) 32 (6 %)
ries
Anticipating behaviour of 403 (80 %) 78 (15 %) 26 (5 %)
vulnerable road users
Parking 369 (73 %) 76 (15 %) 61 (12 %)
Knowing the current speed 309 (61 %) 125 (25 %) 77 (15 %)
limit
Dealing with right-of-way 406 (80 %) 79 (16 %) 22 (4 %)
and similar situations
Page 103
6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQVLQUHODWLRQWR*DGJHWPDWUL[
In the previous chapters differences between European countries, and characteristics of novice driver’s
accidents were described. In chapter 7 accident databases of two countries were analysed, a database
from Sweden and a database from Belgium. Even though these databases were not 100% compatible
(and accessible), results are quite consistent. This is interesting, as the two countries differ in the ex-
tent to which novice drivers are involved in accidents. In Belgium, young novice drivers account for
25% of the total number of accidents, whereas in Sweden this is 16%. Also, if normalised on the
young people’s population, relatively more young drivers have injuries or fatal accidents in Belgium
(624 injuries per 100,000 persons between 18-24 years), compared with Sweden (184 injuries), i.e.
more than 3 times less injuries in Sweden. For fatal accidents these figures are 15 deceased per
100,000 in Belgium opposed to 4 in Sweden (ratio: 3.75 : 1). The Swedish database makes comparison
of novice drivers’ accidents with experienced drivers’ accidents possible, while the Belgian database
contains only novice drivers accidents, but contains 25 times more accidents.
In this chapter the results of the accident analyses are summarised on the basis of the subtasks in the
Gadget matrix. Whenever, RQWKHEDVLVRIDFFLGHQWDQDO\VLV, no conclusions can be drawn for a spe-
cific behaviour, the paragraph will remain blank.
&&RQWUROWDVNVRSHUDWLRQDOOHYHO
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&$FFHOHUDWLQJGHFHOHUDWLQJ
&6WHHULQJODQHIROORZLQJ
The predominant cause for novice driver’s accidents is ‘loss of control’ during driving. The accidents
happened along the road, not near a junction. Although steering and lane following (be it on a straight
or curved road) are required, and perhaps (but this is guessing) factors such as steering with one hand
may play a role, the actual cause for losing control is likely to lay on a higher than operational level.
&6SHHGFRQWURO
In combination with steering performance, speed control is important, simply because high speed,
losing control and serious accidents go together. However, the problem of high speed is not mastering
of control of speed, but the higher level decision to drive at that speed.
&%UDNLQJVWRSSLQJLQFOGLVWDQFHHVWLPDWLRQ
&8VHRIQHZFDUFRQWURODLGV$%6$&&HWF
&&RQWUROWDVNV5LVNLQFUHDVLQJIDFWRUV
&,QVXIILFLHQWVNLOOVDQGLQFRPSOHWHO\DXWRPDWLRQ
As mentioned above, not the skills as such, but the decision for a certain driving speed is important.
Page 104
&&RQWUROWDVNV6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
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This is probably the key factor, the idea that a curve can be driven at high speed, resulting in loss of
control, reflects a lack of a realistic view on one’s own skills, and a lack of experience with the vehi-
cle’s behaviour.
&6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQV
A relatively high involvement in accidents on road segments without junctions, in combination with
loss of control as main factor leading to the accident, indicate that control level skillsare not correctly
MXGJHG.
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Rear end accidents are the second important accident type for novice drivers in the Belgian accident
database (23 %), and the third reason in the Swedish database (15%). Obviously this following be-
haviour could benefit from training, however, on the basis of accident analysis alone the exact condi-
tions that need training cannot be determined. It is not clear if rear-end accidents origin from failure to
estimate distance, from dual task performance while following, or by any other specific cause.
02YHUWDNLQJ
Belgian and Swedish accident data show that in 4% of the cases drivers were overtaking another vehi-
cle at the time of the accident. From the Swedish database it appears not to be an accident typical for
the young novice driver, but the skills required for safe overtaking are not to be ignored in training.
0(QWHULQJDQGOHDYLQJWKHWUDIILF
Accident data do not reveal an overrepresentation of novice drivers in accidents related to merging
into and leaving traffic, although in the Swedish database 5% of all accidents are reported at that loca-
tion.
0/DQHFKDQJLQJ
Lane change manoeuvres may be important judging from the 39% flank accidents in the Belgian data-
base. However, within this accident category, accidents at junctions are included. In the Swedish data-
base overtaking and changing lane are combined, and accidents in this category account for 4% of all
novice driver’s accidents.
In 75 % of the accidents in the Belgian database there were other vehicles involved. Obviously this is
all about interacting with other traffic… The Swedish database showed that particular situations, de-
scribed as “no conflict”( i.e. without conflict with other traffic participants), are important in novice
driver’s accidents (compared with accidents of more experienced drivers).
Page 105
In 4 % of the accidents in the Belgian database and 5% in the Swedish database pedestrians were in-
volved. There is however no specific conflict situation with pedestrians that emerges from the accident
databases available.
03DUNLQJ
Relatively less novice drivers than experienced drivers in Sweden are involved in parking accidents.
The total amount is 1.4% of all novice driver’s accidents
00DQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRURDGZD\FKDUDFWHULVWLFV.QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOV
01HJRWLDWLQJLQWHUVHFWLRQVMXQFWLRQVDQGURXQGDERXWV
Accidents at junctions form a large proportion of all accidents (in the Swedish database 45% happened
at a junction while less than 2% at a roundabout). Not yielding priority is the second important cause
for the accidents, according to the police and to the trainees in Belgium, leaving the cause “unknown”
out of consideration.
01HJRWLDWLQJKLOOVVORSHV
01HJRWLDWLQJFXUYHV
In both the Swedish and Belgian database negotiation of curves is not separated from driving straight
on, as both are in the category “no junction”. As loss of control is an important factor, and most acci-
dents outside the built-up area happen on secondary roads it is likely that negotiation of curves plays a
role when losing control.
05RDGVXUIDFHDQGREVWUXFWLRQVVNLGFRQWUROREVWDFOHDYRLGDQFH
There are no indications from (Swedish) accident statistics that these skills are more important for
novice than experienced drivers to prevent an accident. Most accidents happened during clear weather.
07XUQLQJRII
The Swedish data do not reveal an overrepresentation of novice drivers in accidents when performing
a turning manoeuvre. 12-15% of the Swedish and 11% of the Belgian novice driver accidents hap-
pened during turning. Training of the manoeuvre however should incorporate all that goes with turn-
ing, such as potential conflicts with pedestrians, cyclists, and problems with yielding priority.
07XUQLQJRYHU
Again the Swedish data do not reveal an overrepresentation of novice drivers in accidents when per-
forming a U-turn. The proportion of accidents is below 2% in Sweden (but in this percentage reversing
is also included) and below 1% in Belgium.
0$SSURDFKH[LWRIPRWRUZD\V
No clear accident data on this manoeuvre can be obtained, as accidents related to this manoeuvre are
classified as “wrong position in carriageway”, “insufficient headway”, “late avoidance manoeuvre”
and “did not yield”. The Belgian student drivers mentioned “Changing lane” in 5% of the cases as a
manoeuvre that causes problems.
05DLOURDGFURVVLQJVEULGJHVWXQQHOV
05HDFWLQJWRWUDIILFVLJQVDQGWUDIILFOLJKWV
This category covers such a wide range of manoeuvres that it is difficult to give useful accident data.
Accident-prone behaviour that fits into this category is speeding, red light running, entering a one-way
road from the wrong direction, and not stopping at a stop sign. Not yielding and red light running pre-
Page 106
ceded (according to the police) 16% of the novice driver’s accidents in Belgium. Unfortunately
speeding is not a separate category (see table 19), which makes it difficult to fill this cell of the
GADGET matrix with accident data.
05HDFWLQJWRGLUHFWLRQVLJQVLQFOXVHRILQFDUGHYLFHV
08UEDQGULYLQJ
On average one in every two accidents happens in the built-up area. However, the Swedish data base
did not reveal an overrepresentation of novice drivers in accidents on these roads.
0&RXQWU\URDGGULYLQJ
The Swedish database revealed that on secondary and lower road categories novice drivers have more
accidents, and driving on this type of road may deserve more attention in training.
00RWRUZD\GULYLQJ
Relatively few accidents happen on motorways, and there are no indications that driving on this type
of road is leading to much problems for novice drivers.
00DQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRWKHHQYLURQPHQW.QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOV
0:HDWKHUFRQGLWLRQVIRJUDLQVQRZ
The Swedish data show no effect of weather when comparing novice drivers’ accidents with more ex-
perienced drivers’ accidents. The largest proportion of accidents happen during clear weather. In Bel-
gium also most accidents happen during clear weather.
01LJKWGULYLQJ
The Swedish data indicate that novice drivers have more accidents than experienced drivers during the
hours of darkness. Remarkable is the comparison of Swedish with Belgian data. In Sweden, a bit more
than 7% of the accidents happen during dusk, whereas in Belgium as much as 35% of novice driver’s
accidents happen during night driving. In Belgium the “weekend night”-accidents are notorious.
0,QVXIILFLHQWVNLOOVDQGLQFRPSOHWHDXWRPDWLRQ
As mentioned before, loss of control is the major factor leading to accidents. Evidently this is an indi-
cation that either skills are not completely acquired, or that novice drivers cannot assess their capabili-
ties correctly.
0,QIRUPDWLRQRYHUORDG
Although information overload may play a role in novice driver’s accidents, most accidents happen in
non-complex environments (driving straight on, no junction present).
0,QVXIILFLHQWDQWLFLSDWLQJVNLOOVDQGZURQJH[SHFWDWLRQV
See M.4.1
05LVN\GULYLQJVW\OH
See M.4.1
Page 107
See M.4.1
0$ZDUHQHVVRISHUVRQDOGULYLQJVW\OH
06XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQ
Manoeuvre level related accidents, in which novice drivers are strongly represented, include skills as
distance keeping and negotiating intersections. During adverse weather conditions there is not a higher
involvement in accidents of novice drivers than of experienced drivers. On the basis of accident analy-
sis, motorway and urban driving are not problematic for novice drivers, but driving on secondary
roads may be. ‘Loss of control’ is most frequently indicated as factor preceding the accident, which is
an indication that either skills are not sufficiently crystallised, or of serious lapses in assessment of
one’s own skills.
66WUDWHJLFWDVNV
6'HWHUPLQDWLRQRIWULSJRDOVURXWHDQGPRGDOFKRLFHHYDOXDWLRQRIWKHFRVWVDQGULVNVLQYROYHG
63UHSDUDWLRQDQGWHFKQLFDOFKHFNRIWKHYHKLFOHEHDULQJURDGVDIHW\LQPLQG
The technical state of the vehicle is seldom a reason for accidents. Novice driver’s behaviour in terms
of checking the vehicle does not become apparent from accident analysis.
66DIHW\LVVXHVORDGLQJXVLQJVDIHW\EHOWHWF
Of the 525 Belgian students who followed an one day course, 8 had received fines for not wearing the
seat belt (two of them two fines or more). These are self-reported data, but the two recidivists may be
representatives of a small group of young drivers that continue to neglect to follow safety guidelines,
such as wearing safety belts.
60DLQWHQDQFHWDVNVURXWLQHFDUVHUYLQJSHULRGLFLQVSHFWLRQDQGVHUYLFLQJUHSDLULQJFDUVXE
V\VWHPV
See S.1.2
6(FRQRPLFGULYLQJ
6'ULYHUVFRQGLWLRQVWUHVVPRRGIDWLJXH
In 5% of the novice driver’s accidents the Belgian police officer judged that the driver was ill or fa-
tigued. This high proportion makes it an important subject to be included in driver training.
60RWLYHVIRUGULYLQJ
Page 108
6$ZDUHQHVVRISHUVRQDOSODQQLQJVNLOOV
6$ZDUHQHVVRIW\SLFDOGULYLQJJRDOVDQGULVN\GULYLQJPRWLYHV
66XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQV
The main conclusion that can be drawn on the basis of accident data, and with respect to strategic
tasks, is that awareness of the effects of an impaired driver state on performance is an important issue
for driver training. An impaired driver state as a result of fatigue, but also as result of alcohol and
other drugs (see above), are important topics to focus on.
%%HKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV
%%HKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV.QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOV
%.QRZLQJDERXWWKHJHQHUDOUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQOLIHVW\OHDJHJHQGHUDQGGULYLQJVW\OH
%.QRZOHGJHDERXWWKHLQIOXHQFHRISHUVRQDOYDOXHVDQGVRFLDOEDFNJURXQG
%.QRZOHGJHDERXWWKHLQIOXHQFHRISHHUV
Very often (67%) the novice driver was the only one present in the car when he or she got an accident
(Belgian data). Causal relations, however, in other conditions where more people were in the car can-
not be determined on basis of accident data.
%%HKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV5LVNLQFUHDVLQJIDFWRUV
%+LJKOHYHORIVHQVDWLRQVHHNLQJ
%&RQVHTXHQFHVRIVRFLDOSUHVVXUHXVHRIDOFRKRODQGGUXJV
The Belgian data showed that in 4.3% of the accidents an alcohol test gave a positive result, while in
3.7% the driver was evidently drunk. This means that actual use of alcohol may even be higher. In 0.2
% of the accidents the driver was under the influence of drugs.
%%HKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
%$ZDUHQHVVRIRZQSHUVRQDOWHQGHQFLHVULVN\KDELWVVDIHW\QHJDWLYHPRWLYHV
%6XPPDU\DQGFRQFOXVLRQV
It is difficult to draw conclusions about the Behavioural aspects level on the basis of accident analysis.
Accident analysis can only reveal indirect cues for these aspects, such as whether other passengers
were present, and if the driver had used alcohol or drugs. From accident analysis it turns out that the
effects of alcohol and other drugs is a subject that should receive (more) attention in training.
Page 109
&KDSWHU6XUYH\RIPXOWLPHGLDWRROV
Page 111
3DUW,*HQHUDO6XUYH\
2EMHFWLYHV
Within TRAINER, an internal survey on existing driver training software tools available in the market
was conducted, focusing on the countries of the consortium members. It aims to give an overview of
the state of art in this field and, as a consequence, to contribute to the following workpackages:
WP 1 2YHUYLHZRIGULYHUWUDLQLQJFXUULFXODLQ(XURSHDQGGULYLQJLQVWUXFWRUQHHGV
Here one objective is to systematise all used practices into a common database (T1.1).
Since the computer as a tool for visualization has already been partly introduced into the
teaching process (interactive demos, exercising theory like traffic signs, rules…), it is
necessary to know those tools available.
WP 3 & 4 'HYHORSPHQWRILQWHUDFWLYHPXOWLPHGLDWUDLQLQJWRRO'HYHORSPHQWRIFRVWHIIHFWLYH
GULYLQJVLPXODWRUVIRUWUDLQLQJSXUSRVHV
Also for those WPs, it is a beneficial information to know the tools that currently are in
use. Which scenarios do they support? Which media do they use? Which way of interac-
tion do they apply? Which requirements towards the hardware do they have? But also
their sales price is a valuable indicator for the development and distribution of future
systems.
Also, selected (representative) products from the market were examined further in mere detail.
%DVLFFRQWHQW 6\VWHP&KDUDFWHULVWLFV

Data about current (version 1999/2000) diver training tools in Sweden (5), Greece (2), The Nether-
lands (2), Belgium (3), Spain (2) and Germany (2) have been obtained through 17 questionnaires.
They are:
S Bonniers Traficskola 3 (Bonnier Multimedia, Price 72 ¼
En god hjälp med teorin (STR Media AB, Price 45 ¼
Körkörtstest 2 (STR Media AB, Price 45 ¼
TK 2000 (STR Media AB, Price 70-560 ¼
Vägmärken (STR Media AB, Price 23,- ¼
GR Driving Skills (Backs Electronic Publishing Ltd., Price -----)
Feu Vert pour le permis de conduire (Gutenbic S.A., Price 50¼
NL TRUST 800 (Thomson Training & Simulation, Price simulator 454,545,- ¼
Zebra (UGA media, Price 14 ¼
De nieuwe Rijes (VekaBest, Price 340-567 ¼
B Mijn rijbewijs zonder omwegen (De Boeck & Lancier, Price 50 ¼
Wees wegwijs (Wees Wegwijs N.V., Price -----)
Interactief Defensief Autorijden (Commercial Union Belgium N.V., Price -----)
E Autosim (GSC Grupo de Simulación de Conducción, Price Simulator 12048,- ¼
SEVIAL (INTRAS Instituto Universitario de Trafico y Seguridad Vial, Price -----)
D SCAN & TEACH (Degener Lehrmittel GmbH, Price 1250,- - 1750,- ¼
Speedy (Vogel Verlag, Price 1750,- ¼9$7
Page 112
From the tools considered:

