612 Special Considerations For AC Collector Systems and Substations Associated With HVDC - Connected Wind Power Plants

612
Special Considerations for AC Collector

Systems and Substations Associated with
HVDC- Connected Wind Power Plants
Working Group
B3.36
March 2015
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
FOR AC COLLECTOR SYSTEMS
AND SUBSTATIONS
ASSOCIATED WITH HVDC-
CONNECTED WIND POWER
PLANTS
WG SC B3.36
Members
Regular:
P. Sandeberg, Convenor (SE), P. Moran, Secretary (IE),
A. Lombardi (IT), A. Hernandez (DE), C. Feltes (DE), D. Ramsay (UK), G. Nichol (UK), G. Drobnjak (DE),
G. Quiñonez Varela (ES), J. Palle (DK), J. MacEnri (IE), M. Dhesi (UK), M. Aten (UK), M. Echeverria Crespo (ES),
M. Ono (JP), N. Singh (UK), P. Knol (NL), T. Schlüter(DE), T. Kobayashi (JP)
Corresponding:
A. Neumann (UK), G. Hentschel (DE), J. Finn (UK), M. Osborne (UK), R. King (UK), S. Wijnbergen (NL),
T. Boehme (UK), V. Akhmatov (DK)
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Special Considerations for AC Collector Systems and Substations associated with HVDC-connected Wind
ISBN: 978-2-85873-313-2
Page 1
Special Considerations for AC Collector

Systems and Substations associated with
HVDC-connected Wind Power Plants
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................. 6
1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Objective .......................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Reading the Guideline ..................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Definition of Scope of Work ............................................................................................. 8
2 System Design................................................................................................................. 9
2.1 Overall Topology............................................................................................................ 10
2.1.1 Connection to HVDC scheme via AC collector substations ..................................... 10
2.1.2 Interlinks between AC collector substations and HVDC schemes ........................... 12
2.1.3 Wind turbines directly linked to the HVDC scheme .................................................. 14
2.2 Voltage and Power Ratings ........................................................................................... 17
2.2.1 Choice of HVAC voltages ......................................................................................... 17
2.2.2 Choice of MVAC voltages ......................................................................................... 18
2.2.3 Power capacity on each platform and transformer number ...................................... 20
2.3 Frequency ...................................................................................................................... 22
2.3.1 Variable frequency .................................................................................................... 23
2.3.2 Fixed frequency ........................................................................................................ 24
2.3.2.1 Frequency above standard 50 or 60 Hz ................................................................. 24
2.3.2.2 Frequency below standard 50 or 60 Hz .................................................................. 25
2.3.2.3 Use of 60 Hz with onshore frequency of 50Hz or use of 50Hz with onshore
frequency of 60Hz .................................................................................................. 26
2.4 Availability ...................................................................................................................... 26
2.4.1 Capitalised value of lost generation .......................................................................... 26
2.4.2 specified design availability for the transmission assets .......................................... 28
2.4.2.1 Availability design considerations ........................................................................... 28
2.4.3 Reliability and availability of components ................................................................. 29
2.4.3.1 O&M and redundancy philosophy .......................................................................... 29
2.4.3.2 Reliability data and calculations ............................................................................. 29
2.4.3.3 Component Electrical Conditions ........................................................................... 30
2.4.3.4 Component Environment/ ambient Conditions ....................................................... 30
2.4.4 Equipment failure ...................................................................................................... 30
2.4.4.1 Gas Insulated switchgear ....................................................................................... 31
2.4.4.2 Transformers .......................................................................................................... 32
2.4.4.3 Auxiliaries ............................................................................................................... 32
2.5 Auxiliary Power .............................................................................................................. 33
2.5.1 Auxiliary power during Island conditions .................................................................. 33
2.5.2 Diesel Generator rating ............................................................................................ 34
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2.5.2.1 Inrush currents during energisation ........................................................................ 34

2.5.2.2 Fatigue and life time reduction (Wet stacking) ....................................................... 34
2.5.2.3 Auxiliary power concept .......................................................................................... 35
2.5.2.4 Reactive power compensation of MV cables .......................................................... 36
2.5.3 Other Auxiliary Power Options ................................................................................. 36
2.6 Implications of split in ownership ................................................................................... 37
2.6.1 TSO owning the Transmission System .................................................................... 37
2.6.2 Independent Owner of the transmission system ...................................................... 38
2.6.3 Example of an Alternative approach - Cable Compensation .................................... 38
2.6.4 AC collector substations with HVAC - Independent Owner ...................................... 40
2.6.5 Issues to be addressed ............................................................................................ 41
2.7 Transformer Design Considerations .............................................................................. 41
2.7.1 Transformer Impedance ........................................................................................... 41
2.7.2 Requirement for tap-changer .................................................................................... 42
2.8 System Earthing ............................................................................................................ 43
3 Offshore AC Grid Connection Requirements and Guideline ......................................... 45
3.1 How do Grid Codes, Other Codes and Standards apply to AC collector
substations..................................................................................................................... 45
3.1.1 Examples of regulations that stipulate design and performance criteria for AC
networks behind DC networks .................................................................................. 46
3.1.1.1 Frequency ranges ................................................................................................... 46
3.1.1.2 Voltage ranges ....................................................................................................... 47
3.1.1.3 Reactive power requirements ................................................................................. 47
3.1.1.4 Fault ride through ................................................................................................... 50
3.1.2 Likely impact of ENTSO-E Grid Code ...................................................................... 52
3.1.3 What are the likely relevant requirements of future regulations ............................... 53
3.2 Design of reactive power management – discussions on the means to meet the
requirements .................................................................................................................. 55
3.2.1 Grid Code Compliance perspective vs. electrical system perspective ..................... 55
3.2.2 Capabilities of DC system to control, produce and absorb reactive power
including injection of reactive current into the onshore grid network ........................ 55
3.2.3 On An isolated AC system, what could be the optimal reactive power
management regime ................................................................................................. 56
3.2.4 Impact of regulations ................................................................................................ 59
3.3 Low Voltage Fault Ride through requirements .............................................................. 60
3.3.1 What are the likely relevant requirements of future regulations ............................... 60
3.3.2 Cost effective Control Coordination approach .......................................................... 61
3.3.3 Alternative Proposal for HVDC System Response Capability For Onshore Grid
faults ......................................................................................................................... 62
3.3.4 HVDC System Response For DC cable faults ......................................................... 62
3.3.5 HVDC SYstem Response For off-shore faults ......................................................... 62
3.3.6 WTG Response For faults ........................................................................................ 64
3.3.6.1 Wind turbine capabilities for FRT ........................................................................... 64
3.4 Frequency reserve response ......................................................................................... 66
3.4.1 How to support onshore grid wrt frequency through the HVDC ............................... 66
3.5 Opportunities for optimization and improvement ........................................................... 66
3.5.1 Grid Code standardization – relevant focus area ..................................................... 67
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3.5.2 What benefits could arise from standardisation of design and performance
requirements ............................................................................................................. 67
4 Power Quality ................................................................................................................ 69
4.1 Voltage Variations.......................................................................................................... 69
4.2 Resonance..................................................................................................................... 69
4.3 Power Quality Measurement ......................................................................................... 70
4.4 Transients ...................................................................................................................... 72
4.5 Flicker ............................................................................................................................ 72
5 Recommendation for Studies ........................................................................................ 74
5.1 Studies recommended for AC and DC WPP connections ............................................. 74
5.1.1 Load Flow Study ....................................................................................................... 74
5.1.2 Short Circuit Study .................................................................................................... 74
5.1.3 Harmonics Study ...................................................................................................... 75
5.1.4 Insulation Coordination Study ................................................................................... 75
5.1.5 Electromagnetic Transient Studies ........................................................................... 75
5.1.6 HV Export network transient studies ........................................................................ 76
5.1.7 Flicker and Voltage Fluctuation Study ...................................................................... 76
5.1.8 Dynamic Stability Study ............................................................................................ 76
5.1.9 Safety Earthing Study ............................................................................................... 77
5.1.10 Neutral Earthing Study ............................................................................................. 77
5.1.11 Protection Coordination Study .................................................................................. 77
5.1.12 ElectroMagnetic Field (EMF) Study .......................................................................... 77
5.2 Studies recommended for DC WPP connections .......................................................... 77
5.2.1 Offshore Power transformer Energisation ................................................................ 78
5.2.2 Emergency power auxiliary diesel generator design and sizing ............................... 78
5.2.3 Control system interactions ...................................................................................... 78
6 Protection, Control and Communications ...................................................................... 79
6.1 General protection philosophy ....................................................................................... 79
6.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 79
6.1.2 Tripping Philosophy .................................................................................................. 79
6.1.3 Turbine Transformer Protection ................................................................................ 80
6.1.4 Array Protection ........................................................................................................ 80
6.1.5 Control and Protection systems: The future scenario ............................................... 81
6.2 Operating with Low Fault Currents ................................................................................ 82
6.2.1 Fault levels: AC linked Vs. DC linked offshore WPPs .............................................. 82
6.2.2 Fault level contribution of the different type of wind turbine generators ................... 82
6.2.3 Investigations of typical WPP configuration .............................................................. 84
6.2.3.1 HV fault levels ......................................................................................................... 84
6.2.3.2 MV fault levels ........................................................................................................ 85
6.2.4 Investigation of reduced substation transformer short circuit impedance ................. 86
6.2.5 Analysis and presentation of the results and implication of design parameters ....... 87
6.3 Design of the earthing system ....................................................................................... 87
6.3.1 Comparison of onshore and offshore earthing systems ........................................... 87
6.3.2 interconnection between offshore foundations ......................................................... 88
6.3.3 Safety requirements ................................................................................................. 89
6.4 SCADA and Communication ......................................................................................... 89
6.4.1 “Bottom up” versus “Top Down” design .................................................................... 89
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6.4.2 IEC 61850/Ethernet comms protocol – considerations for offshore substations

deployment ............................................................................................................... 90
6.4.3 To ‘GOOSE’ or not to ‘GOOSE’ ................................................................................ 90
6.4.4 ENTSO-E feedback based on recent experiences with IEC61850 & Cigre B5
references ................................................................................................................. 91
6.4.5 Ownership boundaries – demarcation of control & impacts of an asset transfer ..... 91
6.4.6 Role of SCADA in offshore maintenance – fault capture & preventative
maintenance ............................................................................................................. 92
6.4.7 EMI immunity requirements ...................................................................................... 92
6.4.8 Future backup comms alternative ............................................................................ 92
7 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................................................... 93
8 Bibliography/References................................................................................................ 94
9 Glossary of Abbreviations and Special Terms ............................................................... 97
9.1 Table of Abbreviations Used.......................................................................................... 97
9.2 Table of Special Terms as Used in this Brochure.......................................................... 98
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Offshore wind power plants (WPPs) are growing in terms of rated power and reach farther out from the coasts and
the grid entry points and the number of HVDC schemes employed to transmit the generated wind power will also
increase. In many markets there are good reasons to consider a transmission system including offshore HVDC
hubs connected to the WPPs through one or more AC collector substations. The thrust of this work is to study
special requirements that need to be considered during the design of an offshore AC collector substation
connected to an HVDC link in comparison to a substation that is connected directly to the onshore site by means of
AC export cables.
Aspects and issues that have been elucidated in this work include:
• Frequency
At which frequency should the offshore network operate? As the HVDC link provides a distinct
separation from the onshore network, one may consider moving away from a standard frequency of 50
or 60 Hz.
• Voltage
What voltage should the collector AC network operate at? It does not need to be related to the onshore
voltage. Will standardisation of the offshore AC network voltages lead to cost reductions and easy
future expansion of the offshore network?
• Fault ride through

How is fault ride through of the Wind Turbine Generators (WTGs) achieved, coordinated and
harmonized with that of the offshore HVDC converter?
• Number of AC collector substations

Are there an optimal number of AC collector substations to be connected to each HVDC hub? What
needs to be considered?
• Reactive Power Compensation

How shall the Reactive Power Compensation requirements be considered and what are the means to
fulfil them?
• Transformer impedance
The factors that determine the transformer impedance for normal substations do not apply when
connected to a HVDC link with limited short circuit currents.
• Protection philosophies
Will the protection philosophies differ as compared to AC-connected transmission links?
• Communications systems
Are there any specific aspects with regards to communication systems that need to be considered?
This document is a companion volume to the work conducted by Cigré SC WG B3.26, “Guidelines for the Design
and Construction of AC Offshore Substations for WPPs” where substations connected to land by AC cables were
studied. The result of WG B3.26 can be found in [A].
In some areas this work touched upon the work conducted by SC B4.55, “HVDC Connection of Offshore Wind
Power Plants”, but every effort has been made to minimize overlaps.
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1 Introduction
1.1 Objective
The main objective of this Technical Brochure is to identify the key differences between AC collector systems
associated with HVDC connection to shore as compared to AC connection to shore. It also aims to identify issues,
opportunities and to provide guidance on how to optimise the design of these collector systems and substations.
Some of the findings may be applicable also for substations connecting large onshore WPPs to the grid by means
of HVDC. However, it is not the intention of this WG to investigate all the different aspects in relation to onshore
substations.
It is sincerely hoped by the whole team involved in the preparation of this brochure that it will stimulate thought and
assist engineers and others at utilities, developers and contractors to achieve satisfactory and safe solutions for the
offshore AC substations required for their WPPs.
1.2 Reading the Guideline

This brochure gives guidelines and identifies areas that need to be considered for the design of an AC offshore
substation connected through an HVDC interconnection to shore, henceforth referred to as an AC collector
substation. The design of the substation will have to be considered in the context of the total system including the
cable, the WPP itself and the onshore grid situation.
The use of HVDC connection to shore provides a number of possibilities for the AC system(s) that utilise the HVDC
link to export generated power. This creates a number of options but also creates challenges that are not
encountered in systems that feature AC collection and AC connection. Chapter 2 of the brochure describes system
design aspects which are encountered with an HVDC connection to shore. In this chapter issues concerning
interaction with parts of the WPP system that are outside the AC collector substation itself are considered as these
may have an impact on the substation design and the single line diagram. This includes the high level topologies
that are anticipated to feature for the AC collector substations feeding the HVDC link (or links). The key design
considerations are then presented which include the rating of individual AC schemes and the voltage for
connections from the AC collector platforms to the HVDC stations.
Among other things, chapter 2 considers the likely issues associated with operation using a different system
frequency from the widely used 50 or 60 Hz. Furthermore, it explores the possibility of a design with transformer
impedance which is not dictated by the downstream fault level and could potentially operate without an on-load tap
changer.
Aspects of reliability and availability, auxiliary power and potential implications of ownership boundaries between a
generation company and a transmission operator are also presented as part of Chapter 2.
In chapter 0 Offshore AC grid codes and guidelines are discussed. It should be noted that neither individual country
codes nor the ENTSO-E code (Network Code on Requirements for Grid Connection applicable to all Generators)
define requirements relating specifically to offshore AC systems separated from the synchronous grids by HVDC
systems.
However, grid codes do remain relevant as the requirements are often passed through to the WPPs and their
associated turbines. This brochure discusses the applicability of this approach, explores the current status of the
relevant regulations, and proposes where improvements could be developed and implemented to enable the
design of more optimal offshore systems.
It is of utmost importance that electrical power generated and delivered to consumers is of high quality. Power
disturbances such as transients and harmonics may destroy or shorten the lifetime of equipment resulting in
expensive downtime, extra maintenance and, in the end, loss of revenue. Chapter 4 presents considerations with
respect to different power quality issues that have to be managed in the design of the offshore WPPs and its
transmission infrastructures where an HVDC rather than HVAC connection to shore is installed.
An important part of the complex process of designing the transmission systems for large offshore WPPs is to bring
together all the relevant design aspects and verify performance by conducting system studies. Chapter 5 discusses
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studies related to grid code compliance, WPP and export circuit design, protection and safety. Finally chapter 5
concludes by discussing a group of investigations that should be specially considered in case of HVDC
connections.
The protection, control and communication aspects of all power systems are critical. Chapter 6 calls upon the work
done in [A] with consideration of HVAC offshore platforms linked to shore via HVDC. This includes consideration of
significantly lower fault infeed on the protection design, the contribution from wind turbine generators (WTGs), and
the impact on the earthing system. This chapter also considers the communication required and comments on the
latest configuration thinking and protocols.
Much of the content of this technical brochure is based on earlier studies and papers. There is a list of these
references in section 8.
Throughout the document many expressions and abbreviations are used, some of which are specific in this
brochure. A list of definitions is given in section 9.
Depending on the context both nominal as well as rated voltage levels will be used. Typically the highest rated
voltage equals 10% above nominal voltage level. It should be clear in each case which one is referred to. For
clarity please see also examples in Table 1 below.
Voltage Level (kV)

Nominal Rated
33 36
66 72.5
132 145
150 170
220 245
Table 1: Examples of nominal vs. rated voltage levels
1.3 Definition of Scope of Work

The scope of this brochure is limited to the AC collector system associated with offshore WPPs connected to shore
by HVDC connections. The HVDC platform, its equipment, rating, and control system are outside of the scope of
this Working Group as it is covered by [D].
Where this document refers to HVDC this is a VSC based HVDC as grid integration of large offshore wind plants
will be based predominantly on VSC technology.
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2 System Design
The design of a conventional offshore WPP system utilising an AC connection is broadly similar for the installations
which have been undertaken to date. This generally involved one or two export cable connections with rated
voltages in the range of 110 kV up to 245 kV to the existing transmission system with the offshore wind turbine
array cabling (the collection grid) at medium voltage, typically at 36 kV. The driver is that the WPPs installed to date
are of a relatively small up to medium sized rating (up to few hundred MW), and that the distance to shore has
been within feasible limits for AC transmission systems (AC submarine cables).
However with the expected increase in the rated power capacity of offshore WPPs combined with increasing
distances to shore, future WPP connections will often be via HVDC technology. There may be several reasons for
using HVDC instead of HVAC in the case of long distance transmission. The most obvious ones are of course to
overcome the large amount of reactive power generated by long high voltage AC cables and the fact that a HVDC
link becomes more cost competitive above a certain transmission distance. To date only one project, BorWin1 in
the German Bight, has been completed featuring an HVDC connection to shore. But there are several other on-
going projects that are close to being completed or on their way being built.
The use of HVDC to facilitate the connection to shore opens up new design possibilities for the AC collector
system(s). This creates a number of options and challenges that are not encountered in ‘traditional’ AC systems.
The following sections identify the key considerations for the design of the system where there are AC collector
systems connecting to a single, or number of, HVDC links.
High-level topologies are considered for the AC collector substations feeding an HVDC link, or links. The key
design considerations are then presented which includes the rating of an individual AC scheme and the voltage for
connections from the AC collector platform to the HVDC station. The operating voltage becomes a key aspect
where future projects may experience a higher collection grid voltage. The influence of the increased voltage on the
transformer and switchgear configurations on the individual AC collector platforms is considered in conjunction with
the high voltages between the AC collector platforms and the HVDC link.
To provide clarity, the term AC collector substation is used in this brochure to relate to an offshore AC platform
which 'collects' power from the array cables from a number of wind turbines and then, at a stepped-up voltage,
provides connection to one or more offshore HVDC stations, so called HVDC hubs.
As transmission ratings increase, the system topology becomes increasingly important in the design that not only
includes the AC but also HVDC interconnection. The regulatory influence is also taken into account and the role
that it can play in the determination of system design and configuration.
New and/or unconventional aspects are also considered, e.g. the possibility to operate with a system frequency
which is not the standard frequency of 50 or 60 Hz, or to a design with a transformer impedance which is not
principally dictated by the downstream fault level and may operate without an on-load tap changer.
Finally, aspects which affect reliability and availability of components in the design are discussed, along with
considerations relating to redundancy and the rating/capacity of WPPs in the AC system. The reliability of the
HVDC station should be taken into consideration, potentially with options to supply the wind turbines and the AC
collector substations with auxiliary power when the connection to shore is out of service. Wind turbines and AC
collector substations need auxiliary power to maintain their integrity (e.g. climate control, navigation lights, yaw
control, safety features, etc.).
The rating of the HVDC link is not considered in detail as part of this brochure. However as this aspect provides a
critical design input brief reference is made to the expected rating of the link. For further information the reader is
directed to the work of [D].
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2.1 Overall Topology

Historically the most common and efficient method of connecting an offshore WPP to the onshore electricity grid
was through radial connections. This created the scenario of a separate connection for each WPP and generally
occurred for sites situated closer than 50 km to an onshore connection point [GG].
However as offshore WPPs become connected to shore via an HVDC connection the optimal topology of the
connection becomes less obvious, with many different possible options to create hubs with interconnections.
For the North Sea countries see also [J].
The design of the topology to be used to connect a WPP to an HVDC platform is influenced by the following
parameters:
• WPP power rating and footprint (size and shape)

• Number and power rating WTGs
• The maximum number of WTGs per cable string which is determined by the voltage and current ratings
of the cables, the output voltage of the WTG step up transformer, short-circuit levels and reliability and
installation considerations
• The maximum number of feeders and the characteristics of the cables entering the platform
• Environmental or topographical conditions along the cable routing
• System availability, and reliability of the components
• Regulatory issues such as grid code requirements, rules and regulations from authorities, etc.
• Ownership boundaries
• Installation cost of network assets
• Presence and proximity of neighbouring WPPs (for option of interlinking)
• Lifting capacity determining the size of platforms and equipment on them
Different topologies are discussed in the following sections.
2.1.1 CONNECTION TO A HVDC SCHEME VIA AC COLLECTOR SUBSTATIONS

Figure 1 shows the most common basic topology planned at present with a number of AC collector substations
between WPPs having ‘m’ WTGs and ‘n’ strings and a single HVDC scheme.
The BorWin1 connection, the first WPP connected via an HVDC scheme is based on this configuration. There are
two separate AC collector substations, without interlinks in between, containing transformers which step up the
medium voltage AC (MVAC) 33 kV collection voltage to high voltage AC (HVAC) 155 kV. These platforms are
linked via 155 kV cables to the offshore 400 MW HVDC substation to transmit the power via DC over a distance of
203 km to the onshore grid connection point in Germany.
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Figure 1: WPPs connected to HVDC scheme via AC collector substations
The number of AC collector substations is dependent on the WPP capacity and layout (physical size and shape),
the voltage level of the collection grid, the maximum current ratings of switchgear and corresponding maximum
power ratings of the AC transformers.
To illustrate this dependency, assume that WPPs 1 and 2 in Figure 1 each have a capacity of 500 MW and a 36 kV
collection grid. A common maximum current rating of 2,500 A for medium voltage switchgear leads to a maximum
power rating of 140 MVA at the low voltage winding of the transformer, although higher rated switchgear is offered
by some manufacturers. Then a possible design solution is to have a total of two platforms comprising two 3-
winding 280 MVA transformers each, or to have a total of four platforms comprising two 2-winding 140 MVA
transformers each. It is also possible to connect two parallel bays to the lower voltage winding of the transformer,
provided that it can be guaranteed that the load currents and fault currents will under no circumstances exceed the
respective ratings.
Increasing the voltage level of the collection grid to, for example, 72 kV for a fixed MW WPP roughly doubles both
the power capacity and distance reach compared with 36 kV and allows a design solution with fewer offshore
transformers and fewer MV cable strings, which in turn can result in a reduction of the number of offshore
platforms.
The maximum rating of the HVDC link and the number of the AC collector substations which are needed influence
each other and, in general, depend on the wind power capacity to be grid-connected. Please see also [D] for
further details.
Whereas a larger number of offshore transformers results in a higher redundancy, installed costs are likely to
decrease if the number of offshore platforms and transformers are reduced. Reliability may be increased if there
are fewer critical components to fail. The economic benefits over a WPP’s life cycle of these design options needs
to be assessed by cost-benefit analysis.
Platform foundations and lifting capacities and the availability of installation vessels may result in splitting the
platforms to arrive at the most beneficial design and minimize risks associated with the project completion.
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Extremely long infield cabling can also result in an increased number of platforms, due to technical constraints
(voltage rise, losses) and for economic reasons.
If the rating of the AC collector substation connected to the HVDC link increases the number of wind turbine arrays
connected to the AC collector substation increases (provided that the collection grid voltage remains the same).
This would require a larger number of J-tubes that must be considered for the platform design and construction. A
further factor to consider is that as the number of array cables to the platform increases the overall cable length of
the collection grid would most probably increase.
However, a potential blocker for an HVDC hub connection can be the fact that WPPs are generally constructed at
different times and also follow different construction profiles and durations. In addition, there may also be
uncertainty about the level of financial commitment to other future nearby WPPs. If a single connection point
(HVDC hub) is designed and built to connect a number of AC collector substations, its connection capacity may
end up being oversized for a long period until other WPPs are completed. There may also be a risk of permanent
stranded investment should they be designed at a reduced rating or not constructed at all.
2.1.2 INTERLINKS BETWEEN AC COLLECTOR SUBSTATIONS AND HVDC SCHEMES