• 3 tools allow training on car and truck (6&$1 7($&+, ,QWHUDFWLHI'HIHQVLHI$XWRULMGHQ
9HND%HVW),
• 1 tool is made for truck training only (75867) and
• 1 tool allows training on car, bus and truck (7.).
13 tools are PC based software, 2 are PC based simulators (75867, $XWRVLP), 2 are based on a
CD-I player without PC and need a TV set (6&$1 7($&+,9HND%HVW). For the PC versions the
software is sold as a CD-Rom.
0RGHRI8VH
From the ones reviewed, 4 software tools can be used by the trainee alone at home as well as in the
driving school. They also serve as a demonstration tool for the instructor during the lessons (%RQQLHUV
7UDILNVNROD, :HHV:HJZLMV, )HX9HUW, 'ULYLQJ 6NLOOV).
1 tool is meant for use by the trainee alone, either at home or at the driving school (9lJPlUNHQ).
5 software tools are meant for use at home only (=(%5$, 0LMQ5LMEHZLMV, ,QWHUDFWLHI'HIHQVLHI, (Q
JRG+MlOS, .|UNRUWVWHVW).
7 software tools are conceptualised for use in the driving school only. Amongst them 4 systems are
supposed to be used by the trainee alone. These are the simulator system 758676(9,$/, the
interactive PC workplace for 6SHHG\ and 7..
On the contrary, the other 1 simulator system ($XWRVLP) can be used both by the student alone and as
a demo tool during the lessons. 1 tool is a mere demo tool for the theoretic education (6&$1
7($&+) and 1 tool is used as demo tool and by the trainee (9HND%HVW).
3UHVHQWDWLRQPHGLD
Most frequently applied as a mean of presentation are computer animations, followed by images,
sound, photo and video. The one named “others” is the presentation of text in written form (6SHHG\).
Page 113
3UHVHQWDWLRQ0HGLD
16
14
14 13
12
12
10
10
8
8
2 1
0
Computer Photo Sound Real Videos Images Others
animation
)LJXUH3UHVHQWDWLRQPHGLDRIWKHVXUYH\HGPXOWLPHGLDGULYHUWUDLQLQJWRROV
Page 114
6FHQDULRV&RQWHQW
5 tools only provide all the content concerning the control level, the manoeuvring and the strategic
level (%RQQLHUV7UDILNVNROD, .|UNRUWVWHVW, 7., 6&$1 7($&+ and 6SHHG\). They are all
PC based software tools. Remarkable in this context is the big difference in sales price.
The cheapest product is the Swedish .|UNRUWVWHVW (45,- ¼DQGWKHPRVWH[SHQVLYHRQHVDUHWKH*Hr-
man products 6&$1 7($&+ and 6SHHG\ (approx. 1750,- ¼7KHUHDVRQKHUHIRUHFDQEHVHHQLQ
the different target groups: The German products are sold to driving schools and are supposed to be
used there exclusively. The Swedish products can be used at home as well as in the driving school.
For further more detailed examination we split up the scenarios provided into the different levels. The
mentioned absolute numbers also include the 5 tools providing all scenarios.
&RQWURO/HYHO
The control level in the questionnaire is divided into the topics:
• Legislative conditions of driving education
• Avengement in case of misconduct
• Rules, Signs
• Technical operation of the vehicle
• Structure of the road network
• Others
Concerning the control level as one block of the content, 5 products are exceptional:
9lJPlUNHQ is a product focussing on traffic signs only. It also doesn´t cover any component of the
manoeuvring and the strategic level.
75867 is a simulator concentrating on the manoeuvring and the strategic level only. The control
level is not implemented at all.
$XWRVLP is a low cost driving simulator for driving schools in Spain, dealing with the control level
only, in a way that it shows the technical operation of the vehicle.
6(9,$/ is in a phase of development. So far it covers rules and signs only (control level).
Amongst the rest, 5 products contain three ((QJRGKMlOS, 'ULYLQJ6NLOOV, ,QWHUDFWLHI'HIHQVLHI) or
four ()HX9HUW, =(%5$) of the topics and thus cover more than 50 % of the content components.
Finally, 7 products cover all topics (%RQQLHUV7UDILNVNROD, .|UNRUWVWHVW , 7., 0LMQ5LMEHZLMV,
:HHV:HJZLMV, 6&$1 7($&+ and 6SHHG\). In addition, 6&$1 7($&+ deals also with the
topics of car insurance, car registration and official documents (within "others" category).
Page 115
The following diagram shows the global accumulation of the covered topics.
&RQWHQW&RQWURO/HYHO
16 15
14
12 12
1XPEHURI3URGXFWV
12 11
10
10
2 1
0
Legislative
the vehicle
Avengement
Structure of
Rules,
working of
conditions
Others
of driving
education
Technical
misconduct
signs
in case of
the road
)LJXUH&RQWUROOHYHOUHODWHGFRQWHQWVRIWKHGULYHUWUDLQLQJWRROVVXUYH\HG
network
0DQRHXYULQJ/HYHO
The manoeuvring level in the questionnaire is divided into the topics:
• Driving at appropriate speed
• Keeping safety distance
• Driving ecologically
• Observing traffic when starting, stopping, turning, overtaking,...
• Non-moving traffic (parking, towing,...)
• Particular circumstances (night, accident, little space e.g. inner city,...)
• Others
In this category only 1 product does not treat any of the topics at all (9lJPlUNHQ – concentrating on
traffic signs only).
Excluding the category “others”, 1 product deals with “Non-moving traffic” only ()HX9HUW – con-
centrating on the control level).
7 products incorporate all the mentioned topics (%RQQLHUV7UDILNVNROD, (QJRGKMlOS, .|UNRUWVWHVW,
7., 75867, 6&$1 7($&+, 6SHHG\).
Page 116
7 products cover the topics partially. Three topics are applied in =(%5$.
Also 6(9,$/ covers three topics, $XWRVLP four, while five are covered within 'ULYLQJ6NLOOV, 0LMQ
5LMEHZLMV, :HHV:HJZLMV and ,QWHUDFWLHI'HIHQVLHI. The latter six have in common that none of
them treats the topic “Driving ecologically”.
Those three products involving “other” topics are 'ULYLQJ6NLOOV (bad weather), )HX9HUW (junctions)
and 6&$1 7($&+ (driving with a trailer)
The following diagram shows the global accumulation of the covered topics.
&RQWHQW0DQRHXYULQJ/HYHO
16 15
14 14 14
14 13
1XPEHURI3URGXFWV
12
10 9
4 3
2
0
traffic when
traffic (parking,
Keeping safety
appropriate
ecologically
circumstances
Others
starting, ...
Observing
Driving at
Non-moving
Driving
speed
Particular
towing...)
(night...)
distance
)LJXUH0DQRHXYULQJOHYHOUHODWHGFRQWHQWVRIWKHGULYHUWUDLQLQJWRROVVXUYH\HG
6WUDWHJLF/HYHO
The strategic level in the questionnaire is split up into the topics:
• Personal conditions (physical, psychological)
• Risks deriving from human characteristics in general (emotions, roles, idols, self perception)
• Risks related to driver groups (novice, elderly)
• Others
5 products deal with all the mentioned topics (%RQQLHUV7UDILNVNROD, .|UNRUWVWHVW, 7., 6&$1
7($&+ and 6SHHG\).
On the other hand, 6 products don't treat this category at all ((QJRGKMlOS, 9lJPlUNHQ, )HX9HUW,
$XWRVLP,9HND%HVW and 6(9,$/).
Page 117
Amongst the rest, 3 products deal with “Personal conditions” only (0LMQ5LMEHZLMV, :HHV:HJZLMV
and ,QWHUDFWLHI'HIHQVLHI).
2 products additionally include the topic “Risks deriving from human characteristics” (75867,
=(%5$).
1 product only deals with “Risks deriving from human characteristics” ('ULYLQJ6NLOOV).
Finally, two product mention “other” topics. 'ULYLQJ6NLOOV additionally deals with cyclists, 6&$1
7($&+ with help in case of problems and traffic safety.
&RQWHQW6WUDWHJLF/HYHO
16
14
12
1XPEHURI3URGXFWV
10
10
8
8
6 5
4
2
2
0
Personal conditions Risks deriving fr. Risks related driver Others
(phys., psych....) human character. groups (novice...)
)LJXUH6WUDWHJLFOHYHOUHODWHGFRQWHQWVRIWKHGULYHUWUDLQLQJWRROVVXUYH\HG
Page 118
6XPPDU\5HVXOWVRI3DUW,*HQHUDO6XUYH\
As wide as the price range of the considered products is (from a 45 ¼VRIWZDUHXSWRD¼

simulator), also the relevant areas of application and thus teaching contents vary. The cheap products
are software tools with a focus on home use, partially also for training in the driving schools (%RQ
QLHUV7UDILNVNROD, (QJRGKMlOS, .|UNRUWVWHVW, 9lJPlUNHQ, )HX9HUW, =(%5$). The more expen-
sive group of products (approx. 70 ¼¼LVIRUPHGE\VRIWZDUHZKLFKLVVROGWRWKHGULYLQJ
schools only, sometimes optionally in combination with hardware (computers, workplaces). It is de-
signed for use in the driving schools only. Representatives are 7., 6&$1 7($&+, 9HND
%HVW and 6SHHG\. Simulators form the top price segment. They can be seen as serious investment that
can practically only be afforded by driving schools (75867, $XWRVLP).
What might be surprising is the fact that the cheaper products are the ones with the higher content of
scenarios supported. All scenarios mentioned in the questionnaire are covered by the low price prod-
ucts %RQQLHUV7UDILNVNROD and .|UNRUWVWHVW. Also 7., 6&$1 7($&+ and 6SHHG\ support
all scenarios and topics, but they already belong to the higher price segment. 9HND%HVWcovers all sce-
narios of the control and manoeuvring level, but does not regards the strategic level. Both simulator
systems (75867, $XWRVLP) focus their scenarios on the manoeuvring level and neglect the stra-
tegic level (especially $XWRVLP).
The following paragraphs regard the results more in detail, but for precise information please have a
look into the appendix at the end of the document.
Page 119
3DUW,,.H\3URGXFWV
Part II of this survey focuses on the content of the scenarios, the means of interaction and information
presentation and describes some key products more in detail than Part I did.
The following products have been examined more closely:

S %RQQLHUV7UDILFVNROD(Bonnier Multimedia, Price 72 ¼
NL =HEUD9HND%HVW(UGA media, Price 14 ¼
B ,QWHUDFWLHI'HIHQVLHI$XWRULMGHQ(Commercial Union Belgium N.V., Price -----)
B )HX9HUWSRXUOHSHUPLVGHFRQGXLUH(Gutenbic S.A., Price 50 ¼
E $XWRVLP(GSC Grupo de Simulación de Conducción, Price Simulator 12048 ¼
D 6&$1 7($&+(Degener Lehrmittel GmbH, Price 1250 - 1750 ¼
USA 'ULYHU=('IRU7HHQ'ULYHUV (AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, Price approx. 30 ¼
'ULYHU=('I([SHULHQFHG'ULYHUV(AAA Foundat. for Traffic Safety, Price approx. 100 ¼
The US products have not been examined in part I and have been included here, since in the course of
the survey they turned out to be relevant to TRAINER.
The structure of the following paragraphs follows the structure of the distributed questionnaires (see
appendix).
Page 120
*HQHUDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV.H\3URGXFWV
Except AUTOSIM, all products mentioned are software tools, whereas AUTOSIM is a complete
simulator (seat box concept). Before the products are described more in detail, the commonalities be-
tween them are pointed out.
Hereby the scaling of the diagrams vary, since absolute numbers are presented which are showing the
cumulative number of scenarios supported by each tool. Still they reveal tendencies.
,QSXW'HYLFHV
Most common input device is the mouse in combination with a PC. Except three products, all others
use the mouse. These three are: ZEBRA, which is controlled by a YES/NO-button instead of a mouse;
SCAN & TEACH, which is a demonstration tool for the driving instructor in the driving school and is
controlled by the TV set remote control and a bar code scanner to select the images /videos, etc. shown
on the TV set; and AUTOSIM, which is handled like a normal car, which means that the trainee oper-
ates steering wheel, pedals and manual gearbox (see figure below). It is also operated by a keyboard
additionally.
,QSXW'HYLFHV
40
36
35
K
W
L 30
Z
G
H
W
D
U 25
H
S
R

V
R
L
U 20
D
Q
H
F
V

I 15
R

U 12
H
E
P
X10
1
6
5
mouse keyboard others
)LJXUH,QSXWGHYLFHVXVHGE\WKHDQDO\VHGGULYHUWUDLQLQJWRROV
One product only makes use of both mouse and keyboard: Bonniers Trafikskola, while all others use
the mouse only (apart from AUTOSIM).
Page 121
The action expected from the trainees to make their input is in the most cases “to answer questions” by
clicking with the mouse on the correct answer given. Condition therefore is the observation of the on-
going scene (see diagram below).
In significantly fewer scenarios the trainee has to make a prognosis what will happen next, to make a
driving decision or to name hazards. This shows a fist weak point of most products on the market: The
lack of training in the field of risk awareness and hazard perception.
“Other” input by the trainee is “to answer questions about the highway code” (Interactief Defensief)
and “checking traffic signs” (Driver ZED Exp and Teen).
45
40 39
36
1XPEHURI6FHQDULRV5HTXLULQJWR
35
30
25
22
21
20 19
15
12
11
10
0
observe prognose answer stop the make a name others
what will questions scene driving hazards
happen decision
next
)LJXUH$FWLRQVUHTXLUHGE\WKHWUDLQHHZKHQXVLQJWKHDQDO\VHGGULYHUWUDLQLQJWRROV
Page 122
2XWSXW0RGDOLWLHV
Concerning the output modalities, speech and text are most frequently applied, followed by photos and
video sequences. Animations are not as often used, but the publishers have just started to implement
this media. It can be expected that this method of presentation will gain importance in the next years,
since it allows visualisation of actions and processes which cannot be shown properly with a video clip
(e.g. the function of vehicles technical parts, mechanical conditions, influence of alcohol, etc.).
Other means of information presentation are sketches (Feu Vert, Scan&Teach), music (Scan&Teach)
and sound (Bonniers Trafikskola). Remarkable is the fact that text is applied by all products except the
American Driver ZED tools. They are, on the contrary, strongly based on dialogue.
2XWSXW0RGDOLWLHV
50
45
1XPEHURI6FHQDULRVVXSSRUWHGE\
45 43
40
36
34
35
30
26
24
25
20
15
10
5
0
video animation fotos text speech others
)LJXUH2XWSXWPRGDOLWLHVRIWKHDQDO\VHGGULYHUWUDLQLQJWRROV
Page 123
2XWSXW&RQWHQW
The content of the output given by the tool is dominated by “showing the right answers” and “showing
the right choices” (see diagram below). The difference between both criteria can be seen in the differ-
ence in presentation mode: while e.g. “showing the right answers” refers more to theoretical questions,
“showing the right choice” can be seen in correlation with driving task and the situation of a trainee
who has to decide in which way to act next. “Showing the hazards existing” is frequently used, but not
related sufficiently enough to the activities the trainee has to carry out (see 4.2). This means that the
products try to highlight hazards, but they leave trainees in a rather passive role. Involving them more
could improve the quality of the lessons learned.
Even fewer scenarios provide information about the consequences of an action taken. Emphasizing
this point could be another strong improvement towards risk awareness and hazard perception. Since it
is rather difficult to do so with realistic videos (Driver ZED is a very advanced good practice example
therefore), the use of animations could be an interesting option for the future. Surprisingly enough,
Driver ZED concentrates the important scenarios concerning the strategic level (like hazard percep-
tion) in the version for experienced drivers, although this could be a considerable enrichment for nov-
ice drivers.
“Other” output content is the trainee´s score (Bonniers, both Driver ZED tools). Furthermore, Driver
ZED for experienced drivers shows blind spots of a truck mirror and the truck´s manoeuvring as well
as showing the different options a car driver can have depending on each case and the driver´s experi-
ence.
Concerning the content of all scenarios supported, AUTOSIM is supporting the fewest, while Feu Vert
the most scenarios, followed by Driver ZED for experienced drivers.
2XWSXW&RQWHQW
35
31 31
1XPEHURI6FHQDULRV
30
24
25
20
20
15 13
10
5
0
showing showing the showing the showing the others
consequences right answers right choice hazards
("that would existing
have
happened")
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Page 124
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To get an overview of the focus that all examined products put on certain scenarios, the diagram below
shows the accumulation of scenarios supported. Again, this is a comparative figure showing differ-
ences rather than absolute numbers.
Apparently the scenarios dealing with particular circumstances (like night, having an accident, driving
in narrow streets (e.g. in inner cities), non-moving traffic, observing traffic, keeping safety distance
and driving at appropriate speed) are most commonly applied. A big gap separates them from the sec-
ond group of scenarios, dealing with risks related to specific driver groups, risks deriving from human
characteristics, personal conditions and ecologic driving. It again reflects the observations made in
6.2.3.2 and 6.2.3.3.
Since these scenarios can strongly contribute to safer driving, it would be beneficial for further devel-
opment to strengthen their application.
$SSOLFDWLRQRI6FH QDULRV
Risks related driver groups (novice, elderly)
Risks deriving from human character (emotions, ideals,

roles...)
Personal conditions (physical, psychological, social...)
Partic. circumstances (night, accident, little space...)
Non-moving traffic (parking, towing...)
Observing traffic when starting, stopping, overtaking...
Driving ecologically
Keeping safety distance
Driving at appropriate speed
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
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Page 125
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In the following chapters 5 & 6, selected products are described in more detail. As a consequence of
the wide range of products, from simulators to software for the driver training at home, each product is
described separately.
=(%5$9HND%HVW
=(%5$ / 9HND%HVW are identical Dutch products with a strong emphasis on theory. The trainee is
supposed to answer questions with a YES / NO-button. These questions are enriched with text and
photos (see Figures 23-24 below).
Question number and Time left to

instruction Question and answer
answer option (yes/no)
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Page 126
Except the scenario “Personal conditions (physical, psychological, social,…)” the content is limited to
the manoeuvring level. Even here, the part “Observing traffic when starting, stopping,…” is omitted
(see ZEBRA data Sheet). On the other hand it is the cheapest product (14 ¼DQGWKXVLWFDQQRWSURYLGH
the same content like the ones in the higher price segment. What might be surprising is the fact that
this product is meant to be used in the driving school, since the price seems to be fit for use by private
users too.
To next question Score Correct answer and brief
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Score Wrong answer and brief expla-

To next question nation of answer
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7RVXPLWXS, in terms of content =(%5$ / 9HND%HVW might not be a good practice example for
TRAINER. But in terms of graphical layout it can give positive stimuli.
Page 127
6FDQ 7HDFK
6FDQ 7HDFK is the most common visualization tool in Germany, and 60-70% of all driving schools
apply it for their education. It is used by the instructor exclusively, the students are not interacting with
the system at all. It is supposed to enrich the education with images, photos, background text and vid-
eos (see figures). Images are always supported by spoken text. The entire content of all driving classes
is filed on 3 CD-Is. The instructor selects the output media with a barcode scanner from a paper file,
showing all the content in short form.
To run the demonstrations, the set of 3 CD-Is is required as well as a CD-I player, a TV set, its remote
control and a barcode scanner. The publisher agrees that too little emphasis is put on risk awareness.
One reason is the tight official training schedule given. But he points out that implementing risk
awareness would cover the needs of the entire market, regardless of the driving license class. How-
ever, it is more neglected in the car education, whereas the motorbike education provides compara-
tively much risk related content.
The tool is available in many languages: German, French, English, Greek, Italian,.… From November
on there will be an additional teaching tool (&OLFN /HDUQ) for autodidactic training by the trainee in
the driving school. It is a PC based tool providing also theoretical content.
Particular circumstances (night, accident, little space e.g. inner city...) with video output are currently
under development. The educational content for all driving license classes is put on three CD-Is and is
selected by the instructor. Figure 4 shows the content of each CD-I.
All photos are taken under realistic conditions straight from the TV set in a driving school.
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Mainly two driving license classes have been demonstrated, car and motorbike. Hereby it is interesting
that the motorbike section is much more aiming towards the important risk awareness and hazard per-
ception problem than the car education does. One reason might be the vulnerability of the weaker rider
who has to avoid dangerous situations even more than a car driver.
Page 128
&DUGULYLQJHGXFDWLRQ
Cartoons, animations, photos and videos are used to show the content. The driving instructor selects
the content from an open book with a bar code scanner. With the TV set remote control he or she can
stop and play the scene at any time. This is visible in figures 31 and 34, where the operation mode of
the system is displayed. The figures below show some examples.
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Page 130
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As already stated, the motorbike section focuses much more on risk awareness and hazard perception.
This is realised by the application of many video clips and animations on physics and dynamics as
well as on personal conditions. The figures below show a set of examples. Also here operation is per-
formed by the instructor only.
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Page 131
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7RVXPLWXS, 6FDQ 7HDFK is not a good example in term of involvement of the trainee since it is a
mere visualization tool for the lecture. But the way animations are made and used, and the big number
of videos makes it a valuable source of scenarios. Concerning risk awareness and hazard perception
the motorbike section is more advanced than the car section. An additional tool (“&OLFN 7HDFK”) is
stated that it will be on the market until the end of 2000 and could be another valuable input for
TRAINER.
Page 132
,QWHUDFWLHI'HIHQVLHI$XWRULMGHQ has been developed by an insurance company which is active in the

accident prevention field. Their goal is to inform people about road safety and try to change their atti-
tudes towards safer driving. It is a tool designed for home use only and the curriculum is based on the
Belgian driving education regulations. It is subdivided in 10 different chapters and it focuses on driv-
ing defensively for cars and trucks. Its price is unknown.
The tool emphasizes scenarios supporting the manoeuvring level and covers most of the mentioned
contents – except ecologic driving. On the strategic level, particular problems related to truck driving
are treated. What is remarkable is the high level of involvement of the trainee. In almost all scenarios
he or she has to observe, make a prognosis what will happen next, answer questions, make a driving
decision and name hazards. The only activity not supported is to stop the scene. This is realised in the
Driver ZED tools. This high degree of required activity certainly influences the training success in a
positive way since it addresses many cognitive channels of the trainee. The following figures give an
overview of the layout and the interaction with the tool.
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Page 133
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7RVXPLWXS, ,QWHUDFWLHI'HIHQVLHI$XWRULMGHQ is a highly relevant tool for TRAINER. It strongly