Interlinking the AC collector substations is illustrated in Figure 2, which can be done at medium or high voltage.
Although they increase commissioning and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, both options can offer an
increased degree of operational flexibility. This is especially important offshore where access for maintenance and
repair may often be an issue. An interlink at MVAC will be cheaper, and can provide an alternative supply route for
the WTG auxiliaries if the normal supply route is disrupted by a planned or faulted outage of a transformer on the
AC collector substation or an HVAC cable from one AC collector substation to the HVDC platform. MVAC is less
suitable for the provision of an alternative export route as only a limited proportion of the power generated at the
WPP can still be exported via the other platform, depending on the number of interlinking cables and their rating.
Additionally, losses will be relatively high due to the high currents at this voltage level.
Interlinking at HVAC can also provide an alternative supply route for WTG auxiliaries in the case of an HVAC cable
outage but not in the case of a transformer outage. HVAC can however provide higher power capacity, so would be
more suitable for the purpose of providing an alternative route for export of wind power, but adds higher cost.
Figure 2: WPPs connected to single HVDC scheme via interconnected AC collector substations
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Similar considerations apply when AC interlinks are introduced between one HVDC platform and another should
they be located at a reasonable proximity. This configuration is shown in Figure 3, wherein addition to or instead of
having an HVAC connection between HVDC platform 1 and 2, it is also possible to interlink at MVAC or HVAC
between AC collector substations connected to different HVDC schemes, i.e. platform 2 and 3.
Note that all interlinks discussed here can be operated as normally closed, or normally open. In the latter case the
link is closed only (e.g. by remote control) when needed during an outage, and hence fault levels are not increased
during normal operation. This may be an advantage if fault levels become excessive.
Interlinks should be planned and installed such as to minimize the risk that a single point of failure will affect both
the primary transmission path as well as the back-up (interlink). E.g. cable routes of interlinks should if possible be
separated from main cables trace, J-tube position different from main cable J-tubes, etc.
Figure 3: WPPs connected to multiple HVDC systems via interconnected AC collector substations
Reference [QQ] highlighted that coordinated offshore network development has the potential to deliver significant
benefits. For example there is the potential to deliver savings of £0.5 - £3.5 billion for Round 3 zones in the UK
when compared to purely radial configurations.
The benefits must however be considered in relation to the potential risks and costs involved with coordinated
configurations, including increased asset stranding risk, short-term reliance on single cables and single point failure
and novelty of technology. Section 2.4 provides further details with respect to cost of availability.
Interconnection costs must be balanced against the potential revenue gained (or lost) based upon the generation
level possible and the frequency of occurrence of possible contingencies. With an HVDC connection of
approximately 1GW for example, the loss of generation can be significant. This must however be assessed against
the cost of a fully, or partially, rated interconnection.
Page 13
The option to interconnect can also be used to address the intermittency of wind where the additional transmission
capability that will result will increase the efficiency of transmission of available energy.
The North Seas Countries Offshore Grid Initiative (NSCOGI) and the wider European Super Grid will likely play a
key role in building up a grid infrastructure on the regional, transmission system level that may in turn have an
influence on how the WPPs will be configured.
2.1.3 WIND TURBINES DIRECTLY LINKED TO THE HVDC SCHEME

If a WPP is relatively close to the HVDC platform, then it may be cost effective to connect WTGs directly to the
HVDC platform, via MVAC cables linked to the converter transformer (stepping up from MVAC to HVAC) of the
HVDC link. Removing one sub-transmission HVAC voltage level could result in cost savings because there is one
less transformation stage, so less equipment (transformers and switchgear) is needed offshore. However, the main
savings are probably on the platform side as fewer or no AC collector substations are needed. The cost for the
HVDC platform may possibly increase somewhat though; there would be more medium voltage cables entering
and hence, more incoming MVAC switchgear, both adding to space and weight requirements. On the other hand
this solution would not any require incoming HVAC switchgear. Efficient expandability of the offshore system may
also be reduced if more offshore wind power, using other voltage levels, is commissioned in the vicinity of the
HVDC platform.
Omitting this transformation stage will also result in reduction of the overall maintenance costs and higher reliability
as there are fewer components (transformers and switchgear) to fail. Having fewer transformation steps, i.e.
stepping up directly from the MVAC to the VSC HVAC converter voltage level, may also reduce power losses. The
potential loss reduction should be compared to the losses in a transformer arrangement with an extra
transformation step, i.e. from the MVAC to HVAC and from the (intermediate) HVAC to the VSC HVAC voltage
levels. At present, there is no experience to favour one or the other of the two above presented arrangements.
Whether overall system losses are reduced depends also on the cable losses, which in turn depends on the
distance between the WTGs and the HVDC platform. Further expandability via direct HVAC connections between
the existing and future HVDC platforms should also be included into the considerations of which HVAC voltage to
choose in the offshore substations (needs of standardized HVAC voltage level). Drawing conclusions on the lowest
power losses and overall HVAC system design optimization requires long-term considerations (expandability of
solutions), economic and technical calculations (such as load-flow and losses calculations) using the wind power
production forecasts and plans for the offshore area development. At present, such evaluations must be conducted
individually for each project.
Figure 4 below shows one WPP connected to the offshore HVDC platform directly via MVAC (e.g. 33 or 66 kV)
cables, while another WPP is connected via an AC collector substation and HVAC (e.g. 132, 150 or 220 kV)
cables. In this configuration at least two converter transformers with different voltage ratings on the low voltage side
would be needed. In principle, converter transformers can be designed to step up from 33 kV or 66 kV to a voltage
needed for the HVDC converter, given that conventional generator transformers have similar or even higher
voltage ratios, but the MVA rating of the lower voltage winding may be limited again by switchgear capability as
mentioned in section 2.1.1.
Page 14
Figure 4: One WPP connected directly to HVDC platform via MVAC cables, and the other one via an AC
collector substation and HVAC cables
It must be verified that this topology can be achieved using load and short circuit currents that are within ratings of
available network assets, e.g. switchgear. Fault levels are not expected to be as onerous as in AC-connected
WPPs given the relatively low short-circuit contribution from the HVDC link. If multiple HVDC schemes are
interlinked via an HVAC cable however (Figure 3), then there is potentially a higher risk that the total short-circuit
contribution becomes excessive unless the interlinks are operated in a ‘normally open’ condition (closed only in
case of contingencies).
The control philosophy may also need special consideration, in that the collection voltage can either be controlled
by the WTGs or by tap-changers on the lower voltage windings of the converter transformers, while the voltage
source converter can control the voltage at the HV side of the converter transformer.
Looking into Figure 4, it may also be beneficial to install a converter transformer on AC collector substation 2,
converting from MVAC directly to a HVAC voltage that is needed for AC/DC conversion. That will save one
converter transformer on the HVDC platform. Also the HVAC connection cable between AC collector substation
and HVDC platform needs some special consideration. Depending on the HVDC voltage the AC voltage level of
this cable will be high, potentially resulting in cable length limitations (because of reactive power generation in the
cable), large cable bending radius and restricted availability of tested submarine cables of the corresponding
voltage level.
Page 15
Figure 5 shows two WPPs connected directly to the HVDC platform. An example of this approach is illustrated in
Figure 6 where two 528 MW WPPs are connected by a total of sixteen 66 kV cables directly to two parallel 3-
winding HVDC converter transformers. The HVDC link rating is about 1000 MW, and 11 x 6 MW WTGs are
connected to each 66 kV cable. It must be confirmed that the HVDC platform can be designed to provide enough
space to accommodate all of the cables entering the HVDC platform. If 33 kV cables are used then the number of
MVAC cables is doubled compared to using 66 kV, resulting in a higher total cable length, more challenging
submarine cable installation and more J-tubes on the HVDC platform. This is one reason for selecting 66 kV
instead of 33 kV. Another is that 66 kV gives a longer distance reach and lower losses that are especially beneficial
in case of WPPs stretching over large areas.
Figure 5: Two WPPs directly connected to HVDC platform via MVAC cables
As the HVDC platform may potentially increase in size and weight, consideration should also be given to
installation methods, the capability of heavy lift vessels and the ability of the platform foundations to support the
platform. If the platform becomes too heavy alternative concepts including multiple lifts, floaters, etc. may have to
be considered.
Whether the configuration in Figure 6 is technically feasible and economically viable depends also on the WTG
layout. Each array module would require connection of 44 x 6 MW turbines that would have at least around 1000 m
spacing between turbines to prevent wind shadow. This configuration results in relatively long runs of array cables,
but note that with 66 kV the power carrying capacity and distance reach are both roughly doubled compared with
33 kV. Technical design studies and cost-benefit analysis are required on a case-by-case basis to determine
whether leaving out a sub-transmission voltage level can provide a cheaper system solution.
Page 16
Figure 6: Two 528 MW farms directly connected via 66 kV cables to two parallel 3-winding HVDC converter
transformers
Finally, if there are neighbouring WPP clusters connected via separate HVDC links, and there is a requirement to
interlink them, then omitting the sub-transmission voltage level and associated AC collector substations will be
more challenging. Although 66 kV could be used for an interlink serving merely as a back-up supply for the
auxiliaries of the WTGs, it will offer very limited capacity to provide an alternative route for exporting wind power in
case of an export link outage. Providing interconnections between neighbouring HVDC links at the higher voltage
side of the converter transformer is also problematic. If the HVDC voltage level is around 320 kV or higher, then the
AC voltage at the higher voltage side of the converter transformer would be around 400 kV. This may not be a
viable voltage for HVAC interlinks, given the need for 400 kV AC submarine cables and appropriate reactive
compensation. For this scenario, it may be more advantageous to provide an HVDC interlink, using either DC
circuit breakers, or disconnectors that are normally open and closed only on no-load after an HVDC link outage.
2.2 Voltage and Power Ratings
2.2.1 CHOICE OF HVAC VOLTAGES

As mentioned in section 2.1.1, the first WPP connected via HVDC uses 155 kV as the HVAC voltage entering the
HVDC platform. But also other voltage levels such as 132 kV or 220 kV are currently being considered.
Advantages of using a higher voltage for the cables entering the HVDC platform are:
• the number of cables entering the HVDC platform can be reduced as each cable has higher power
capacity
• more flexibility to connect WPPs that are located further away from the HVDC platform
• reduces the conductor size needed, which could result in lower cost.
Disadvantages of using higher voltages are:
Page 17
• costs of the transformers and switchgear bays increase

• volume and weight of the transformer and switchgear bays increases, which in turn may potentially
increase the platform costs
• the charging current increases and hence there is a need for more reactive compensation
• at the time of writing this brochure availability and long term experience with AC submarine cables at
voltages higher than155kV are still limited.
The final choice for the HVAC voltage to be used for connection to the HVDC platform is normally done by cost-
benefit analysis between cable, switchgear and transformer. Common practice is to use a nominal voltage level
close to the upper limits of some standard voltage class for switchgear, giving enough reserve for voltage variations
in the grid (example: 132kV + 10% = 145kV, 155kV + 10% = 170kV, 220kV + 10% = 242 è 245kV. 145kV, 170kV
and 245kV are all standard switchgear Um values). When choosing the standard voltage class, the resulting
nominal current should be confirmed as being within the maximum normal available ratings of the switchgear.
Besides the above-discussed parameters, the choice of the HVAC voltage must also consider aspects related to
the future development of the offshore HVAC-grid. Once the level is chosen, it must fit all the future extensions as
discussed above. In addition, the availability of equipment on the market may also influence at present. It must also
be verified that type-tested submarine cable joints (factory joints as well as repair joints) are available and that the
technology for repair of the submarine cable using the joints is reliable.
2.2.2 CHOICE OF MVAC VOLTAGES

The collection grid is arranged to connect the offshore wind turbines to the offshore collection platforms. The
collection grid is traditionally a medium voltage (MV) grid. As WPPs and WTGs have increased in power capacity,
the collection voltage levels have increased from typically 10 kV (which is still used in onshore WPPs) to 36 kV
which has become the most commonly used level for offshore WPPs.
A common approach has been to use 36 kV submarine cables with typically two to three different conductor cross-
sectional areas, resulting in two to three different rated currents in a radial string. The larger cross-sections of the
cables at the platform end are used as they carry higher power, and smaller cross-section cables are used along
the radial string where its rating is sufficient for the number of WTGs connected.
Obviously, the cables with larger cross-section are more expensive to manufacture and install, but have lower
losses and can transport larger currents than the smaller cross-section cables. Which cross-sections are to apply
and how many wind turbines to be connected within a given cable system, e.g. a cable radial, are decided from the
cost-benefit analysis. The cost-benefit analysis provides the break-even values, e.g. where it does pay to go up to
the next available cable conductor cross-section, when attaching more wind turbines to the given cable radial.
Limiting the number of different conductor sizes to two or three is usually beneficial as buying a particular size in
bulk is often more economical. Furthermore, having too many different conductor sizes may also complicate
installation and logistics.
The losses are proportional to the square of the apparent power. The average power production is therefore not
applicable for evaluation of the accumulated losses. Methods to evaluate the accumulated losses are:
• Using the full-load period and no-load period to estimate the losses in full-load and no-load periods; the
losses thence are superimposed in order to provide the total losses. The number of full-load production
hours over a year is the main input of this approach and can be derived from the average power
production.
Using power duration curves, e.g. the distribution of expected power production within the WPP as a function of
time. Such duration curves can be continuous or stepwise, e.g. by number of hours over a year with the power
production between certain levels. The stepwise approach is a refinement of the previous approach. In addition to
cost-benefit analysis, there are technical restrictions to be taken into account when designing and optimizing the
collection grid. It must be ensured that voltage rise and losses are not excessive and that the total current from the
wind turbines does not exceed the cable capacity at any given section. In addition to larger accumulated losses,
excessive operational currents may generate operational temperatures in the cable conductors above rated values,
overheating the insulation material and reducing the lifetime of the cable system as a whole. An earlier than
Page 18
accounted for replacement of the collecting cables will have a negative economic impact on the project in terms of
an extra cost of cables and establishment work and in terms of non-delivered energy during the cable replacement
period, i.e. higher scheduled energy unavailability.
In AC collector systems associated with HVDC-connected WPPs the maximum three phase short-circuit current
can often be lower compared to a WPP connected by HVAC (if transformer impedance is not substantially lowered
for other reasons). This will allow the use of smaller cross sections on the end of a string (these are normally limited
by short-circuit capability). Furthermore, in HVDC-connected WPPs the requirements for WTG reactive power
delivery/consumption may be low (even cosφ = 1) since the HVDC converter may potentially deliver or consume
all required reactive power required. This may also facilitate the use of MVAC cables with smaller conductor sizes.
There are physical restrictions on utilization of cables with large cross-sections. The thickest cable pieces at the
platform end of the radials must be able to fit through the J-tubes accessing the platform equipment. The cables
should be sufficiently flexible to access the J-tubes without complications and be accessible for later replacement
and revision. The thickest conductor cross-section of the 33 kV cables, that has a reasonable number of project
2
references, is 630 mm . The largest conductor cross-section of the collection grid applied in and considered for the
2 2
Danish offshore WPPs has been 630 mm . The next conductor size of 800 mm has been pronounced suitable by
the cable manufacturers, but is more difficult to install due to the bending radius, and therefore only used in a
limited number of projects so far. There are, however, manufacturers that can supply cables with even larger
conductor size which may be suitable to install on large platforms allowing for the bigger bending radius required.
The conventional technique, e.g. utilization of the 33 kV cables, has been found to be a suitable technical and
economic solution when the rated powers of wind turbines are between 2.3 MW and 5 MW. At present, the rated
powers of commercial wind turbines announced for the future offshore projects are above 5 MW and, on the
prototype level, targeting 10 MW. When the rated power exceeds 5 MW, the limited current ratings of the 33 kV
cables make it necessary to decrease the number of wind turbines per radial. This leads again to increasing the
number of radials accessing the offshore collection platform. The number of switchgear and other components on
the offshore platform increases accordingly to the number of accessing radials, which again increases the cost.
The usage of 48 kV or 66 kV cables has been proposed in [K] to connect WTGs to the onshore grid via a
48/132 kV or 66/132 kV transformer onshore, instead of using a 132 kV submarine cable and a 33/132 kV
transformer offshore. The principle also applies for export voltage levels higher than 132 kV. Using a voltage higher
than 33 kV can bring a number of benefits for a WPP connected via an HVDC link:
• For relatively large WTG sizes (>5 MW), more WTGs can be connected per string, so the number of
cable strings entering the HVDC platform can be reduced. This can also result in a reduced total
collection cable length as a higher cable capacity allows the routing and WTG ‘pick-up’ to be better
optimised.
• Higher voltages reduce fault levels for a given MVA generation.

2
• Conductor I R losses will be lower, but this also depends on how much the cable is loaded, i.e. its
utilisation (peak current divided by rated current) in a particular network design.
The challenges of using voltages higher than 36 kV for the collection network are presently that there are supply
chain limitations for the WTG transformers and switchgear, and that they will be more expensive which needs to be
offset by the cost savings mentioned above.
Collection grid cables at 72 kV of the ‘wet type’ design are cheaper than ‘dry type’ design as they do not require
metallic moisture barriers surrounding the cable as an outer sheathing layer or around the insulated core(s). They
still need to be type-tested however.
Current wind turbine constructive design may set a limit for utilization of voltages higher than the conventional 33
kV voltage level of the collection grid. In other words, increasing the voltage level of the collection grid may trigger
the need for redesign to accommodate new types of 66 kV wind turbine transformers. Since larger WTGs have
more space, they are also more likely to be able to accommodate 66 kV transformers and switchgear. For
example, manufacturers are offering 8 MW WTGs with step-up to 66 kV.
Page 19
Moreover, considering the auxiliary power supply provided by the AC collector substation in case of grid connection
loss, the electrical scheme of the WTG delivering its peripheral systems is of interest. Possibly a dedicated unusual
66 kV/LV transformer of comparatively low power must be installed which will require additional space.
For WTGs rated above 5 MW, it does pay to go up in the voltage level of the collection grid, for example, to 66 kV.
Table 2 presents a cost evaluation for a Danish large offshore WPP of the collection grid voltage level with the wind
turbine ratings as a parameter.
Wind turbine rating 33 kV Collecting Grid (%) 66 kV Collecting Grid (%)

3.6 MW 100 n/a
7 MW 90 66
Table 2 Cost evaluation for a Danish large offshore WPP of a 33 kV versus 66 kV collection grid with the
wind turbine rating as a parameter, in %. 100% is the base case with 3.6 MW wind turbines and 33 kV
collection grid. Courtesy of Energinet.dk, Transmission System Operator of Denmark.
The presented cost evaluation included the cost of accumulated energy losses in the collection grid as well as the
established cost of components on the offshore platform. In the future when larger turbines are introduced, 66 kV
becomes more economically attractive, but so far 3.6 MW (and smaller) wind turbines have been built for the 33 kV
voltage level.
If the collection voltage is increased, then it has to be taken into account that the charging (reactive) power of the
collection cables is increased in proportion to the voltage squared. This characteristic must be considered for the
electrical design of the WPP. Where the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) is offshore between AC- and DC-part,
e.g. when the TSO is responsible for the power transmission to shore and therefore owns the HVDC-system, a
predefined P-Q characteristic has to be provided by the WPP according to the TSO’s grid code or any other
regulation.
Higher charging power of the cables could potentially help to fulfil the grid code requirement. On the other hand,
this charging power may need to be handled also in island mode (when the export supply route is out) if relatively
small capacity diesel generators are used to feed the collecting grid. In that case the higher charging current either
requires a larger capacity diesel generator or shunt reactors to compensate for the cable capacitance. A very
careful reactive power balancing is required at any load level of the grid in island mode (see also section 2.5).
If the redundancy concept requires the parallel operation of transformers, care should be taken in regard to the
short-circuit level at MVAC side. Even if the short-circuit power is not sufficient at the time of completion, the future
development of the offshore HVAC grid could potentially lead to levels which may overload the MVAC equipment.
2.2.3 POWER CAPACITY ON EACH PLATFORM AND NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS

Installed MW capacity of an offshore WPP can vary from site to site, subject to a variety of reasons. Some of the
influencing factors for determining offshore wind project ratings are: weather and site-specific conditions, onshore
grid readiness to accept a given size of generation plant, economics of the offshore project, selected transmission
technology, regulatory and environmental requirements, etc. The number of AC platforms (and so the capacity per
platform) is dependent on total WPP capacity and layout (physical size and shape), the voltage level of the
collection grid, the maximum current ratings of switchgear and the corresponding maximum power capacities of the
AC transformers. Also platform foundations, lifting capacities of installation vessels, mechanical restrictions on the
number of J-tubes and project splitting can force platforms to be split, resulting in lower power capacities per
platform.
In any case, for a given offshore WPP, a suitable transmission link will be developed with required technical and
economic objectives. It is assumed here that this transmission link is based on VSC HVDC. Table 3 below gives an
overview of power ratings of HVDC links that are either installed or under construction. The maximum available
HVDC link power capacity can in some cases affect the power capacity used for the AC collector substations for an
optimised topology.
Page 20
Project Rated System DC Cable Number

Name power Voltage Length of
(MW) (kV) (km) circuits
*
DC: ±150 SM : 2x125
BorWin1 400 * 1
AC: 155/400 UG : 2x75
*
DC: ±300 SM : 2x125
BorWin2 800 * 1
AC: 155/400 UG : 2x75
*
DC: ±320 SM : 2x130
Borwin3 900 * 1
AC: 155/380 UG : 2x30
*
DC: ±320 SM : 2x75
DolWin1 800 * 1
AC: 155/400 UG : 2x90
*
DC: ±320 SM : 2x45
DolWin2 900 * 1
AC: 155/380 UG : 2x90
*
DC: ±320 SM : 2x83
DolWin3 900 * 1
AC: 155/380 UG : 2x79
*
DC: ±250 SM : 2x85
HelWin1 576 * 1
AC: 155/400 UG : 2x45
*
DC: ±320 SM : 2x85
HelWin2 690 * 1
AC: 155/400 UG : 2x45
*
DC: ±320 SM : 2x160
SylWin1 864 * 1
AC: 155/400 UG : 2x45
Table 3: Power Capacities of VSC based HVDC schemes for offshore WPPs *(SM=Submarine cables,
UG=Underground land cables)
In earlier large Danish offshore WPPs, the common practice has been that one offshore transformer is established
on the collecting platform and that the transformer rating matches the power rating of the WPP connected to that
platform. This can be seen in the offshore WPPs Horns Rev 1 (160 MW wind power, 2002), Nysted 1 (165 MW,
2003), Horns Rev 2 (215 MW, 2009) and Rødsand 2 (215 MW, 2010).
In a case of a forced outage of the offshore park transformer, a suitable reserve transformer should be delivered to
the offshore platform.
The practice described above has been challenged on several grounds including risks associated with
transportation, accessibility to the offshore platform during harsh weather conditions, etc. The time with a not-
functioning WPP transformer results in energy loss and so a penalty to the grid operator. The risk of the energy
loss, fully or in part, could be minimized by suitable redundancy, for example by introducing extra transformers on
the offshore platform.
Keeping a full-size spare transformer on the offshore platform may be too costly when comparing the establishment
and maintenance cost of such an extra transformer to the expected cost of the energy loss. Hence, the redundancy
could be increased by splitting up the total power capacity between a number of smaller-sized transformers. Most
likely, the WPP transformers will be established on the offshore platform and put in-service, but a single
transformer can still be established as a not in-service reserve. This procedure seems to be more cost-efficient
since it increases the redundancy of the transformer arrangement, reduces energy loss at forced outages and
applies a smaller-sized transformer as reserve. The reserve transformer is quickly switched in, when one of the
working transformers has failed and switched off.
The redundancy level and thus the sizes of the transformers are to be optimized using the reliability and cost-
benefit evaluations as well as the expected production pattern of the WPP. In some cases, a reserve transformer
(to be kept out-of-service) is not needed since most of the energy production could be carried out by the remaining
transformers during a forced outage of a single transformer.
Page 21
Recent Danish practice is departing from the arrangement with single, WPP-sized offshore transformers e.g. the
WPP- transformer arrangement established at the Anholt WPP (400 MW, 2012). The WPP will still have one
offshore platform, but equipped with three in-service main transformers. Each transformer is rated at 140 MVA. In
the case of a forced outage of one of the three transformers, the total rating of the two remaining transformers, i.e.
280 MVA, is above the predicted average power production from the Anholt WPP. Hence, the Anholt WPP is
expected be able to operate with only minor energy loss due to a forced outage of one transformer, and allow time
for repair or change out. A similar WPP transformer arrangement, e.g. comprising a few smaller-sized WPP
transformers instead of a single WPP k-sized one, will be utilized in the announced Horns Rev 3 (400 MW, 2017)
and Kriegers Flak (600 MW, 2020) offshore WPPs.
Within the UK very early projects utilised a single transformer; however ‘medium’ sized connections utilised two
transformers sized at N+”a little bit”. Please refer to [A] for further clarity on this level of redundancy. This was
driven by legislation and in particular the NETS SQSS [L] (formally known as the GB SQSS) that effectively
prohibits the installation of a single WPP transformer for offshore WPPs greater than 90 MW. This means that for
all the WPPs in the UK, the loss of one transformer may, depending of the level of redundancy, result in a
constraint of generation rather than a full outage.
The use of one transformer also has a practical limit on the rating possible. Typically secondary currents that
exceed 5 kA are impractical as this exceeds the maximum normal circuit breaker rating of two bays. As such
transformers are normally limited to maximum ratings of:
• 280 MVA for 33 kV array voltage

• 560 MVA for 66 kV array voltage.
2.3 Frequency
With traditional HVAC connections the frequency of the transmission connection and the wind turbine array cabling
must be synchronized to the onshore grid frequency. Within the North American Continent and some countries in
the South American Continent and some in East Asia the standard frequency is 60 Hz, whereas 50 Hz is used in
the rest of the world.
However the connection of the offshore WPP via an HVDC link presents the opportunity to operate the WPP
network asynchronously to the onshore grid and potentially at a frequency that differs from that of the onshore
transmission systems. This utilises one of the fundamental design principles of HVDC transmission that allows the
transfer of power between grid systems running at different standard frequencies and between asynchronous grid
systems at the same standard frequencies, for example that used in a classical back-to-back HVDC converter
station.
In WPPs connected to the grid without intervention of an HVDC network, the network frequency is determined by
the grid and a result of rotating mass of all connected synchronous generators (with long time constants). The
frequency will normally slightly change around a fundamental, i.e. standard value. The deviation from this
fundamental value gives information about the active power unbalance of the grid. In most grid-connection
requirements the WPPs are required to automatically lower the delivered active power in case of frequency
deviation over the nominal value according to some droop value. The WPPs can also be required to operate below
the available power level, i.e. the so-called delta-power regime, in order to be able to deliver more active power and
support the grid frequency should it decrease below a certain set-point.
For HVDC-connected WPPs the offshore AC network frequency is determined by the electronics of the HVDC
converter. The HVDC converter is able to create its own AC voltage at any frequency without the need for rotating
mass of synchronous generators. The frequency can be used to control active power in the system, for example by
mirroring the onshore grid frequency to the offshore AC network. But also a fixed frequency value can be used
offshore, implementing the active power response of the WPP by onshore commands via the WTG SCADA
system.
For AC collector systems and substations associated with HVDC-connected WPPs, it is a point of attention to
maintain the stability of the frequency of the overall offshore AC grid. In particular when WTG’s are converter-
Page 22
interfaced, there is no rotating mass to limit the speed of frequency change. The frequency control algorithms of the
WTG’s should be coordinated with the control philosophy of the HVDC converter(s) to get a stable frequency
control. The offshore HVDC converter can be required to provide an artificial inertia to the offshore AC system in
order to suppress excessive frequency jumps.
The following sections present, from a technical perspective, the key advantages and disadvantages of operating
with a frequency above or below 50 or 60 Hz. But there are also a number of non-technical disadvantages to
moving away from a standard frequency. Examples are:
• specially-designed equipment to work at non-standard conditions will increase the cost