involves the trainee, covering almost all named activities except “stopping the scene”. Its weak point
is the neglect of the strategic level.
Page 134
%RQQLHUV7UDILNVNROD
%RQQLHUV7UDILNVNROD is a state of the art program for theoretical driver education in the driving
school and at home. It is available in Swedish only. It covers many scenarios concerning manoeuvring
as well as strategic level. It consists of three parts:
• Lectures with videos and test questions
• Lectures with photos, animation and test questions
• Near to reality written licence test
The reason why it is regarded as theory tool is the fact that it involves the trainee only in a rather pas-
sive way: He or she has to observe the scenery and to answer questions after. Trainees are not con-
fronted with driving sequences they have to interact with, nor they have to make driving decisions and
prognosis or name hazards.
Positive is the high content of scenarios supported. On the manoeuvring level for example it provides
additionally the points “vehicle construction and safety control”, on the strategic level “learning and
experience methods”. Positive is also the wide range of output modalities: video, text, speech, sound,
animation and photos are presented in a graphically very well made form. The figures below show a
few screenshots of the programme.
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Page 135
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Page 136
7RVXPLWXS, %RQQLHUV7UDILNVNROD is a well made driver education tool for theory content. It in-
cludes manoeuvring and strategic level entirely and provides rich output in the form of video, text,
speech, animations and photographs, but it involves the trainee only partly into the scene. This means
that all activity required from him or her is to observe and to answer questions. Other tools like Feu
Vert and Driver ZED are more advanced on this point. Also, hazard recognition is neglected. Relevant
to TRAINER is its high output content and the wide range of scenarios supported.
Page 137
$8726,0
$8726,0 is a low cost driving simulator for driving schools in Spain. It puts emphasis on manoeu-
vring tasks and omits any strategic tasks. The trainee sits into a kind of seat box and drives the simu-
lator with the typical controls, such steering wheel, pedals and manual gearbox. The scenery presented
is an animation only.
A lesson is run in that way that trainees first select from a menu the lessons they want to practise and,
after practising, they select the lesson they want to train with a little keyboard of buttons. Then the
simulation starts. If the trainee makes a mistake, he or she only receives a text message telling what
the mistake was.
There are no simulations showing the consequences of a fatal error. Also real videos, photos or speech
are not applied. The only speech output is given while learning to use the vehicle controls.
The following figures show the layout of the simulator.
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7RVXPLWXS, $8726,0 cannot be called a highlight. It concentrates on manoeuvring tasks only,

provides only visual output via animation of the track and text output and it completely omits the im-
portant contents risk awareness and hazard perception. Still, it is a rather expensive product (12.048¼
which certainly only few driving schools can afford. To our mind, too much stress has been put on
putting the trainee in a driving environment rather than presenting him or her the appropriate training
content.
Page 138
DRIVER-ZED application has been designed and developed for AAA Foundation, a US Organisation
for Traffic Safety in cooperation with relevant key authorities. DRIVER-ZED application is available
for two types of drivers:
• Experienced drivers
• Teen (novice) drivers
Driver ZED for Experienced Drivers is very similar to Driver ZED for Teen Drivers, which is de-
scribed in detail in chapter 6.5.7. For this reason it is not examined more in detail here.
But apart from its higher price (~100 ¼LQVWHDGRIa¼LWSXWVPRUHHPSKDVLVRQULVNDZDUHQHVVDQG

hazard perception. Since this should be an important part of driver education in the future, it is highly
relevant to TRAINER.
Page 139
'ULYHU=('IRU7HHQ'ULYHUV
This report describes only DRIVER-ZED for teen drivers application, since the one for experienced
drivers is not very relevant to TRAINER, as it regards post-licensing driving education and knowledge
enhancement. However, the relevant Internal Survey tables have been filled-in for both applications to
emphasise the capabilities and specifications of each of them (see Driver ZED for Teen Drivers data
sheet in the appendix).
'5,9(5=('IRUWHHQGULYHUV has been designed for young drivers and uses a multimedia environ-
ment. Its use is rather easy for candidates familiar with Windows applications, while unfamiliar users
require some training to be acquainted with it.
The application begins with the presentation of four teenager actors (two girls and two boys), who are
the guides of the application. In the introduction section, each of these teenagers gives to the user
some general information regarding driving excitement at that age and explains him/her the purpose of
this application as well as its use.
'5,9(5=('0DLQ6FUHHQ
Figure 56 presents DRIVER-ZED main screen. By clicking to each of the four teenager actors, the
user can get a driving tip usually concerning own user driving behaviour and actions required to pre-
vent unpleasant and unsafe involvements with aggressive drivers.
At the right of the screen are three icons from which the user can exit the DRIVER-ZED application,
seek help on application’s use and finally view his/her overall score.
LJXUH '5 9(5=('IRU7HHQ'UL HUV DLQ6FUHHQ
Page 140
The main application is divided in three sections:

• driving on the highway;
• driving around town;
• driving in the country.
By clicking to one of the above areas, the user navigates to the relevant application section and starts
completing the available tasks. The user can, at any time, leave the current section and navigate to an-
other (i.e. from highway scenarios to rural ones) and come back to it later on.
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When clicking on any of the available areas, the user navigates to the screen shown in Figure 57. In
each of the application sections, described above, exist four sub-sections: scan, spot, act and drive.
When clicking for the first time to each of these sub-sections, the application explains with pre-
recorded voice messages the relevant actions required by the user as well as its use.
These sub-sections contain relevant test scenarios, which the user must fulfil, while the application
evaluates user’s answers and records user’s score in each of them. In most scenarios, when the user
responds correctly, the application shows what could have happened if the user had made a wrong
choice.
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Each of these sub-sections are further analysed below.
Page 141
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In this sub-section the user must “scan the scene”. This is done by running a simulation application in
which the user is the driver and has as co-drivers two of the teenager actors. These co-drivers are sup-
posed to be the user’s friends which may destruct him/her while driving by drawing his/her attention
in teenager’s conversations. Unfortunately screenshots can only be taken when the simulation stops.
When the simulation starts, the user is supposed to watch the whole scene and have full knowledge of
what is happening inside and outside the car. After 5-10 seconds, depending on each scenario, the
scene stops and a screen appears (i.e. Figure 58) with a question testing the driver’s observation ca-
pacity. The question is followed by three answers and the user is to select the correct one. After the
user has made his/her choice, the application returns to the last scene, evaluates user’s answer and, if
correct, it verifies it; if wrong, justifies why it is wrong and gives the correct one. In some scenarios,
the application provides the user with additional tips on how to handle similar scenarios. This interac-
tion between the user and the application is accomplished through pre-recorded messages, using the
voices of the four teenager actors.
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Page 142
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In the “spot” sub-section the user is asked to view a simulated scene and when the scene stops, spot
the current risks that he/she observes in a specified time margin.
The risks include, among others, surrounding vehicles in dangerous points, tailgating vehicles, on-
coming vehicles with strange/unsafe driving behaviour, pedestrians, animals, children playing around,
cars leaving parking positions, bicycles, motorcycles, etc.
Figure 59 represents a “spot” scenario scene. The user should now spot the possible risks by using
his/her mouse, marking each risk with a yellow circle and when he/she finishes click on “go” button
available at the top left corner of the screen.
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Then the application evaluates user’s answer and through pre-recorded message, always with the voice
of one of the teenager actors, explains the correct answer, while simultaneously marks the actual risks
with a red circle (Figure 60).
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The “Act” sub-section requires from the user to take an action on a specific simulated scenario. The
user views a simulation and when the scene stops, a question followed by three answers (Figures 61 a
& b) appears and the user should select one of them. When the user submits his/her choice, the appli-
cation responds by presenting to the user the results of his/her action.
In some scenarios the application tries to measure user’s ability to forecast how existing surrounding
vehicles will act in a given situation and how differently each driver is thinking on the same action.
Thus, after the evaluation of the user’s answer, the application gives to the user a hint on what the
other driver was thinking (i.e. rushing with/without reason, filling fatigue, filling the master of the
road, etc.) the time of the scene through a running video, enhancing in this way user’s maturity in
weighing each of his/her action always in relation to the surrounding vehicles.
Page 143
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Finally in the “Drive” sub-section the user is asked to take an action in a specific scenario and stop the
scene when he/she thinks appropriate. Thus, a simulated video runs on the user’s screen and when the
user wants to take a specific action he/she should press the “take an action” button existing in the bot-
tom left corner of the screen. Then, a question on what the user wants to do, followed by three answers
appears on the screen (Figure 62).
When the user selects one of the three answers, the application shows the results of the user’s action
through a video simulation and at the end evaluates the user’s action by ranking it as safe or reckless
(Figure 63).
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Page 144
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7RVXPLWXS, 'ULYHU=('IRU7HHQ'ULYHUV is a very well made and up to date product. It involves

the trainees in an extremely strong way and thus exposes them to many of the cognitive challenges
they will be confronted with in real traffic. It’s price of approximately 30 ¼LVTXLWHORZ
Also the extensive application of videos as well as the different options of interaction (scan, spot, act
and drive, click on answer, stop the scene and / or name hazards) make it relevant to TRAINER. Un-
fortunately not as much importance has been given to scenarios supporting the strategic level of driv-
ing. From this point of view 'ULYHU=('IRU([SHULHQFHG'ULYHUV is more relevant to TRAINER.
What is also missing is the topic “ecologic driving”.
Remarkable is the fact that this tool provides most output content (displaying consequences, showing
the right answers, offering the right choice and pointing the hazards existing) of all products tested,
together with )HX9HUW.
Page 145
)HX9HUW
)HX9HUW is one of the most integrated solutions in the field of driver training applications. It is a mul-
timedia application, designed to be used by trainees with basic knowledge in Windows applications
and covers almost all areas of driver training, including theoretical driving examinations. More spe-
cifically, it includes:
• General information on how to acquire a driving license (i.e. where should a candidate address
to?, what documentation is needed?, etc.).
• Driving theory lessons, including priorities, traffic sign, driving behaviour in various cases, basic
mechanical knowledge, etc.
• Traffic signs examination, in order the candidate to test his/her level of knowledge.
• Driving priorities tests with animations, including consequences of wrong choices.
• Driving theory multiple choice tests.
• Driving theory examinations (the actual of Belgium) with time margins and final result.
• Driving tips (i.e. driving in a city, driving in rural areas, driving in highways, driving in squares,
driving in one-way roads, parking, avoiding obstacles, etc.).
Feu Vert uses various multimedia modalities (text, speech, photos, sketches, videos) and in this way
provides an extensive tutorial on the driving theory. However, users not familiar with PCs will proba-
bly face difficulties in its use and thus prior training in PC-Windows environment might be required.
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The main screen of the Feu Vert application is shown in Figure 64 and navigates to all the above ap-
plication categories through the blue sign at the left of the screen, by using a standard mouse.
Help is provided by pressing the police officer icon at the top right corner of the screen. When press-
ing this icon, the user receives information on the relevant screen from a police officer cartoon through
pre-recorded speech messages.
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Page 146
Figure 65 presents the general information screen, through which the user can acquire general infor-
mation on driving license legislation and office, which he/she should address to submit candidacy for a
driving license.
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The following figure derives from the general driving theory of Feu Vert application and as can be
seen it is quite extensive, with relevant photos, schemes and videos running at the left part of the
screen.
At the left bottom of the screen is a navigation bar, from which the user can zoom to each
photo/scheme, navigate to the available categories of the driving theory, go to the questions section
(tests) - when ready, input his/her personal notes, and navigate to the previous or next screen.
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Page 147
7UDIILF6LJQVWHVWVHFWLRQ
Figure 67 represents the traffic signs tests of the application. As seen in the relevant Figure, the appli-
cation gives to the user 8 traffic signs and 8 traffic signs explanations. The user must match the correct
correspondences of the traffic signs with the relevant explanations.
When the user finishes with all the traffic signs, the application evaluates user’s answers and leaves to
the correct position the correct answers, marking them with a green tick, while the wrong ones are
marked with a red tick and the relevant signs are restored to their original position.
A navigation bar exists in the top right corner, from which the user can view all traffic sign screens
and navigate to the selected one, get the correct answers by pressing the yellow tick, and finally navi-
gate to the previous or next screen by using the two navigation arrows.
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Page 148
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Figures 68 a & b are taken from the questions section (driving theory tests) of Feu Vert application.
As seen, the user sees a photo or diagram explained with pre-recorded speech messages, and has to
select the correct answer from a multiple choice at the bottom of the screen. If the user response is cor-
rect, the relevant answer is marked in green and the police officer cartoon appraises the user (Figure
52). If however the user selects the wrong answer, it is marked with red colour and the police officer
cartoon informs the user that the answer was not correct (Figure 53).
A navigation bar is again available, this time at the right of its photo/scheme with six icons from
which the user can – from top to bottom – zoom to the relevant photo/scheme, view the list of all
questions, navigate to the theory section, get the correct answer and finally navigate to the previous or
next screen using the arrows.
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In the following Figure we can see a screen from the examinations section of Feu Vert application. As
can be seen, the examinations are in the form of multiple choice, in which the user must select the cor-
rect answer. At the left of each photo/scheme the user can view the number of the current test in the
total of 40 as well as the series and question number. At the right of the photo/scheme there is a timing
bar which gives the user 15 seconds to answer the question. If the user does not respond in this time
margin, the application automatically navigates to the next test.
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Page 149
When the user completes all 40 tests, the application evaluates user’s answers and gives the result of
the examination in the form that appears in Figure 70.
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Figure 71 presents a parking tip from the series of driving tips of Feu Vert application. Each tip is fol-
lowed by a video and speech presentation as well as an examplatory scheme at the right of each video.
These tips include, among others, getting in and out of parking position, driving in city/ rural areas/
highways, driving in squares/ one-way roads scenarios, enhancing candidate’s knowledge with useful
driving information.
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Page 150
3ULRULWLHV6FHQDULRV
Feu Vert application includes many priorities scenarios, quite interesting and helpful not only in its
structure, but also in its presentation. The following figures are extracts of some of the available appli-
cation scenarios and each scenario includes also the result of a wrong choice.
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Page 151
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Page 157
7RVXPLWXS, )HX9HUW is a highly relevant product for TRAINER. It strongly involves trainees in the
handling of the tool by requiring observation of the scene, making prognosis of what would happen
next, lets them answer questions, asks them to make driving decisions and to name hazards. Just stop-
ping the scene when the situation requires an activity (see 'ULYHU=(') is not provided.
Considering the low price of approx. 50 ¼)HX9HUW is good value for money. Still it would be desir-
able to implicate more videos to make the presentation more lively and more realistic and to put more
emphasis on the strategic level, which is neglected. Remarkable is the fact that this tool provides most
output content (showing consequences, providing the right answers, displaying the right choice and
pointing the hazards existing) of all products tested, together with 'ULYHU=('.
Page 158
6XPPDU\RI5HVXOWVRI3DUW,,.H\3URGXFWV
In Part II of Chapter 6, eight tools have been analysed more deeply, namely:
S Bonniers Traficskola 3 (Bonnier Multimedia, Price 72 ¼

NL Zebra / VekaBest (UGA media, Price 14 ¼
B Interactief Defensief Autorijden (Commercial Union Belgium N.V., Price -----)
B Feu Vert pour le permis de conduire (Gutenbic S.A., Price 50 ¼
E Autosim (GSC Grupo de Simulación de Conducción, Price Simulator 12048 ¼
D SCAN & TEACH (Degener Lehrmittel GmbH, Price 1250 - 1750 ¼
USA Driver ZED for Teen Drivers (AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, Price approx. 30 ¼
Driver ZED f. Experienced Drivers (AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, Price approx. 100 ¼
The product range is from 14 ¼IRUDKRPHWUDLQHUWRROWR¼IRUDVLPXODWRU:KDWZDVWUXHIRU

the Summary of Part I is true here: The more expensive products did not always show significant
qualities justifying the big price gap to the cheaper ones. All tools examined have in common a quite
high quality in graphics layout, but education on the Strategic level should be addressed more.
A multi media tool has wide possibilities to train risk awareness and hazard perception. This chance
should be taken. Also a publisher points out that this would be a big business field. Good practice ex-
amples for advanced training in those fields are 'ULYHU=('IRU([SHULHQFHG'ULYHUV, partly
%RQQLHUV7UDILNVNROD (too little involvement of the trainee) and the motorbike education units of
6FDQ 7HDFK.
6FDQ 7HDFK and %RQQLHUV7UDILNVNROD cover the most strategic scenarios of all products tested
whereas )HX9HUW and the 'ULYHU=('s provide most output content: Showing consequences, pro-
viding the right answers, displaying the right choice and pointing the hazards existing.
If an active involvement of the trainee is preferred instead of only giving right answers, )HX9HUW,
,QWHUDFWLHI'HIHQVLHI$XWRULMGHQ and the 'ULYHU=('V are the best choice from the ones considered.
They provide the highest degree of involvement (observe, prognose, answer, make a driving decision,
name hazards; “Stop the Scene” only provided by the 'ULYHU=('V).
On the manoeuvring level,'ULYHU=('H[S and )HX9HUWprovidethe highest number of scenarios.
Page 159
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Page 160
%DFNJURXQG
As part of the TRAINER project, this report summarises the characteristics of the existing simulators
found on the Internet. The information is supposed to give an understanding of the existing simulators
possibilities and limitations.
The collected data is based on the information from the following institutions and/or companies:
6LPXODWRUV,' ,QVWLWXWLRQVDQGFRPSDQLHV
1 Systems Technology Inc., USA (Europe representatives)
2 Immersive Technologies PTY Ltd., USA
3 Imago Systems Inc., Canada
4 NADS, National Advanced Driving Simulator. University of Iowa, USA
5 Institut für Straßen- und Schienenverkehr, Germany
6 University of Leeds, Great Britain
7 BWB, The Federal Office for Defense Technology and Procurement, Germany
8 FAROS, France
9 University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute, USA
10 Human Interface Technology Laboratory, University of Washington, USA
11 SoftLab-Nsk Ltd, Russia
12 Kobitec, Republic of South Africa
13 FAAC Inc. USA
14 Hyperion Technologies, USA
15 Autosim, Norway
16 Doron Precision Systems, Inc., USA
17 VA Center of Excellence on Mobility, USA
18 Warsaw University of Technology, Poland
19 AFT-IFTM, France
20 Japan Automobile Research Institute, Japan
21 Kookmin University. Vehicle Control Laboratory, Korea
22 University of the Federal Armed Forces Munich, Germany
23 STN ATLAS Elektronik GmbH, Germany
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2EMHFWLYHV
The main objective of this study is to consider appropriate scenarios to support driver training and as-
sessment by the use of simulators, from existing applications.
To perform this task, the Consortium had to:
• Investigate the existing driving simulators found on the Internet, in order to constitute a base for
the future development of low cost driving simulators.
• Contribute with explicit, comparable technical specifications.
• Contribute with information of the costs of the simulators and/or usage of the simulators.
Page 161
• Highlight which tasks each simulator can support.

• Highlight which driver categories each simulator can support.
0HWKRG
The data were collected from a questionnaire that was sent by email. The questionnaire was designed
in accordance to an internal questionnaire sent to the consortium members. One copy of the question-
naire was sent to persons stated at the different web-sites or to the webmaster for further distribution.
The first circulars were sent the 10th of August and were addressed to 62 institutions and/or compa-
nies. According to messages of failures from the email system, seven circulars did not come through,
for different reasons. This means that the circular in the end was sent to 55 of the 62 original address-
ees. On August 21st a reminder was sent out. By the end of September, only 16 addressees had replied,
which constitutes a response-rate of 29%. The low response-rate causes another round of circulars
with reminders. The second round of circulars were sent on October 9th and the reminders on October
16th. By October 27th 23 addressees had responded. Thus, the final a response-rate is 42%.
It is important to notice that several of the original addressees have responded that they do not answer
the questionnaire since their simulator is developed and constructed by a manufacturer who is better
suitable for answering the questionnaire. Another cause to the relative low response-rate is the fact that
some of the web-sites refer to the same simulator. That could be the case if there are several owners of
one simulator or if different projects and/or departments of the same simulator-owner have several
websites. Also, some of the websites do not contain any contact information and, thus, we have not
been able to reach them. The simulators numbers referred at the Tables of Section 7.4 correspond to
the simulators Ids of Table 40 of Section 7.1.
5HVXOWV
The results are presented in tables just as the data were collected during the investigation. The tables
consist of data from the 23 simulators. Each simulator has been given a number (the numbers in table
1) and they are represented in columns. The results are presented as a compilation. The compilation
consists of all collected data and can be seen in Table 41, 42 and 43. Were data is missing in the com-
pilation, the respondent did not answer that specific question. The analyses are presented in the Dis-
cussion.
Table 41 consists of answers from the questionnaire form 1. Table 42 consists of answers from the
questionnaire form 2 and Table 43 consists of the answers from form 3.
Page 162
Questions concerning the simulators. 6,08/$7256%<180%(56 $OOWRJHWKHU
Y= Yes, N= No and I= Irrelevant, ?= Eve- < 1 "

rything else
1. Is there a computer generated Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 23 0 0
image system?
2. Is the image system developed Y Y Y N Y Y N Y Y N Y Y N Y Y Y N Y N N Y Y N 15 8 0
by your company / institution?
3. Is it equipped with rear view im- Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Note N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y N N Y 19 4 0
(Y)
ages?
4. Is there any feedback sound to Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 22 1 0
the driver?
5. Is the sound-system stereo- N Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N Y N Y 17 6 0
phonic?
6. Is it possible to reproduce pre- Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y 22 1 0
cisely, the same scenarios sev-
eral times?
7. Is it possible to vary the friction of Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Note N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 22 1 0
(Y)
the road surface?
8. Is it possible to change roads (i.e. Y Soon Y Y N Y Y Note Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y 21 1 1
(Y)
urban-, rural - and highways)?
9. Is it possible to vary the sight Y Y Y Y N Y Y Note Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y Y Y 20 3 0
(Y)
conditions?
10. Is it possible to vary the curves, Y Soon Y Y Y Y N ? Y Y Y I N Y ? Option Y Y N N Y Y Y 14 4 5
i.e. the linearity of the curve?
11. Is there any kind of motion sys- N Y N Y N N Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Option N Y Y Y Y Y 14 7 2
tem, generating motion feedback
to the driver?
12. Is it possible to vary between Y Y, Y Y Y N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N N Y 15 7 1
different brands of cars? Mining
trucks
13. Is the simulator vehicle front Y I N Y Y Y N Y N I Y Y Y Y Y Option N Y N N Y Y I 13 6 4
wheel driven?
14 Is the simulator vehicle rear Y I Y Y Y N Y N Y I Y N Y Y Y Y I Y Y Y N Y I 14 4 5
wheel driven?
15. Is it possible to change between Y I Y Y Y Y N N N Y Y N Y Y Y Option I Y N N N Y Y 13 7 3
front- and rear wheel drive?
Is the simulator vehicle equipped Y Y N Y N Y Y Y N Y Y Y N Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y 18 5 0
with a gear lever?
16. Does the simulator vehicle have Y Y Y Y Y N N Option Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N Y Y Y Y 17 5 1
automatic gearbox?
17. Does the simulator vehicle have Y N Y N Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Option N Y Y N Y N Y 14 7 2
manual gearbox?
7DEOH$QVZHUVWRVLPXODWRUTXHVWLRQQDLUHIRUP
Page 163
Questions concerning the simulators. 6,08/$7256%<180%(56 $OOWRJHWKHU
Y= Yes, N= No and I= Irrelevant, ?= Eve- < 1 "

rything else
18. Is it possible to change between Y N Y N Y N Option N N Y Y Y Y Y Option N N N N Y N Y 10 10 3
automatic and manual gearbox?
19. Are there passenger seats? N N N Y Y Y N N Y Y N N N Y Y Option I Y Y N Y Y N 11 10 2
20. Is it possible to use it as a truck/ Y N Y Y I N Y Note N N Y Y Y Y Y Y I Y Y Y N Y Y 15 6 2
lorry simulator? (N)
21. Is the simulator adapted for drivers Y I Y N, N N N Option N N N N Y Not Y, Not Y N N N N N N Y 6 15 2
Could standard
with special need (disabled per- be yet
sons)?
22. Is the simulator accessible for man- Y I Y N, N Y N Y N N N N Y Y Y, Not Option Y N N N N N Y 9 12 2
Could standard
ual wheelchair users? be
23. Is the simulator accessible for elec- Y I Y N, N Y N Y N N N N Y Y Y, Not Option Y N N N N N N 8 13 2
Could standard
tric powered wheelchair users? be
24. Is the simulator vehicle equipped Y N Y Y N Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y Y Y 18 5 0
with servo/power steering?
25. Is the simulator vehicle equipped N N N Y N N N N Y N N N N Y N Option I N N N N N I 17 3 3
with electrically controlled driver
seat?
26. Is the driver seat electric powered N N N Y N N N N N N N N N Y Y Option I N N N N N I 3 17 3
heated?
27. Are the door windows electrically I N N Y N Y N N N N N N N Y Y N I N Y N Y N I 6 14 3
powered?
28. Are the mirrors electrically adjust- N N N Y N N N Note N N N N N Y Y Option I N Y N Y N N 6 15 2
able? (Y)
29. Is the steering wheel adjustable? Y Y N Y N Y N N Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N 15 8 0
30. Is the simulator vehicle equipped N Can N Y N Y N N Y N N N N Y N Option N N N N N N I 4 16 3
be
with a cruise control?
31. Is there an electronic gear selector? Y Y N Y N N N N N N Y N Y Y N Y N N N N N Y Y 9 14 0
32. Does the simulator have electrically Y Y N Y N N Y N N N Y N Y Y Y Y Y N N N Y N Y 12 11 0
controlled brakes?
33. Is the driver seat an original car Y Truck N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y I Y Y Y Y Y Y 19 2 2
seat
seat?
For manufacturers (or others with explicit
knowledge):
36. Estimated cost for purchase? US$ US$ US$ Not ? Euro ? Euro US$ US$ ? US$ US$ US$ Euro US$ ? US$ ? Euro US$ Euro Euro
12´ - 195´ 15´ applica- 500´ 37´ 100´ 2000 25´ 65´- 30´-500´ 215´ 120´ 100´ 3000 12´ 500´ 2500
´ = Thousand 80´ ble ´ 450´ ´ ´-
4500
´
Page 164
Questions concerning the technical system of simulators adapted 6,08/$7256%<180%(56
to persons with special needs.

Y= Yes, N= No and I= Irrelevant. Blank= No answer.
1. Is there a hand-operated accelerator? Y N Option Could be Option N Y
2. Are there hand-operated brakes? Y N Option Could be Option N Y
3. Does it make use of automatic gearshift? Y N Option Could be Y N I
4. Has it servo/power steering? Y N Y Y Y N Y
5. Is there augmented servo/power steering? Y Y Y Could be Y N I
6. Is there an additional accelerator pedal? Y N Option Could be Option N I
7. Is the seat electrically powered controlled? N N N Could be Option N N
8. Is the seat electrically powered heated? N N N Could be Option N N
9. Is the side window electrically powered controlled? I N N Could be N N N
10. Are there electrically powered adjustable mirrors? N N Y Could be Option N N
11. Is the steering wheel position adjustable? Y Y N Y Y Y N
12. Is there a cruise control? N Y N Could be Option N N
13. Is the car equipped with an electronically powered gear selector? Y N N Y Y N I
14 Is there a steering knob on the steering wheel? Y N Option Could be Option N I
15. Is there a steering knob with controls on the steering wheel? N I Option Could be Option N N
16. Are the brakes electrically powered controlled? Y N N Y Y N N
17. Is the seat possible to turn round, i.e. does it have a swivel func- N N N Y Y N N
tion?
18. Are there extended seat rails? Y N N Could be Y N N
19. Is the drivers seat anatomically shaped? N N N Y Y N N
20. Is it possible to connect extra equipment to the simulator, such as a Y Y N Could be Y N Y
navigation system?
21. Is there an elevator to get in to the simulator vehicle body / mock N N N N N N N
up?
22. Are the pedals adapted or adjustable for very short drivers? Y N N Y Option N N
23. Is the simulator equipped with foot controlled steering? N N N Could be Option N N
24. Is the simulator equipped with steering by electro-hydraulic control N N N Could be Option N N
stick?
25. Are there electro-hydraulic accelerator/brakes? N N N Could be Option N N
26. Is there an electrically powered miniature steering wheel? N N N Could be Option N N
27. Is there an augmented electrically powered miniature steering N N N Could be Option N N
wheel?
28. Is the simulator equipped with joystick steering? N N N Could be Option N N
29. Is there a wheelchair lift? N N N Could be Option N N
Page 165
Questions concerning SIMULATORS BY NUMBERS

technical specifications
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1. What kind of image Computer generated graphics Com- Evans & Suther- 5 x CRT Faros image sys- LCD flat panel SGI reality engine II 3 separate Proprietary PC Direct View CRTs. LCD Projectors. Flat
system does the simu- using IBM-compatible PC puter land, Harmony projector, 1 x tem based on 3DFX display and over- and SGI onyx2 with channels: based with Panels
lator use? equipment used in computer gener- LCD projector graphic boards head projector infinite reality each of them >30 frames
games ated graphics…can only is a PC based per second
use one system at a image gen- capability
time. erator
(Pentium III
processor and
Nvidia Ge-
Force 256
graphics)
2. What is the total screen Displayed horizontal field of 195 360 Horizontal x 40 210x 30° x 120° (note, for About 30 x 20 Horizontal: 180 21” for each 29” VDU Varies with model type. Considering our
size (front); horizontal * view can be either 45 degrees Degrees, Vertical the truck simulator : degrees (12 ft wide degrees front, 60 channel, family of products, Horizontal FOV
vertical degrees of field or 135 degrees. Vertical field- 4.5M of up to 30° x 200°) x 8 foot high image degrees rear. 123x33 deg. ranges from 45°-360°, Vertical from 20°-
of view? of-view is 40 degrees. Option- wrap at 20 feet) Vertical: 45 degrees for 3 channels 45°
ally horizontal f.o.v. 60 de- around front, 45 degrees system
grees or 180 degrees.(One or screen rear (both are
three monitors or projection limited by the
screens) windshield and
rearview mirror.)
3. What are the rear view Capability for one rear view Left and Uses Actual Vehicle 50x40 rear No direct rear view; none Normal sized rear 2 mirrors in a Rear-view Varies with model type. Products offer
capabilities? Number of mirror and two side view right rear Mirrors with the IG screen, visible rear view mirror view mirror left and right mirror super- single rear view with 1 display and/or
mirrors, image inserted mirrors. Mirrors are inserted in view FOV above from rear-view inserted in the front channels imposed in side view mirrors (2 displays)—3 total
in forward view or in forward view (computer gen- mirror and image. 1 mirror on front screen. 2 Real mirrors or CGI inserts.
mirrors? erated). Mirror angles and driver side left; option : 1 mirror Wing mirrors
size can be varied by the user. wing mirror for right reflecting off
monitor
4. What is the resolution Presently 1024x768 – in- 3 x 800 x Inset – 1.1 Arc Up to 640 x 480 600 x 400 1024x1024 front, Up to 800x600 or CGI up to 1280 x 960.
of the image system? creased resolution will be 600 Minutes Per Line. 1600x2100 800x600 right, left 1280x1024 for greater
available as PC technology Forward 3.5 Arc per channel and rear – 4 pro- each channel
progresses. Minutes Per Line. jectors total
Rear 5.5 Arc Min-
utes Per Line
5. What is the vehicle For the complex and compre- 80Hz 4 milliseconds 1/60th second 10 ms typ. Don’t know, but 15-20 ms 1kHz Up to 2000 Hz.
model calculation time? hensive vehicle dynamics <1/30 sec
model – less than 5 millisec-
onds (on a separate, dedi-
cated, computer). For the
simple vehicle dynamics
model (for cognitive evalua-
tions) – less than 1 millisec-
onds (on a single computer
shared with graphics).
6. What is the image Total scene generation time is Average 60 Hz 4ms 20 ms typ. Don’t know, but 10-20 ms > 30 frames 30 & 60 Hz.
calculation time? approximately 30 milliseconds of 40Hz <1/30 sec per second
per
screen
refresh
Page 166

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
7. What is the image Total scene generation time is l Unclear what you 5ms 20 ms typ. Don’t know, but Depends largely on 20. Okt See above 60 Hz.
drawing time? approximately 30 milliseconds are asking? <1/30 sec the model, but we
try to maintain 90Hz
vertical refresh rate
8. What is the total delay Approximately 33 to 50 milli- 0.0125 55 milliseconds Dependant on 50 ms typ. Don’t know, but See above… Extrapolation See above Total system delay is less than 100
time? (The time be- seconds depending on scene seconds (estimated) Lag scene com- <1/30 sec is used to msec.
tween action and fully complexity Time plexity, but we compensate a
updated screen) try to keep a delays
frame rate of
60Hz
9. What is the frequency Based on standard PC graph- l Approx. 50 Hz – 20 No idea 1 kHz - 10 kHz typ. Probably 50 Hz-20 20Hz-20kHz 44 KHz 50Hz to 18kHz Full audible spectrum.
range of the audio ics generator capability (more KHz KHz (good quality
system? than adequate for human home audio)
audio)
10. What types of sounds Engine, tyre screech, crash, Engine, ALL of those men- Wind, vehicle engine, gears, horn, Wind, drive train, Any sampled wind, tyres, All vehicle Engine starting/cranking: start-
are available? I.e. wind, siren, speech. gears, tioned, plus the noise, horn, directions and tires, engine, horn, sound… engine, rain, sounds men- ing/overstarting, kill engine. Engine
tyres, engine, rain, horn, tire audio for other gear, envi- hazard lights, tyres gravel (drive over) horn, gears, tioned and running: normal/faulty. Vehicle speed.
horn, gears, environ- skid, vehicles. ronment, (slip, on wet road), environment, more are Traction: normal traction, reduced
ment, speech etc. other speech other cars engines, another cars, simulated traction, squeals from lost traction,
traffic etc speech collision variation with road surfaces, tire skidding,
sounds tire/curb impact, vehicle turning. Trans-
mission: clunk/grinding (vehicle depend-
ent). Airbrake engage-
ment/disengagement (vehicle depend-
ent). Tire blow out. Fatal collisions/non-
fatal collisions. Rattles/squeaks/bumps.
orn. Emergency sirens (vehicle depend-
ent).
11. Is there a moving Not provided as standard but 3 Axis Yes. + or – 32 Ft. X, No No no Yes, 3 actuators, Is not com- Roll and pitch 6 Degrees of Freedom motion platforms
base? If so, please can be added based on motion Y, & + or – 2.0 Ft. 14cm of pitch, roll pleted yet. 6 motion is are available: pitch UROO \DZ
specify scaling of customer needs base Z. Hexapod – Pitch and Z (up) move- degrees of provided KHDYH PVXUJH P
motion, lateral motion, and Roll - + or – 25 ment freedom + sway '2)6HDW6KDNHUSLWFK
degree of roll, pitch and Degree, Yaw + or – vibration UROO KHDYH ´IUHTHQF\
vibrations. 330 De. Vibration - response up to 10 Hz
+ or – 0.2 in.
12. Is there a fan and No – can be added, if neces- No Yes. Variable. Fan, no Fan. Product CE no Yes, I do not know No No – not There is a fan in some models to move
functional heater? If so, sary temperature certified for 10 °C - the temp range… required air and strictly for driver comfort. Tem-
what is the temperature control 30 °C perature recommendations for the simu-
control range? lator room are 60-80° F (12,000 BTUs)
and 10-95% humidity (non-condensing)
so no additional heating/cooling units are
required in the simulator itself.
13. Is it possible to select Roadway friction coefficient Yes Yes. Any. Icy roads can No no Yes, we can set the Yes, asphalt, Yes, tar or dirt Yes. 3 basic road types: paved, gravel
different road surfaces? can be specified of segments Traction be simulated coefficient of friction gravel, grace, road and and dirt. Road conditions can be altered
If so, please specify. of the roadway (including and as well as the off road different for weather changes.
individual lanes, if necessary). sinkage roughness of the weather
This is implemented in the road surface conditions
text-based scenario definition providing
language (SDL). different
traction,
friction etc.
Page 167