• reduced expandability of the system through interconnections of neighbouring WPPs
• reduced competition between equipment suppliers
• reduced supply chain capacity and all the disadvantages that come along with that.
2.3.1 VARIABLE FREQUENCY

Variable frequency is generally applied at the rotor of modern WTGs for the following reasons:
• to maximise energy capture at different wind speeds below a certain wind speed value
• to reduce mechanical stresses and usage of gearboxes
• to achieve fault ride-through capability.
This is achieved using the low voltage power electronic converters of most modern WTGs.
One reason for introducing the concept of operating the collection network at variable frequency in conjunction with
an HVDC system is that it may allow the omission of power electronic converters at each individual WTG, thus
reducing their cost. The drawbacks of this approach are however as follows:
• Variable frequency cannot be controlled differently for each WTG, so energy capture cannot be
optimised for local wind speed conditions. The wind varies across a WPP e.g. due to wake effects
(wind shadow), hence, lack of power output optimization from the WPP as a whole results.
• The rotor frequency of each individual WTG cannot be controlled to differ from the collection network
frequency, therefore the rotor is less able to act as a shock absorber by temporarily storing energy
during a collection network fault or sudden local gust of wind. This means that the WTGs are subjected
to increased mechanical torsional loads, at the expense of higher drive train costs, and lower
availability.
• Transient stability requirements will involve the voltage-recovery support from the offshore HVDC
station, since WTGs without their power electronics converters are not necessarily able to support the
voltage recovery, i.e.
• Keeping a fixed, standard frequency is not any longer a measure of the active power balance in the
offshore network. Hence, the frequency jumps and excursions are not necessarily interpreted as being
caused by faults or power imbalance (due to wind gusts). New protection algorithms by the frequency
deviations would need to be developed, tested and implemented.
• All power and instrumentation transformers offshore need to be able to operate at a non-standard
wider frequency range. The lower the frequencies are within this range, the larger the core of these
transformers would need to be in order to avoid saturation, making the offshore transformers bulkier
and heavier. This can partly be overcome by converter control action, reducing the collection voltage in
proportion to a reduction in frequency, but this would increase the copper losses.
• The protection design needs to take into account the effect of a wide frequency range, for example, at
a lower frequency the current zeros needed for a circuit breaker to operate, are delayed affecting the
Page 23
fault clearance time. The circuit breakers themselves must be type-tested for their suitability in the
proposed frequency range.
• AC cables can operate over a wide frequency range, but the amount of active power that they can
carry will be reduced at higher frequency. The reason is the capacitive charging current injection which
is proportional to the frequency and hence will increase with higher frequency. A higher capacitive
charging current injection de-rates the cables as less current capacity is left for active power, and the
cable is further de-rated by a higher resistance at a higher frequency. In addition, a higher frequency
will result in higher losses in metallic screen (copper tapes or lead sheath), higher losses in armour
wires and higher dielectric losses. An acceptable voltage profile will also be more difficult to achieve for
a wide frequency range, especially if variable frequency is applied at higher voltages.
• All auxiliary systems such as diesel generators, battery chargers as well as platform utilities will need to
be able to operate at a non-standard frequency or over a variable frequency range, which may require
non-standard and more expensive solutions. Alternatively a frequency converter system must be
installed to allow the use of standard equipment on the platform (e. g. marine systems, individual laptop
computers etc.).
Operating the collection network at a relatively small variable frequency range has also been proposed with doubly
fed induction generators (DFIGs) and an HVDC transmission link in order to achieve either one of the following
objectives [FF]:
• reduce the rating of DFIG converters

• extend the speed range to maximize the power capturing without increasing the rating of the DFIG
converters.
However, extending the speed range may increase the mechanical loading on the wind turbine construction, such
as blades, towers and foundations, which is why more investigations beyond purely electrical ones are required to
complete the cost-benefit analysis.
2.3.2 FIXED FREQUENCY
2.3.2.1 Frequency above standard 50 or 60 Hz

Employing a higher fixed frequency of the AC collection network might have possible technical and economic
advantages such as utilization of electric grid components with smaller size and weight on the offshore platform.
On the other hand, operation at a higher fixed frequency has disadvantages such as larger reactive power
generation in the submarine cables with a resulting need for larger and, likely, more costly reactive power
compensation, larger energy losses due to higher charging currents in the cables and, hence, shorter transmission
distances and higher transformer core losses. Furthermore, operations at a higher fixed AC frequency would also
require higher switching frequency of power electronic converters in the wind turbines and HVDC leading to larger
converter losses, the latter relates also to larger no-load converter losses.
A disadvantage for the circuit breakers is that interrupting duty for a small capacitive current becomes more severe.
The AC grid frequency relates also to the standardization of the grid components and their type testing and
certification. Spare part management is also more complex requiring specialised spares that may be different for
each project and frequency. This is also applicable to the wind turbine systems and the ancillary services on the
offshore platform.
Application of non-standard components would introduce additional significant cost to the total project cost and
additional project risk. This additional cost is also among the disadvantages for utilization of higher fixed frequency
in the offshore AC collection grids, e.g. before the grid components for operations at higher fixed frequency have
been standardized, and new grid codes established.
Application of a non-standard operation range for frequency may reduce further expandability of the offshore
system using AC interconnection options. This is evident when the offshore AC system, established for a non-
Page 24
standard frequency, needs to be connected to another AC system, offshore or onshore, which is operated at
another fixed or variable frequency.
The effects that higher frequency will have on circuit breaker interrupting performance and transformers are
summarized below:
Circuit breakers:
• Interrupting duty for a small capacitive current becomes severe. Possibility of re-strike becomes higher.
The recovery voltage across the contacts rises more rapidly as frequency becomes higher.
• If frequency is not considerably higher, GCB of one rank higher rated voltage, which can clear (1-cos)
recovery voltage, can be applied.
• If much higher frequency is adopted, the following measures should be considered:
• two (or more) circuit breakers in series
• development of higher opening speed breaker
• Other interrupting duties, such as short-circuit, out-of-phase and so on, will also become more severe.
Extensive study for TRV requirements would be required.
Transformers:
• Advantage of higher frequencies:

• transformer core size (cross section of core) and weight is reduced
• impact on transformer size is not so big but the transformer becomes a little smaller.
• Disadvantage of higher frequencies:
• core loss will be increased
• core noise will be increased
• load loss (eddy and stray loss) will also be increased.
• Advantage / disadvantage (according to design);
• impedance of transformer will be changed.
2.3.2.2 Frequency below standard 50 or 60 Hz

Employing a lower fixed frequency of the AC collection network might have possible technical and economic
advantages such as reduction of reactive generation in the submarine cables and, likely, reduction of reactive
power compensation needs, lower charging currents and, hence, longer transmission distances, and, likely, lower
switching frequency in power electronic converters which may reduce the corresponding power losses.
Disadvantages of operation at lower fixed frequency are higher flux in the transformers, larger size and weight of
the components to be commissioned at the offshore platforms, e.g. transformers, and that the circuit breaker
interrupting window becomes wider as one period of the frequency becomes longer.
Again, the AC grid frequency relates to the standardization of the grid components. Application of non-standard
components will introduce additional significant cost to the total project cost for type testing and certification and
application of a non-standard operation range of frequencies may reduce further expandability of the offshore
system using AC interconnection options.
The effects that lower frequency will have on circuit breaker interrupting performance and transformers are
summarized below:
Circuit breakers:
• Generally when frequency becomes low, interrupting duties become low. But requirement for arcing
time capability becomes wide (minimum arcing time to maximum arcing time).
• In case of GCB, interrupting performance is determined by puffer blow capability, verification of existing
design or development of the special breaker may be required.
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Transformers:
• Advantage of lower frequencies

• core loss will be decreased
• core noise will be decreased
• load loss (eddy and stray loss) also will be decreased.
• Disadvantage of lower frequencies;
• transformer core size and weight (cross section of core) will be increased
• Advantage / disadvantage (according to design);
• impedance of transformer will be changed.
The use of low frequency offshore networks may offer an advantage over 50 or 60 Hz. If a lower frequency is
selected the length of export cable may be extended. In some installations this may allow "back to back" AC/DC/AC
conversion onshore negating the requirement for an offshore HVDC platform.
Frequencies of 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz are used in railway networks in Europe and there is a small market offering
equipment for these frequencies. Transformers designed for these frequencies have been supplied with a primary
voltage of 132 kV and switchgear (albeit single-phase) are available at medium voltage.
2.3.2.3 Use of 60 Hz with onshore frequency of 50Hz or use of 50Hz with onshore frequency of
60Hz
In the consideration of operation with a frequency above or below standard 50/60 Hz it was noted that a move to a
different frequency would be a move away from standardization of the grid components and their type testing and
certification.
However there is a significant amount of equipment that has been tested and certified at both 50 Hz and 60 Hz for
Europe and America respectively. Consequently the system designer in an area that has 50 Hz onshore may wish
to consider the use of 60 Hz offshore if obtaining a smaller and lighter transformer is of significant value.
Conversely, a designer in an area with 60 Hz may wish to consider the use of 50 Hz offshore if the reactive power
generation from cables is a significant problem.
2.4 Availability
The use of HVDC connectors does not introduce any obvious failure mode into the associated AC collector system
and substations. Where the equipment used is similar to that used in AC-connected wind power systems – similar
levels of reliability can be assumed.
Availability can be considered in a number of ways. Traditionally transmission systems have ensured availability
through set levels of redundancy e.g. N-1 or N-2 (see definition under section 9.2). This ensures high levels of
availability but requires a large numbers of assets to be installed. However, as discussed in section 2.2, the N-1 or
N-2 method of specifying availability has not typically been applied on offshore transmission systems (partly
because these systems have up till now been radial). Furthermore, specifying redundant transmission cables has
been considered too costly.
Two different approaches for specifying availability for offshore assets can be used:
1. An optimized level of availability based on the cost of assets compared against capitalised value of lost
generation.
2. A specified design availability limit for the transmission assets set by the customer or a governmental
body.
The two approaches can complement each other, especially when the targets are costly to achieve.
2.4.1 CAPITALISED VALUE OF LOST GENERATION

The offshore WPP design will need to be evaluated based on the achievement of:
• The full life cycle cost of the WPP
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• The regulatory requirements applicable for the WPP

• For example, the UK regulations require that a minimum of two transformers are installed per
platform, each rated at a minimum of 50 % of rated power
• The impact of the loss of power on assets
• In particular ensuring that essential emergency supplies are maintained
• Consideration of High Impact Low Probability (HILP) events.
The life cycle cost of the WPP should include the following:
• The capital expenditure (initial investment) which includes the cost of all the equipment, the cost of
installation and the civil works required.
• The capitalised value of electrical losses
• The capitalised value of operation and maintenance costs
• The capitalised value of lost generation due to outages in the transmission assets.
The capitalised value of lost generation due to transmission outages would normally be considered in terms of lost
revenues. A possible method to describe this is as follows.
From site information and measurements determine power duration curves for the WPP, e.g. the distribution of
expected power production within the WPP as a function of time. An example of power duration is shown in Figure
7 below.
10000
9000
8000
Hours of Generation per Year
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Percentage Output of a Windfarm
Figure 7: A typical power duration curve
This curve can then be used to determine the average amount of lost energy generation resulting from a
transmission outage. In the example below, a 50 % transmission capacity loss would result in a 32 % generation
loss.
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Figure 8: A typical power duration curve indicating lost energy as a function of lost transmission capacity
The typical lost energy export may be reduced by applying emergency or dynamic ratings to selected equipment in
the transmission chain in operation. Dynamic ratings require either real time monitoring of asset condition or
modelling of assets. This can allow higher ratings to be applied in the case of favourable environmental conditions
(such as low ambient temperatures) and where cyclic ratings of equipment are permissible.
The above information, together with an assumed value of energy, values of Mean Time to Failure (MTTF), Mean
Time to Repair (MTTR), inflation and an appropriate discount rate can be used to calculate the capitalised value of
lost generation due to outages in the transmission assets.
2.4.2 SPECIFIED DESIGN AVAILABILITY FOR THE TRANSMISSION ASSETS

A specific design availability for the transmission assets, independent of energy generated, can be considered, and
hence can be considered separately from availability of the generation assets. This approach has been applied in
the UK, with the Offshore Transmission Owner (OFTO) regime where the OFTOs are penalised if there availability
is less than 98 %. Guidance on the Offshore Transmission Owner Licence for Transitional Tender Round 2 can be
found at (https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/ofgem-publications/50982/oftolicencev1.4guidance.pdf).
Similar levels of availability can be required of transmission assets even including HVDC links. Then the availability
of the AC equipment configuration will need to satisfy close to 98 % availability requirement even when it is
configured together with the HVDC link. In that case the requirement for the configured AC equipment availability
will have to be increased above normal levels. This is because the complete land connection applied has to allow
for the additional unavailability expected from the HVDC link.
2.4.2.1 Availability design considerations

When the reliability and maintenance (repair-time) data have been established the possible component and
configuration designs can be evaluated. Each design or part of design can be listed and rated individually
according to how well this particular design satisfies the project’s requirements.
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The selection criteria and requirements can be subjective and based on availability targets alone. Alternatively it
can be expanded to include other and more overall project requirements and targets like e.g. value of loss of
generation.
The availability result from the selected design using this approach will be adequately supported by both
component reliability and maintenance data. In addition the criteria and rating lists explain properly why this design
was chosen.
2.4.3 RELIABILITY AND AVAILABILITY OF COMPONENTS

Values of the reliability and availability of components are not readily available, and the results from computing with
the available data will be approximations. The challenge is that if the availability requirements and asset service
time requirements are not fulfilled this will have economic consequences for the developer as well as the
contractor.
A systematic approach to calculate the availability starts with the establishment of design requirements. The
necessary requirements are:
• Design Service Life Requirement

• Redundancy Requirements (From Standards, Regulations, Company or Project-Specific)
• Specified Design Availability Requirement for the Transmission Assets.
The design of the Collector system will be influenced by the required service life, redundancy and overall
availability performance of the offshore equipment. The evaluation of the system availability and performance,
should include the following
2.4.3.1 O&M and redundancy philosophy

The main logistical aspects of operation and maintenance offshore would highlight the time taken to get to the
offshore platform and by what means. Personnel will need to be transferred from onshore base to offshore platform
and even between platforms. The use of boat or helicopter transfers to the platforms presents a significant safety
risk and they are both subject to weather down-time. It takes a considerable amount of time for crew to access a
platform by boat as each crew member has to climb approximately 30 meters vertically up a ladder. Running
helicopter transfers is expensive and requires more training and use of support systems such as firefighting
equipment.
It is anticipated that the manufacturers would specify the required maintenance as well as the 3-5 year warranty
period considering the predicted reliability and availability of the equipment.
A key factor in deciding which form of transport is used is the distance between destinations. Generally fast transfer
boats will travel around 15-20 knots, meaning it would take 1 hour to cover 15-20 nautical miles (approximately 28-
37 km). These transfer times would impact on the amount of time a crew has to carry out the relevant works on the
platform. In the same way as for an AC collector substation connected to the onshore grid by HVAC, it is
anticipated that AC collector platforms connected to HVDC platforms would require a considerable amount of
maintenance. For these reasons the role of O&M on offshore collector platforms would need to be considered at
the design stage.
The installation should be prepared for the maintenance crew participating in the programmes. Crew effectiveness
is increased by designing for manned/semi-manned installations, but the cost of accommodation and safety
measures are also considerable. Looking at the nature of onshore O&M, utilities have moved on from a reactive
regime from 40 years ago to a more risk-based and proactive philosophy using preventive maintenance.
Though NUI (Normally Unmanned Installations) are preferred as there is no requirement for continual manual
intervention on these platforms, centralising an offshore supply base would seem to offer logistical advantages
when the distance to shore base and offshore locations calls for long travelling times.
2.4.3.2 Reliability data and calculations
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Reliability and availability offshore may be impacted by issues including spares holding, level of redundancy and
on-call service contracts. Having spare transformers per 4 collectors would reduce overall weight rather than
having one per collector. This would require a standardised design for all collectors connecting to an HVDC
Platform, and a maintenance program to carry out the challenging logistical nature of the strategy.
Reference [HH] discusses reliability of Gas Insulated Switchgear. Many utilities have not experienced any passive
zone faults after commissioning on modern GIS. This may be due to better testing, assembly and production at
factory level.
Looking at a typical SLD of an offshore network we can gather data for reliability of components on an AC collector
substation associated with HVDC
2.4.3.3 Component Electrical Conditions

While the offshore system stresses equipment in broadly the same way as the onshore system (quality of electrical
supply, numbers of starts, cooling, starting loads and running loads/overloads) the reliability results will be more
accurate because the operational conditions are consistent.
Even if the operational current from the generation will vary in line with the wind distribution one cannot exclude the
possibility of long periods (10+ days) of maximum rated current on the equipment particularly in cases where the
network can be reconfigured in the case of fault. This is broadly in line with equipment used in onshore generation
equipment.
The possible fault currents seen by the offshore equipment will largely be determined by the choice of WTG (see
section 6.2) although these would generally be expected to be smaller than those seen onshore and would not
generally be expected to reduce the reliability of equipment.
Regarding the voltage and power quality, this is discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. With proper design the equipment
associated with AC offshore WPPs connected by HVDC should not experience conditions or stresses more
onerous than those experienced in conventional AC networks.
If by connecting to the AC side of an HVDC variable frequencies or new frequency spectra are applied this may
stress the equipment and cause a greater rate of failure than seen in conventional AC networks. This must be
considered if variable frequencies or new frequencies are applied. By introducing a design complying only with
lower order harmonic requirements there is a risk of creating higher order harmonic problems to which there are no
defined limits. There is no current experience with this issue. Frequency is also discussed in Section 2.3.
One area where the offshore-located equipment may differ from onshore is the number of occasions and length of
time in which the equipment may be out of operation. Failed equipment and downstream components may be out
for extended periods until they can be repaired or replaced because of the potential difficulties in accessing the
platform. In cases where there is limited redundancy the equipment may be de-energised, possibly without auxiliary
power. The impact of loss of auxiliary power is discussed in Sections 2.4.4.3 and 2.5.
2.4.3.4 Component Environment/ Ambient Conditions

The environmental issues affecting AC collector systems and substations associated with HVDC-connected WPPs
do not appear to be different from those affecting all other offshore substations. The environmental issues resulting
from locating substations offshore are discussed in [A].
The environmental issues that are particularly onerous for offshore installations are the corrosiveness of the saline
air, the high levels of humidity and force of the wind. This must be considered in the design of equipment, housing
of the equipment and maintenance procedures.
The use of submarine cables is likely to lead to much higher rates of failure when compared to onshore cables due
to difficulties in controlling installation and protecting the cable after installation. This is discussed in [UU].
2.4.4 EQUIPMENT FAILURE

All equipment on an installation that is exposed to extreme weather is typically constructed of stainless steel,
marine-grade aluminium or titanium. Alternatively less-advanced materials are thoroughly coated to ensure
Page 30
longevity. High-efficiency filtration systems could be installed to remove the salt, water and dirt particles that can be
present in offshore environments thereby providing benign conditions that could significantly contribute to
prolonged platform reliability. Heating and cooling can be provided by the same system whether it is a centralized
system or zoned. Besides costs, an obvious disadvantage adding active or passive systems to the platform is that
they will add to the require maintenance. Moreover they could be subject to failures thereby contributing negatively
to the overall reliability.
It should be noted that the data and assumptions made throughout this section is based on onshore equipment.
There is insufficient data and experience to provide an objective offshore performance at this time. Moreover, as
most failures occur at the end of a lifetime, the design lifetime will have a significant impact. Equipment used
offshore may be designed for the standard onshore lifetime of about 40 years whereas many WPPs have a design
lifetime of approximately 25 years.
Analyses of general circuit breaker faults show that the majority of faults are down to control or mechanical system
failure. Abnormal pressure issues have contributed to the majority of faults.
Adverse weather conditions can have an impact on polymeric insulators (due to weight); this may have operational
impacts and can lead to reduced security when applied in an offshore platform.
2.4.4.1 Gas Insulated switchgear (GIS)

In general GIS-based equipment is the preferred choice due to the high reliability and small footprint. Considering
the remote location and the sometimes harsh weather conditions which make it challenging to access the platform,
a GIS solution may be more suitable for offshore substations. Depending on how the equipment is protected from
the ambient conditions it may also be the preferred solution from an environmental perspective. A reliability survey
for the high voltage equipment during 2004 to 2007 was carried out by the CIGRÈ WG A3.06, and summarized in
the Cigré technical brochures 509 [II] to 514. The results for the circuit breaker show that live tank breakers have
approximately 3 times higher failure frequencies than dead tank and GIS breakers [II].
GIS equipment major failures (MaF) GIS equipment minor failures (MiF)
distribution (all data) distribution (all data)
5% 5%
14% 15%
DE/ES CB
46% CB GI
GI 53% DE/ES
IT 27% IT
35%
Figure 9: GIS equipment failure distribution (source: [HH]).
(CB = Circuit breaker, DE = Disconnectors or earthing switches, IT = Instrument transformers, GI = other parts in
GIS than CB, DE and IT (namely busbars and busducts)
The GIS equipment failure distribution data [HH] illustrated in Figure 9 indicates that the majority of the major faults
(MaF) come from disconnector and earth switches. This figure is based on data from all countries. However, other
data excluding the two dominant countries indicates that 53.3% of MaF occur on CB [HH].
Also GIS failure characteristics are reported in the previous survey results as follows. The prevailing GIS major
failure modes were the “Failing to perform requested operation or function” (63%) and “Dielectric breakdown”
(23%). The portion of “failing to perform requested operation” rises with the increasing age of GIS and reaches a
maximum when about 15 to 20 years old. In contrast, the relative portion of “dielectric breakdowns” increases for
new GIS, then it is reduced for about 15 to 20 years after which it starts rising again [II].
Page 31
These survey results indicate that establishment of a proper maintenance program is essential in order to maintain
good performance and high reliability. Appropriate quality control and proper dielectric tests at the onshore
assembling yard are also important.
2.4.4.2 Transformers
For transformers, cooling radiators may cause failures due to the harsh environment. Another topic which must be
taken into account is low frequency vibrations and load profile. These issues may affect the failure rate in addition
to the known issues as given in the figure below.
Failure locations of Substation Transformers

3 2 2
24 Winding
Tap Changer
62
Bushings
178
Lead Exit
Insulation
Core and Magnetic Circuit
93
Other
Figure 10: Failure location of substation transformers (source: CIGRÈ).
The cooling of transformers represents a major challenge for an offshore substation. Introducing ONAF
transformers on a platform may present a risk to the transmission capability of a collector system connected to an
HVDC platform. Cooling failure would potentially cause a reduction of transformer life-time because of high oil
temperature and an increased risk of failure/rupture should the fans not be sufficiently maintained. Adequate
maintenance regimes, though expensive, would enable the transformer to meet their anticipated design life.
Reference [A] describes the differences in operating conditions offshore with regard to varying levels of load factor.
Due to the anticipated maintenance being condition- and time-based, more thought would need to go into the
strategy due to the issues detailed earlier in this section.
Developments in Gas Insulated Transformers (GIT) would seem to offer an advantage for offshore transmission as
they do not contain any oil eliminating the need for a conservator tank in a platform where space will always be at a
premium. Installations must exceed the highest standards for performance, space optimization, weather resistance,
reliability and noise and vibration reduction.
Water cooling can be an option but as there is already a lot of water handling required on offshore platforms with
piping systems and water treatment, it would be an expensive additional O&M burden to also use these systems
for transformer cooling. Reference [A] also lists the advantages and disadvantages for having an air cooler
mounted on the tank in comparison to a separated air cooler, with the latter seeming to have more advantages with
only piping issues being main disadvantages which can be overcome with meticulous design of the systems.
2.4.4.3 Auxiliaries
The purpose of the auxiliary systems is to provide power to the various platform applications, e.g. Heating,
Ventilation & Air Conditioning (H/V/AC), control and protection, lighting, accommodation and emergency systems.
Without auxiliary supplies the platform cannot operate and hence, the auxiliary system is essential for the
performance of the platform.
Auxiliary systems can be divided into different equipment groups. There is very little published data on the reliability
and performance of auxiliary systems, so the advice provided in this section is anecdotal and subject to different
Page 32
utility practice design and asset management. The majority of auxiliary faults occur in diesel back up-generators
and DC battery systems.
Diesel Generator:
The primary purpose of the backup diesel generator is to provide power to the platform in the event of loss of high
voltage feed via the HVDC export cable. It may potentially also provide power to the AC collector grid feeding the
WTGs. Diesel generator sets should in such cases be specified and rated to provide both active and reactive
power to the collection grid as well as to the other auxiliaries on the platform. These engines are mechanical
systems with moving parts, fluids and component wear and tear. This requires regular maintenance to provide
reliable performance.
Battery systems:
The DC battery system supports the protection control and communication systems and therefore is essential to
the reliable operation of the installation. Battery systems include chargers, battery racks and distribution boards.
They tend to be duplicated to manage in-service failures. It is important to ensure the repairs can be made on-line
without having to switch off the whole platform. It is also key to have spare parts that are easily interchangeable
and there is adequate access to make the repairs.
Heat, ventilation and air conditioning:

H/V/AC provides controlled ambient conditions for personnel on board as well as for the equipment, particularly the
light current equipment such as protection, control, monitoring, navigation and communication systems. It
maintains specified levels of temperature, air change rate, humidity, fresh air quality and pressure. Moreover, it can
be designed to provide cooling for internal high heat-gain spaces. Failure of the H/V/AC system affects the overall
operation of the installation and may potentially cause a system shut down.
Reliability of H/V/AC systems decreases significantly when they are left to run for a period of time. These systems
are composed of mechanical moving parts and fluids, which require regular monitoring and servicing to provide
reliable performance. There are onshore transmission systems using H/V/AC system comparable to that of
commercial buildings which have needed to be changed approximately 3 times over a 20 year period. This would
not be practical on an offshore location, therefore the H/V/AC system performance must be designed to align with
the platform maintenance cycle, such as more reliable systems (e.g. hospitals and ships). Collectors and
installations offshore in general would require a higher reliability system as the effects of losing power can have
severe implications for both commercial and asset performance. Due to the offshore location, maintenance crews
will not be as readily available as onshore having the consequence that a well-developed spares system will need
to be in place.
2.5 Auxiliary Power
2.5.1 AUXILIARY POWER DURING ISLAND CONDITIONS

Faults are generally foreseeable and must be catered for, therefore serious fault scenarios causing outage of key
components must also be considered during commissioning of the AC offshore platform and the HVDC connection
to shore (i.e. energy supply from the onshore grid) might be lost for a certain period of time. Such a scenario would
force the complete offshore network into islanded operation. During islanded operation essential loads including
safety systems, navigation must be supported to ensure the integrity of the AC collector substation and that the
WTG’s are supplied with auxiliary power.
It should be noted that depending on the WTG technology the forced transition into such island conditions may be
accompanied by a risk of temporary overvoltage (TOV). The TOV conditions are present because the wind turbines
become isolated with a part of the offshore MV and HV AC network, causing the voltage to rise due to charging of
the cables [SS]. The equipment should be designed to withstand such TOV and additional measures, such as
surge arresters and transformer saturation characteristics, should be considered to prevent excessive TOV and
damage therefrom.
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2.5.2 DIESEL GENERATOR RATING

The auxiliary power supply has been typically provided by one or more diesel generator sets located on the AC
offshore platform. These generator sets can be designed to supply the consumers of WTG’s in addition to those of
the AC collector substation. They must be able to provide the necessary active and reactive power to all auxiliary
loads (including wind turbines) during steady-state and transient conditions.
Emergency diesel generator sets have a considerable influence in the AC collector substation design and cost (e.g.
size and weight of diesel generator components, diesel tank and fire hazard). Therefore robustly designed and low-
maintenance equipment should be pursued when considering diesel generator sets. Special considerations may be
necessary if the connection to shore is not yet available and the diesel-generator set will be used to provide power
to the WTG’s during the erection of the WPP. During this time, when the WTG's as well as the interconnecting
cable network will be erected piece by piece, the generator sets must be able to provide very low and continuously
increasing active power (risk of unacceptable wear, see 2.5.2.2). The charging power of the cable network starts
from a very small value but rises as well, so a wide range has to be compensated (see 2.5.2.4)
2.5.2.1 Inrush currents during energisation

In most cases the MVA rating of the diesel generator will be lower than the MVA rating of the individual wind
turbine transformers. This is due to the fact that although the auxiliary power needs of the wind turbine are much
lower than their rated power, for space and cost saving reasons wind turbines are designed without a lower MVA
rated auxiliary transformer as well. Therefore the relatively low auxiliary power needs of the wind turbine are often
supplied through the main high MVA wind turbine transformer.
One of the challenges when designing the diesel generator lies in the energisation procedure of the islanded
offshore network. In particular the energisation procedure of the wind turbine transformers is relevant to the design
of the diesel generator due to the inrush and the sympathetic inrush current phenomena [M]. These phenomena
present several challenges in the design of the diesel generator especially when the energisation of transformer is
done through a limited-capacity diesel generator [N] and in particular when this takes place in islanded offshore
networks [O]. The high transient currents drawn by the above-mentioned phenomena can be associated with high
electromagnetic torque oscillations and these may subject the shaft to high torsional stresses that could lead to
fatigue and failure.
One way to overcome the challenges posed by the inrush and sympathetic inrush current phenomena could be to
energise the islanded offshore MV network by ramping up the MV voltage using the Diesel Generator’s excitation
(with the wind turbine transformers already switched in). It is important to note that if after using such a procedure
to energise the islanded MV offshore network there is a scheduled or forced wind turbine outage the above
described inrush current challenges will arise again when trying to re-energise the tripped turbine.
The islanded MV offshore network used to provide the wind turbines with auxiliary power is potentially a weak
network. Engineering experience with interconnected offshore power systems for the oil and gas industry has
shown that energising transformers against small capacity generators in the presence of a subsea cable network
may lead to overvoltages due to the excitation of a low system resonance frequency by the transformer inrush
currents [P].
2.5.2.2 Fatigue and life time reduction (Wet stacking)

The design of the diesel generating set must also take into account that potential damage, fatigue and life time
reduction can occur when operating prime mover on light load (less than 30-35% of its rated loading) for extended
periods of time. The designer should consider the potential for a phenomenon called “wet stacking” caused by
running the prime mover under its designed operating temperature for extended periods. This phenomenon can
have adverse effects on the engine including:
• shorten engine life by many years and replacement before what is planned for
• increased emissions
• reduction of maximum power output
• considerably increased maintenance which is a big disadvantage offshore.
Page 34
2.5.2.3 Auxiliary power concept

There are many ways in which the Auxiliary power concept of the islanded offshore MV network can be designed
and depending on the chosen concept, this will influence the design challenges. Important points to consider are
discussed below.
• maximum and minimum number of wind turbines that the Diesel generator should deliver auxiliary
power to at any given time
• energisation procedure of the MV radials and the wind turbine transformer
• the UPS backup time in a typical turbine is typically 30 minutes which is mainly used to ensure that the
turbine is closed down in a controlled and safe way
• split of functionality between provision of the WTG auxiliary power supply and platform power supply
(to give platform a stable and "clean" power supply).
As an example, the auxiliary power needed for a typical turbine (3 MW) is 45-50 kW with a power factor of 0.83.
This power is drawn continuously as this is primarily used for no load losses for the WTG transformer, heater, fans,
power to control equipment, charging the UPS, lights and power outlets. For yaw purpose which is intermittent the
requested active power is 14-17 kW with a power factor of 0.71. The number of turbines to be allowed to yaw at the
same time can normally be controlled from the turbine SCADA system – this needs to be taken into consideration
in sizing the power backup system.
Figure 11 below shows an example of the voltage and current on the power backup unit during start-up.
Voltage
400
350
300 U1 (Positive Sequence) Voltage, Portable Elspec@N6150 Min

U1 (Positive Sequence) Voltage, Portable Elspec@N6150 Max
250
U (V)
200
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (s)
Current
14
12
10
U1 (Positive Sequence) Current, Portable Elspec@N6150 Min

8
U1 (Positive Sequence) Current, Portable Elspec@N6150 Max
I (A)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (s)
Figure 11: Voltage and current of a typical power backup system during start-up
An example of an onshore configuration that can be adapted to offshore is shown in Figure 12 below.
Page 35
Grid
1)
Main transformer
Grid
MV CB
Interlock P
MV Busbar
P P P P P P
GenSet Reactor
MV CB MV CB 1)
Feeder 3 Feeder n
Aux. supply substation

Reactor
GenSet 1) 1) 1)
LV CB
ComAp
G GenSet
controller
G G G
D M M M
Yaw system Yaw system Yaw system
To SCADA
WTG 2.1 WTG 2.2 WTG 2.n
Diesel Generator
Power Backup (PB)
1)
Earthing is site depended. 1) 1) 1)
Can be direct, impendance or isolated earthed
G G G
M M M
Yaw system Yaw system Yaw system
WTG 1.1 WTG 1.2 WTG 1.n
Figure 12: Power backup solution for onshore WPP installation
2.5.2.4 Reactive power compensation of MV cables

Furthermore due to the capacitive nature of the islanded offshore MV network, providing auxiliary power through
Diesel Generators could require medium voltage reactors to compensate the MV cables. This adds extra costs in
terms of equipment and platform space.
It is important to understand and take the above described challenges into consideration. It is sometimes
necessary to perform relevant studies [O] during the design stage to verify that the diesel generator is able to cope
with the calculated stresses of energising the islanded offshore network without negative effects on its lifetime, and
without unwanted protection tripping (e.g. due to overcurrent, under voltage, or overvoltage protection).
2.5.3 OTHER AUXILIARY POWER OPTIONS

Due to the numerous challenges associated with providing auxiliary power to an islanded offshore MV network and
the wind turbines other options may be worth considering. A list of such options is given below.
• HVAC or MVAC interconnection to other HVDC or AC platforms

• multi-terminal DC interconnection
• energisation through the HVDC connector from the onshore system
• wind turbine black start capability, so that a selected number of WTGs are able to provide auxiliary power
to the rest of the MV network, including platform auxiliaries (requires the turbine converter system to be
designed for black start mode)
• small diesel units established at a selected number of WTGs.
Page 36
2.6 Implications of split in ownership

The owner of a technical system can adapt its design to his needs. Based on technical and economical evaluations
the asset will finally be optimized.
At the interface point the two neighbouring systems have to act jointly. In order to enable a stable operation of the
two systems together, technical rules, e. g. Grid Codes, are defined which must be fulfilled by both parties. These
rules are universal and reflect a wide range of technical circumstances which are not adapted to the present
situation. Therefore the independent design of both systems will not be as optimized as they would have been if
they had been treated as one complete system. Hence, technical systems belonging to different owners may not
be optimized and may require additional technical efforts by the owners.
The location of split of ownership may have major implications on the final technical properties of the AC collector
system and hence on its design, e.g. on the reactive and active power control of the AC collector system.
In case of one owner only, e.g. the TSO, there are greater opportunities to design for optimized solutions
considering the whole asset as one system, integrating the WPP into the onshore grid.
If the transmission operator only owns the HVDC link, the AC collector system will have to fulfil all grid connection
requirements at the interface between the 2 parties (see chapter 0). This might result in additional efforts such as:
• static reactors on the AC collector platform for medium and high voltage cable compensation
• strong cooperation of the WTG’s in the delivery and consumption of reactive power in steady state
conditions and fault situations
• fixed-frequency behaviour of the AC collector system (the WTG’s will have to act accordingly).
If the HVDC link is owned by the generating company (split of ownership onshore), the technical properties
required to provide a stable offshore grid under all circumstances, can be optimized and split between all involved
grid components. E.g. the HVDC converter can be used to consume the reactive power of the AC collector system
and WTG’s will just contribute in reactive power control if this gives major advantages in the design of the HVDC
converter. Or, the WTG’s do not contribute in voltage support during faults; the HVDC link itself stabilizes the grid.
This benefits the WTG’s but requires more efforts on the HVDC-side.
As the WTG’s are developed by the manufacturers to serve a wide market, most of the available WTG’s are able
(at least partly) to fulfil grid code requirements. On the other hand (even though harmonization and standardization
of components and HVDC systems has been started) the HVDC system design is unique and adapted for each
specific project. In order to optimize the design of the offshore grid, the technical properties of the WTG’s and the
requirements of the HVDC system must be coordinated.
The following sections briefly outline the key issues that may impact on the design of an HVDC-connected WPP
and also the collector stations which supply it. It is assumed that there are at least 2 parties, the TSO, who
operates the onshore grid, and the developer or operator of the WPP.
2.6.1 TSO OWNING THE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

In this scenario the offshore transmission-asset is owned and built by the TSO. If the TSO’s costs and capital
expenditure are financed through transmission tariffs on the end user, the TSO is most often driven by
governmental authorities or regulators to provide an economical solution for the offshore transmission asset.
The developed example of this is within Germany where from 2006 two Transmission System Operators (TSOs)
became legally responsible for the planning, development and construction of the offshore transmission assets.
The interface point is at the outgoing HVAC terminals on the HV breaker of the AC collector substation. As at that
interface point both parties have to fulfil the grid code, it may be necessary to install additional equipment, such as
HV reactors to achieve these requirements. Furthermore protection, control, metering and telecommunication
equipment may also lead to additional requirements regarding space, auxiliary power, etc. As a result the TSO may
add to the cost of the WPP owner relating to the impact of its requirements on the AC collector substation.
If the TSO plans to construct the transmission connection by a HVDC scheme connecting more than one WPP the
interfaces must be managed between each involved party. For example the time schedules have to be adapted not
Page 37
only for the engineering and construction interfaces but starting from the design stage right through to the
commissioning phase and the final operation.
One aspect to consider in this approach is that the WPP developer may be delayed through the grid connection
process. Subsequently this may have an impact on the anticipated return on investment for the developer. On the
other hand, the WPP project can be delayed or in worst case even cancelled. This makes the creation of an overall
and long-term plan very difficult for the TSO and may potentially lead to stranded investments on his side.
An initial advantage having the offshore transmission link under the ownership of the TSO is that it will be part of
the overall transmission system long term development plan. The TSO may also include an allowance for future-
proofing in operational grid codes, for example additional circuit bays, to allow future interconnection.
Another aspect is that with two main organisations to take into account, i.e. the WPP developer and the TSO, there
is less complexity as compared to the introduction of a third party, e.g. in the form of an OFTO (see chapter 2.6.2).
However the opportunity for the authorities to put the complete offshore network out to competitive tender has the
potential to drive down the cost.
2.6.2 INDEPENDENT OWNER OF THE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

The alternative approach is for a party, not the TSO, to be responsible for the construction of the offshore
transmission asset. This can be referred to as a 'market-led' approach [JJ]. Under this approach the WPP
developer is responsible for the funding, design and construction of the offshore transmission system. This
approach is taken in the Netherlands, Ireland, and the USA.
The market-led approach is further separated in the UK where in 2010 the UK Government introduced a regulatory
regime that separated the offshore generation from the offshore transmission. Consequently the Offshore
Transmission Owner (OFTO) is responsible for the design, building, financing and operational maintenance of the
offshore transmission assets. Traditionally in the UK a 132 kV connection is a distribution level voltage. However
when in territorial waters under the ownership of an OFTO this is classified as a transmission asset.
Due to implementation of the OFTO 'mid-project' for a number of WPPs the issue arose on the ‘separation’ of
assets and systems. In general the split with the OFTO and the generator has been at the 33 kV level to provide
the connection voltage to the wind turbine arrays. Depending upon the project the ownership boundary included a
range of options:
(i) ownership change at the 33 kV incomer,

(ii) ownership at the 33 kV array cables,
(iii) a split 33 kV switchboards with respective ownership, and
(iv) repeated 33 kV switchboards.
For future developments, as per transition projects, the OFTO is appointed by competitive tender with the
transmission license and revenue stream payments based upon the tender bid and availability targets. It should
also be noted that there is only one National Electricity Transmission System Operator (NETSO) in the UK
(National Grid) - which acts as the system operator for all transmission assets. The relationship between the
NETSO and the Transmission Owners (Scottish Power, Scottish Hydro and the OFTOs) is defined in the System
Operator - Transmission Owner Code (STC).
2.6.3 EXAMPLE OF AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH - CABLE COMPENSATION

The example below follows the configuration of section 2.6.1 and assumes the interface between the WPP
developer and the TSO at the end of an HV-export cable at the AC collector substation connecting the station with
the TSO’s HVDC-platform. At this Point of Common Coupling (PCC) the necessary interface rules, the grid codes,
exist.
Assume that the TSO requires the possibility of installing a HV reactor compensating the reactive charging power
of the HV cable. Compensating a 5 km long HV cable requires a reactor of approximately 10 Mvar. The reactor
2
needs approximately 40 m (including cooling systems) in space and the weight is approximately 40 tonnes which
influences the design and the cost of the AC-collector station significantly.
Page 38
The main reasons for cable compensation are:
a. compensation of reactive power
b. limitation of overvoltages
c. prevention of re-striking at the circuit breakers (capacitive switching)
d. limitation of discharging currents through voltage transformers.
a. Compensation of reactive power
Instead of using a shunt reactor an alternative means to control the reactive power demands is by using the HVDC
converter. During low-wind phases or when the WPP is not connected, the cable can be compensated by the
HVDC converter, since due to the reduced active power in-feed there is an increased reactive current capability
available at the converter (converter current is limited in magnitude). During strong wind phases the reactive power
range of the WPP normally allows sufficient under-excited operation providing the required compensation of the
cable. Hence, an optimized operating procedure can be agreed between both parties so that the reactor at the AC
collector substation will no longer be required. This would be particularly feasible if the HVDC is dedicated to
connect one WPP only.
It is of course important to consider the capabilities of the HVDC converter in terms of reactive power handling and
potential conflicts with other control requirements such as e.g. grid stability in the case of contingencies such as
faults or load-shedding, etc. This is especially important to consider in a future scenario when more than one WPP
would be connected to the HVDC link or if a meshed grid will be created in the future joining WPPs and multiple
number of HVDC-links. The capacitive load of the whole grid may become significant. If, for example, one of two
HVDC converters working in parallel fails or is out of service for some other reason, the reactive power demand on
the remaining converter may exceed its capability.
b. Limitation of overvoltages
If long cables are energised with an open end, steady-state overvoltages occur due to the Ferranti effect. These
steady-state overvoltages grow quadratically with the cable length. Figure 13 shows the overvoltage as a function
of cable length for a 155 kV subsea cable. The effect must be considered for long cable length only.
Ferran` eﬀect 155 kV cable 400 mm2

0.80%
0.70%
0.60%
Overvoltage (%)
0.50%
0.40%
0.30%
0.20%
0.10%
0.00%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Cable lenth (km)
Figure 13: Steady-state overvoltages on a155 kV cable
c. Prevention of re-striking at the circuit breakers (capacitive switching)
Page 39
High voltage circuit breakers are designed with respect to IEC62271-100. In this standard the switch- off capability
is defined by the capacitive current level to be switched off and the switching class, which is a design parameter of
the switchgear. Class C1 includes switchgears with low probability for back-ignitions during capacitive switching
and class C2 includes switchgears with very low probability for back-ignitions.
This classification is related to different test series specified in this standard, under which the switchgear shall not
show a back-ignition. The standard includes design recommendations for switchgear for different voltage ratings,
e.g. for switchgear with 170 kV a capacitive cable switch-off current of 160 A is specified for cables. Sea cables
which have been used with a voltage rating of 170 kV and a cable cross section have a capacitance value of
approx. 150 nF/km, which corresponds to a charging current of approx. 4.2 A/km. Consequently capacitive
switching is not very critical for cable lengths up to approx. 40 km.
In case of a meshed structure, more than one cable must be taken into account especially if the feeder circuit
breaker fails and the back-up switch has to trip a number of cable connections.
d. Limitation of discharging currents through voltage transformers
Another advantage of using a compensation reactor in a cable network with considerable cable lengths is the
limitation of discharging currents through voltage transformers. In uncompensated cables the disconnection of the
cable leads to a remaining DC voltage in the cable. The energy stored in the cable capacitances discharges
through the voltage transformers, which are directly connected to the cables and are not separated from the cable
during cable disconnection. The discharging process induces heating of the voltage transformers and may lead to
increased aging or even damage to the voltage transformer. With a compensation reactor the discharging cycle is
significantly shortened in time and the thermal stress to the voltage transformers is greatly reduced.
2.6.4 AC COLLECTOR SUBSTATIONS WITH HVAC - INDEPENDENT OWNER

This section discusses the specific situation in UK and the so-called OFTO regime.
In the UK the initial projects resulted in the OFTO ‘acquiring’ the onshore connection, the sub-sea cable(s) and the
offshore substation once they had been installed. However for future WPPs connected via HVDC the transmission
asset installed capacities are significantly increased. The process has two options commonly referred to as
"Generator Build" and "OFTO build":
1. Late Model (Generator Build): under the previous regime where the Generator is able to choose to
construct the transmission asset for the project and sell to the OFTO, or
2. Early Model (OFTO build): the OFTO is responsible for the planning, design, consenting, construction
and operation of the transmission asset.
The OFTO regime will arise from:
1. A Generator will apply for a connection which will trigger a notice inviting expressions of interest from
prospective OFTOs
2. Tenders will run simultaneously through an annual window and to qualify the generator must have
signed an indicative connection offer
3. Upon final agreement a license will be provided to the winning bidder
4. Once constructed the OFTO will see the revenue stream.
The key driver of the OFTO is to deliver cheaper and timely offshore grid connections through the ability of
innovation through competition. It also permits new entrants to compete in the market with the back-up position that
developers remain able to construct their own transmission assets if they wish. This presents an opportunity for
innovative system design. However the transmission asset will be required to comply with the NETS SQSS and the
specific aspects of the grid code pertaining to offshore networks. OFTOs will not necessarily need to comply with
National Grid Technical Specifications. The TSO will only serve to check grid code compliance. This allows the
OFTO to be innovative with levels of redundancy, rating of assets and technologies applied.
Page 40
In relation to HVDC and large AC collector systems this approach may not allow for co-ordination of the overall
system and will create difficulties with co-ordinating timing and authorisation of the different elements of each WPP
project.
In the UK the introduction of the Offshore Development Information Statement (ODIS), which is produced by
National Grid under its role of National Electricity Operator (NETSO), outlines options against various scenarios
(ranging from ‘Slow’ to Accelerated’ Growth). This provides a basis to facilitate co-ordination and development.
However ODIS notes that the legal and regulatory mechanisms that would be required for the delivery of the
designs and the specific impact of individual transmission connections are under review. This review is via the
Offshore Transmission Co-Ordination Group and is not part of the Development Statement. Similarly the
programme of evolution and construction, investment decisions of the OFTO, and the connection routes are not
represented in the statement.
2.6.5 ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED

As noted in chapter 2, the topology of the offshore power plant can take a number of forms which creates a number
of issues including:
• Will the boundary to the TSO remain at the voltages of 132 kV and above and MV levels respectively
as per the historical arrangements?
• For radial and interconnecting AC networks on the WPP side of the HDVC link, what will be the
standards for operation? Will this follow the requirements of the AC connection to shore including
voltage and reactive power control, frequency response and operating voltage limits or will a specific
offshore HVDC-connected set of requirements be developed?
• For OFTO build, what technical standards will be applied and what is the determining factor for the
number of collector stations constructed?
• For an offshore connection point the reactive power requires to be close to unity (at 132 kV and above
or MV busbars). However, will this be through additional compensation or will the HVDC operate to
provide compensation for this independent party or only for the onshore voltage control?
• For interlinking AC systems where will the drivers for the rating of the interconnection come from and
any requirement to increase the rating when generation is fed into a 'stand-by' HVDC link. Would the
scenario of 'unconstrained' generation be achieved or to what extent is constraint required during
contingency scenarios?
• The level of project certainty which would be required to allow this to be included in the rating of an
HVDC link to minimise risk of the offshore asset being over or under rated.
• The requirements from transmission system operators to maintain a degree of generation output during
an outage condition and the largest loss of generation that can be permitted on the system. This will
govern the maximum-permitted size of the HVDC link as a separate grid-connection unit where larger
transmission capacity of a link is permitted as parallel, electrically separated HVDC connectors.
• How will interconnection of multi-terminal HVDC be achieved?
• The driver to ensure interoperability of HVDC links from different vendors.
• At present, the ENTSO-E is completing their HVDC Network Code that will harmonise the grid-
connection requirements and services to the onshore and offshore systems from the HVDC converter
stations in Europe. The HVDC Network Code was planned for release by 2014 followed by the
comitology process by the ENTSO-E members.
2.7 Transformer Design Considerations
2.7.1 TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
Page 41
The transformer impedance has an impact on the following factors:
• Fault current/Protection
• Reactive power / voltage
• Harmonics
• Resonances.
A HVDC scheme provides a relatively small fault current only, i.e. the short-circuit power on the high voltage side of
the transformer is low. Therefore the transformer impedance must be low enough to ensure the proper function of
the protection system. Please refer to Section 6.2.4 for numerical examples.
Low transformer impedance also leads to less reactive power consumption and thus a low voltage drop across the
transformer that limits the voltage variation on the MV-side caused by different load-flow conditions. This can help
to meet grid code requirements related to reactive power and voltage. Please refer to Section 6.2.4 for some
numerical examples.
It cannot always be assumed however that the short-circuit power on the HV side of the transformer is low,
especially if multiple WPPs are connected to the HVDC link or more than one HVDC scheme is connected to the
same HV offshore grid. The transformer impedance must be high enough to limit the short-circuit current on the MV
side especially when the parallel operation of transformers is considered as a normal mode of operation (possible
N-1 configuration).
These additional sources of short-circuit power are probably planned for a future extension of the offshore HV-
network. However at the 1st stage there is only a direct connection between WPP and HVDC. In this case both
scenarios must be considered when defining the transformer impedance. See also section 6.2.4.
The transformer impedance will influence the harmonic current components, however this is not normally a
deciding factor for the choice of transformer impedance as harmonic currents can be minimised by other means
e.g. filters and converter arrangements.
A resonance phenomenon may occur due to an interaction between a reactance of a transformer and a
capacitance of a cable. In particular careful consideration is required when a transformer is switched in (high inrush
current is observed) or switched off. Sometimes over voltage may appear at the transformer terminal which may
cause damage. To remove the risk, all conditions of HV-network should be calculated at the design stage.
2.7.2 REQUIREMENT FOR TAP-CHANGER