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14. Is it possible to vary Road types including number Soon Yes. Arbitrary, Wide Urban, rural, Yes, through differ- Any 2 lane road Yes, as many lanes From 2 lanes Freeway, Yes. The driving world includes city,
between road types? If of lanes, lane widths, lane range readily motorway, up ent exer- with curves, no as you want to to 6 lanes single lane, highway, and rural roadways—87 miles
so, please specify types striping, etc., can be defined available. Others to 5 lanes per cises/situations: intersections model and set double lane, of continuous roads. The city area
of roads and number of by the user using the SDL. No can be easily direction village (1), rural (1 splines for. dirt road etc. features wide avenues, tight side streets,
lanes per direction. software expertise is required. authored. or 2), highway (2) Full simulated turns less than 90° and a traffic circle.
world. There are 2-5 lanes of traffic. Also
included are bridges, overpasses, and
train tracks. The expressway driving
area features 30 miles of multi-lane
highways modelled after the U.S. Inter-
state Highway System. A number of high
speed on/off ramps are included as well
as a clover leaf and trumpet intersec-
tions. Interstate roads are generally 2
lanes in each direction with a median
between them. The country driving offers
40 miles of roads incorporating hills,
winding lanes (2), and some blind curves.
15. Is it possible to change Curves are also defined using Soon Yes. Arbitrary. Yes, curves ? Can create any Yes, can set any No. Existing The worlds are static with respect to
the curvature? If so, the SDL. Curvature as well as built using radius combination geometric curva- world remains roads. However, a road type library can
please specify relevant the transition into and out of road stan- desired ture. as provided. be build and selected.
parameters. the curve can be defined by dards, includ-
the user. ing transition
curves, and
fixed radius
curves
16. Is it possible to change Explained in 13 above. Yes Yes. Yes Yes, through differ- no yes Yes, including Yes. Yes. Dry roads, snow, rain, and icy
road surface friction? ent exercises : dry, wet asphalt conditions.
e.g. from dry summer to rain (3 levels)
icy winter.
17. Is it possible to change Driver eye height can be Yes, Yes. All those Yes, fog, day, Yes, through differ- Yes-distance of Yes, although they Yes and Yes, mist, fog, Yes. Lighting conditions: day/night,
the sight conditions? If varied by the user. Fog banks Dust and mentioned. night ent exercises : day, image cutoff are not very con- continuously day, night. dawn/dusk, rain, snow, and variable fog.
so, please specify if it can be added to the driving fog etc night, rain, fog (3 vincing…rain, fog, (day, night,
applies to clear sight, scenario by the user using the levels) time of day and weather
fog, rain and night SDL. The fog density and conditions)
conditions. transition into and out of the
fog can also be specified.
Rain and night driving are not
available now but are planned
upgrades.
18. Is it possible to change With our simple vehicle dy- Yes, Yes. Yes No. Car simulator Yes, all of the Yes, we can Yes Yes. Yes. Tractor-trailer trucks, dump trucks
between different namics model, gross varia- Caterpil- based on Renault vehicle dynamics change the dy- and other construction vehicles, airport-
vehicle models? tions in vehicle behaviour can lar and Clio 2; Truck simu- parameters can be namics of the virtual operated ground vehicles, fire trucks and
be achieved using a few Komatsu lator based on changed vehicle, but we emergency response vehicles, police
parameters that can be trucks Renault VI Magnum cannot change the cars, buses, passenger vehicles, subway
changed by the user (steering and AE 560. physical vehicle. trains, and heavy equipment such as
gain, oversteer/understeer excava- cranes.
factor, etc.). With our complex tors etc
vehicle dynamic model the
complete vehicle is defined
(suspension, drive-train, etc)
including individual tyre char-
acteristics.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
20. Is there a "cabin"? If so, Custom cabins can be devel- Yes Yes. No for the car, 1 plastic In theory, it could no Yes (virtual), There is a Yes. Automobile, truck, and open air
is it possible to change oped based on customer cabin, without any be changed, but it Yes cabin. Differ- cabins. FAAC pioneered interchange-
between different needs. capability to change would take weeks ent cabins can able cabins.
"cabins"? it… be provided at
an extra cost.
21. Is there a real car As with (19) above, this can be Yes - Cat Yes. Chevy Malibu, Rover 216 Gti No Yes, mid-80s Yes, it is the shell of No Yes, VW. See Yes. Ford Crown Victoria, Ford Bronco,
cockpit? If so, please developed based on the or Ko- Ford Taurus, Jeep full car body Chrysler Laser. See a real Saturn above. and Jeep Grand Cherokee—standardly.
specify model(s) and if customers needs. matsu Cherokee, & above re changing sedan. No we Other cockpits available on request.
it is possible to change model of Freightliner. Others cockpit cannot change it
cockpits. choice can be converted. out.
22. Can the simulator be Physiological measurement Yes. All of the Development Yes, with 1 specific We could add no No Never before As with a real vehicle, other mechanisms
used for physiological equipment and software not above have been in progress exercise to test and equipment as need attempted, but can be attached to the driver if they have
studies of drivers? If so, usually provided but can be collected in the past measure the driver to collect physio- is feasible. their own power source. This could
please specify which of developed to customer re- on an earlier de- attitudes… Specific logical data (and include eye tracker devices as well as
the measures: quirements. The standard vice, however, equipment like have collected those mentioned in your question. FAAC
"ECG/HR, EEG, EOG, simulator software allows specific future plans ECG/HR… are heart rate and simulators have already been used for
GSR, EMG , head synchronizing signals to be only exist for eye independent of the respiration rate) research—examples include: studies
movements and respi- output from the simulation tracking. simulator; they must researching the affects of Parkinson’s
ration" can be used. computer to trigger or mark be installed by the disease on patients’ driving skills (auto-
physiological measurements. customer for their mobile simulator), and United States
STI has performed such own purpose… Federal Highway Administration’s inves-
experiments using the driving tigation regarding behaviour of older
simulator. truck drivers during various types of
driving scenarios; and fatigue and the
impact of pharmaceuticals on drivers
(tractor-trailer truck simulator).
23. Is the simulator possi- Since the STISIM Drive sys- Yes, No. This simulator No. Yes, price depends Yes, but it would be Not any more Not yet USD 25,000 – Pricing various with the type of model
ble to buy? If so, what tem is very modular, a basic US$190, is a research of the ver- a custom order. basic model. purchased. Range is $65,000 U.S. to
is the estimated cost for model can be purchased for 000 device. Time on sions/options.The Probably $100,000 $450,000 U.S. for a actual cut-down bus
purchase? (Please appr. $12.000 (13.000 Euros). the device can be basic price is 37000 USD cabin , with 6 DOF motion, 8 graphics
specify the right cur- A full 3-monitor model with rented for a fee. ¼H[ZRUN channels. U.S. pricing does not include
rency or , preferably, in complex vehicle dynamics shipping and applicable duties and taxes.
Euros) costs appr. $80.000 (90.000
Euros). Further options are
extra and will increase these
prices.
7DEOH$QVZHUVWRVLPXODWRUTXHVWLRQQDLUHIRUPVLPXODWRUV
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14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
1. What kind of image Assuming this question concerns the Image PC and SIG Quantum 3D PC graphics Synthetic images Computer gener- PC Based with Nvidia Ge- Open-gl. Rear projection SGI
system does the simu- Generation system, we typically use graphics Open archi- cards, TFT calculated in real time. ated image (CGI) Force2 3D Accelerator system with two mirrors
lator use? hardware from Quantum 3D although we tecture projectors Computer generated. system.
support a wide variety of hardware solutions
including E&S, SGI and commercial graphics
cards. Our primary scene API is OpenGVS
although, again, we support other options.
2. What is the total screen This is very flexible and depends on the needs 180 deg. X 40 225 deg. 2.9 X 2.14 H 220° Three 60 in. rear 150*40 3,00 x 1,20 m 210° x 50°
size (front); horizontal * of the custome. We have done systems rang- deg. Vertical, 40 62 deg. 42 deg. projectors. 108 * 26
vertical degrees of field ing from 40 degrees to 270 degrees horizontal deg. Horizontal V 60 ° degrees.
of view? with 30 to 40 degrees vertical. The architec-
ture of our IG systems allows for as many as
channels as required to be displayed from 1-
32.
3. What are the rear view Rear view is either as insets in the forward 3 channels, 2 side rear. 1 No There are 3 mirrors, the 14 in. CRT (each Not available yet. None 2 rear
capabilities? Number of channel or just another plug-in channel with displayed on rear view views are projected on side of exterior). mirrors
mirrors, image inserted appropriate channle definition. As an inset, the back wall. screens situated behind
in forward view or in they can be configured to remain constantly on the (driver)cabine.
mirrors? or be button or event activated.
4. What is the resolution Resolution is dependent on image dimensions 1025 x 768 VGA 800 x 600 ? 800 x 600 per 1024*768 1280 x 1024 800 x 600
of the image system? and IG output. On the basic systems, the screen.
output resolution is 1024x768 which equates
to a calculated screen resolution of ~3.5
arcminutes/pixel.
5. What is the vehicle Ownship vehicle dynamics are calculated at Total model: 200 Hz Max. 1 ms ? Unknown. The 2msec (Fixed) 2-axle, on-road approx. 1,25 30 Hz
model calculation time? 1000Hz with each tire sampling the at that rate 10 ms. manufacturer, ms 2-axle, off-road approx. 4
and integrated into the model. Scenario vehi- Wheels: 1 ms Mitsubishi Precision ms 4-axle, on-road approx.
cles all have there own physics based dy- Co., Ltd., owns the 2,5 ms
namics model as well and are calculated each copyright.
major frame at 60Hz.
6. What is the image The Image is calculated within one frame at 6 + 7 = maxi- Refresh 60 hz 16÷32 ms ? See Q7. Less than 10msec Approx. 25 ms 30 Hz
calculation time? 60Hz and displayed in the same frame. mum 33 ms
7. What is the image Image draw occurs within one frame at 60 Hz 6 + 7 = maxi- Refresh 60 hz It is being drawn ? 33.3ms (30Hz) Less than 30msec Approx. 30 ms Approx. 30
drawing time? mum 33 ms in the back- (Total of Q6 & Q7) Hz
ground and then
copied to image
(screen) mem-
ory.
8. What is the total delay The total system latency is less than 32 ms Max 50 ms Less than 150 Hard to answer. ? 83ms. 70~80msec Approx. 50 ms < 100 ms
time? (The time be- and typically resides at less than 20 ms. ms See 7.
tween action and fully
updated screen)
9. What is the frequency This is dependent on the system and the 30 Hz – 20 20 - 20K PC Sound- ? l 22KHz 20 - 10000 Hz Approx. 20
range of the audio definition of audio. The system is capable of kHz blaster standard – 15000 Hz
system? fully representing the vibration spectrum from (~30÷12000 Hz)
0-22,000 Hz depending on customer need.
10. What types of sounds Basic systems include engine, tire, wind, Engine, wind, Wind, thunder, Engine, tyres, Engine noise, noise Starter noise, Wind, Tyres, Engine, Horn, Engine, gears, speech These
are available? I.e. wind, passing vehicles with doppler shift and any tyres, horn, rain, horn, horns from brake and clutch engine revolution, Environment sounds are
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14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
tyres, engine, rain, sound files that the user would like to insert speech, start siren, tires, servo assistance and outside wind, available
horn, gears, environ- including environmental, invehicle, speech, engine, other enviroment, noise from other vehi- warning horn, tire
ment, speech etc. etc. vehicles ABS cles in the traf- slip, collision,
fic,synthetic voice to exhaust braking
guide the driver learner. and announcement
(instruction voice).
11. Is there a moving Yes. Scaling is dependent on the motion base Vibration 0 – Pitch, plus- No The moving system is a No. 6 d.o.f Hexapod 0.6 m for Surge plus/minus 1,1 m We use
base? If so, please used. Moog uses our motion control algo- 70 Hz. Ampli- minus 15 deg. moving system of the lateral 30deg for rotational (plus/minus 0,35 m) pitch different
specify scaling of rithms and code with all of their 1000kg sys- tude 40 mm – Roll, plus- make MOOG (known plus/minus 24° sway types of
motion, lateral motion, tems. Support for any motion base is possible. 0 mm minus 15 deg. for fine hydraulic servo plus/minus 0,35 m motion (for
degree of roll, pitch and Optional. valves) (plus/minus 1,1 m) roll different
vibrations. Heave, 12" plus/minus 24° heave applications)
plus/minus 0,32 m yaw systems
plus/minus 21° with 6 DOF
12. Is there a fan and Systems built using a full vehicle cab or dash The car air Fan only. Fan – Yes. The simulator is placed By room air condi- Not available yet. Fan We use a
functional heater? If so, BUC will inlcude funtional fans and often condition Heater op- Heater – No We in a climate controlled tioner. From 20C to fan in the
what is the temperature connection to an external air conditioner. system is tional didn’t measure. room 30C. cabin
control range? intact, except We cool air also
for the heating. from outside the
cabin
13. Is it possible to select Yes. This is a defineable element in the Hy- Static in the Yes, rural, dirt, Yes. Friction No it is not No. Yes. Asphalt. Some different 2 possibilities: 1. variation of We have
different road surfaces? perDrive Scene and Scenario Authoring tool. database: highway. types. Dry, wet, types of Rough road, etc. coefficients of tire-road inter- different
If so, please specify. Different surfaces may be added to the system Asphalt, ice. VSOLW face friction XVHIGLIIHUHQW road surface
according to customer need. Current types concrete, characteristics of tires (inter- in subject to
include smooth pavement, rough pavement, cobblestones, action between tire and the custom-
freeway expansion, gravel. gravel, snow, ground) 2. Different offroad ers require-
etc. soil conditions, e.g. Loam, ments.
sand, clay, etc. (changing
soil parameters to kc, k Q
c, .
14. Is it possible to vary Yes. Road types are selectable. Tiles are Static in the Varies from Yes. 1÷2 lanes Roads, motorways, Yes. Urban road Yes. Intersection, Crosswalk, Several types of roads with ?
between road types? If individually given default surface character- database: four lane rural roads, the roads with 1 or 2 lanes Highway, etc.1~3 lanes per mainly one lane
so, please specify types isitcs and lane definitions. The may be modi- Various types expressway to have two or three lanes Expressway with 2 direction.
of roads and number of fied in a number of ways. Current tile types of roads up to single lane dirt. lanes per a direc-
lanes per direction. include freeway, rural, suburban, urban, two lanes per tion.
residential, industrial, etc. Each type may have direction
an number of different lane and surface con-
figurations.
15. Is it possible to change Curvature in the basic tiles is set. Any variation The curvature Optional. Yes + transient No it is not. No. Yes. Input of road-data via coor- No
the curvature? If so, is possible however. The Road Tools Option is fixed in the curves. By dinates
please specify relevant from MultiGen-Paradigm (now Viewpoint database defining radius
parameters. Visualization) was written by Hyperion Tech- and length of
nologies. given part of
road
16. Is it possible to change Yes. Friction is assigned by road surface type Yes Yes Yes, see 13. Dry, snowcovered and Yes. Dry, wet and Yes. From dry summer to icy See question number 13 Yes
road surface friction? and is easily modifiable for differnet weather moist roads. icy road surface winter.
e.g. from dry summer to and surface conditions. (urban road).
icy winter.
17. Is it possible to change Currently, there is support for fog conditions. A Clear sight, Yes, applies to No Rain, snow,fog, night. No. Yes. Only fog effect available Fog, rain, night conditions Yes
the sight conditions? If nighttime condition is also operating but not night, fog, rain all conditions. yet.
so, please specify if it complete yet.
applies to clear sight,
fog, rain and night
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14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
conditions.
18. Is it possible to change Currently, the library includes a small car, Yes Yes, car, truck, Yes, but one No. No. Yes. MAN 5, 7, 10 to mil gl; GTK No
between different midsize car, SUV, minivan, and large truck. bus, van. cabin. 8x8; DB 2to (Unimog);
vehicle models? The system is also available with an adjust- Fenek; Fendt Favorit 818
able dynamics tools to allow the user to define
vehicle characteristics if they are knowledge-
able in the area.
20. Is there a "cabin"? If so, Cabs are available from a simple clamp on Yes No cabin - Yes. No No. No. Yes. Cabin with possibility to Yes
is it possible to change desktop unit to a complete modified real Generic change with another cabin
between different vehicle cab complete with full working interior, enclosure
"cabins"? instruments, pedals (including power brake) optional
and force feedback steering. customization.
21. Is there a real car Changes in the above described cockpits are Standard: Generic Yes. Medium A real vehicle cabin, No. Yes. Lantra 1.5 DOHC by DB 1017 A, DB Atego Yes, we
cockpit? If so, please possible in a plug and play fashion. One Renault Sce- cockpits. Real size car. No PREMIUM RENAULT. Hyundai Motors. have a real
specify model(s) and if current customer uses six different cab con- nic, Toyota cockpits cockpit, but
it is possible to change figurations with the simulator. Yaris. Op- available as not change-
cockpits. tional: Any options. able.
other car
model
22. Can the simulator be Yes. The systems allows for a flexible inter- Delivery upon Optional only. No, at the No. Possible. Instru- Yes. ECG/HR, EEG, etc. Heartrate, flicker requency, ?
used for physiological face to external devices to allow for the collec- request, - not moment. ments for physical reaction test, skin, resis-
studies of drivers? If so, tion and transfer of data between various standard reaction are tance, etc.
please specify which of systems. Any system can be interfaced to. needed.
the measures:
"ECG/HR, EEG, EOG,
GSR, EMG , head
movements and respi-
ration" can be used.
23. Is the simulator possi- The system is currently being sold in several 200 – 240 $120.000 May be (we are On this subject consult Possible. You have Yes. From US$50,000 to No The costs
ble to buy? If so, what configurations. Prices can range from $30k to kEuros USD. not production (ask) THOMSON T.T.S. to order the manu- 500,000 depending on types are in
is the estimated cost for $500k and above depending on specific company) About facturer. and configurations subject of
purchase? (Please customer requirements. Support is available 100,000 USD your re-
specify the right cur- from the most simple system to the most quirements.
rency or , preferably, in complex.
Euros)
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Page 172
'LVFXVVLRQ
In the internal survey, the calculated cost for the low cost simulators were estimated to a maximum of
10.000 Euros. The medium cost simulators were estimated to a cost of maximum 30.000 Euros. The
result from the external questionnaire shows that the existing simulators are more expensive and that
no simulator in this questionnaire can be classified as a low cost simulator, although some of them can
be regarded as such in terms of functionalities. Furthermore, there are just four simulators that can be
classified as medium cost simulators (no. 1, 3, 12 and 21). However, the stated cost for no. 21 is not
reliable, since two different estimations are given in form 1 and form 3. With that circumstance taken
into consideration, there are just three simulators classified as medium cost simulators. These medium
cost simulators (no. 1, 3 and 12) have some special features:
• Two of them don’t have motion systems, while the third has roll and pitch motion.
• They do not have passenger seats.
• They are possible to use as truck-simulators.
• Two of them are adapted for drivers with special needs, and are accessible for wheelchair users.
• They do not have some of the extra equipment such as cruise control and electrical controlled
systems of the seat and the mirrors.
An interesting feature is that the cheapest simulators are the ones best adapted for wheelchair users
and disabled persons. Another is that 14 simulators have a motion system and that 15 can be used as
truck/lorry simulator. However, the majority of simulators cost somewhere between 30.000 and
500.000 Euros. The information from this group of simulators states a broad range of characteristics,
and can be seen upon as a very heterogeneous group with no common features.
In order to get relevant information from the compilation, it is necessary to distinguish the "very-high-
cost-simulators" from the others, since those simulators are not applicable for the TRAINER project.
In this report those simulators are defined as simulators with an estimated cost of more than 500.000
Euros, which is simulator nos. 6, 10, 20 and 23. Interesting features of this group of simulators are:
• Just one of them is adapted for drivers with special needs.
• All, but one, have motion systems.
• They have good feedback systems, i.e. rear view and sounds.
• Three out of four have a real car cabin.
A conclusion from questionnaire form 1 is that the existing simulators are much more expensive than
the initial target price of the TRAINER driving simulators.
The existence of well adapted simulators for persons with special needs are very limited. The results
indicates it is a question of money and that the standard simulator-models have low degree of adapta-
tions. The development of adapted simulators does not seem to depend on technical difficulties. On
the contrary, the manufacturers state almost unlimited possibilities. Thus, the question of making
simulators for everyone (including disabled persons), is not a question of engineering, but a question
of demand, willingness and funds. In this survey, four manufacturers responded that their simulator
Page 173
were adapted to drivers with special needs and answered the questionnaire form 2 (simulator nos. 1,
13, 16 and 23). The result shows these joint features:
• They have servo/power steering.
• It is possible to connect extra equipment, such as navigation systems, to the simulators.
• They do not have any kind of motion system.
Two of the respondents stated that their simulator is adapted to drivers with special need in question-
naire form 1, but did not answer the questions concerning that matter in questionnaire form 2 (simu-
lator Nos. 3 and 15). Also, three respondents stated their simulator as non-adapted, but answered some
questions in questionnaire form 2, indicating some degree of adaptations.
The overall impression concerning adaptations for drivers with special need is that the existing simu-
lators have limited capabilities. However, the manufacturers indicate almost endless possibilities. Ac-
cording to them there is no problem to order special designed simulators adapted for nearly any dis-
ability.
Questionnaire form 3 is the most extensive of the three questionnaire forms. The informations given
are thorough, but unfortunately in some aspects difficult to compare to one another, since the respon-
dents have answered them in several ways. For example, some questions have been answered with
different units of measurement and in some cases the answers are not reliable at all. This is the case
especially with the questions concerning the systems calculation times. Of course, this makes the sur-
vey less reliable in those matters.
Despite the problem with the reliability, the results show the following common features:
• The existing simulators (with the exception of simulator No. 9) can change the road surface fric-
tion.
• The existing simulators (with the exception of simulator No. 18 and 20) can change the sight con-
dition to at least foggy conditions.
• Usage of the simulators for physiological studies is rare.
• All simulators can reproduce sounds in some way.
As stated above, all simulators provide a lot of possibilities to change the surface friction, sight condi-
tions and auditive feedback. Possibly, the development of low cost simulators (less than 10.000 Euros)
will have to limit these functions.
The visual systems are of three principle types (including two PC-systems):
• E&S (4) 60-70 Hz, Delay 60-70 ms.
• SGI (10, 14, 15 and 23) 30-60 Hz. (90Hz?) Delay 50-100 ms.
Image refreshing frequencies depending on the database complexity.
• PC Q3D (1, 14, 15?, 16, 18?) 20-30 (60) Hz, Delay 50-100 ms.
Image refreshing frequencies depending on the database complexity.
• PC Other Undefined capabilities.
Looking at the results we remark that even if they are using the same equipment the respondents’ state
very different characteristics for the systems. The big differences in the respondents’ answers may
have a lot of different reasons. Perhaps they do not know, or perhaps the configurations of each simu-
lator differs. Another possible explanation is that some of the respondents use the specifications from
Page 174
the manufacturer and some make their own control. The results also revealed the unspecificity of some
questions, as some of the respondents could not understand some questions.
The existence of motion systems depends on the cost. However, several respondents have not been
able to state a cost. A possible explanation is that the development of motion systems is difficult to
estimate. The cheapest simulator with motion system has a relative limited system with just vibrations.
All the other simulators with motion systems have the same principle system, a six-legged hydraulic
platform.
Page 175
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This chapter offers a summary of the analysis performed within TRAINER D1.2. The relevant task
was to analyse existing driver training methods and programs as well as driver assessment centres and
driving instructor’s needs. For these tasks two questionnaires were utilised.
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As legislation is valid for a whole country, the CIECA questionnaire, dealing with legislative matters
concerning driver training, only has been sent to one authority per country. In total, 31 countries re-
ceived a CIECA questionnaire. 25 of them filled it out and sent it back. Regarding the aim of D2.1,
identifying gaps in the current driving education curricula not all aspects of the questionnaire are im-
portant. So only information on the contents of theoretical and practical driver training is mentioned.
&RQWURODQG0DQRHXYULQJWDVNV
Derived from the analysis of existing driving education schemes, knowledge and skills on the vehicle-
control level and the manoeuvring level are educated in a theoretical and practical way in most of the
countries of the EU, i.e. following, overtaking, lane changing, parking, negotiating intersections,
slopes, and curves, road surface, turning, approach or exit of motorways, and reacting to traffic signs.
More interesting are knowledge and skills on the manoeuvring level which are trained only in few
countries, i.e. distance keeping, braking under different conditions and emergency braking, skid con-
trol, reacting to other road users, driving under bad weather conditions, and night driving.
With regard to the adapted GADGET-matrix (for a detailed description see Chapter 3: Driver behav-
iour models).tasks which refer to new technical developments seem to be missing: the use of new car
control aids (like ABS an ACC), and the use of driver support systems. It is difficult to decide on the
basis of the questionnaire whether risk increasing factors or self-evaluation-skills are considered ade-
quatly.
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In all European countries a theoretical and practical education regarding safety issues (technical
check) takes place.Additional items taught are behaviour in accidents and first aid. If risk increasing
and self evaluation dimensions, and the whole level regarding behavioural aspects are considered, it is
impossible to state. But because of the fact that the consideration of these tasks is a new development
it could be assumed that training on these higher levels does not take place.
When analysing the wishes of driving examiners, the most important gaps in theoretical training seem
to be that in some countries the theory training is not compulsory, that the contents of theory training
are barely connected to practical training, that a minimum amount of time in theory training is not
compulsory, and that the educational level of driving teachers seems to be low.
Concerning practical training it is remarked that focus of training is too much on passing the driving
exam, that the training should be prolonged, and/or that a second training phase should be introduced,
as it is realised in some countries.
Page 177
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The EFA questionnaire, dealing with driver and driving instructor needs, has been spread more widely
to a number of driving schools in different countries. In total, 122 driving schools from 8 countries
responded to the questionnaire. Summarising the findings of the driving instructor questionnaire the
most important fact seems to be that driving instructors in majority think that the hours spent in both
theoretical and practical training are not adequate, i.e. are rather few or too few. Besides the instructors
wish for more theoretical training, the following items were proposed to be added: international legis-
lation, general driving documents explanations, dashboard symbols, first aid, road behaviour, and the
influence of alcohol and drugs.
For the practical training some instructors propose to introduce the following tasks into driver training:
skid control, emergency braking, obstacle avoidance. In a few countries it seems to be not common to
train night driving, driving on wet roads, and on motorways. With one exception, defensive driving is
trained in all countries, as well as highway driving and the use of lights. High speed driving is trained
in five countries, skid control only in two.
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The results of the two questionnaires seem to establish that the basic vehicle control and the most ma-
noeuvring tasks are commonly trained in Europe, but tasks on higher levels and tasks regarding risk-
and self-evaluation dimensions are missing in most of the current driver training curricula, as the ex-
aminers’ and instructors’ suggestions of improvement indicate (see Table 44).
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Defensive driving ; ;
Accident analysis ;
Legislation issues ; ;
Geography ;
Vehicle technique ; ;
Emergency handling ;
Airbag system ;
First aid ; ; ;
On board documents explanation ;
Dashboard symbols/ New car control aids ;
Road behaviour ;
Road scanning
Driver’s condition (alcohol, drugs, stress, fa- ;
tigue)
Behaviour in case of accident ;