Although the HVDC VSC stations are able to control reactive power and maintain the voltage in the HVAC network
within required operation ranges and the MVAC networks of existing offshore WPPs have relatively small reactive
power generation, the HVAC/MVAC transformers can be specified with tap-changers in order to maintain the
MVAC network voltage. The use of tap-changers can be justified in network topologies with many long MVAC
radials with a lack of reactive power and voltage control from other equipment. As an example, the use of tap-
changers can be considered where the wind turbines are not obliged or not capable to maintain the MVAC voltage
range in no-wind conditions, i.e. where the reactive-power control is only required in situations with active power
generation.
Application of tap-changers should be evaluated and decided from the cost-benefit analysis where the need and
potential benefits of voltage control from the tap-changers are compared to their extra cost versus transformers
with fixed-tap positions. The cost evaluation should also take account of the fact that tap-changers may have
reduced availability and increased maintenance due to moving parts.
Specification of the tap-changers will comprise the voltage range target, voltage change per step, number of steps
and dynamic control characteristics. Harmonics, resonances and/or inrush currents may cause zero-crossing to be
shifted in time. As the on load tap-changer (OLTC) does not have the capability to interrupt DC currents, zero-
crossings are required in order not to damage the OLTC. Moreover, excessive tap changing will increase the
maintenance needs and reduce the life-time of tap-changers. Therefore the tap-changer control needs to be
properly specified in order to minimise the amount of tapping events.
Page 42
The Danish experience from the HVAC connected WPPs shows that tap-changers are either not applied in the
offshore WPP transformers (Anholt, 400 MW) or, when applied, are successfully combined with equipment for
dynamic (continuous) voltage control in the onshore point-of-connection (Nysted-1, 165 MW) [Q]. The latter is to
minimize activation of the tap-changers in fluctuating wind power production feeding into a HVAC system with a
relatively low short-circuit ratio.
The requirement for a tap-changer is determined from the load flow study (see section 5.1.1). For more aspects of
voltage control and tap-changers see also section 3.2.3.
2.8 System Earthing

In this section system earthing is defined as the method used to connect the system neutral with the earthing
system.
A basic difference between onshore and offshore collection systems is in terms of the high level of reliability
required for offshore installation, basically driven by accessibility restrictions and high costs of maintenance and
repair as well as overall costs of plant down-time. Hence, single-phase faults offshore for instance, must not trip the
wind turbine generators or expose other offshore electrical equipment to detrimental stresses. Therefore, a proper
system neutral earthing scheme is one of the main aspects to consider during the system design process in order
to achieve an effective overall earthing system.
Different methods for neutral earthing are described in [A] for AC offshore substations. The AC offshore collection
system comprises significant lengths of MV cables, which will determine the capacitive coupling to earth. This is an
important factor in the selection of the most effective neutral earthing system.
In a large offshore WPP, three relevant neutral earthing systems can be considered: one formed by the export
cable and the HV side of the step-up substation transformer; another by the MV side of step-up substation
transformer and the collection system (including the MV-side of the turbine transformer) and another by the wind
turbine nacelle (including the low voltage side of the turbine transformer). For the nacelle the most common
variants are isolated or direct earthing. An adequate solution always involves providing a neutral earthing in the
collection system grid similar to the HV-cable.
The choice of an adequate neutral earthing scheme will involve a compromise between different considerations:
technical specifications (e.g. voltage stress and earth fault currents), operating duty (e.g. service after first fault and
maintenance), safety and cost as well as applicable standards.
Although all these considerations are important, two technical specifications will have more influence in the design,
namely the limitation of the voltage stress and the limitation of the single-phase fault current.
Page 43
Different advantages and disadvantages of the methods in general terms are indicated in Table 4 below. A minus
sign indicates a disadvantage and a plus sign indicated advantage.
NEUTRAL EARTHING SCHEME

Resistance Reactance Resonant
Isolated Solid Grounded Grounded Grounded
Fault current limitation + - + + ++
Transient overvoltage - ++ + + +/-
Overvoltage limitation - + + + +
Selectivity protections - + + + -
Safety - + + + ++
Table 4: Neutral Earthing Scheme (- disadvantage, + advantage)
The connection of an AC collector system to an HVDC system will imply the reduction of the single line fault
currents so the conditions required to achieve the most adequate neutral earthing system could vary.
Please also refer to [W], [X] and [Y].
Page 44
3 Offshore AC Grid Connection Requirements and Guidelines

It should be noted that neither individual country codes nor the ENTSO-E code (Network Code on Requirements
for Grid Connection applicable to all Generators) define requirements relating specifically to offshore AC systems
separated from the synchronous grids by HVDC systems. However as the requirements are generally passed
through to the WPP and associated turbines the codes typically apply to offshore AC systems and therefore remain
relevant.
This section explores the current status of the relevant regulations, and proposes where improvements could be
developed and implemented to enable more optimal development of offshore systems.
In the following sub-sections a number of examples will be given. As regulations, grid codes and other standards
are subject to change, the reader is advised to check the latest version for the complete and up-to-date
requirements.
3.1 How do Grid Codes, Other Codes and Standards apply to AC collector substations
Table 5 below summarises examples of regulations within the UK, Germany, and those under development to
apply Europe-wide that are relevant to offshore power systems. These are chosen for analysis due to the predicted
levels of WPP construction with HVDC connections. The table outlines the scope of the code and the applicable
point of application.
Regulation Offshore
Offshore generators
transmission and
and collector associated
station systems Comments/ enforcement point
Defines operational requirements for
GB Grid Code ü ü
offshore power parks and generators.
GB System Operator -
132 kV and above is defined as
Transmission Owner ü
transmission offshore, also refers to
Code (STC)
the GB Grid Code. Interface point
GB National Electricity
where conditions are enforced is
Transmission System
defined as the connection between the
Security and Quality of ü
offshore and the onshore transmission
Supply Standard
system.
(NETS SQSS)
Offshore code defines technical
requirements for offshore WPPs at the
TenneT offshore Grid offshore connection point. It does not
Code, distinguish between AC and DC
ü ü
TenneT onshore Grid connections. In addition, the onshore
Code for HV grids code is valid in all points, where no
clear regulations are written in the
offshore code.
Current version (June 2012) applies
only for AC connections, namely AC
connection to single onshore point and
meshed AC connections.
ENTSO-E Network
ü It has been suggested that grid
Code
connection requirements for HVDC
grid connection systems will be
included in the scope of a forthcoming
HVDC Connection Code.
Table 5: Examples of regulations
Page 45
3.1.1 EXAMPLES OF REGULATIONS THAT STIPULATE DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE CRITERIA FOR AC
NETWORKS BEHIND DC NETWORKS
The UK requirements for offshore transmission systems (defined as 132 kV and above AC and HVDC) are listed in
section K of a document called the System Operator - Transmission Owner Code (STC) which defines the high-
level relationship between the GB System Operator and the Transmission Owners, enforceable at the interface
point between the two systems.
In Germany most of the offshore WPPs will be connected to the TenneT network as they are the TSO on the North
Sea coast where the majority of the offshore wind developments will take place. The offshore WPPs, which desire
to be connected to the German TenneT network, have to fulfil the TenneT Grid Code requirements consisting
mainly of two relevant documents:
• TenneT Grid Code for offshore connections [B]

• TenneT Grid Code for extra high voltage [C].
Within these grid codes there are several requirements which affect the design of offshore platforms and the
associated equipment:
1. Stipulated frequency ranges
2. Stipulated voltage ranges
3. Stipulated reactive power ranges
4. Requirement for cable compensation (TenneT only), not in the grid code directly, extra requirement
outside of the grid code
5. Requirements regarding transformer winding connections (earthing)
6. Requirements regarding transformer design with regard to tap changer ranges (TenneT only)
7. Protection system requirements.
3.1.1.1 Frequency ranges

The frequency ranges stipulated in the UK and German codes are shown in Table 6 and Table 7.
Steady state (Hz) 49.0 – 51.0 Hz

Temporary (Hz) 47.5 – 49.0 Hz
51.0 – 51.5 Hz
For at least 90 min
51.5 – 52.0 Hz
For at least 15 min
47.0 – 47.5 Hz
For at least 20 sec
Table 6: Frequency ranges in UK
The UK code specifies that the HVDC owner should provide to each user a continuous signal indicating the real
time frequency measured at the interface point.
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Frequency (Hz) Voltage (kV) Duration

46,5-‐47,5 140-‐170 t ≤ 10 s
47,5-‐48,0 140-‐170 t ≤ 10 min
48,0-‐48,5 140-‐170 t ≤ 20 min
48,5-‐49,0 140-‐170 t ≤ 30 min
49,0-‐50,5 163-‐170 t ≤ 30 min
49,0-‐50,5 140-‐163 continuous
50,5-‐51,5 140-‐170 t ≤ 30 min
51,5-‐53,5 140-‐170 t ≤ 10 s
Table 7: Frequency ranges in TenneT offshore Grid Code (Germany) [B].
The stipulated frequency ranges may only slightly affect the design of platform equipment like e.g. transformer and
compensation equipment.
3.1.1.2 Voltage ranges

There are no specific operational voltage limits set in the GB STC, however the wider grid code requirements
prevail, i.e. ±10% for 132 and 275 kV and ±5 % for 400 kV networks. The code requires that the Offshore
Transmission system should provide continuous steady state control of the voltage at the interface point between
95% and 105% with adjustable droop in the range of 2 to 7 %.
The voltage ranges in the TenneT Grid Code are set to ±10 % around nominal voltage.
The selection of voltage range affects nearly all substation equipment, but the ranges listed above are in line with
the valid standards (EN 50160) and matches the standard design of components.
3.1.1.3 Reactive power requirements

The GB STC specifies that the power factor at the onshore transmission interface point should be between ±0.95 at
high load conditions, and at low load conditions within the boundaries of the graph in Figure 14.
Figure 14: UK interface point reactive power capacity diagram [TT].
Point A - 0.95 leading power factor at active power transfer equal to the Interface Point Capacity.
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Point B - 0.95 lagging power factor at active power transfer equal to the Interface Point Capacity.
Point C - -5% of active power transfer equal to the Interface Point Capacity.
Point D - +5% of active power transfer equal to the Interface Point Capacity.
Point E - -12% of active power transfer equal to the Interface Point Capacity.
In the UK, the offshore transmission system’s reactive power output under steady state conditions should be fully
available within the voltage range ±5 % at 400 kV, 275 kV and 132 kV. The offshore WPP on the other hand is only
required to deliver zero reactive power at the offshore grid entry point with active power output equal to registered
capacity (unless otherwise agreed), as defined in the GB Grid Code.
The GB STC defines a set of minimum criteria for transient voltage control, for example: the reactive power output
response shall start within 0.2 seconds after an initial voltage step change and 90 % of the required reactive
capability shall be produced within 1 second for a sufficiently large step as shown in
Figure 15.
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Figure 15: The UK’s reactive power transient response requirements [TT].
The TenneT Grid Code requirements are represented by two diagrams. One is valid for the single wind turbine and
describes the active/reactive power range (PQ diagram, Figure 17) in the MV side of the wind turbine transformer,
while the other defines the power factor range of the whole WPP at the PCC (Point of Common Coupling) above
the PCC voltage (Figure 18). The PCC is defined at the cable termination of the 155 kV cable (Figure 16). The grid
code states that if the PQ range of the wind turbine fulfils the requirements but the power factor range for the
whole WPP does not (for active power above 90 %), then the need for additional compensation equipment on the
offshore AC collector substation has to be negotiated with the TSO.
PCC
Figure 16: WPP single line diagram with PCC as defined in the German TenneT code
In the case of an AC collector substation connected behind a HVDC system this requirement could be
reconsidered from a technical point of view, bearing in mind that the offshore cluster system is a cable network
(capacitive) connecting WPPs to an HVDC converter. Considering the whole AC-collector system and HVDC
capability the system can be optimized in regard to reactive power balancing in such a way that the requirements
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can be reduced either to the wind turbines or to the HVDC-converter which does have similar reactive capability.
Nevertheless this optimization is a sophisticated task especially as the future development of the offshore grid is
probably not yet known in full at the outset. To cope with this problem the requirements for the offshore WPP are
too elaborate and are probably not yet required at the actual status of the offshore-grid.
In relation to the UK requirements a similar question is raised whether the requirement to deliver zero reactive
power is applicable where the reactive power at the PCC is controlled by the HVDC link.
Figure 17: PQ-diagram (Generating Unit) in TenneT Offshore Grid Code [B]
Figure 18: Power factor diagram (Generating Plant) in TenneT Offshore Grid Code [B].
3.1.1.4 Fault ride–through (FRT)
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Offshore power systems must remain connected to the GB transmission system for voltage dips up to 140 ms in
duration. For longer voltage dips, the system and components should remain connected for voltage dips above the
black line on the diagram in Figure 19. Offshore generators have the option to satisfy the requirements at either the
onshore interface point or the offshore grid entry point.
Figure 19: Low voltage fault ride through requirements in the GB STC Grid Code [TT]
The active power transfer capacity of the offshore transmission system should be restored to 90 % of the pre-fault
capacity ½ and 1 second following the voltage dip for fault durations <140 ms and >140 ms faults respectively.
During voltage dips lasting longer than 140 ms, active power shall be transferred in proportion to the retained
balanced voltage at the Interface Point, unless there is a reduction in power caused by an offshore generator
connected to the HVDC link.
The German requirement regarding fault ride-through for WPPs is shown in Figure 20.
Figure 20: Fault ride-through requirement in the German TenneT Grid Code [C].
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Three-phase short-circuits or fault-related symmetrical voltage dips must not lead to instability above the Limit Line
1 in Figure 20 nor to disconnection of the generating plant from the grid. The same characteristic is required as well
for unsymmetrical faults with reference to the positive sequence system.
The following applies within the shaded area and above the Limit Line 2 in Figure 20.
• All generating plants should ride through the fault without disconnection from the grid. If, due to the grid
connection concept (plant concept including generators), a generating plant cannot fulfil this requirement, it
is permitted with agreement from TenneT to shift the limit line while at the same time reducing the
resynchronisation time and ensuring a minimum reactive power infeed during the fault. The reactive power
infeed and resynchronisation must take place so that the generating plant meets, in a suitable way, the
respective requirements of the grid at the grid connection point.
• If, when experiencing the fault, the individual generator becomes unstable or the generator protection
responds, a short-term interruption (STI) of the generating plant from the grid is allowed by agreement with
TenneT. At the start of a STI, resynchronisation of the generating plant must take place within 2 seconds at
the latest. The active power infeed must be increased to the original value with a gradient between 10 %
and 20% of the rated generator power per second.
Voltage support during FRT (TenneT)
Contrary to the GB Grid Code the German TenneT Grid Code stipulates voltage support from the WPPs by a
reactive current injection. The voltage support of the generation unit is to be activated when a voltage dip of over 5
% of the rms value of the generator voltage occurs. The voltage support must occur within 20 ms after fault
detection and has to remain 20 to 30 ms after return to the voltage band. The voltage support requirement is
indicated in Figure 21.
Figure 21: Principle of the voltage support through each generating unit during grid failures [B].
3.1.2 LIKELY IMPACT OF ENTSO-E GRID CODE
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At present, ENTSO-E is working on 10 network codes of which one is the Network Code on Requirements for Grid
Connection Applicable to all Generators (RfG). Regulation (EC) 714/2009 sets out the areas in which network
codes will be developed and a process for developing them. The status as per October 2014 is that discussions
between the European Commission and Members States took place in January 2014 at the Electricity cross-border
Committee. The RfG became the second code to enter comitology process by which the network codes will
become law.
ENTSO-E has published implementation guidelines for the RfG, to support the code by highlighting the impact on
specific technologies, the link with local network characteristics, as well as the need for coordination between
network operators and grid users.
In general, the Network Code establishes the following requirements for AC-connected offshore WPPs.
• frequency stability: capability to control their active power output (within a specified set point) in response
to system frequency changes
• voltage stability: capability to control their reactive power output (within a specified set point) in response to
system voltage deviations
• robustness of generating units
• capability to remain connected (and steady-state stable) and without power reduction when
operating at any operating point of the P-Q capability diagram (as long as voltage and frequency
remain within the admissible limits)
• fault ride-through capability: capability for staying connected to the Network and continuing stable
operation after the power system has been disturbed by secured faults on the Network
• post-fault active power recovery: capability to provide active power recovery after fault ride-
through.
• system restoration: capability for reconnecting to the Network after an incidental disconnection has taken
place due to a Network disturbance
• synchronisation: quick re-synchronisation capability in case of disconnection from the network in line with
the agreed protection strategy in the event of disturbances to the system.
The Network Code stipulates that in case an offshore WPP has its connection point onshore, then it shall be
considered as being comparable to an onshore asset and thus shall be compliant with the requirements set forth
for onshore WPPs within the Network Code.
3.1.3 WHAT ARE THE LIKELY RELEVANT REQUIREMENTS OF FUTURE REGULATIONS

Based on earlier draft versions of the aforementioned Network Code and on various published material, ENTSO-E
has a vision for the potential EHV offshore grid connection topologies, which are categorised into 6 fundamental
AC, DC and hybrid EHV configurations. Those within the scope of this Brochure (HVDC connection and AC
collection) are:
I. DC connection to single onshore point with AC collection: One or more offshore WPPs interconnected
through an offshore AC collector system, which is connected to the mainland grid through one or more
DC connections. This is illustrated in Figure 22(a).
II. Meshed Multi-terminal DC connection with AC Collection: A number of offshore WPPs are
interconnected through an offshore AC collector system, which is connected to the mainland grid
through multiple DC connections (may be combined in a multi-terminal system) at two or more grid
interconnection locations. This is illustrated in Figure 22(b).
III. Meshed Hybrid AC/DC connections with AC collection: A number of offshore WPPs are
interconnected through an offshore AC collector system, which is connected to the mainland grid
through AC and DC connections at two or more grid interconnection locations. This is illustrated in
Figure 22(c).
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~ ~ ~ ~ ~
= = = = =
= = = = =
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Configuration I Configuration II Configuration III
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 22: ENTSO-E categorisation of offshore grid connection systems with HVDC
Briefly, the specific requirements (based on previous versions of the ENTSO-E Network Code) for these
configurations include:
Voltage stability:
Adequate requirements could be developed for each of the different topologies in relation to the electrical cluster
size. Clear requirements could be developed for the HVDC converters. Depending on the reactive power range of
the HVDC converters and the reactive power requirement of the offshore grid, the requirements for the WPPs could
be adapted to achieve a cost-effective solution without the need for over-sized compensation equipment.
Frequency stability:
The ENTSO-E code gives clear direction with regard to frequency stability. Offshore WPPs have to be included in
the frequency control of the European grids. One way to meet this basic requirement is to bring the onshore
frequency offshore through communication links to the HVDC system. This is further discussed in 3.4.1.
Emulation of Inertia:
For generators that do not have inherent inertia, such as wind turbines, it may possibly be beneficial to install a
feature in the control system which operates the WPP so as to exchange active power with the network in order to
limit the rate of change of frequency. The above discussion on frequency stability applies to emulation of inertia as
well as the means to enable this functionality in the wind turbines (individually as well as on the WPP controller
level). Similarly, this ancillary service could be traded as short-term primary frequency control.
Control and Protection systems:

With the growing share of offshore WPPs in the future energy production in Europe, it becomes more important to
implement intelligent and coordinated control and protection schemes, which ensure a high reliability of the whole
system to avoid outages of a considerable amount of power generation at once. The most important features of
such schemes could be:
• high degree of selectivity of protection in the offshore HV grid and the inner WF array (e.g. by use of
differential relays)
• partly redundant cable connections in the inner WPP array (loop connections) and the HV offshore grid
(e.g. cable connections between different offshore AC substations)
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• automated control in the offshore grid and WPPs, to allow automatic switching sequences after
equipment outages (e.g. cable failure with protection trip) to reduce downtime of healthy equipment
and restore the maximum available power infeed in short term
• control algorithms to allow the maximum power infeed considering equipment loading within system
bottlenecks, e.g. during outage of transmission equipment ( cable or transformer failure), possibly with
real time temperature monitoring to allow controlled temporary overloading.
3.2 Design of reactive power management – discussion on the means to meet the requirements
3.2.1 GRID CODE COMPLIANCE PERSPECTIVE VS. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE

Grid code requirements exist in all considered European countries regarding the reactive power ranges of the
offshore WPPs. Section 3.1 considered those in the UK and Germany. These differ in the range of reactive power
and voltage as well as in their dependency on the active power in-feed of the WPP or wind turbine. In the ENTSO-
E code an outer envelope is specified, in which the national TSOs can place their reactive power requirement
shape. The reactive power ranges in the grid codes do not sufficiently distinguish between AC-connected offshore
WPPs and those connected via point-to-point HVDC connections. In the latter the offshore HVDC converter can
contribute a considerable amount of reactive power itself and makes the requirements for the WPPs questionable.
Even for this configuration, the ENTSO-E code stipulates different reactive power ranges for the different zones of
Europe, which is justified by the fact that different power systems have different operation conditions, constraints
and control needs. Since the offshore WPPs are de-coupled (with respect to reactive power) from the onshore grid,
the reactive power support becomes useful only to keep the voltage within a required range in the offshore system
itself without any significant contribution to the onshore system [MM].
To minimize and avoid unnecessary costs through unreasonable installation of compensation equipment or
extended reactive power ranges of the wind turbines through additional power electronics, the reactive power
requirements should be assessed specifically for each project and the transmission topology considered in an
appropriate way. To achieve this, comprehensive load flow, voltage control and stability studies should be
performed. It will be advantageous to carry out such studies together with the WPP operators to ensure an
adequate design and control of the overall system.
In addition to the stipulated reactive power ranges, there are timing requirements for the reactive power / voltage
control provision which differ strongly within the different countries. While in Germany the requirement is to track
the reactive power set-point within 30 s, the GB Grid Code requires controller rise times within 1 s. For offshore
WPPs connected via HVDC a common approach could be implemented as, with the capability of the HVDC
technology, it will be advantageous to harmonize the requirements in the different countries.
3.2.2 CAPABILITIES OF DC SYSTEM TO CONTROL, PRODUCE AND ABSORB REACTIVE POWER

INCLUDING INJECTION OF REACTIVE CURRENT INTO THE ONSHORE GRID NETWORK
The HVDC system consists of power electronic converters, which allow a fast and fully decoupled control of active
and reactive power at voltages above a certain threshold value. Through the AC-DC-AC conversion the reactive
power of the offshore side converter is completely independent of the onshore side. Consequently, the offshore
side converter is a very powerful device for voltage control in the offshore grid. For this reason, it is likely to be
used as the main voltage controller in currently planned control structures for offshore wind cluster distribution
grids, while the WPPs are operated in reactive power or power factor control mode and set to maintain the required
voltage profile in the MVAC networks. This requires attention as an optimized solution might be somewhere in-
between, i.e. that both the VSC station and the wind turbines contribute to the reactive-power and voltage control
and support. In this way, the MVA rating of the VSC station is not over-sized and the contribution of the wind
turbines can be adjusted / reduced as well. This task needs however further investigation and optimized operation
would most probably be dependent on the WPP configuration.
The VSC reactive power capability is mainly determined by the current and voltage limits of the converter and the
other electrical equipment e.g. the HVDC transformer, HV cables. Figure 23 shows a typical range of a VSC based
Page 55
HVDC converter. While in the under-excited range the current is the main (only) limiting factor, in the overexcited
range the maximum available converter voltage also has a strong impact on the available reactive power.
Figure 23: Active / Reactive power range of a VSC
3.2.3 ON AN ISOLATED AC SYSTEM, WHAT COULD BE THE OPTIMAL REACTIVE POWER

MANAGEMENT REGIME
Introduction: Voltage control concepts in existing offshore projects
The current TenneT approach for German Offshore Clusters is presented below, with reference to Figure 24 and
Figure 25.
• single HVDC converter performs voltage control to a fixed set-point (155 kV) at the 155 kV (HV) busbar
on the offshore converter substation
• grid operator gives power factor set-points to connected WPPs through communication interface
• on-load tap changer of the WPP transformers maintain voltage in the MV WPP grids
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Figure 24: Representation of the EHV, MV and HV offshore power systems
The following example is given to illustrate an offshore WPP connected to the onshore grid by an HVDC
connection.
Nordsee Ost WPP (RWE)

The Nordsee Ost (NSO) WPP will be installed around 30 km to the north-east of the island of Helgoland in the
German North Sea region. With 48 multi-MW wind turbines (REpower), each with a rated output of 6.15 MW, the
WPP will, upon completion, have a total output of around 295 MW. The WPP will include its own offshore AC
substation, on which the voltage is transformed from 33 kV to 155 kV before it is transmitted via two 155 kV export
cables to the HVDC substation HelWin Alpha. The SLD of the basic configuration of the NSO substation is shown
in Figure 25.
The voltage control strategy in the NSO WPP is dictated by the concept given in the TenneT Grid Code. While the
HVDC HelWin Alpha controls the voltage on the 155 kV busbar on the HVDC substation, the WPP level controller
follows power factor set-points given by the TSO. The structure of the WPP level controller used in the NSO WPP
is shown Figure 26.
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Figure 25: WPP NSO single line diagram
Figure 26: Voltage control strategy of Cluster HelWin Alpha
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The outer control loop for the power factor is slow, since the requirement in the grid code is to reach power factor
set points within 30 s. However, the inner local voltage control loop is implemented in the generator control of the
DFIG and very fast, since it has to fulfil the dynamic requirements regarding voltage support during FRT, stipulating
a rise time of 20 ms.
Alternative voltage control concepts for future isolated offshore systems are:.
• voltage control by HVDC as above, but the wind turbines use voltage control to maintain voltage in
their MV grids instead of providing power factor control => platform transformer tap-changer actions
can be minimized or potentially even omitted in order to reduce installation and O&M costs
• voltage control by HVDC with variable voltage set-points to optimize load flow and minimize losses
• coordinated voltage control between HVDC and WPPs using voltage / reactive power droops
• parallel operation of 2 or more HVDC converters with coordinated control.
It should be noted that the above proposal would require an integrated design and control philosophy to be
developed between the transmission system owner and the offshore WPP operator.
3.2.4 IMPACT OF REGULATIONS