Night time driving ; ;
Interaction with other road users ; ;
Bad weather conditions ; ;
Skid control ; ;
Highway driving ; ;
Emergency stop ; ;
Convoy driving
Obstacle avoidance
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Page 179
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The TRAINER pan-European Workshop has taken place in November 2000. The aim was to present
the TRAINER project and it’s first results and to offer experts of the target areas (driving instructors,
research institutes, simulator developers, as well as representatives of ministries and relevant authori-
ties) opportunities to comment, support or contradict the presented findings and plans (for a more de-
tailed description see Chapter 5 of TRAINER D1.2).
There were five main questions which were discussed in several groups. In the context of D2.1 three
questions are interesting:
• On what points does the driver training of candidates need additional elements, and what role can
the simulator play in this?
• For which learning tasks should we not use the simulator?
• What is the additional value of multimedia training tools for the theoretical driver training?
The results of both group discussions and general discussion are presented in the following two sec-
tions. The first section includes contributions to the discussion about simulators, while the second sec-
tion about multimedia tools. The third section contains the proposals of the experts regarding the
question which task should be trained by which method, i.e. theory, multimedia, simulator and/or real
car.
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A main advantage of the use of simulators in comparison with real cars is the possibility to train task
which are too hazardous in real traffic. So trainees can be forced to experience hazardous situations in
order to train their cognitive skills (e.g. hazard perception). Although trainees lack the ability to per-
form basic vehicle control task in an automatised manner, it is possible to train perceptual skills like
peripheral vision and scanning the environment. Because of their anxiety in real traffic trainees drive
very slow and avoid overtaking manoeuvres. The simulator should allow them to be exposed to higher
speeds and to perform manoeuvres at higher speeds. Driving in high traffic density could also be per-
formed in the simulator, because actual driving under these circumstances without good vehicle con-
trol skills could cause accidents. The influence of distractors (in-car: mobile phone, driver support
systems, out of car: ambulance horn) and behaviour to cope with them could also be highlighted using
simulators, without real risk. As well trainees could experience the impact of car control aids (ABS,
ACC and other ADAS) in order to understand their possibilities and limitations. An overview of dif-
ferent car types (size, front vs. rear wheel drive) could also be given, because trainees may have some
difficulties to transfer their skills, which are trained generally in one specific driving instructor’s car, to
those cars used after training. In order to understand behaviour of other road users trainees should ex-
perience certain scenarios from different points of view (e.g. truck driver, bicyclist, motorcyclist). Car
malfunctions and their impact on car performance could be experienced and explained.
For all named tasks it is important to state that simulators should be used only for a limited time.
Trainees should not learn and automatise skills in an artificial environment. For that reason simulator
training should be preceded or followed by real car training sessions. The training curricula should
combine specific simulator scenarios with actual car driving.
The fact that performance of trainees can be monitored and evaluated in a more objective manner is
another main advantage of a simulator. As well simulators should give feedback about performance in
order to enable trainees to acquire knowledge and experience. In post-training discussion groups train-
ees could have an opportunity to understand their errors, gaining expertise by errors of other trainees
Page 181
and enhancing self-awareness. Trainees who have problems to perform certain tasks can repeat these
tasks, and the number of repetitions of a training task can be adapted to trainee’s performance.
On the one hand the simulator is not a suitable tool for some emergency manoeuvres due to motion
sickness in fast changes of direction (e.g. hard brake, obstacle avoidance). But on the other hand this
could be an advantage as trainees should learn first of all to avoid risky situations and not to cope with
them. So risk awareness and risk perception as well as cognitive skills in general could be well trained
in a simulator. But it should be taken into account that risky situations should not be used too often in
order to prevent trainees from experiencing an unrealistic environment.
,PSURYHPHQWRIGULYHUWUDLQLQJE\XVLQJPXOWLPHGLD
WRROVDQGOLPLWDWLRQVRIWKHP
Many advantages of using multimedia tools were mentioned. Firstly, motivation to learn is enhanced:
young people are attracted by multimedia applications, they enjoy learning using them, they are more
instructive and realistic than books. Pictures, animations and videos make learning easier.
Secondly training and learning can be self-paced, both regarding the learning of certain tasks and re-
garding the moment of learning, due to the fact that especially young people in general have PC ac-
cess. Tailored training to trainees with particular problems can be supported. It was also proposed that
such a tool could be used in secondary school education (as a new lesson on traffic behaviour and
safety), thus enhancing the relevant knowledge of all trainees before starting the actual training in the
driving school. Against this argument some driving instructors believed that proper training using the
multimedia tool should be only performed in driving schools under driving instructors supervision to
avoid misconceptions and errors in understanding.
A third main advantage is the standardisation of content and feedback. The influence of trainers who
are not good teachers is minimised. Besides, a good multimedia presentation might be more convinc-
ing than a not very competent trainer. Trainee’s performance could be assessed in an objective way.
3URSRVDOVIRUWKHXVHRIWRROVIRUSDUWLFXODUWDVNV
The suggestions of the discussion groups were matched to the initial scenario selection by TRAINER
Consortium. In the following Table, the TRAINER Consortium initial proposals are denoted by red
crosses and the round table proposals by tics.
Theory Multimedia Simulator Practical

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Starting ár á
Shifting gears á á á
Accelerating/ decelerating á á
Steering/ lane following á á
Speed control r ár á
Braking/ stopping r ár á
Use of new cars control aids (ABS, ACC, etc) r ár
Using the dashboard á
Insufficient skills and incomplete automation r r
Page 182
Theory Multimedia Simulator Practical

6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Realistic self-evaluation r r
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Following r ár á
Overtaking ár ár á
Entering and leaving the traffic á á
Tailgating ár
Lane changing ár ár á
Scanning the road (eye cues) á ár ár
Reacting to other vehicles á r ár á
Reacting to pedestrians á ár ár á
Parking á á
Negotiating intersections ár ár á
Negotiating hills/slopes r á
Negotiating curves á ár á
Road surface ár á
Approach/ exit of motorways ár
Railroad crossings, bridges, tunnels á
Reacting to traffic signs and traffic lights á á ár á
Reacting to direction signs and in-car devices á r á
Emergency break r ár
Obstacle avoidance technique r
Urban driving á ár á
Rural driving r á
Convoy driving r
Motorway driving ár
Weather conditions (fog, rain, snow) á ár ár
Night driving á ár
Insufficient skills and incompletely automation ár ár
Information overload ár r
Insufficient anticipating skills and wrong expecta- ár ár
tions
Risky driving style á ár
6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Realistic self-evaluation ár ár
Awareness of personal driving style á ár
Page 183
Page 184
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Determination of trip goals, route and modal r r
choice
Preparation and technical check á á
Safety issues á ár
Maintenance tasks á
Economic driving á á r
Driver’s condition (stress, mood, fatigue) á r ár
Motives for driving
6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Awareness of personal planning skills
Awareness of typical driving goals and risky driv-
ing motives
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Knowing about the general relations between life-
style/age/gender and driving style
Knowing the influence of personal values and so-
cial background
Knowing about the influence of passengers ár
International legislation
First aid á
Safety belts ár
Alcohol consumption, drugs, fatigue á r ár
High level of sensation seeking r r
Consequences of social pressure, use of alcohol r r
and drugs
6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Awareness of own personal tendencies (risky
habits, safety-negative motives)
7DEOH3URSRVDOVRI75$,1(5FRQVRUWLXPDQGH[SHUWVIRUWKHXVHRIWRROVIRUSDUWLFXODUWDVNV
Page 185
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Page 186
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The results of the analyses of the previous chapters are summarised in this chapter, striving to find
answers to the following main questions:
• Which are the problems of novice drivers in performing particular driving tasks causing their high
involvement in accidents?
• Which are the most important gaps in current training curricula?
Therefore the results of the ’Bibliographical survey’ (Chapter 5), ’Accident analysis’ (Chapter 6), ’Sur-
vey of existing multimedia tools’ (Chapter 7), and the ’Results of the workshop’ (Chapter10) were
compared with the existing driver training curricula (Chapter 9).
7KHDGDSWHG*$'*(7PDWUL[
The following table summarises the findings of several analyses presented in this report. The symbols
in the adapted GADGET matrix offer only superficial information. Nevertheless they are indicators for
information which was found. A cross in the column ’Literature Analysis’ means that suggestions re-
garding this task are made, i.e. findings that novice drivers are relatively unskilled in the task and / or
proposals for an improvement of skills in this task. A cross in the column ’Accident analysis’ indicates
that the failure in this task is a major factor for involvement of novice drivers in accidents. Therefore
this task is important and should be implemented or intensified in driver training. A cross in the col-
umn ’Multimedia Tools’ means that at least one of the analysed tools includes a lesson or scenario
about this task. In the column ’Existing training’ the ’O’ indicates that the task is trained in all or nearly
all European countries as the analysis of the questionnaires showed, the ' Ø' indicates that the task is
trained only in few or at least one country, the cross indicates that the driving authorities and driving
instructors questioned, indicate that the task is not trained, but should be trained in the particular
country. Unfortunately the questioning took place very early in the TRAINER project, at a point in
time where not all relevant driving tasks were identified. Consequently there are many cells which re-
main empty. The last two columns depict the experts' proposals, made during the workshop: A cross
means that the task could or should be trained with the multimedia-tool and/or with the simulator.
Literature Accident Multimedia Existing Experts’ proposals

Survey analysis tools Training
Multimedia Simulator
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Starting 2 ;
Shifting gears 2 ;
Accelerating/ decelerating 2 ;
Steering/ lane following 2 ;
Speed control ; 2 ;
Braking/ stopping 2 ;
Use of new cars control aids ; ; ; ;
(ABS, ACC, etc)
Insufficient skills and incomplete ;
automation
6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Page 187

Realistic self-evaluation ; ; ;
0$12(895,1*7$6.6
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Following ; ; ; 2 ;
Overtaking/ Passing ; ; 2 ; ;
Entering and leaving the traffic ; ; 2 ;
Tailgating ; ; ;
Lane changing ; ; 2 ; ;
Scanning the road (eye cues) ; ; ; ;
Reacting to other vehicles ; ; ; ; ;
Reacting to pedestrians ; ; ; ;
Parking ; 2
Negotiating intersections ; ; ; 2 ; ;
Negotiating hills/slopes ; ; 2 ;
Negotiating curves ; ; ; 2 ; ;
Road surface (skid, obstacles) ; ; ; ;
Approach/ exit of motorways ; 2 ;
Turning off/ over ; 2
Railroad crossings, bridges, tun-
nels
Reacting to traffic signs and traf- ; ; ; 2 ; ;
fic lights
Reacting to direction signs (incl. ;
in-car devices)
Emergency brake ;
Urban driving ; 2 ; ;
Rural driving ; ; 2
Convoy driving ;
Motorway driving ; ; ;
Weather conditions ; ; ;
Night driving ; ; ; ; ;
Insufficient skills and incom- ; ; ; ;
pletely automation
Information overload ; ; ;
Insufficient anticipating skills and ; ; ; ;
wrong expectations
Risky driving style ; ; ; ;
6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Realistic self-evaluation ; ; ; ;
Awareness of personal driving ; ; ; ;
Page 188