Reactive power requirements:
As described in section 3.1, the grid codes require large reactive power ranges from offshore WPPs, even if they
are connected via an HVDC converter, which usually provides a reactive power range sufficient to perform the
voltage control in the offshore cluster network alone. The high reactive power requirements for WPPs, especially
for the over-excited range, can in the worst-case lead to the unnecessary requirement for installation of additional
compensation equipment such as transformer tap changers, or a more expensive design of the wind turbines with
an extended reactive power range. Considering the fact that the offshore grid is a cable network, which is
capacitive in its nature, the requirement for a large over-excited reactive power range leads to considerable extra
costs which may be difficult to justify.
On the other hand, placing all reactive-power and voltage control efforts on a single unit, i.e. the VSC station, will
introduce reactive current circulation within the HVAC and MVAC systems. This increases not only the MVA rating
of the VSC station, but also the losses in the WPP network.
Placing all the reactive power control capability in a single unit also reduces redundancy of the overall solution – if
this reactive-power control fails and cannot be efficiently provided by other means, the entire offshore network may
potentially shut down due to excessive voltage.
These types of contradictions could potentially be solved by harmonization of the control requirements from the
different controllable units within the offshore network. This requirement has the potential for improvement and
harmonization in the current grid codes.
Cable compensation requirement:

On a systems approach, considering AC-collector system and HVDC system, the inherent reactive power capability
of the WTG and the HVDC converters can be utilized to meet the reactive power balancing requirements, meaning
that shunt reactors dedicated to each HV-cable connecting the AC-collector system and the HVDC can be reduced
or even eliminated. In addition to the equipment costs for the reactors themselves, there is a strong increase in
space requirement on the offshore substation, leading to significant extra costs which could be saved. On the other
hand, the use of compensation reactors increases redundancy of the voltage control should a situation occur with
restricted controllability of the wind turbines and/or the VSC station. Cable compensation and its implications are
further discussed in section 2.6.3.
± 10 % Normal Voltage range in the HV offshore network:

This large voltage operating range, together with the already mentioned reactive power grid code requirements,
has potential for improvement. Such a voltage operating range is difficult to justify when the HVDC offshore
converter has the capability to set/control the voltage in a much more narrow range. This voltage range
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requirement in combination with the power factor/reactive power requirements creates a need for extra equipment
as described above.
On the other hand, it may cover unforeseen operational conditions, where sudden failure or disconnection of
equipment with post-sequent voltage sags must not lead to complete shut-down. The healthy parts should remain
in operation and bring the voltage out of excessive operation regimes into the required range.
3.3 Low Voltage Fault Ride-through requirements

VSC-based HVDC systems as well as modern wind turbines use power electronic frequency converters, which
allow a fast and decoupled control of active and reactive power in voltages above a certain threshold, and provide
a full decoupling of grid frequency and generator speed. Usually, all frequency converter-based generating units
can provide a fault ride-through capability with the use of dedicated protection circuits and control strategies.
Current LVRT practices: Utilising chopper and braking resistor functions to support FRT.
During onshore faults the ability of the onshore converter to inject the offshore generated power into the AC
onshore network is reduced and depending on the severity of the fault e.g. solid fault at the onshore converter
voltage (no residual voltage) the power injection in the onshore network can completely disappear.
During onshore network faults the offshore wind turbines keep generating power that needs to be transmitted to the
onshore grid in order to avoid overvoltages in the DC circuit as well as in the offshore AC network. If no measures
are taken, the voltage increase during the onshore fault duration would quickly activate overvoltage protection
schemes and trip the HVDC converter and the WPP.
In order to avoid such an event, a braking resistor, also called a DC-chopper, is included at the onshore site. This
braking resistor has the ability to absorb the offshore generated energy (for a short period of time), and therefore
avoid DC and AC offshore network overvoltages which could cause protection trips in case of an onshore fault.
The energy absorption capability of this onshore braking resistor is designed from several aspects; among them:
• onshore fault severity and clearing times

• offshore WPP(s) active power generation
• DC power recovery time (after fault clearing)
• safety margins necessary to avoid equipment damage
• number of consecutive faults expected (could be based on auto reclose philosophy employed or other
protection)
• customer / grid code specific requirements.
Attention should be paid to the fact that higher energy absorption capability means higher cost of the DC-chopper.
3.3.1 WHAT ARE THE LIKELY RELEVANT REQUIREMENTS OF FUTURE REGULATIONS

The previously discussed ENTSO-E Network Code is intended to provide some degree of harmonisation to the
widely varying fault ride-through requirements. Basically, the proposed requirements establish the frames for TSOs
to determine a unique line for a voltage-against-time profile by the voltage at the grid connection point. This
proposed profile is illustrated in Figure 27.
The voltage against time profile is established by a lower limit of the course of one of the three phase-to-phase
voltages on the voltage level at the grid connection point which sustains the lowest retained voltage during a
symmetrical or asymmetrical fault (irrespective of the voltage drop of the other two phase-to-phase voltages, as a
function of time before, during and after the fault).
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V (p.u.)
1.0
Vrec2
Vrec1
Vclear
Vret
0.0 tclear trec1 trec2 trec3 t (s)
Voltage parameters (p.u.) Time parameters (s)

Vret : 0.0 tclear: 0.14 -‐ 0.25
Vclear: Vret trec1: tclear
Vrec1: Vclear trec2: trec1
Vrec2: 0.85 trec3: 1.5 -‐ 3.0
Figure 27: Proposed Low Voltage Fault Ride Through profile boundaries applicable to WPPs (incl. offshore).
(source: ENTSO-E Network Code for Requirements for Grid Connection Applicable to all Generators”, 8 March
2013)
Included in the FRT requirements is fast active and reactive power restoration to pre-fault values after the system
voltage returns to normal operation levels. Some grid codes additionally demand active and reactive current
support during a fault.
3.3.2 COST-EFFECTIVE CONTROL COORDINATION APPROACH

To minimise offshore project cost, offshore WTG normal operation should be the same as on-shore:
• capture wind energy and inject per operational needs
• draw auxiliary power from AC collector, when there is no wind
• respond to voltage and frequency, similar to onshore
DC converters and DC cables decouple offshore wind plant from the onshore AC grid so the WTG’s ability to ride
through disturbances would need to be adapted for such a condition. By taking the approach of minimising offshore
project cost by retaining wind turbine to be the same as the onshore WTG”, it may be beneficial to take advantage
of the ability of HVDC converters to facilitate this important function.
In this case the high-level control of WT in accordance with the proposed operating strategy would be:
• LVRT per normal AC-connected WTG

• voltage-dependent power reduction coordinated with HVDC response
• reactive range limited to reduced percentage of rated MW
• voltage range at the wind turbine maintained between 90 % and 110 %.
Some more details on a possible way of achieving the above in respect to the typical grid disturbances, are given in
the text below.
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3.3.3 ALTERNATIVE PROPOSAL FOR HVDC SYSTEM RESPONSE CAPABILITY FOR ONSHORE GRID
FAULTS
This section discusses potential alternative measures to respond to onshore grid disturbances as compared to the
current solution which includes a DC-chopper at the onshore HVDC station. It should be noted however that the
advantage of the current design is that the DC-chopper will literally make the offshore WPP electrically “immune”
against transients in the onshore grind and hence, any onshore AC fault will not disturb the offshore generation.
A potential alternative to DC-chopper solutions is that the offshore converter senses a fault condition and rapidly
changes the AC voltage as a mean to communicate to the WTGs that there is an onshore fault.
• For onshore faults, VDC voltage increases. The action is to drop offshore converter AC voltage rapidly,
raise it back when VDC reduces indicating the onshore converter has regained control. Allow offshore
converter AC voltage to go all the way to zero if needed to clamp VDC to a level consistent with ride-
through, i.e. below the protective trip threshold. Onshore fault detected by seeing VDC suddenly rise
above level where the onshore converter should be regulating. Recovery detected by VDC dropping
back to where the onshore converter should be regulating.
• Dc cable fault detected by seeing VDC suddenly drop.
• Offshore collector fault detected by sudden outrush of reactive current into collector system, combined
with AC voltage drop on collector.
The onshore converter provides ac-side functionality as required by the relevant grid code. Offshore converter
limits power as needed to prevent excessive dc voltage.
For onshore grid fault scenarios, the HVDC system must include means to prevent the DC voltage from increasing
beyond the design threshold. For cases where ride-through is expected, this voltage-clamping can be
accomplished via either a chopper-controlled resistor, or by appropriate control action at the rectifier. In the latter
case, it may still be prudent to include a voltage-clamping function that would act as part of a protective shutdown.
3.3.4 HVDC SYSTEM RESPONSE FOR DC CABLE FAULTS

For DC cable faults, VDC decreases. Action is to step offshore converter AC voltage to zero and hold until AC
current is extinguished by switchgear or wind turbines shutting down. This action decouples AC system from DC
system and allows DC system to de-energize while waiting for the offshore converter AC current to be
extinguished.
3.3.5 HVDC SYSTEM RESPONSE FOR OFF-SHORE FAULTS

For off-shore faults, reactive current flow increases while AC collector voltage decreases. Action is to drop offshore
converter AC voltage rapidly until reactive current flow is within a defined limit, which is set above the normal
operating value. When the offshore fault is cleared, continuing to regulate reactive current via the upper limit on
offshore converter voltage will naturally cause the AC voltage to increase. When rated voltage is restored, the
voltage regulator will naturally take over and reactive current will drop to normal.
An example of an offshore WPP and the proposed offshore converter control logic for managing offshore AC
voltage is shown in Figure 28 and Figure 29 respectively.
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RECTIFIER INVERTER
Subsea DC CABLE 100 km

Inductor Inductor
+/- 150 kV
C1 C1
L1 L1
AC Filter
HV
AC Filter
MV
300 MW
Offshore Wind Plant
Onshore Grid
LV
WT WT WT
12 x 25 MW
Figure 28: Example of offshore wind plant with HVDC transmission - Simple single line diagram
Figure 29: Example of offshore wind plant with HVDC transmission - High level block diagram of basic
offshore AC voltage control [R]
The response of the offshore VSC station to short-circuit faults in the offshore HVAC and MVAC systems should be
carefully studied and specified. In a study performed by the Danish TSO, Energinet.dk, on a connection of an
offshore WPP through a VCS-based HVDC system the following conclusions were drawn:
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• Coordination of the voltage-support between the wind turbines and the offshore VSC station becomes
essential and requires a clear specification. This involves participation of the VSC supplier and the
wind turbine manufacturer under supervision of the TSO.
• In cases of three-phase short-circuit faults, the VSC station should deliver its full short-circuit
contribution during the fault without blocking of the VSC station.
• In case of single-phase to-ground short-circuit faults, the VSC station should only feed in a reduced
short-circuit current during the fault. The reduced contribution is to avoid a risk of overvoltage in the
phases that were not faulted. The study shows a risk of severe (above 60 %) overvoltage in the healthy
phases during the fault if a full short-circuit contribution has been fed into the system.
• Quantification of how large short-circuit contributions should be delivered in such different conditions
includes in-depth analysis of the conditions with and without the offshore wind turbines. In conditions of
the energized offshore HVAC system without wind turbines (not yet connected) the operational HVAC
voltage could be reduced in order to avoid a risk of severe overvoltage in unbalanced short-circuit
faults. The operational terms should be proven by analysis and agreed between the HVDC station
supplier and the TSO.
3.3.6 WTG RESPONSE FOR FAULTS

For all scenarios from 3.3.1-3.3.4, the WTGs should respond rapidly to collector voltage changes in a
predetermined manner:
• rapidly lower power injection as AC voltage drops
• slowly raise power injection after AC voltage rises.
3.3.6.1 Wind turbine capabilities for FRT

Full size converters:
Full-size converter generator (FSCG) based wind turbines (Figure 30) have the main advantage that the generator
is fully decoupled from the AC system through the frequency converter. This means that the generator is not
affected by the voltage drop on the AC system side, which strongly reduces the stress on the generator and on the
converter.
FSCGs are implemented with or without a DC-chopper. If the converter contains no DC-chopper, a voltage drop on
the grid side leads to a power imbalance between both converter sides and the DC voltage increases. To limit the
DC voltage to an acceptable value, the generator side converter has to reduce the generator torque as quickly as
possible to recover the power balance between the converter sides. This requires a highly dynamic control at the
machine side. The abrupt reduction of electromagnetic torque at the generator leads to a torque imbalance, which
speeds up the generator. This excites mechanical drive train oscillations, which mean increased mechanical stress
and have to be considered in the drive train design.
However, if a full rated DC-chopper is installed in the converter DC circuit, the chopper can dissipate the excess
energy flowing from the generator into the DC circuit and by this means limit the DC voltage. In this case no torque
reduction at the generator is required and the generator and drive train remain completely unaffected by grid faults.
SG/
GB C
ASG CH L
MSC LSC
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Figure 30: Full-size converter based wind turbine
During AC system faults the FSCG can provide fast voltage support through reactive current injection. The amount
of reactive current depends on the converter design; typically FSCGs can feed in approx. 1.2 times their nominal
current for a limited time [OO]. During unsymmetrical faults the converter can control the positive and negative
sequence currents independently [PP]. With regard to negative sequence, different strategies can be implemented:
• suppression of negative sequence currents to allow using the full current range for positive sequence
current
• feeding a defined negative sequence current to have a balancing effect to the grid voltage
• attention should be paid to those control actions requiring a larger current rating (and so the cost) of
the grid-side converter, since the converter will exchange both positive- and negative-sequence current
components with the grid.
Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG):

Wind turbines based on DFIGs (Figure 31) have the frequency converter connected to the rotor circuit, while the
generator stator is directly coupled to the AC system. In common DFIG designs the frequency converter is
designed for approx. 20-30 % of the total power and the main power flows through the stator circuit into the grid.
This makes the DFIG a cheaper concept compared to FSCGs. However, the main disadvantage of the DFIG is the
fact that the stator is coupled to the grid and consequently grid faults directly affect the generator and lead to high
short-circuit currents. These contain large DC components in the stator circuit, which occur in the rotor currents as
components with a frequency corresponding to the product of rotor speed and number of pole pairs. This
component superimposed to the fundamental component leads to high current peaks, which cause high stress for
the generator side converter and lead to a fast-increasing DC voltage.
For protection of the frequency converter DFIGs are normally equipped with a so-called crowbar, which short-
circuits the rotor through resistors during severe grid faults. During a crowbar ignition the generator-side converter
is blocked and the generator behaves like a common induction machine, which de-energises into the voltage dip
and consumes a larger amount of reactive power under voltage recovery. This behaviour contradicts the grid code
requirement of LVRT with fast voltage support during grid faults. To fulfil this requirement, modern DFIGs are
equipped either with an active crowbar or with a DC-chopper and a machine side converter designed for higher
currents. This allows LVRT with continuous generator control and voltage support through reactive current injection
through the generator and the grid side converter.
Unsymmetrical faults are a special challenge for DFIGs, since a negative sequence voltage at the stator terminals
induces a high rotor voltage, which may exceed the converter voltage limit. Consequently, it is not possible with the
DFIG to fully suppress the negative sequence currents during unbalanced faults. However, the resulting negative
sequence current has a balancing effect to the grid voltage.
GB ASG
C
CH L
MSC LSC
CR
Figure 31: DFIG based wind turbine
FRT Measurements should be carried out according to IEC61400-21 and FGW TR3.
FRT scenarios for Offshore WPP clusters:
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• three- and two-phase fault in the Onshore Grid (HVDC-chopper vs. voltage reduction offshore)
• three- and two-phase fault in Offshore HV-Grid to demonstrate fault current contributions of HVDC
converter and WPPs
• three- and two-phase fault in offshore WPP MV-Grid to demonstrate voltage support capabilities of
HVDC converter and other WPPs
• single-line-to-ground faults in HV and MV grid to check current contributions for protection system
3.4 Frequency reserve response

A number of published papers [KK] [LL] describe the current frequency-response approaches employed on existing
offshore WPPs as well as the wind turbine capabilities in this regard.
3.4.1 HOW TO SUPPORT ONSHORE GRID WRT FREQUENCY THROUGH THE HVDC
Despite there being a decoupled or asynchronous link between onshore and off-shore AC systems it may still be
possible to utilise power reserve from the off-shore wind plant to assist the onshore frequency control. This goal
can be achieved by sensing the onshore frequency deviation and passing that information to the off-shore
converter.
The frequency of the AC collector system can be then modulated as a means to communicate and control desired
changes in real power output of the offshore wind turbines, e.g. governor and virtual-inertia response.
In this way the offshore WPP would be dynamically controllable and able to respond to and support on-shore grid
dynamics within the equipment’s operating ranges.
For the opposite direction, control signals such as curtailment can be sent via telecommunication to the offshore
converter. The offshore converter then adjusts the frequency on the collector system. The WTG’s are set to output
individual power limits that are a function of the frequency of the AC collector system.
These features of WTGs (i.e. voltage and frequency dependence of power output) are currently available and are
proven in onshore and offshore applications and are required in the TenneT offshore Grid Code [B].
An alternative proposal for improvement of the system described in this sub-section would involve eliminating the
need to use communication links to inform the offshore converter about on-shore frequency conditions. Since
communication links are susceptible to faults and may introduce considerable communication delays, an idea is to
use the HVDC voltage as the communication means instead. Based on the HVDC voltage level the frequency in
the offshore grid can then be varied to bring the frequency signal from the onshore network to the WTGs. This idea
is further discussed in [D]. To enable full frequency control by the WTGs a curtailment of active power would
require to be implemented during normal operation to make this ancillary service available and the reserve margin
could potentially be traded as primary frequency reserve with the grid operator.
3.5 Opportunities for optimization and improvement

The structure and formats used to set the technical requirements within grid codes (and/or other related
documents) varies significantly between power systems. However, for simplicity, the typical requirements for
generators can be split into different groups, for instance:
• general grid code data (e.g. definitions, MW size limits, voltage range, frequency range)
• requirements on steady state performance (e.g. operation range, power quality)
• requirements on dynamic performance in terms of different control schemes
• requirements during grid faults
• communication (e.g. SCADA), protection and verification (e.g. protection settings, compliance tests)
• requirements on simulation.
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The large number of projects and their increasingly large rated power calls for standardisation as far as possible to
reduce the time and costs required to complete grid connection agreements. In the absence of industry -developed
and accepted best practice guidelines, connections will not be cost-effective as it leaves little room for the design of
optimised solutions, which consequently impacts the desired performance and capabilities of the overall system
(e.g. offshore WTGs + HVDC converters + onshore grid).
3.5.1 GRID CODE STANDARDIZATION – RELEVANT FOCUS AREA

Grid codes need to harmonize the technical capabilities and associated benefits that VSC-based HVDC technology
and wind turbine control could together provide for optimized overall solutions. To ensure optimal and cost-effective
development of offshore power systems, there may be merit in simplifying the required capability of the AC system
when these are isolated from the main interconnected onshore transmission networks by HVDC links and
converters of the wind turbine generators. Areas where grid code changes could be developed have been included
in the preceding sub-sections, with particular attention focussed on voltage and reactive power control, low voltage
ride-through capability and frequency control.
The present progression of grid code requirements around the world has been imposing more and more significant
challenges to the further development of WPPs since it has resulted in significant inadequacies (in terms of
definitions, parameterisation and verification) and additional costs for OEM manufacturers, WPP developers and
consumers.
Currently, OEM manufacturers and developers have to contend with a high degree of diversity in technical
requirements in more than 30 differing National Grid Codes from a variety of countries. These requirements are
often not sufficiently clear and are not always technically justified nor economically sound from the point of view of
the power system. To constantly adapt their products to changing technical requirements may in the end result in
extra costs and efforts for the wind power industry and other system users, including consumers. But it should also
be recognized that the power systems have to adapt to the rapidly changing conditions of more wind and less
conventional, controllable and predictable generation types. The best way of working is to harmonize and
coordinate the requirements for the grid (HVDC connectors) and for the wind turbine suppliers in order to cut down
on unnecessary control requirements, minimize the losses and cost of energy to the consumers while still
maintaining a high level of security of supply.
The lack of standardised grid code requirements requires the maintenance of products specifically adapted to
particular markets, and off dedicated staff to deal with and interpret grid codes. However, it must also be
acknowledged that the grid codes must be “living” documents and develop as the power grid develops and
acquires more types of energy sources and consumption types and patterns. The grid codes also need to be
adapted to new technology development.
Certainly, grid code requirements should be comprehensive and transparent to avoid misinterpretation and should
be as explicit as possible. They should also include clear, commonly shared definitions of the terms used for
WTGs, WPPs, HVDC converters and other relevant equipment.
3.5.2 WHAT BENEFITS COULD ARISE FROM STANDARDISATION OF DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE
REQUIREMENTS
In general, standardisation of design and performance requirements will be of particular benefit to:
• OEM manufacturers, who will be required to develop only common hardware and software platforms
• wind developers, who will benefit from reduced investment costs by optimised power plant designs
(integrated capabilities of WPP and HVDC)
• system operators, especially those who have yet to develop their own grid code requirements for
WPPs. This is particularly relevant to HVDC connections for wind generation, where technical
requirements are, generally, not yet developed. The system operators will also benefit from optimised
spare part management and logistics and thereby reduced MTTR.
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In order to facilitate the increasing share of offshore wind power in the most cost-effective way, together with an
improved power system performance and better integrated electricity markets, of highest importance are a set of
harmonised grid connection requirements which appropriately reflect the capabilities and responsibilities required
to maintain an adequate level of performance in a cost efficient way. In the context of offshore WPPs connected
with HVDC, a specific set of grid code requirements may need to be adopted.
A well-consented and complete formulation of requirements (structural harmonisation), including nomenclature,

definitions and specifications, will lead to a complete and unambiguous interpretation of the requirements.
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4 Power Quality
An important part of every transmission system operator’s (TSO) mission is to provide and maintain a high quality
of electricity supply to its customers. Good power quality is an essential part of efficient and reliable operation of
equipment. Power disturbances such as transients and harmonics can destroy or shorten the lifetime of sensitive
equipment resulting in expensive downtime, extra maintenance and loss of revenue.
The different power quality issues have to be managed in the design of the offshore WPPs. Some of the known
potential issues are addressed in the following paragraphs.
4.1 Voltage Variations

Voltage variation related to AC-connected WPPs is addressed in [A]. This section only describes the voltage
variation topic in relation to HVDC-connected WPPs and the reader should read this report in conjunction with [A].
Unlike the situation with AC-connected WPPs in which any changes to PCC voltage are propagated to the collector
system instantaneously, the collector system of a DC connected WPP is less susceptible to voltage variation at the
PCC due to the dynamic voltage control functionality of HVDC converters.
Energisation of electrical components such as transformers, cables and filters are characterized by a low
impedance path at the time of energisation, drawing in a large inrush-current and hence causing a voltage dip in
the system. The use of pre-insertion resistors (PIR) or point on wave switching (PoWS) may be required especially
for the energizing large offshore transformers. However PIR or PoWS are not required for the energising WTG
transformers due to their smaller size. Deployment of PIR or application of PoWS reduces the system voltage dip.
A different approach in order to avoid PIR would be to use the offshore converter black start capability and ramp up
the AC offshore voltage to energise the big power transformers, in order to avoid the large inrush currents. This
solution is only feasible when a single AC collector system (one WPP = one customer) is connected to the HVDC.
Therefore the HVDC link has a positive impact on overall system performance with regard to voltage fluctuation.
Another advantage is that the dynamic voltage support functionality of HVDC can reduce system voltage dips.
In the literature and in [A] a number of methodologies have been proposed to minimize or mitigate voltage
fluctuation. Some of these include:
• modified back-to-back converter control systems of the wind turbines

• use of STATCOMs or SVCs
• application of local voltage control mechanism
• limiting inrush currents (transformer energisation or MSC energisation)
• controlled energisation (at lower voltage)
• co-ordinating switching operations.
The first two mitigation methodologies are primarily applicable to AC-connected WPPs. However in HVDC-
connected WPPs these functionalities can be incorporated into the HVDC control. In this way an HVDC-connected
transmission system has a positive impact on system design from the point of view of voltage variation.
4.2 Resonance
The offshore network of an HVDC-connected WPP is quite similar to the offshore network of an AC connected one,
in both cases there are:
• extensive use of long HV and MV cables in the transmission and collection grid
• power transformers located on offshore platforms
• a high number of possible steady state offshore switching configurations
For the above reasons the recommendations made in [A] are also relevant for HVDC -offshore WPPs.
The extensive use of long HV and MV cables makes the offshore network prone to resonances. Furthermore, the
possibility of a great number of steady state switching configurations (especially when considering AC
interconnection of two HVDC converter platforms) as well as the fact that the resonant frequencies may
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significantly shift depending on the number of cables and wind turbines in service, aggravate and add complexity to
the resonance phenomena in offshore networks. When performing design studies to determine potential resonance
problems, the switching configurations taken into account should cover all the WPP steady state switching
configurations once fully in operation and during the different commissioning phases, as well as during
planned/unplanned outages due to maintenance/contingencies (e.g. outage of power transformers, export cables,
wind turbines etc.). Such studies will often show that the system must be designed to handle a wide range of
potential resonant frequencies (from some hundred Hz up to a kHz). This makes the design of passive filters
challenging.
Resonances alone will cause no problems, unless they are excited by a harmonic source of some kind. The use of
VSC-based HVDC for transmission purposes and the use of wind turbine converters for generation purposes,
results in injection of harmonics into the offshore network which could potentially be amplified in resonance
conditions and cause unpredicted tripping within the WPP, generation interruption, waveform distortions that cause
additional losses resulting in additional heating and stresses in the equipment.
Low frequency resonances are more prone to amplification of harmonics since the offshore network damping at low
frequencies tends to be smaller. However the offshore network is above all a generation and transmission network,
which lacks the presence of important loading which would provide significant damping. Therefore low damping in
the offshore network is possible even at high frequencies. Moreover, this lack of damping leads to very sharp
resonance points, meaning that a slight change in grid configuration may have a significant impact.
Harmonic studies determine whether or not there is a potential problem and whether passive/active filters are
necessary as well as their rating and frequency characteristics [E] [F]. The filters could have a significant impact on
the AC and/or on the HVDC platform’s design (space and costs) and reactive power compensation scheme, and
may require large space, affect magnetic contour distances and noise levels. Therefore harmonic studies should be
carried out at the earliest possible stage in the project [A].
Due to the added complexity and platform space costs of offshore environments, low harmonic emission converter
technologies should be considered for the HVDC transmission (i.e. VSC-based HVDC multilevel converters) and
for the wind turbine converters as well, in order to minimize or eliminate the use of passive filters.
4.3 Power Quality Measurement