style
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Determination of trip goals, route
and modal choice
Preparation and technical check ; 2 ;
Safety issues ; ; ; 2 ;
Maintenance tasks ; 2 ;
International legislation ;
First aid ; ;
Economic driving ; ; ;
Driver’s condition (stress, mood, ; ; ; ; ;
fatigue)
Motives for driving ; ;
6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Awareness of personal planning
skills
Awareness of typical driving ; ;
goals and risky driving motives
%(+$9,285$/$63(&76
.QRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOV
Knowing about the general rela- ; ;
tions between lifestyle/age/ gen-
der and driving style
Knowing the influence of per- ; ;
sonal values and social back-
ground
Knowing about the influence of ; ;
passengers
High level of sensation seeking ; ;
Consequences of social pres- ; ; ; ; ;
sure, use of alcohol and drugs
6HOIHYDOXDWLRQ
Awareness of own personal ten- ; ;
dencies (risky habits, safety-
negative motives)
7DEOH)LQGLQJVRIWKHVHYHUDODQDO\VHVPDGHLQ'7KHPHDQLQJRISDUWLFXODUV\PEROVLVH[SODLQHGLQWKHWH[W
Page 189
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WUROWDVNV
On the one hand it is evident that training of basic vehicle-control tasks is part of every driver training
in the European countries, i.e. starting, shifting gears, accelerating/ decelerating, steering / lane keep-
ing, speed control, and braking/ stopping. On the other hand it is not clear from the data of the ques-
tionnaires whether SHUFHSWXDOVNLOOV which are important for all vehicle control and manoeuvring
tasks, are trained in a systematically way. As the literature highlights drivers have to know how speed
influences certain parameters of visual perception, which are important prerequisites for a safe per-
formance of all manoeuvring tasks:
• lane keeping: at slower speeds only the near region is important; whereas at higher speeds the
near as well as the distant region is important;
• the attentional field decreases with increasing speed;
• braking/stopping: drivers underestimate systematically the TTC; and this underestimation in-
creases with higher speeds.
A gap in the existing training curricula seems to exist regarding the use of new car control aids (ABS,
ACC, etc.). As literature suggests trainees should learn to cope with these new devices and they should
be aware that they might adapt their behaviour with these car control aids. That trainees should famil-
iarise with these devices is also a proposal by the driving instructors and the experts who participated
in the workshop.
As the accident analysis indicates, the predominant cause for novice drivers’ accidents is loss of con-
trol during driving. Most accidents happened along straight roads in good weather conditions. So the
main problem of novice drivers can not be the mastering of basic vehicle control tasks. A risk-
increasing factor for the speed control task is systematic underestimation of speed without speedome-
ter and with restricted hearing which occurs when young people choose to hear loud music in the car.
Taken these facts together it seems to be very important that young drivers learn to evaluate their skills
in a realistic way. They should be aware that certain parameters exist, which influence their estima-
tions of distance, speed and other factors. That young people fail in simple driving tasks (as stated
above) may result from a shift of attention to other tasks, not related to the driving tasks, i.e. listening
to music or to passengers, making a phone call, etc., and/or from the overestimation of their own
driving skills, and/or simply from the decision to drive very fast. Training of realistic self-evaluation
and mediating knowledge about risk-increasing factors should be introduced or increased in training
curricula.
Page 190
,GHQWLILFDWLRQRIJDSVLQGULYHUWUDLQLQJUHJDUGLQJPD
QRHXYULQJWDVNV
0DQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRWUDIILFFRQGLWLRQV
)ROORZLQJ is naturally a driver training task and can be found in all training curricula. Still, rear end
accidents are the second important accident type for novice drivers in the Belgian accident database
(23 %), and the third reason in the Swedish database (15%). But on the basis of accident analysis it is
not clear if rear-end accidents origin from failure to estimate distance, from dual task performance
while following, or by any other specific cause. Nevertheless, it could be questioned whether novice
drivers know certain rules regarding the right headway with a given speed or the relationship between
speed and crash severity. Also trainees should learn or better experience the relation between reaction
distance, braking distance and total stopping distance, because they seem to choose a distance too
small to perform a braking manoeuvre in time. The possibility of sudden acceleration/ deceleration in
car following situations could be experienced in simulator scenarios, which is too hazardous to experi-
ence in a real car.
Groeger & Clegg (1994) showed in their video analysis of manoeuvres in over 550 hours of driving
tuition that practising RYHUWDNLQJ typically comprises only 5% of all manoeuvres in lessons, and many
of these occasions only involve the overtaking of either stationary or slow moving vehicles. So train-
ees should be forced to perform this manoeuvre at higher speed (and this in a simulator), as it was
suggested in the workshop. As well perceptual errors (e.g. that drivers expect to meet an oncoming
vehicle halfway) should be experienced by the trainees. The literature suggests that distance estimation
skills can be well trained with multimedia tools and/or simulators.
(QWHULQJDQGOHDYLQJ WUDIILF is naturally a driver training task, but it is not clear whether in existing
training cognitive skills are trained. Recent research shows that drivers tended to underestimate the
amount of time available for merging from parking lane into traffic lane before a vehicle approaching
from behind reached them. They also underestimated the amount of time it would take to pull out and
achieve the speed of traffic. As stated above distance estimation skills can be well trained with multi-
media tools and/or simulators. This is also relevant to ODQHFKDQJLQJ, because drivers underestimate
the time needed for a lane change manoeuvre.
A very central topic is the task to VFDQWKHURDG, because a well trained scanning skill is a prerequisite
for safe driving. Novice drivers do not make use of their peripheral vision and, as a consequence, they
are poor in detecting distant cues and hazards. Many authors as well as the experts in the workshop
demand that training of anticipating skills and hazard perception should be realised on a large scale in
driver training. A good example for training scanning skills is the multimedia tool Driver ZED, which
offers a lot of road-scanning lessons.
The tasks
and
are closely re-
lated to the scanning task. Only if drivers detect possible risk inducing cues and predict a certain be-
haviour, they are able to react in an appropriate manner.
3DUNLQJ is trained in all countries, and is not marked as a cause for possible risks or accidents.
0DQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRURDGZD\FKDUDFWHULVWLFV
1HJRWLDWLQJLQWHUVHFWLRQVMXQFWLRQVDQGURXQGDERXWVas well as WXUQLQJRIIWXUQLQJRYHU are cen-
tral driving tasks and are trained in all analysed European countries. However, accidents at junctions
form a large proportion of all accidents, i.e. in the Swedish database 45% happened at a junction. Not
yielding is the second important cause for accidents in Belgium. As literature shows, possible causes
are insufficient scanning skills and underestimation of time required for a certain manoeuvre. So
training these skills should be intensified. This is also relevant to UHDFWLQJWRWUDIILFVLJQVDQGWUDIILF
Page 191
OLJKWV which is also mostly performed at junctions. Accident-prone behaviour that fits into this cate-
gory is speeding, red light running, entering a one-way road in the wrong direction, and not stopping at
a stop sign. It is obvious that, as for all other tasks, not only perceptual factors play a role (insufficient
scanning) but also motivational and decisional factors, here e.g. hurrying.
1HJRWLDWLQJKLOOVDQGVORSHV as well as QHJRWLDWLQJFXUYHVis trained in all countries. But, as literature
suggests for both tasks, attention should be paid to cars and obstacles suddenly appearing. This can
only be experienced in artificial environments. Trainees should learn that unexpected situations can
occur. 6NLGFRQWUROis only trained in two countries: It might be possible to let trainees experience the
effect of icy or wet streets in a simulator. However, the experiences in Scandinavian countries show
that training skid control may lead to an overestimation of the skill. Therefore training should focus on
emphasising to avoid skidding situations. This is also true for REVWDFOHDYRLGDQFH which is not trained
yet, as well as HPHUJHQF\EUDNLQJ. Trainees should be aware that they perform an evasive manoeuvre
faster while training than while daily driving because their attention is fully focused on the driving
task. Anticipating skills seem to be more important than manoeuvring skills. 1HJRWLDWLQJUDLOURDG
FURVVLQJVEULGJHVDQGWXQQHOV seem not to be of particular importance.
A very new technical development are LQFDULQIRUPDWLRQV\VWHPV or driver support systems which
were very probably not a topic in existing training. Trainees should learn to handle these devices and
know or better experience that the use of them may impair attention.
0DQRHXYULQJWDVNVUHODWHGWRWKHHQYLURQPHQW
Driving under EDGZHDWKHUFRQGLWLRQV (i.e. fog, rain, snow) and QLJKWGULYLQJ is trained only in few
countries. Trainees should learn that they have to adapt their driving in these conditions, i.e. driving
with lower speed.
It is not clear whether LQVXIILFLHQWPDQRHXYULQJVNLOOVDQGLQFRPSOHWHDXWRPDWLRQare the major
factors for accident involvement of young drivers. As stated above, most accidents are caused by loss
of control in environments which demand no skilled driving, i.e. driving on straight roads during good
weather. More important seems to be that novice drivers are distracted by other tasks or overestimate
their skills and choose to drive too fast. ,QIRUPDWLRQRYHUORDG may cause accidents. Trainees should
experience that additional tasks, like monitoring of radio broadcasts, phoning, talking with passengers,
etc., reduce their cognitive capacity for the driving tasks and enhance the probability of accident in-
volvement.
Recent research emphasises that LQVXIILFLHQWDQWLFLSDWLQJVNLOOV play a major role in the involvement
of novice drivers in accidents. As stated above they are not skilled in higher level visual search, i.e.
detecting other road users or cues for a possible hazardous situation. Meanwhile there are efforts to
train hazard perception in some countries, but presumably more in a theoretical way. Recent devel-
oped multimedia tools (i.e. Scan & Teach, Driver ZED, Interactief Defensief Autorijden, Feu Vert,
Boniiers Trafikskola) offer a wide range of lessons in which trainees have to identify possible risks
and to predict possible behaviour of other road users.
As derived from the literature, a ULVN\GULYLQJVW\OH results from poor risk perception and inability to
detect hazards, often coupled with overconfidence. Trainees should experience the consequences of
risky driving in simulated conditions, and should be motivated not to risk their and the life of other
road users. On the basis of the data of D1.2 it is not possible to decide how defensive driving and/or
safe driving courses, taking place in several countries, communicate these issues.
Page 192
Drivers tend to consistently underestimate risks involved with driving, and overestimate their driving
skills and capabilities. To prevent risky driving trainees have to be motivated to evaluate themselves in
a realistic way. As training concepts like ’Insight’ in Sweden show there are possibilities to influence
young drivers’ attitudes by demonstrating consequences of risky driving and discussing factors and
attitudes. Novice drivers should be motivated to think about their SHUVRQDOGULYLQJVW\OHV, as well as
interaction effects with other road users which are caused by their driving patterns and their conse-
quences.
,GHQWLILFDWLRQRIJDSVLQGULYHUWUDLQLQJUHJDUGLQJVWUD
WHJLFWDVNV
The strategical level focuses on the goals behind driving and on the context in which driving is per-
formed. The GHWHUPLQDWLRQRIWULSJRDOVURXWHDQGPRGDOFKRLFH have an influence on actual driv-
ing performance, e.g. whether the driver decides to drive at day-time or night-time, or in rush-hours or
not. This factor seems not to be taken into account in existing driver training curricula. However
SUHSDUDWLRQDQGWHFKQLFDOFKHFNRIWKHFDU, PDLQWHQDQFHWDVNV and VDIHW\LVVXHV (e.g. wearing
safety belt) are part of theoretical training in all countries, although a part of young drivers still contin-
ues to neglect to follow safety guidelines. How to drive in an economical/ ecological way is communi-
cated in some countries as well as ILUVWDLG issues.
That the GULYHU
VFRQGLWLRQVWUHVVPRRGIDWLJXH influences driving performance is an important
point to teach as the results of the workshop as well as the literature show. Drivers should know that,
under certain circumstances, they are not able to perform well in the driving task and they should learn
how to cope for example with stress. As well they should know that some personal PRWLYHVIRUGULY
LQJ work against safe driving, i.e. hurrying , showing off, sensation seeking, competing and testing
limits. Some of the multimedia tools take these dimension into account by showing videos and anima-
tions.
As said above trainees should not only know that the above named factors influence the actual driving
task, but that they should EHDOVRDZDUHRIWKHLURZQSHUVRQDOSODQQLQJVNLOOVW\SLFDOGULYLQJJRDOV
DQGULVN\GULYLQJPRWLYHV. The main problem is to motivate trainees to think and to discuss about
these issues, because young drivers estimate their own probability of being involved in an accident as
lower in comparison to other young drivers, as well as to other drivers in general. These issues seem
not to be part of the existing driver training curricula.
Page 193
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KDYLRXUDODVSHFWV
As recent research showed, there are certain attributes of young people which influence and/or cause
their involvement in accidents. So training should not only cover the performance tasks of driving, but
should also try to influence the personal values of trainees. Trainees should learn that certain factors as
lifestyle, social background, gender, age and other individual preconditions have an influence on atti-
tudes, driving behaviour and accident involvement. The training strategy ’Insight’ in Sweden shows,
that demonstrations and discussion could help trainees to realise their endangering. Although it is not
possible to decide on the basis of the questionnaire data, whether behavioural aspects are taken into
account in existing driver training, it can be assumed that this is not the case, as the considerations that
these aspects play a role for safe driving are relatively new.
That a high level of VHQVDWLRQVHHNLQJ as well as VRFLDOSUHVVXUH and XVHRIDOFRKRODQGGUXJV en-
hance the risk of accident involvement is obvious. From accident analysis it turns out that the effects
of alcohol and other drugs is a subject that should receive (more) attention in training. Some of the
analysed multimedia tools take these dimension into account by showing videos and animations.
It is necessary that trainees not only know that the above named factors influence driving performance.
Driver education has to make them realise their own personal tendencies (risky habits, safety-negative
motives). Proposals for appropriate educational methods that derived from the literature are feedback
during training, self assessment tools like questionnaires and scales, discussion with other youngsters
about personal experiences and attitudes, and evaluations made by instructors or examiners.
Page 194
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Page 195
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Taken the results of the previous chapters together the main conclusion seems to be that future driver
training should take into account or intensify the training of perceptual and cognitive skills, i.e. scan-
ning skills, and hazard detection. With regard to the GADGET matrix the driving task should be un-
derstood as a task involving also decisional and motivational aspects. That these higher level (i.e.
strategic and behavioural) aspects play an important role in the involvement of novice drivers in acci-
dents is clearly stated by recent research literature as well as by those experts participating in the
TRAINER workshop: Novice drivers can have superior manoeuvring skills and still have many
crashes. Teaching scanning and anticipating as well as self-evaluation skills appear to be promising
ways to reduce accident rates with novice drivers.
&RQFOXVLRQV&RQWUROWDVNV
Training basic vehicle handling skills is a natural feature of driver training. As stated by the experts,
the simulator is a useful device for training the very first steps of vehicle handling. The advantages are
not only safety related – trainees could learn these skills without endangering themselves or other road
users (like learning with a real car in a fenced off driving-instruction range), but also related to eco-
logical and economical issues: fuel is not consumed and the use of a simulator is absolutely exhaust-
free. As well, the simulator offers the possibility to enable trainees to cope with new technical devices,
like ACC or ABS. Trainees should be aware that they might adapt their behaviour with these car con-
trol aids. It was also proposed on the workshop that trainees should experience different simulated car
types (size, front vs. rear wheel etc.), because trainees may have some difficulties to transfer their
skills trained usually in one specific driving instructor's car to those cars used after training.
Due to the opportunity to give feedback about task performance in the simulator, trainees could expe-
rience risk increasing aspects of the tasks, especially underestimation of speed and of TTC, as well as
the interaction of these two parameters. Trainees can evaluate their skills in a realistic way by com-
paring their estimates with the real outcome. As literature highlights, drivers have to know how speed
influences certain parameters of visual perception, which are important prerequisites for a safe per-
formance of all manoeuvring tasks. The connection between reaction, braking and total stopping dis-
tance should be understood by the trainees. These important issues could also be mediated by multi-
media PC devices, as the analysed tools show.
As the accident analysis indicates, the predominant cause for novice drivers' accidents is loss of con-
trol during driving. Most accidents happened along straight roads in good weather conditions. That
young people fail in these simple driving tasks may result from a shift of attention to other tasks not
related to the driving task, i.e. listening to music or to passengers, making a phone call etc., and/or
from the overestimation of the own driving skills, and/or simply from the decision to drive very fast.
Training of realistic self-evaluation and mediating knowledge about risk-increasing factors should be
increased in training curricula.
&RQFOXVLRQV0DQRHXYULQJWDVNV
Various sources in the literature emphasise the fact that learning manoeuvring skills does not contrib-
ute to safe driving and reduction of accident rates of novices drivers. Literature, as well as experts,
suggest that scanning and anticipating skills play a more important role in safe driving. Therefore
training of particular manoeuvring skills should also include training of perceptual skills relevant to
the particular tasks, e.g. for a safe turning manoeuvre drivers have to scan the intersection for certain
cues which enable drivers to anticipate the behaviour of other road users and to detect possible haz-
ards. Furthermore, novices and drivers in general seem to underestimate the time needed for many
manoeuvring tasks, like overtaking, merging, lane changing, etc. To train these cognitive skills it is
Page 196
suggested to use filmed clips, videos, digital media or the simulator, where the trainees have to detect
certain cues and/or predict, what could happen and what they would do. This could be done with mul-
timedia tools and with simulators as well. Performance of trainees can be monitored and evaluated in a
more objective manner than in real car. In addition, both devices should give feedback about perform-
ance in order to enable trainees to acquire knowledge and experience.
Another main advantage of simulators, compared with real cars, is that trainees can experience sce-
narios which are too dangerous to create on the road, and that trainees can train cognitive skills with-
out fully automated manoeuvring skills. Attempts to teach trainees safe-driving strategies during
training often failed, probably because the information processing capacity of novice drivers is already
overloaded by vehicle control and interacting with other traffic participants: Trainees have to make
conscious decisions for every move and every action they take, so they are not able to use improve-
ments of defensive or risk minimising strategies.
Recent developments in software make it possible that drivers in a simulator could behave in very re-
alistic way. Automatic Traffic Generation and Autonomous Driver models reproduce the circum-
stances in real traffic, and enable the users to repeat and therefore train certain tasks in changing envi-
ronments with varying risk and different road users with variable behaviour. The influence of distrac-
tors (in-car: mobile phone, driver support systems, out of car: ambulance horn) on attention and be-
haviour to cope with them could also be highlighted using simulators without real risk. Through the
combination of opportunity to practice and obtaining feedback on those skills trainees can come to
their own understandings of how cues in traffic and outcome are related. As well trainees can experi-
ence the results of their own risky choices.
The use of PC-multimedia tools offers the advantage that training and learning can be self-paced, both
regarding learning of certain tasks and regarding the moment of learning due to the fact that especially
young people in general have PC access. Besides, motivation to learn is enhanced: young people are
attracted by multimedia applications, they enjoy learning using them, they are more instructive and
realistic than books.
For all manoeuvring tasks it is important to state that simulators should be used only for a limited
time. Trainees should not learn and automatise skills in an artificial environment. For that reason,
simulator training should be preceded or followed by real car training sessions. The training curricula
should combine specific simulator scenarios with actual car driving.
However risky driving behaviour results not only from poor perception, but also from overestimation
of own skills. In order to increase driving skills without increasing the confidence in these skills the
manoeuvring component should not be overemphasised. As some projects and methodologies in Swe-
den, like ’Pilot’ and ’Insight’, have shown it could be better to use more demonstrations and exercises in
which novice drivers fail in order to develop a realistic self-evaluation of their capabilities. Partici-
pants of the workshop suggested that in post-training discussion groups trainees could have an oppor-
tunity of understanding their errors, gaining expertise by errors of other trainees and enhancing self-
awareness.
&RQFOXVLRQV6WUDWHJLFWDVNV
The strategical level defines the general planning stage of a trip. The goals of a journey as well as the
motives and the personal conditions have an influence on actual driving task performance. So driver
training should not be restricted to vehicle control and manoeuvring skills. Novice drivers should un-
derstand safety-negative consequences of certain motivations for driving (e.g. competing, showing off,
sensation seeking) on actual driving performance. They should also know or better experience that
factors like stress and mood could influence driving behaviour in a harmful way and they should learn
how to cope with these risk increasing aspects. The knowledge about theses issues can be mediated by
multimedia tools showing videos and animations. Techniques, like mental practice and group decision,
could influence the behaviour of novice drivers due to the fact that trainees are forced to explain their
own attitudes and to reflect them. The use of self-evaluation techniques is proposed in order to enable
Page 197
trainees to be aware of their own conditions and to discuss the influence of their and other road-users’
conditions on the interactive task of driving. The main problem is to motivate trainees to think and to
discuss about their typical driving goals and risky driving motives, because young drivers estimate
their own probability of being involved in an accident as lower than the risk of other young drivers, as
well as of other drivers on the whole.
&RQFOXVLRQV%HKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV
Many authors of road safety literature emphasise, that it is not crucial for safety how skilled a driver is,
but to what extent drivers use their skill in driving safely. There are certain attributes of young people
which influence and/or cause their involvement in accidents. Trainees should learn that certain factors
as lifestyle, social background, gender, age and other individual preconditions have an influence on
attitudes, driving behaviour and accident involvement. Young drivers often have risky habits (e.g.
testing limits of own skill), safety-negative motives (like competing or pleasure), and are prone to so-
cial pressure by peers (use of alcohol and drugs etc.). Exercises should be developed to make trainees
aware that assessment of their own abilities to negotiate critical situations may be false, especially in
the beginning.
Driver education has to make them realise their own personal tendencies (risky habits, safety-negative
motives). Proposals for appropriate educational methods derived from the literature are feedback dur-
ing training, self assessment tools like questionnaires and scales, discussion with other youngsters
about personal experiences and attitudes, and evaluations made by instructors or examiners. The
training strategy ’Insight’ in Sweden shows, that demonstrations and discussion could help trainees to
realise their endangering.
Finally, it should be kept in mind that every training of manoeuvring skills (and probably this is as
well relevant to cognitive skills like e.g. hazard perception) may result in overconfidence of young
drivers. Therefore training safe driving strategies can only be successful if driver training covers the
whole range of proposed contents and therefore should also include motivational and self-evaluative
aspects.
Page 198
5HIHUHQFHV
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http://www.aft-iftim.asso.fr/m2bis/apprent.htm Jacques Hervo ’webmaster@aft-iftim.asso.fr’ Forwarded to... Yes
Monsieur Serrier fserrier@aft-iftim.asso.fr
http://www.it.pw.edu.pl/autopw/en/main.html No
http://www.autosim.no/ ’info@autosim.no’ Yes
http://www1.virtualprototypes.ca/VSD/success/bmw.html sales@virtualprototypes.ca Yes
http://www.bsm.co.uk/indexy.htm No email. No
http://www.cf.ac.uk/psych/ruddle/C-HIVE/Drive/ Robert Snowden ’Snowden@cardiff.ac.uk’ Yes
http://www.cmu.edu/cmri/drc/drctrucksim.html info@i-sim.com Yes
http://www.cisi.fr/Vfr/Competences/Iso/centre_simu.html No.
http://www2.ceri.go.jp/eng/e3b.html ’n_road@ceri.go.jp’ No.
http://www.daimler-benz.com/presse/comp.htm No.
http://digitranhq.com/vehicleprod.html sales@digitranhq.com Yes
http://www.doronprecision.com/dorondriver.htm doronprecision@doronprecision.com Yes
http://www.drfoerst.de/e_page.htm
http://www.dynres.com/intro.html 355 Van Ness Avenue No email. No.
Torrance, California 90501
http://www.faac.com/Driving_Simulators.htm rdsnyder@faac.com Yes
http://www.unibw- winfried.tomaske@unibw-hamburg.de; Yes
hamburg.de/MWEB/ikk/fkw/simulator/simulatoren.html clemens.breidenbach@unibw-
hamburg.de; tho-
mas.fortmueller@unibw-hamburg.de;
karsten.kunde@unibw-hamburg.de
http://www.daimler- Wilfried Käding wilfried.kaeding@daimlerchrysler.com Yes
benz.com/ind_gfnav_e.html?/research/text/70610a_e.htm
http://www.faros.fr/eauto.html 'contact.auto@faros.com' Yes
http://www.fiatautonomy.com/eng/centri/centri1a.htm No email. No.
Page 219
http://www.bwb.org/Vorhaben/AAFR/frames/fahrsim_i.htm bwb@bwb.org Yes