Power quality (PQ) measurement has become a major concern in the field of power generation and distribution
both for transmission system and WPP operators. This section describes the advantage of PQ measurement and
gives an overview about the existing requirements (Standard and Grid Code) and practical implementation with its
advantages and savings.
According to the grid code requirements from the TSOs it is a requirement for all power generating plants to
measure the power quality at least according to DIN EN 60150, IEC 61000 series and "Technical Requirements for
the Assessment of Grid Interactions and Quality of Supply" of VDE (FNN) at the point of common coupling (PCC).
Potential stability and quality of supply issues can occur due to interactions. These problems can be caused by
interactions between the controls of the HVDC converter and the connected wind turbines with their power
electronic converters. They could also be caused by a high level of AC system distortion due to the harmonic
emissions in combination with resonant frequencies in the AC system and fast transients.
These problems may potentially occur for all offshore clusters with HVDC connections and offshore WPPs which
are equipped with a large number of power electronics.
For assessment of these kinds of power quality problems, very detailed models of the WTG including the real
controller code of the frequency converters are required. Additionally, studies require accurate component models
(transformers, cables, etc.) up to a high frequency range.
If PQ problems (e.g. harmonics, voltage distortion, flicker, fast transients, etc.) occur during the WPP operation,
protection trips may lead to undesired disconnection of wind turbines or even the whole WPP. This may lead to
extensive costs related to loss of power infeed.
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In the case that the WPP operator is responsible for the PQ problems, a fast detection and WPP is essential to
solve the problems and restore power as fast as possible. The most efficient way to speed up fault detection is to
install PQ measurements at all MV-Cable feeding strings in addition to the measurements at the PCC. This allows
the localization of the problems to a single feeder immediately after tripping and reduces the logistical effort. With
this measurement concept the faulty source can be localized with a mobile PQ measurement device, which can be
installed temporarily directly in the WTG switchgear. In worst case this measurement has to be repeated at all
WTGs in the affected string.
However, if the PQ measurements are only located at the HV side of the WPP transformer, the fault detection
procedure and the related costs due to lost infeed can rise very quickly. If the PQ problems also affect the
neighbouring WPP, legal claims cannot be excluded.
To comply with the requirements of the TSO and to bring the WPP operator into the position to be informed about,
react to and solve electrical PQ problems an evaluation of this should be made.
For power quality measurements, voltage and current transformers have to be able to measure over a large
frequency band with a high accuracy. It should be noted that both for capacitive and inductive voltage transformers
the bandwidth will be reduced by increasing the voltage level.
Following possible solutions indicated in Figure 32 and Figure 33 should be seen as examples:
Figure 32: Central cubicle where all current and voltage signals would come together
Figure 33: Local measurement of PQ. For this, each secondary switchgear compartment needs to be
equipped with a PQ measurement device
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4.4 Transients
In general, electromagnetic transients are either caused by a planned operating procedure or by a random event.
Typical planned operating procedures are switching feeders on/off, energizing or de-energizing equipment, etc.
Some of the random events are an equipment insulation failure with a short-circuit established either between
phases or by contact of any phase with ground.
Transient properties are determined by many factors including collector system topology, cross-section and length
of cable feeders, type and size of compensation equipment if any, electrical characteristics of the power
transformers, type and characteristics of circuit breakers, type and electrical characteristics of the transmission
technology applied as an interface with the onshore grid, earthing methods, etc.
These transients are well known and the methods of their analysis are well established. Typically, these analyses
are done by computer modelling and simulation. A simplified approach of the simulation would be to create a
detailed model of the offshore wind plant and to make an equivalent of the rest of the system at the offshore point
of interconnection. A more accurate approach would be to include also the transmission link and create an
equivalent at the onshore grid receiving substation.
In the case of AC transmission, subsea cables will have interaction with the offshore collector network and the
shunt inductors with a tendency to excite lower frequency temporary overvoltages. These superposed harmonics
will be of lower or higher order subject to the cable length and size as well as to the presence of linear and non-
linear inductors in the system.
In case of DC transmission, the offshore collector system connects to the offshore converter that is designed
according to specific interconnection requirements that would guarantee no adverse interaction between AC and
DC systems. This is achieved through converter controls, by applying harmonic filters, by installing protective
equipment as well as by isolating the converter transformer neutral on the converter side windings.
In case of DC transmission, analyses and simulation of transients are likely to be more complex. The main reason
lies in the fact that DC transmission is a rather complex system functioning based on a specific equipment and
specific set of controls. Malfunctioning of any of the two converters by itself would cause a certain transient and
most likely would be followed by a shut-down of the entire system. Therefore, it is important to recognize the
importance of “operates as designed” DC transmission when addressing the offshore collector transients. This
applies to not only normal operation but also to the contingencies.
Since electromagnetic transients are already broadly addressed in [A] the reader is referred to section 2.9 of that
report for further and more detailed discussion on transients in offshore AC networks.
4.5 Flicker
To avoid duplicity material covered in [A] is not repeated here. This report should be read in conjunction with that
report.
The definition of flicker, its sources, limits and mitigations related to WPPs connected to the grid through an AC
transmission system are discussed in [A]. Most of the findings of [A] are equally applicable to the system
connecting WPPs using the HVDC transmission system. Those topics are briefly discussed here to improve the
readability of this report.
In [A], Voltage flicker is defined as human perception/irritation problem observed due to cyclically varying voltage
source supplying the power to incandescent bulbs causing a cyclical variation of the bulbs’ luminescence. In WPPs
, flicker is produced during both switching and continuous operations. During continuous operation flicker is
generated as a result of variable power of WTGs due to natural wind flow variations, tower shadow effect, vertical
wind shear and mechanical properties of the WTGs. For the fixed-speed WTGs the highest power fluctuations
occur at the highest wind speeds at rated power. The authors in [G] mention that approximately 30 % of the total
flicker emissions are produced by fixed-speed WTGs at the turbine frequency above 3-p frequency i.e. 2.15 Hz.
Flicker during WTG switching operations occur when the turbines are switched on or off. The paper concludes that
the short term flicker generated from fixed speed turbines is larger than those generated by variable speed turbines
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due to control functionality which allows instantaneous control of reactive power, see also [NN]. For detailed
information on flicker refer to [A].
One of the fundamental differences between a WPP connected with AC and one connected with HVDC
transmission systems is that the latter are decoupled from the grid whereas the former are directly coupled to the
grid. This implies that a number of inherent functionalities of HVDC transmission system can be utilized to improve
the adverse impact caused by voltage flicker. A number of methodologies have been proposed to minimize or
mitigate flicker in various professional literature, some of which include
• modify back-to-back converter control systems of WT

• use of STATCOMs or SVCs
• increasing short-circuit power
• limiting and coordinate switching operation.
HVDC connected WPPs inherently exhibit a number of functionalities mentioned above. The control of HVDC link
can be modified to minimize the impact of flicker or voltage fluctuation without discriminating between the WTs
types. The dynamic voltage support capability of HVDC converters minimizes the voltage fluctuation and flicker. As
mentioned above, the severity of flicker or voltage fluctuation can be minimized or mitigated by increasing short
circuit power at the PCC by connecting the WPPs at higher system voltage. Due to economical and other technical
reasons, HVDC-connected WPPs are connected to the grid at a higher system voltage, resulting in PCC voltage
fluctuation less susceptible to the network conditions compared to lower voltage-connected AC WPPs. It is the
controllability of the DC transmission system that allows propagation of voltage fluctuation from either side to be
minimized.
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5 Recommendation for Studies

In order to bring together all the relevant aspects of the complex process of designing large offshore WPPs, several
system studies need to be carried out.
The Design aspects can be summarized as follows:
• grid code compliance:

• reactive power
• harmonic performance
• static and dynamic stability performance.
• WPP and export circuit component ratings
• protection and safety.
All of these aspects should be addressed through comprehensive system design studies. Due to the similarities
with AC-connected WPPs all of the studies recommended in [A] are also relevant for DC-connected WPPs. The
studies recommended in [A] are listed below for completeness.
5.1 Studies recommended for AC and DC WPP connections
5.1.1 LOAD FLOW STUDY

The main objectives of a Load Flow study should be to:
• determine reactive power capability requirements at the PCC and identify the requirements for a
reactive compensation plant in order to comply with the grid code
• check current ratings of cables and transformers for violations of their limits in order to establish correct
cable cross section and transformer ratings
• calculate voltages at various points in the WPP to ensure they are within acceptable limits
• calculate active power losses throughout the WPP
• determine tap changer range of both onshore and offshore transformers.
5.1.2 SHORT CIRCUIT STUDY

The short circuit study must be performed to evaluate the short-circuit current values at each node and branch of
the WPP power network.
For traditional high voltage substations directly connected to the grid, short-circuit levels are high and therefore a
short-circuit study is primarily performed to verify the correct sizing of the high voltage and medium voltage circuit
breakers in terms of short-circuit making and breaking capacity and for the evaluation of the short-circuit conditions
to which the main electrical components (cables, transformers etc.) will be exposed.
For AC collector substations connected to an HVDC system, the short-circuit current values could potentially be not
much higher than nominal load conditions (HV side). However, for faults in the MV network the fault currents could
go up to several times the nominal load conditions especially if DFIG wind turbine technology is used. Therefore
the short-circuit study is essential in order to provide the proper inputs to the architecture and to setting the
protection coordination of the system as a whole.
Based on the short-circuit current levels obtained in the study, the substation designer can evaluate whether the
protection system should be based on overcurrent and distance protection or on differential protection.
When the fault current levels are close to the nominal current, protection system using the overcurrent criterion only
(overcurrent protection or distance protection with pure overcurrent excitation) would not be effective for the fault
clearance or could lead to improper intervention by the protection relays.
When setting protection relays for either overcurrent or distance measuring purposes, factors such as current
transformer measuring errors (5 %), voltage transformer measuring errors (5 %), together with relay measuring
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errors (5 %) need to be considered during application. In order to ensure the successful 'pick up' of an overcurrent
relay, a factor of 1.2 x nominal current is usually applied to take into account these measuring errors and provide a
sufficient safety margin for successful operation. For distance protection and when long cable circuits are involved,
the level of fault in-feed may be too low for the distance protection to be able to operate correctly. Due to the
differing electrical properties of AC cables compared to that of overhead lines (OHL) the zero sequence impedance
may vary, especially when cables are earthed. This can present extreme difficulties for distance relays to
successfully measure the distance to a fault accurately due to this large difference in impedance. Catering for the
various measuring errors and lack of fault in-feed distance protection may not be suitable for a circuit that is
predominantly AC cable. Hence some other form of protection such as differential protection may need to be
adopted as a suitable alternative.
5.1.3 HARMONICS STUDY

The main objective of this study is to assess the voltage harmonics to be expected at the grid connection point
when the wind power WPP is connected in order to demonstrate conformity with the grid code and or relevant
standards (e.g. IEC 61000-3-6). Additional objectives are:
• to derive the resonance behaviour given by the cables, transformers, reactors and WTGs connected to
the network
• to calculate harmonic impedance frequency scans for various system configurations to identify any
resonance problems
• to identify countermeasures to eliminate/mitigate the encountered resonance problems and studying
the effectiveness of active/passive filter solutions proposed
• to verify and provide the necessary measures to limit the harmonic distortion at the PCC
• to evaluate WTG converter interactions with the grid as well as existing control systems, in order to
examine possible resonance conditions that may cause instability and unexpected tripping
• potentially to be used to evaluate harmonic current flow in power transformers
• to evaluate the amplification of background harmonics in the onshore station
• to evaluate the amplification of the HVDC harmonics in the WPP offshore network
• to evaluate the contribution of the Wind turbine harmonics at the PCC.
5.1.4 INSULATION COORDINATION STUDY

The purpose of an insulation coordination study is to specify the necessary insulation withstand levels for all the
primary components within the WPP based on the methodology of IEC 60071.
Further objectives are:
• to calculate maximum voltage stresses on the WPP components through electromagnetic transient
(EMT) simulations
• to identify and specify protective measures such as surge arresters in order to avoid dangerous
transient over voltages that can cause equipment damage
5.1.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENT STUDIES

Detailed EMT simulation studies are required for each particular case. There is a reasonable amount of information
and guidelines available regarding the modelling of MV and HV equipment for EMT studies. IEC60071-‐4
“Computational guide to insulation coordination and modelling of electrical networks” is a good source. The
credibility of these studies relies on the quality of the information available, which is often limited, and the models
being used. The magnitude and wave shape of the overvoltages depend upon the instant that the investigated
event (energisation, disconnection, fault, load rejection, switching impulses etc.) occurs, therefore many
simulations should be made with different instants of occurrence for the same event. There are usually many more
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scenarios (they can easily reach hundreds) required for offshore WPPs than for onshore because of the different
configurations of the WPP network. Since TOV such as overvoltages caused by transformer energisation are
largely determined by system resonances, scanning the WPP impedance helps in identifying the most critical
conditions with respect to the TOV.
5.1.6 HV EXPORT NETWORK TRANSIENT STUDIES

The configurations chosen for the connection of the export cables to shore will determine the nature of transients to
be considered. Vacuum circuit breakers are not employed on the HV network, so chopping and re-‐ignition are less
of a concern. However the capacitance in the long cables and high operating voltage generate some onerous
conditions when energised. The nature of the transients generated during switching or faults in a predominantly
cabled network will be quite different in shape and amplitude to that of an overhead line network (longer in duration
and possibly higher in energy). The combination of transformers and cables provide a very harmonic and
resonance-rich spectrum of transients that could affect protection, particularly if it is based on traditional OHL
design principles. The key points to consider include:
• the size of inrush currents and the energy handling requirements of surge arresters, prior to specifying
any surge arresting equipment
• the impact of transients where export cables connect to the mature onshore network – the studies
should identify the profile of the transients generated within the onshore substation, existing protection
settings sensitivity should be checked particularly with regard to the duration of inrush currents and
overvoltages associated with resonance
5.1.7 FLICKER AND VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION STUDY

This study aims to assess the voltage flicker emission at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) resulting from
continuous operation and from switching actions of the WTG in the WPP.
Flicker impact on a network is traditionally predicted/simulated by using the flicker coefficients provided by the
WTG manufacturer and aggregated across the WPP using the principles in IEC61400-21 and 61000-‐3-‐7.
Additional objectives of the study are:
• to calculate the voltage drop at the PCC resulting from the energisation procedure of the WPP’s main
electrical components and check for grid code compliance
• to identify and specify measures (e.g. use of PIR or PoWS in switchgear , local voltage control) in order
to comply with grid code requirements for voltage fluctuations at the PCC.
5.1.8 DYNAMIC STABILITY STUDY

The main objectives of a dynamic stability study should be to:
• simulate how reactive power output of the WPP module(s) reacts to positive and negative voltage
changes at the PCC
• determine whether the simulated reactive power output of the WPP module(s) is grid code compliant
with regard to steady-‐state value and dynamic response
• determine whether the WPP module(s) behave(s) stably for voltage steps beyond the reactive power
limits
• simulate the response of the WPP module(s) to symmetrical and asymmetrical voltage sags at the
PCC of various depths and duration
• assess whether the WPP module(s) are able to ride through these voltage sags and show a stable
post-‐fault behaviour (in accordance with grid code Fault Ride-Through requirements).
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5.1.9 SAFETY EARTHING STUDY

High voltage installations require an earthing system to protect human life against excessive touch voltages and to
keep transferred potential to a minimum. Therefore the main objectives of the earthing study should be:
• calculation of required cross section for different components of earthing system with regard to thermal
stress
• determination of tolerable touch voltages
• to keep tolerable limits given in Standards IEEE, IEC, BS
• to control dissipation of fault currents to ground
• determination of impedance to earth of the earthing system
• calculation of ground potential and Hot Zone.
5.1.10 NEUTRAL EARTHING STUDY

The study should recommend adequate types of neutral earthing after investigating current stress and voltage
stress as well as interconnection to the onshore HV network. The main objectives of the study are:
• to check the design parameters concerning earthing of HV, MV transformers and earthing transformers
if applicable or alternatively, design parameters can be determined considering required limitation of
short circuit currents or voltage stress or other requirements out of specification
• calculation of zero-sequence current contribution of transformer neutrals
• calculation of power-frequency voltage stress during a single phase short circuit.
In the case of wind collector systems, it is important also to evaluate the earthing of collector feeders after the
system side circuit breaker is open while wind turbines still operate. The main concern lies in a potential loss of
earthing path since WT transformers have their MV windings connected in delta. Loss of grounding could cause a
random overvoltage and potentially damage of equipment. Therefore, a study should be performed to choose and
size appropriate earthing transformers connected at adequate locations.
5.1.11 PROTECTION COORDINATION STUDY

The protection coordination study is of great importance to personnel and equipment safety. The main objectives of
a protection coordination study should be:
• design of the protection philosophy and selection of the individual protection devices
• dimensioning of current transformers
• determination of the settings of the individual protection devices
5.1.12 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD (EMF) STUDY

The main objective of this study is to evaluate electromagnetic fields at the station(s) with respect to human
exposure. It should give a quantitative description of the levels of electromagnetic fields associated with the
operation of the station(s). The levels of electromagnetic fields should cover:
• magnetic flux density at the power frequency (e.g. DC / 50 Hz)

• electric field strengths at the power frequency (e.g. 50 Hz)
The study should describe the field sources, the levels of electromagnetic fields in the areas under consideration
and the assessment of the field strengths with respect to requirements concerning human exposure.
5.2 Studies recommended for DC WPP connections

Moreover, apart from the above studies a group of investigations should be specially considered in case of DC
connections, among them are:
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5.2.1 OFFSHORE POWER TRANSFORMER ENERGISATION

Transformer energisation can lead to large inrush currents and depending on several parameters the peak value
can reach several times the nominal current. Due to the very limited over-current capability of the VSC-based
HVDC valves this over-current is limited causing further harmonic distortions. Resonances in the offshore network
could be excited by these harmonic distortions which could lead to potential overvoltage/overcurrent problems and
unexpected protection trips.
5.2.2 EMERGENCY POWER AUXILIARY DIESEL GENERATOR DESIGN AND SIZING

The auxiliary power supply has been typically provided by an emergency diesel generator set located in the AC
offshore platform. It is therefore important to perform different studies to correctly design the rating of the
emergency diesel generator set, so that it is able to provide the necessary active and reactive power to all auxiliary
loads (including wind turbines) during steady-state and transient conditions. For more details on this topic refer to
section 2.5.
5.2.3 CONTROL SYSTEM INTERACTIONS

This study should be performed in order to evaluate the risk of complex interactions between offshore system
resonances, HVDC and wind turbine control systems. These interactions could result in instability within the WPP
and unpredicted equipment tripping.
Performing control system interaction analyses requires special and high level engineering skills and is totally
dependent on the accuracy of the models used for the control equipment. Control interactions are typically caused
by having two or more fast inner control loops residing in different devices that are controlling the same electrical
quantity. This could be in most cases current or voltage. Since “interaction” is usually an undesired phenomenon,
the objective is to avoid it and eliminate it by coordinating the relevant controls. Examples of means to mitigate that
control systems counteract each other or interfere in any other undesirable way is droop control, master-slave or
fast-slow control strategies.
The specifics and details of any of the controllers are in most cases the equipment manufacturer’s intellectual
property and therefore it can be a difficult process to gather all the required high accuracy models. Typically, in
these situations each of the equipment manufacturers would provide a so-called “black-box” model and the
receiver would need to sign a non-disclosure agreement (NDA) with the equipment manufacturers. It should be
emphasized though, that some TSOs require “open-box” models or “black-box” models in combination with
documentation allowing implementation of the model.
In order to study the stability of the system different approaches can potentially be used. Time domain studies
and/or frequency domain studies have the potential to investigate and clarify the phenomena.
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6 Protection, Control and Communications

Large WPPs connected to the grid through high voltage DC submarine transmission lines are decoupled from the
onshore AC grid by high voltage offshore converter stations. While in a WPP directly connected to the AC grid the
fault levels are mainly affected by the short circuit contributions of the upstream grid, for WPPs AC collector
systems associated with an HVDC transmission technology, things are different.
The contribution from the upstream power network represented by the HVDC converters can vary between 0 and
1.2 p.u. of the load current, depending on the HVDC technology and control system philosophy. In fact, in the case
that the current required to be fed by the HVDC exceeds the limits set in the converter control system, the IGBTs
are switched off within a few milliseconds.
Therefore, for AC collector systems connected to the grid through an HVDC system, the fault level will be
significantly lower than if directly connected to the AC grid, and the factors to be taken into account for the
estimation of the short-circuit initial and steady values mainly depend on the equipment that comprises the WPP
(i.e. wind turbine technology) and the AC substation itself.
6.1 General protection philosophy
6.1.1 INTRODUCTION
This section is based on the work done in [A]. In this guideline in section 5.3 the protection for a typical offshore
WPP is described. The following sections are to be seen as an extension with the focus on AC offshore platforms
linked to HVDC stations but not exclusively. Additional reference is made to [EE]. This brochure, titled “Impact of
HVDC Station on protection of AC systems”, also reviews the topic with the focus of steady state and transient
phenomena in HVDC systems.
6.1.2 TRIPPING PHILOSOPHY

Reviewing the complete setup, the WPP running on diesel power is the mode to consider as minimum
requirements in terms of short- circuit currents. With respect to different fault scenarios the single and double pole
failures in this particular mode provide the lowest potential short-circuit currents and therefore have to be looked at
in detail.
To simplify the calculation for single and double pole failures the single diesel generator only is used as a driving
and limiting factor. With this, the calculated minimum short-circuit current values are far lower than the rated current
for normal operation. For this reason special focus needs to be put on this mode.
Under normal operation no particular difference is expected with the existing models and simulations between an
AC or HVDC connection.
For this, the following parameters were taken as a basis:
Diesel-generator
Quantity Value
Rated power 1.025 MVA
Rated voltage 0.4 kV
Earthing system Yn
Sub-transient reactance (X”d, unsat.) 4.3 %
Negative sequence reactance (X2, unsat.) 4.8 %
Zero sequence reactance (X0, unsat.) 1.4 %
R1/X1 (estimated) 0.12
Table 8: Typical diesel generator parameters
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Recent applications foresee a double setting of the protection relays comprised in the WPP MV level: one setting
for normal operational conditions and the second for islanded condition; the substation SCADA system changes
the setting based upon the status of the HV circuit breakers.
6.1.3 TURBINE TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

As [A] describes, WTG are usually protected by single overcurrent protection devices. Additional fault indicators
help to detect the failure source more quickly. Deviating from [A], WTG’s are more and more often equipped with
three circuit breakers (see Figure 34). That means each feeder can be implemented into the overall protection
concept.
M M
WTG
Figure 34: WTG Switchgear configuration
With this configuration it is typical that the transformer feeder remains with its typical overcurrent relay to protect the
WTG. Due to the circumstance that single or double pole failures during diesel mode operation are slightly above,
or even below rated current level, then additional protection needs to be considered. Most common are overcurrent
relays with a second parameter set. The first would be there for the normal operation. The second could be
modified for diesel generator operation. Also it is possible to implement additional transformer differential protection
between MV feeder and secondary / tertiary winding of the transformer (Figure 35). With this configuration not only
would the long cable be monitored, but the transformer would also have a complete protection and additional
systems like arc-detection systems could be considered to be reduced. This would perhaps need additional
modification also at the low voltage side of the WTG.
• OC: Overcurrent Protection

• DP(T): Differential Protection (Transformer).
Figure 35: WTG cable and Transformer feeder
6.1.4 ARRAY PROTECTION
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In general the protection for the WTG strings can vary from low to very high level protection. This depends on the
technical requirements and circumstances as well as on an economic decision. As above and as mentioned in [A],
most WTG transformer feeder are equipped with an overcurrent protection. This intends to protect the entire WTG
as well as the feeding cables. Due to the change of conditions and higher requirements for selectivity, additional or
different protection systems are used. Additional cable differential protection can be used especially for detecting
one or two pole failures. Depending on the protection philosophy backup protection can be mandatory.
The cable feeders, which are typically in the scope of the operator, are for selective detection of these failures
equipped with cable differential protection. As backup protection, the cable differential protection can be arranged
with fault indications, change of parameter set in overcurrent protection or distance protection. See also Figure 36.
• OC: Overcurrent Protection

• DP(T): Differential Protection (Transformer)
• DP(L): Differential Protection (Line).
Figure 36: WTG cable and Transformer feeder full setup
Fault indicators can give a feedback about the orientation of the failure. It must be remembered that they are not a
full back up as they are not fully functional protection units and also may give irritating information in case of
running the WTG strings in a closed loop, which depends on the wind park configuration.
The change of parameter on the overcurrent relay can be considered as an alternative to the first- mentioned
solution with cable differential protection. The advantage of this would be cost reduction as this is possible with
most overcurrent relays but has the disadvantage that the fault location is not precisely detected.
The backup option with a distance protection is also available as a combined functionality. To consider this option it
is necessary to have a voltage transformer (VT) available or use the functionality. Furthermore this function may
not make sense with short connections (< 500 m). Considering economical needs also a distance protection at the
beginning of each WTG string at the substation with different protection zones can be used as an alternative.
6.1.5 CONTROL AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS: THE FUTURE SCENARIO