http://www.ecs.umass.edu/asl/midas.html asl@kirk.ecs.umass.edu Yes
http://www.hitl.washington.edu/projects/drive_sim/index.htm ’weghorst@u.washington.edu’; Yes
l ’chris@hitl.washington.edu’
http://www.hyperiontech.com/ ’evans@hyperiontech.com’; ’bar- Yes
telme@hyperiontech.com’
http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/winter94/p94wi19.htm Tom Granda thomas.granda@fhwa.dot.gov Yes
http://www.drivr.com/ ’info@drivr.com’ Yes
http://www.immersivetechnologies.com/View_Sim.htm sales@immersivetechnologies.com Yes
http://www.inrets.fr/ur/simus/sim2e.htm ’espie@inrets.fr’ Yes
http://www.vrac.iastate.edu/~honyamda/drsim.html honyamda@icemt.iastate.edu Yes
http://www.jari.or.jp/en/info/se-simulator-e.html ’webmas@jari.or.jp’ Yes
http://www.jsxnet.com/jsxsimu.htm jsx@jsxnet.com Yes
http://www.kobitec.co.za/cybcar2.htm info@kobitec.co.za Yes
http://vc.kookmin.ac.kr/ds/index.htm Woon-Sung Lee wslee@kmu.kookmin.ac.kr Yes
http://www.tu- zmms@zmms.tu-berlin.de Yes
berlin.de/fb10/ISS/FG8/forschun/menschma.htm
http://www.nads-sc.uiowa.edu/ ’lea-der-chen@uiowa.edu’ Yes
http://pathfinder.cbr.com/facilities/simulation.html Akio Kinoshita akio@pathfinder.cbr.com Yes
http://www.coe.neu.edu/~mourant/velab-drivsim-pix.html ’mourant@coe.neu.edu’ Yes
http://www.oktal.fr/fr/a_simulation.htm contact@oktal.fr Yes
http://www.systemstech.com/stidrsm1.htm ’bimal@systemstech.com’; ’trosen- Yes
thal@systemstech.com’
Arvid Harmsen arvid@a-en-a.demon.nl
http://www.fondation.maif.fr/projets/projets_passes_pavcas.h ’contact@fondation.maif.fr’
tml
http://www.vss.psu.edu/tds/ Donald Streit dstreit@psue.edu Yes
Nicolas Delahaye delahaye@psu.edu Yes
Moustafa El-Gindy mxe15@psu.edu Yes.
http://www.experts.renault.com/kemeny/index.html Dr Andras Kemeny andras.kemeny@renault.com Yes.
Page 220
http://171.64.252.73/People/johnson/seat/seat.html Machiel Van der Loos vdl@roses.stanford.edu Yes

http://www.simulatorsystems.com/ ’staff@simulatorsystems.com’ Yes
http://ramat-negev.org.il/~amshav/simusa.htm ’simusa@ramat-negev.org.il’ "Not delivered" Yes (?)
http://www.simutech.de/ kontakt@simutech.de Yes
http://glup.irobot.uv.es/grupos/artec/proyectsirca.htm Cristina Romero cris@glup.irobot.uv.es Yes
http://www.softlab-nsk.com/Pro/Drive.html vr@softlab-nsk.com Yes
http://www.stn-atlas.de/sae/eHauptframe.htm Ullrich Melzer simulation-systems@stn-atlas.de Yes
http://transport.storaholm.educ.goteborg.se/info%20in%20en Bengt Hedlund bengt@hedlund.se Yes
glish.htm
http://www.tts.thomson-csf.com/activities/roaddrivframe.htm sales@tts.thomson-csf.com Yes
http://neptunus.tno.nl/en/cases/showcase_8.html info@bouw.tno.nl Yes
http://www.ynl.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/projects/vehicle/index.html kokubo@ynl.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Yes
http://www.trl.co.uk/simul.htm enquiries@trl.co.uk Yes
http://www.umich.edu/~driving/sim.html Paul Allan Green pagreen@umich.edu Yes
http://www-vrl.umich.edu/project/automotive/ Klaus-Peter Beier beier@umich.edu Yes
http://mistral.leeds.ac.uk/ Nicholas J. Ward nicw@psychology.leeds.ac.uk Yes
Andrew Bailey andrew@scs.leeds.ac.uk Yes
http://www.hfrl.umn.edu/facilities/ Peter Easterlund ’peter@easterlund.com’ Yes
http://www.cs.rochester.edu/u/bayliss/UofRSim.html Andrew McCullum mccallum@cs.rochester.edu Yes
http://www.soton.ac.uk/~psyweb/postgrads/myoung/sds.html Neville Stanton nas@soton.ac.uk "Not delivered" Yes
http://psych49.ijk.waikato.ac.nz/research/driverSim/roadsafet Rob Bakker rob@waikato.ac.nz Yes
y.html
http://www.cs.uiowa.edu/~hank/ hank@cs.uiowa.edu Yes,17/
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Page 221
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This questionnaire is a standard form, which is directed to a broad range of companies and/or people
in some way connected to driving simulators. The form uses “Yes”- and “No”-questions and hopefully
you can answer all questions without using the “Irrelevant”-column.
4XHVWLRQVFRQFHUQLQJWKHVLPXODWRU <HV 1R ,UUHOH

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Is there a computer generated image system?

Is the image system developed by your company / institution?
Is it equipped with rear view images?
Is there any feedback sound to the driver?
Is the sound-system stereophonic?
Is it possible to reproduce precisely, the same scenarios several times?
Is it possible to vary the friction of the road surface?
Is it possible to change roads (i.e. urban-, rural - and highways)?
Is it possible to vary the sight conditions?
Is it possible to vary the curves, i.e. the linearity of the curve?
Is there any kind of motion system, generating motion feedback to the driver?
Is it possible to vary between different brands of cars?
Is the simulator vehicle front wheel driven?
Is the simulator vehicle rear wheel driven?
Is it possible to change between front- and rear wheel drive?
Is the simulator vehicle equipped with a gear lever?
Does the simulator vehicle have automatic gearbox?
Does the simulator vehicle have manual gearbox?
Is it possible to change between automatic and manual gearbox?
Are there passenger seats?
Is it possible to use it as a truck/ lorry simulator?
Is the simulator adapted for drivers with special need (disabled persons)?
Is the simulator accessible for manual wheelchair users?
Is the simulator accessible for electric powered wheelchair users?
Is the simulator vehicle equipped with servo/power steering?
Is the simulator vehicle equipped with electrically controlled driver seat?
Is the driver seat electric powered heated?
Are the door windows electrically powered?
Are the mirrors electrically adjustable?
Is the steering wheel adjustable?
Is the simulator vehicle equipped with a cruise control?
Is there an electronic gear selector?
Does the simulator have electrically controlled brakes?
Is the driver seat an original car seat?
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5 Estimated cost for purchase? US Dollars
(Please specify the right currency, or preferably state the cost in EUROS) Euros
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This questionnaire is a special form for those which simulator is adapted to drivers with special needs.
The form uses “Yes”- and “No”-questions and hopefully you can answer all questions without using
the “Irrelevant”-column.
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Is there a hand-operated accelerator?

Are there hand-operated brakes?
Does it make use of automatic gearshift?
Has it servo/power steering?
Is there augmented servo/power steering?
Is there an additional accelerator pedal?
Is the seat electrically powered controlled?
Is the seat electrically powered heated?
Is the side window electrically powered controlled?
Are there electrically powered adjustable mirrors?
Is the steering wheel position adjustable?
Is there a cruise control?
Is the car equipped with an electronically powered gear selector?
Is there a steering knob on the steering wheel?
Is there a steering knob with controls on the steering wheel?
Are the brakes electrically powered controlled?
Is the seat possible to turn round, i.e. does it have a swivel function?
Are there extended seat rails?
Is the drivers seat anatomically shaped?
Is it possible to connect extra equipment to the simulator, such as a navigation
system?
Is there an elevator to get in to the simulator vehicle body / mock up?
Are the pedals adapted or adjustable for very short drivers?
Is the simulator equipped with foot controlled steering?
Is the simulator equipped with steering by electro-hydraulic control stick?
Are there electro-hydraulic accelerator/brakes?
Is there an electrically powered miniature steering wheel?
Is there an augmented electrically powered miniature steering wheel?
Is the simulator equipped with joystick steering?
Is there a wheelchair lift?
Page 223
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This questionnaire is an extended form, which is directed to technical experts and engineers involved
in driving simulators. The form consists of several open questions where we kindly ask you to fill in as
much relevant information as possible. If any question cannot be answered, please just ignore it.
4XHVWLRQVFRQFHUQLQJWHFKQLFDO 5RRPIRU\RXUDQVZHU
VSHFLILFDWLRQV
What kind of image system does
the simulator use?
What is the total screen size

(front); horizontal * vertical de-
grees of field of view?
What are the rear view capabili-
ties? Number of mirrors, image
inserted in forward view or in
mirrors?
What is the resolution of the im-
age system?
What is the vehicle model calcu-

lation time?
What is the image calculation

time?
What is the image drawing time?
What is the total delay time?

(The time between action and
fully updated screen)
What is the frequency range of
the audio system?
What types of sounds are avail-

able? I.e. wind, tyres, engine,
rain, horn, gears, environment,
speech etc.
Is there a moving base? If so,
please specify scaling of motion,
lateral motion, degree of roll,
pitch and vibrations.
Is there a fan and functional
heater? If so, what is the tem-
perature control range?
Page 224
Is it possible to select different

road surfaces? If so, please spec-
ify.
Is it possible to vary between
road types? If so, please specify
types of roads and number of
lanes per direction.
Is it possible to change the cur-
vature? If so, please specify rele-
vant parameters.
Is it possible to change road sur-
face friction? e.g. from dry sum-
mer to icy winter.
Is it possible to change the sight
conditions? If so, please specify
if it applies to clear sight, fog,
rain and night conditions.
Is it possible to change between
different vehicle models?
Is there a "cabin"? If so, is it pos-

sible to change between different
"cabins"?
Is there a real car cockpit? If so,
please specify model(s) and if it
is possible to change cockpits.
Can the simulator be used for
physiological studies of drivers?
If so, please specify which of the
measures: "ECG/HR, EEG,
EOG, GSR, EMG4, head move-
ments and respiration" can be
used.
Is the simulator possible to buy?
If so, what is the estimated cost
for purchase? (Please specify the
right currency or , preferably, in
Euros)
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Renault I-SIM Simulators Koomin University of

Korea
Questions concerning the simulator Yes No Irrele- Yes No Irrele- Yes No Irrele-
vant vant vant
1 Is there a computer generated image system? X X X
2 Is the image system developed by your company / institution? X X X
3 Is it equipped with rear view images? X X X
4 Is there any feedback sound to the driver? X X X
5 Is the sound-system stereophonic? X X X
6 Is it possible to reproduce precisely, the same scenarios several times? X X X
7 Is it possible to vary the friction of the road surface? X X X
8 Is it possible to change roads (i.e. urban-, rural - and highways)? X X X
9 Is it possible to vary the sight conditions? X X X
10 Is it possible to vary the curves, i.e. the linearity of the curve? X X X
11 Is there any kind of motion system, generating motion feedback to the X X X
driver?
12 Is it possible to vary between different brands of cars? X X X
13 Is the simulator vehicle front wheel driven? X X X
14 Is the simulator vehicle rear wheel driven? X
15 Is it possible to change between front- and rear wheel drive? X
16 Is the simulator vehicle equipped with a gear lever? X X X
17 Does the simulator vehicle have automatic gearbox? X X X
18 Does the simulator vehicle have manual gearbox? X X X
19 Is it possible to change between automatic and manual gearbox? X X X
20 Are there passenger seats? X X X
21 Is it possible to use it as a truck/ lorry simulator? X X
Page 226
Renault I-SIM Simulators Koomin University of

Korea
Questions concerning the simulator Yes No Irrele- Yes No Irrele- Yes No Irrele-
vant vant vant
22 Is the simulator adapted for drivers with special need (disabled per- X X X
sons)?
23 Is the simulator accessible for manual wheelchair users? X X X
24 Is the simulator accessible for electric powered wheelchair users? X X X
25 Is the simulator vehicle equipped with servo/power steering? X X X
26 Is the simulator vehicle equipped with electrically controlled driver X X X
27 Is the driver seat electric powered heated? X X X
28 Are the door windows electrically powered? X X X
29 Are the mirrors electrically adjustable? X X X
30 Is the steering wheel adjustable? X X X
31 Is the simulator vehicle equipped with a cruise control? X X X
32 Is there an electronic gear selector? X X
33 Does the simulator have electrically controlled brakes? X X X
34 Is the driver seat an original car seat? X X X
For manufacturers (or others with explicit knowledge):
35 Estimated cost for purchase?
(Please specify the right currency, or preferably state the cost in EU-
ROS)
Page 227
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What kind of image system does the simulator use? Silicon Graphics Infinite 3 Image generator Real 3D PC-base Image Generator
Reality workstation but know they are develop- with 3D graphic accelerator
ing their own image genera- Glint 500TX+Delta
tor with three channels of
output
What is the total screen size (front); horizontal * vertical 150º x 40º FOV Circular screen with 180 de- 180º x 40º of F.O.V.
degrees of field of view? grees of view
What are the rear view capabilities? Number of mirrors, Yes, 2 mirrors with image 2 LCD monitors Yes, rear view is displayed
image inserted in forward view or in mirrors? projected on a 20 inch monitor
What is the resolution of the image system? 3 channels of 1024 x 768 3 channels of 1024 x 768 3 channels of 1024 x 768
pixels pixels pixels
What is the vehicle model calculation time? At a 100Hz frequency From 2 to 6 ms.
What is the image calculation time?
What is the image drawing time? Image updated at 30 to 60Hz Over 30 frames per second
of refresh rate
What is the total delay time? (The time between action and From 25 to 75 ms depending
fully updated screen) on the quality of visual im-
ages.
What is the frequency range of the audio system? (It’s a PC audio card) It is a Sound Blaster PC-card PC card Creative Labs
Sound Blaster Live gold
What types of sounds are available? I.e. wind, tyres, en- Engine, wheels, aerody- Engine, jamming of brakes, Engine, tires and driving
gine, rain, horn, gears, environment, speech etc. namic noises. rain, environment, etc. environment noises.
Is there a moving base? If so, please specify scaling of Yes, Hydraudyne Electrical Moog 6DOF500E motion Yes, 6DOF Hydraulic Stew-
motion, lateral motion, degree of roll, pitch and vibrations. 6DOF-1000kg system art platform with longitudi-
nal, lateral and vertical mo-
tion of about 0.5 m. Pitch,
roll and yaw motion of 25
degrees.
Is there a fan and functional heater? If so, what is the tem- Yes No No
perature control range?
Page 228
4XHVWLRQVFRQFHUQLQJWHFKQLFDOVSHFLILFDWLRQV 5HQDXOW ,6,06LPXODWRUV .RRPLQ8QLYHUVLW\RI.RUHD

Is it possible to select different road surfaces? If so, please Yes It’s possible to vary the fric-
specify. tion of the roads and differ-
ent road surfaces.
Is it possible to vary between road types? If so, please Yes, urban, highway and two Urban, rural, motorway and Yes.
specify types of roads and number of lanes per direction. lanes per direction. one or two lanes per direc-
tion
Is it possible to change the curvature? If so, please specify Yes, they have developed It’s possible to change the Yes, they have developed
relevant parameters. their own software and data- database and correlate later their own software and data-
base. base.
Is it possible to change road surface friction? e.g. from dry Yes Yes it is possible
summer to icy winter.
Is it possible to change the sight conditions? If so, please Yes. Rain, fog, night condi- From clear sight to fog Yes. Rain, fog, night condi-
specify if it applies to clear sight, fog, rain and night con- tions, clear sight. tions, clear sight.
ditions.
Is it possible to change between different vehicle models? Yes No, it’s possible to change Yes.
parameters of different cars
Is there a "cabin"? If so, is it possible to change between No Yes, it’s half cockpit of a Yes, although the dashboard
different "cabins"? real car is from a Hyundai Elentra
Is there a real car cockpit? If so, please specify model(s) Full-scale Clio car They have different cockpits No
and if it is possible to change cockpits.
Can the simulator be used for physiological studies of Yes, ECG/HR and respira- No No
drivers? If so, please specify which of the measures: tion.
"ECG/HR, EEG, EOG, GSR, EMG5, head movements and
respiration" can be used.
Is the simulator possible to buy? If so, what is the esti- Yes, approximately 120.000 No
mated cost for purchase? (Please specify the right currency US Dollars
or , preferably, in Euros)
5
ElectroCardioGram, HartRate, ElectroEnchephaloGram, ElectroOculoGram, GalvanicSkinResponse, ElectroMyeloGram.
Page 229
$SSHQGL[$GGLWLRQDOZHEVLWHV
National Dynamic Simulation Laboratory at Jilin University of Technology - Changchun - (China).

http://adsl.jut.edu.cn/e_ver/about_adsl.htm
Centre for Advanced Transportation Systems at University of Central Florida.
http://catss.engr.ucf.edu/html/Simulator.htm
I-Sim The Driving Force in Simulation. http://www.i-sim.com/
Esslingen technical graduate School.http://www.fht-
esslingen.de/fachbereiche/fz/proj/eva/index.html
Norwegian National Laboratory for Behavioural Science.
http://www.sintef.no/units/civil/transp/simulator/simulato.htm
In-Vehicle Information System Driving Platform . http://avalon.epm.ornl.gov/~sfp/ivis_drive.html
Heavy truck simulator (Australia). http://www.dnsgroup.com.au/_private/carsim.htm
A tractor simulator with motion base in Sweden, Lulea University.
http://www.luth.se/depts/mt/ene/articles/rigg/index.html
Driving simulators equipment manufacturer producing F1 racing, rally car.
http://www.interactiveracing.com/
TAC Research Center at Monash University (Australia)
http://arc90.eng.monash.edu.au/simpage.html
VRAC, Iowa State University, USA. http://www.icemt.iastate.edu/~honyamda/drsim.html
HIT Lab, University of Washington, USA.
http://www.hitl.washington.edu/projects/drive_sim/index.html
Page 230

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