With the growing share of offshore WPPs in the future energy production in Europe, it becomes more important to
implement intelligent and coordinated control and protection schemes, which ensure a high reliability of the whole
system to avoid outages of a considerable amount of power generation at once. The most important features of
such schemes could be:
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• high degree of selectivity of protection in the offshore HV grid and the inner WF array (e.g. by use of
differential relays)
• partly redundant cable connections in the inner WPP array (loop connections) and the HV offshore grid
(e.g. cable connections between different offshore AC substations)
• automated control in the offshore grid and WPPs, to allow automatic switching sequences after
equipment outages (e.g. cable failure with protection trip) to reduce downtime of healthy equipment
and restore the maximum available power infeed in short term
• control algorithms to allow the maximum power infeed considering equipment loading within system
bottlenecks, e.g. during outage of transmission equipment ( cable or transformer failure), possibly with
real time temperature monitoring to allow controlled temporary overloading
Such features could be part of future regulations to increase the offshore system reliability/availability and
consequently contribute to enhanced overall power system stability. However care has to be exercised to avoid
making the protection too complicated since this may lead to increased mal-operations. Moreover, the lifetime of
secondary equipment is generally shorter than for the primary equipment and hence, this equipment may
potentially need replacement during the life of the WPP.
6.2 Operating with Low Fault Currents
6.2.1 FAULT LEVELS: AC-LINKED VS. DC-LINKED OFFSHORE WPPS

This section will provide an overview of the contribution to the fault currents of the different elements that comprise
a WPP and its associated AC collector, providing a comparison between a fault scenario for an AC-linked
substation and a DC-linked substation; the results obtained after a comprehensive investigation carried out with
software-based simulation tools are presented together with the related conclusions.
6.2.2 FAULT LEVEL CONTRIBUTION OF THE DIFFERENT TYPE OF WIND TURBINE GENERATORS
Modern WPPs are based on two different types of Wind Turbine Generator, the doubly fed induction generator
(DFIG) and the fully converted generator. These two machines present a different response to short circuit events
at the terminal of the wind turbine transformer.
Figure 37 shows the response of the doubly fed machine to a three-phase short circuit at the WT transformer
terminals.
Figure 37: Doubly fed induction generator RMS response to symmetrical three-phase short circuit at the
WT terminals
When the fault occurs the current increases immediately up to a peak value of a few times the nominal value. As
soon as the threshold of the protection system is exceeded, the crowbar is activated and the converter blocks.
While the converter is blocked, the crowbar inserts a resistor in series in the rotor circuit but in parallel to the
converter. The crowbar dampens the rotor current transients and prepares the converter to restart. If the crowbar
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sequence continues during the voltage dip, the current is reduced to almost zero. If the converter restarts, the
crowbar is removed and the DFIG responds in the same way as the generator connected through a full-scale
converter. The grid-side converter can be set to control the reactive current injection and help to provide a faster
restart of the converter at the generator-rotor side [RR].
Figure 37 presents the response of the DFIG keeping the crowbar sequence during the entire voltage dip.
In modern DFIG systems the crowbar sequence is very short so that the DFIG system response during the
voltage dips is similar to that of the full-scale converter-interfaced generators, see Figure 38 for
comparison. The behaviour of the fully converted machine during a short circuit at the transformer terminals
will be the usual response of a PWM inverter.
Figure 38 shows the response of the fully converted machine to a three-phase short circuit at the WT transformer
terminals.
Figure 38: Fully converted generator RMS response to symmetrical three-phase short circuit at the WT
terminals
The fault current has a peak value of less than 2 times the wind turbine nominal current, and it quickly reaches its
steady state, consisting in the IGBT’s short-circuit withstand capability. Additionally, a very high initial current peak
is possible during the discharge of any installed filter capacitors.
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6.2.3 INVESTIGATIONS OF TYPICAL WPP CONFIGURATION

To better understand the effect that an HVDC system and the different types of wind turbine generators have on
the AC collector fault levels, the transformer station represented in Figure 39, collecting the power produced by 40
3.6 MW wind turbines, has been modelled and investigated.
PCC
144/72/72 MVA
155/33/33 kV
15% @ 144MVA
WTG1
WTG2
WTG3
WTG4
WTG5
WTG6
WTG7
WTG8
Figure 39: Modelled WPP one line diagram
The HV and MV fault levels given by a symmetrical three-phase short-circuit have been compered for an AC-
connected substation (a typical short-circuit power has been assumed) and an HVDC-connected substation. For
the investigation on the fault levels in the substation HV side, doubly fed induction generators have been assumed
to form the WPP. For the investigations on the fault levels in the inter-array WPP section, both doubly fed and fully
converted generators have been considered.
The AC grid has been assumed to be characterized by a maximum short-circuit power equal to 10000 MVA and a
minimum short-circuit power equal to 8000 MVA. The HVDC has been assumed to have a nominal power three
times bigger than the WPP nominal power, being designed for a future cluster of AC collectors.
6.2.3.1 HV fault levels

Figure 40 and Figure 41 compare the RMS trends of the fault currents due to a symmetrical three-phase short
circuit at the HV busbars, respectively for an AC grid linked substation and for an HVDC system linked substation.
The red line represents the doubly fed induction generators fault contribution, the blue line is the fault contribution
from the AC upstream grid (Figure 40) or from the HVDC system (Figure 41) while the green line is the HV busbar
short circuit current.
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Figure 40: HV short circuit trend for AC grid-linked substation
Figure 41: HV short circuit trend for HVDC system-linked substation
The short-circuit current at the HV busbars, in case of HVDC connected substation, is about 13 % of the short-
circuit typical levels experienced by the AC grid-connected substations.
Moreover, while the transient effects given by the wind generator can be neglected in case of high voltage AC grid
connection, it is necessary to consider the initial short-circuit fault currents given by the wind turbine generators, in
order to correctly evaluate the HV fault levels.
6.2.3.2 MV fault levels

Table 9 shows the comparison in case of doubly fed turbine generators while Table 10 reports the results obtained
with fully converted generators.
The fault levels are referred to the MV busbars that connect the wind turbine generator power transformers to the
inter-array cabling system.
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DF and HVDC DF and AC grid

Ik [kA] Ikss [kA] Ik [kA] Ikss [kA]
WTG1--> 5.364 13.844 8.246 15.868
WTG2--> 5.107 13.340 7.786 15.165
WTG3--> 4.669 12.443 7.025 13.957
WTG4--> 4.424 11.911 6.607 13.263
WTG5--> 4.122 11.225 6.104 12.392
WTG6--> 3.820 10.494 5.607 11.485
WTG7--> 3.568 9.854 5.199 10.708
WTG8 3.302 9.148 4.777 9.868
Table 9: MV fault levels for WPP comprising doubly fed induction generators
Fully and HVDC Fully and AC grid

Ik [kA] Ikss [kA] Ik [kA] Ikss [kA]
WTG1--> 6.272 6.272 8.821 8.821
WTG2--> 6.107 6.107 8.500 8.500
WTG3--> 5.824 5.824 7.964 7.964
WTG4--> 5.660 5.660 7.662 7.662
WTG5--> 5.471 5.471 7.318 7.318
WTG6--> 5.276 5.276 6.965 6.965
WTG7--> 5.107 5.107 6.666 6.666
WTG8 4.922 4.922 6.344 6.344
Table 10: MV fault levels for WPP comprising fully converted generators
The steady state short-circuit fault levels on the inter-array section of the AC collector will be between 20 % and
35 % less for an HVDC-connected WPP as compared to the case of an AC grid-connected WPP.
The type of chosen generator influences the value of the initial short-circuit current.
Similar results can be observed for different types of faults (i.e. single phase to ground, phase to phase and two
phase to ground).
6.2.4 INVESTIGATION OF REDUCED SUBSTATION TRANSFORMER SHORT CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE

The investigations depicted in the previous section have shown that an HVDC connection drastically reduces fault
levels expected at the HV and MV side of the AC collector.
This can impact the traditional design parameters of the substation. In particular, a smaller transformer short-circuit
voltage can be accepted, considering that its damping effect on the short-circuit levels is not required any more.
Table 11 shows the impact achieved by decreasing the transformer short-circuit impedance, in terms of short-circuit
current, MV busbar voltage drop and reactive power “absorbed” by the transformer leakage reactance.
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Vcc% = 15 % Vcc% = 13 % Vcc% = 11 % Vcc% = 9 % Vcc% = 7 %
MV short circuit
6.387 6.957 7.656 8.103 8.533
current [kA]
Voltage
1.25 0.96 0.71 0.49 0.31
drop [%]
Transformer reactive
21.25 18.42 15.59 12.76 9.93
power [Mvar]
Table 11: Influence of transformer short circuit impedance decrease
The results show that to cut by half the transformer short circuit impedance doesn’t significantly impact the MV
short circuit level. On the contrary the voltage drop and the reactive power are drastically reduced.
6.2.5 ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF THE RESULTS AND IMPLICATION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS
The results achieved in the investigations depicted in the previous sections with an AC collector system connected
to a single HVDC system indicate that such a system will experience significantly lower fault currents compared to
an AC-connected system. This fact has the dual effect of allowing less severe requirements in terms of short-
circuit withstand capability and of encouraging possible different design solutions for the HVDC system-connected
substations.
Less severe requirements in terms of short-circuit withstand capability brings obvious economic advantages related
to the possibility of equipping the substation with less expensive HV circuit breakers and MV switchgear.
Possible different design solutions, in terms of a lower step up transformer short-circuit voltage, enable the
reduction of the WPP reactive power regulation demand and the possibility of equipping the power transformer with
simpler OLTCs. However, it should be noted that the definition of main parameters of the equipment must consider
all future scenarios concerning the development of the grid. The short-circuit power of the grid may rise if more the
one AC collector substation and more than one HVDC converter are interconnected in the future. An AC link to
shore forming the hybrid grid (see section 3.1.3, Figure 22) may also be possible.
6.3 Design of the earthing system

This section discusses aspects related to earthing systems. Earthing system is mainly for safety (touch and step
voltages, diversion of lightning currents, etc.). It must not be mixed up with system earthing which is the method
used to connect the system neutral with the earthing system. System earthing is covered in section 2.8.
6.3.1 COMPARISON OF ONSHORE AND OFFSHORE EARTHING SYSTEMS

The overall earthing system in a WPP involves the substation, the collector system and the wind turbine tower
earthing. Its design is dependent on soil resistivity as well as on existing fault levels in the interconnection point and
those expected from the collector system (wind turbine generator short-circuit in-feed).
The resistivity in seawater is considerably lower than most land soils. Therefore, for an offshore foundation, such
as a monopile or a metal reinforced concrete foundation, the earthing system requirements could be considered
fulfilled and no additional measures such as ring electrode or the like are required. External earthing systems of
copper should not be used offshore due to corrosion issues as stated in [U].
Onshore, the earthing systems of both the substation and wind turbine generators are normally bolted into their
foundations. The most typical arrangement comprises linking the earthing systems of the individual wind turbine
generators and the substation by means of horizontal earthing electrodes (conductors). These electrodes are
normally laid into the same trenches as the MV collection system cables and the communication cables. For the
case of an offshore installation, the linkage of the earthing system between the individual systems is achieved by
means of the MV cable shields.
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In general onshore MV collection system topologies are radial; however, different topologies could be considered
for offshore WPPs, e.g. ringed arrangement, and this can have an influence in earthing system design. As the
connection between the individual earthing systems is done by cable shields, the collection system topology will
influence the earthing. Conceptually, if a fault occurs in the MV collection system, the short-circuit current can vary
depending on whether the wind turbine generators are radially connected where the impedance to the fault will
probably be higher, whereas the path to the fault is likely shorter for a ringed topology.
An indirect factor to be considered in the earthing system design is the influence of the HVDC connection on AC
fault level. Contrary to conventional Line Commutated Converter HVDC technology, HVDC based on VSC
technology provides some level (up to approximately 1.1. p.u.) contribution to the AC system short-circuit current. It
is influenced by the applied control strategies and modes of operation as well as the operation points/loading level
of the HVDC converters.
Regarding the effect of fault location, the most likely faults occurring in an offshore WPP could be at the
connections between cable connections in wind turbines, cable connections between the collector bus and wind
turbines, MV busbar at the AC substation, cable connection between transformer AC substation and MV busbar
and cable connections between onshore and offshore cable systems. According to some studies [T], the HVDC
contribution to the short circuit current is independent of the fault location.
For onshore WPPs, faults can occur in the MV collector system or in the HV side of the substation. For faults in the
MV system, if all the individual earthing systems are linked together by the cable sheaths or/and the horizontal
earthing electrodes the fault current will flow by those paths. In case of faults in the HV side of substation, the fault
current will divide in parallel between the impedances which form the substation earthing system and the turbine
tower earthing systems.
Please also refer to [T] and [U].
6.3.2 INTERCONNECTION BETWEEN OFFSHORE FOUNDATIONS

The earthing of the offshore AC network is not detailed in a specific international standard. However the concepts
provided in the IEE Recommendation (for Electrical and Electronic Equipment of Mobile and Fixed Offshore
Installation) and [U] provide guidance. The latter states that interconnection of offshore foundations other than by
the connection of collection system cables metallic sheath/screen is generally not required. As noted previously the
resistivity of seawater provides a satisfactory earthing system.
When an AC current flows through a cable core conductor, it induces a voltage in the cable sheath. The
sheath/screen bonding will have an important influence in the whole system behaviour, and the scenario will be
different for single-core cables and three-core cables.
The most common configuration for a WPP connected to the mainland grid by HVAC is to use three-core
submarine cables for the sea part and single-core underground cables for the land part. For a WPP connected to
an HVDC platform three-core cables would be the most used solution.
When cable screen/sheaths of single-core conductors are connected at both ends, a current component will flow
through it when current flows through the core conductor. This current component generates losses in the sheaths
and is dependent on the screen/sheath resistance and inductance as well as on the arrangement of the phases.
This will involve a reduction in the cable current-carrying capacity. Loss-reducing methods such as cross-bonding
or single-side bonding which are common in onshore cable installations cannot be easily arranged for submarine
cables.
Since the sheath conductors are considered grounded at both ends this will avoid overvoltages that may occur
during fault conditions. The potential along this sheath conductor is low compared to that of the core conductor,
even in transient conditions.
Page 88
Similarly, for three-core cables the cable sheaths/screens are grounded at both ends. In this case the induced
voltage due to the balanced magnetic fields within the cable will be virtually zero. For submarine AC cables having
three-cores with individual sheath and common armouring, the armouring losses should not be neglected.
The cable sheaths/ screens are sized according to the single line to ground currents. The expected lower values
due to the HVDC system will have an important impact in the overall design of the AC system as well as in the MV
cables.
Please also refer to [U] and [V].
6.3.3 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

Offshore foundations, either metal monopile or metal reinforced concrete foundations, are considered as an
earthing system by themselves. Onshore foundations normally require their own earthing system design according
to the foundation geometry and soil resistivity. Seawater resistivity is lower than most land soils so achieving a
satisfactory earthing system in an offshore WPP will be relatively easy compared to an onshore installation. In
addition, avoiding hazardous step and touch potential around the platforms does not require any additional
mitigating measures as long as the metallic areas of the platform are all bonded together to provide an
equipotential connection.
Onshore wind plants normally require earthing conductors following the routes of the power cables connecting the
wind turbines and substation.
Considering for the case of offshore WPPs connected to HVDC systems, these issues are even less critical as the
short-circuit levels are smaller than in the case of AC grid connections.
6.4 SCADA and Communications

Given the comprehensive coverage of SCADA and communications in [A], this section will delve deeper into the
functional design aspects, evaluating the pros and cons of different solution methodologies and features. This
Section is applicable to both HVAC and HVDC connections to shore.
6.4.1 “BOTTOM UP” VERSUS “TOP DOWN” DESIGN

Traditionally the design process for SCADA systems is carried out using a bottom-up approach. This facilitates the
installation of standalone solutions and has the advantage of shortening the site test program.
Interface problems that occur between standalone solutions are subsequently addressed during the commissioning
phase and often entail hardwiring interface changes. This approach is not suited for offshore delivery.
In contrast to an onshore installation, offshore collector stations are restricted with respect to space. Offshore
stations are designed to be as compact as possible to save on cost. With this in mind, post installation inter-panel
wiring changes may prove to be a challenge.
An alternative solution would be to consider a top-down approach. A top-down approach coupled with minimal
hardwired connections between control and protection devices facilitates future alterations to the system whilst
avoiding expensive interface modifications.
By implementing a Substation Local Area Network (LAN) the necessity for hardwiring can effectively be removed.
Interconnection between onshore and offshore equipment can thus be realised via an Ethernet-based
communications protocol.
IEC61850 offers a real object-orientated approach for substation automation supporting standardized device
models using names instead of numbers and indexes. However there is currently no mature third-party tool
available on the market. This forces grid operators to use specific vendor tools that are not optimal in a multi-
Page 89
vendor environment and to develop knowledge of a lot of different tools in order to be able to configure the system.
A clear move by the market to a top-down approach using a third-party tool would be appropriate.
A top-down design is also highly desirable as it could facilitate vendor independence. Some examples are
beginning to appear in the market but at the time of writing are Beta versions only.
6.4.2 IEC 61850/ETHERNET COMMUNICATIONS PROTOCOL – CONSIDERATIONS FOR OFFSHORE

SUBSTATIONS DEPLOYMENT
Given that the area occupied by an offshore WPP is large relative to an onshore installation, the communication
network for an offshore WPP can still be regarded as a Local Area Network (LAN) as illustrated in Figure 42. For
the communication system connecting the offshore and onshore systems, a Wide Area Network (WAN) may be
considered.
Figure 42: Simplified conceptual network architecture of Greater Gabbard Wind Project [S]
Signals such as fire alarms, ancillary, IED life contacts etc. need to be connected to SCADA. Normally these
signals are communicated via RTU’s. Utilising RTU’s that support Ethernet protocols such as DNP 3.0 and IEC 104
it is possible to send the signals to shore without the need for extra systems offshore.
6.4.3 TO ‘GOOSE’ OR NOT TO ‘GOOSE’

IEC61850 is a series of standards specifying communication networks for power system automation. GOOSE
(Generic Object Oriented Substation Events) is utilised for fast inter bay communication. In other words it facilitates
a very fast software-based protection signalling.
Signals (position indications, statuses, values etc.) are grouped into a data set and transmitted within a time period
of 4ms. The following mechanisms are used to assure a specified transmission speed and reliability.
Page 90
• GOOSE data is directly embedded into Ethernet data packets

• GOOSE uses VLAN and priority tagging as per IEEE 802.1Q to have a separate virtual network within
the same physical network and sets the appropriate message priority level
• enhanced retransmission mechanisms - the same GOOSE message is retransmitted with varying and
increasing re-transmission intervals. A new event occurring within any GOOSE dataset element will
result in the existing GOOSE retransmission message being stopped. A state number within the
GOOSE protocol identifies whether a GOOSE message is a new message or a retransmitted message
• GOOSE messages are designed to be brand-independent.
If GOOSE is adapted as part of the protection system design for offshore WPPs then inter-device hardwiring can
be dramatically reduced. However some utilities are refraining from implementing GOOSE for critical protection
system communications (trips, blockings, circuit breaker position indication etc.) until GOOSE communication
between different vendors is better accepted. Please also refer to [Z] in section 10.5.
6.4.4 ENTSO-E FEEDBACK BASED ON RECENT EXPERIENCES WITH IEC61850 & CIGRE B5
REFERENCES
ENTSO-E feedback based on recent experiences with IEC61850 demonstrated issues related to the following:
• Instantaneous interoperability between different suppliers is not optimal and does not work in some
vendor combinations.
• Large engineering efforts are required to implement the standard in a substation
• There is currently no mature (at transmission level) third-party tool available on the market. This forces
grid operators to use specific vendor tools that are not optimal in a multi-vendor environment and to
develop knowledge in and with a lot of different tools in order to be able to configure the system (see
section 5.1.1 above). A clear move by the market to a top-down approach using a third-party tool would
be appropriate.
Last but not least, interoperability over the lifetime of secondary systems equipment in the substation is critical for
protection and control applications. After less than 10 years of operation, some grid operators are already facing
major issues with legacy solutions for which extensions and/or upgrades are very difficult or even impossible to
develop or find. In some cases, an extension is only feasible by replacing all the secondary systems in the
substation which cancels out a lot of residual financial value on the assets. These experiences encourage TSO’s to
remain careful with regard to future applications.
Unfortunately and very paradoxically, IEC61850 multi-vendor solutions seem to be even more risky than legacy
ones in that respect: many vendors, many software tools (vendors and/or third-parties), a lot of firmware (and
updates) and many potential evolutions of the standard itself (Edition 2 has just been published, and edition 3 is
already in preparation).
Please also refer to [AA] and [BB].
6.4.5 OWNERSHIP BOUNDARIES – DEMARCATION OF CONTROL & IMPACTS OF AN ASSET

TRANSFER
Situations will occur where offshore assets will need to change hands. This can be from wind farm owner/developer
to OFTO (Offshore Transmission Owner) as in the UK or from WPP owner/developer to TAO/TSO. Designers
should be mindful to implement a system that has sufficient flexibility to alter user permissions and control in the
future.
There is a potential risk for retrofit works on the WPP control and protection system so that it will conform with the
new owners functional requirements. It is recommended that TAO/TSO term contract/type registered equipment
should be installed where asset transfer is likely to occur in the near future. This will avoid a proliferation of diverse
substation automation product lines on the transmission system which may present familiarity and safety issues for
operations staff thus affecting security of supply. An example of split of ownership is indicated in Figure 43.
Page 91
Figure 43: UK OFTO Diagram (modified by Cigré to include an HVDC platform)

(source: OFGEM)
6.4.6 ROLE OF SCADA IN OFFSHORE MAINTENANCE – FAULT CAPTURE & PREVENTATIVE

MAINTENANCE
Modern IED’s have fault recording capability which capture pre- and post-fault conditions. However travelling to the
offshore substation to download fault records via a serial interface is a cost that can be avoided.
SCADA systems utilising Ethernet-based protocols can poll IED’s for fault record files and subsequently make them
available to engineers onshore.
This process thus enables certain issues to be resolved without a costly platform visit;
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) can also be used for managing devices on the IP network.
Devices that typically support SNMP include routers, switches, servers, workstations etc.
• SNMP monitoring communicates device availability but notably offers information for internal components
e.g. PC CPU core temperature. This feature offers the possibility of preventative maintenance thus
avoiding the probability of costly outages.
6.4.7 EMI IMMUNITY REQUIREMENTS

Network devices in onshore and offshore substations alike must function unhindered when exposed to EMI
phenomena. Such phenomena include but are not limited to lightning strikes, inductive load switching, radio
frequency interference, electrostatic discharges and ground potential rise. EMC requirements are specified in
IEC61850-3 and IEEE 1613. Please also refer to [CC].
6.4.8 FUTURE BACKUP COMMUNICATIONS ALTERNATIVE

For future offshore installations backup communication alternatives should be considered for example WiMAX.
The IEEE 802.16x standards, called Wireless MAN, or “WiMAX” (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access),
define a “last mile” wireless broadband technology competing with or complementing DSL technologies and
cellular-based 3G technologies.
An industry group called the WiMAX Forum promotes and certifies compatibility and interoperability of WiMAX
broadband wireless products around certain defined frequency profiles. As a telecommunications technology,
WiMAX can provide wireless data connections over long distances (40 km) and high data rates (50 Mbps). In
practice, there is a trade-off between distance, throughput and channel size. Please also refer to [DD], section 7.3.
Page 92
7 Concluding Remarks
This brochure has identified design issues, explored opportunities and elucidated various aspects that need to be
considered in the development of an offshore AC collector substation. The document is a companion volume to the
Cigré Technical Brochure TB483 [A] which specifically covers offshore AC substations that are connected to the
mainland grid by means of HVAC. This brochure focuses on the specific issues that arise when the substation is
connected to an HVDC converter station. Some of the findings may be applicable also for substations connecting
large onshore WPPs to the grid by means of HVDC. However, it has not been the intention to investigate all the
different aspects in relation to onshore substations.
The aim has been to complement topics covered in [A] rather than repeat, however for the sake of clarity some
topics have been revisited. This brochure has not addressed the design aspects and physical consideration for the
offshore platform as such. This is well covered in [A] and from a platform perspective there are no real differences
whether the mainland connection is accomplished by means of HVAC or HVDC.
The examples included in this document are based on projects in Europe. While it is a weakness to not cover the
rest of the world in detail, most of the major offshore wind development has up till now been taking place on the
European market and hence most experiences are found here. This is rapidly changing and very interesting
developments are starting to take shape in Asia and in the Americas. Hopefully a report on operational and
maintenance challenges for offshore substations will be possible in a few years that can include world-wide
experiences.
The document has been methodically organised to follow the design process and commences with the system
design chapter covering various transmission topologies that includes one or several HVDC hubs, including voltage
and power rating, aspects regarding the possibility to use a non-standard or even a variable frequency. It also
discusses availability, auxiliary power and transformer design. A less technical aspect that is also touched upon
and which may have a significant impact is the ownership boundary.
Chapter 0 provided an overview of various offshore AC grid connection requirements and guidelines and includes
examples from the European market. Alternative means to meet some of the requirements set forth in different
areas have been considered. It should be noted that grid codes are subject to revision, so parts of the
descriptions/discussions in chapter 0 will have to be viewed as snapshots of today’s situation and may not
necessarily be fully correct or applicable in the future.
Good power quality is an essential part of efficient and reliable operation of equipment. Power disturbances such
as transients and harmonics can destroy or shorten the lifetime of sensitive equipment resulting in expensive
downtime, extra maintenance and loss of revenue. Chapter 4 has considered how different power quality issues
have to be managed in the design of the offshore WPPs in terms of voltage variations, resonances, power quality
measurement, transients and flicker.
In order to bring together all the relevant aspects in the complex process of designing large offshore WPPs, several
system studies must be carried out. Chapter 5 covers the necessary studies in areas like grid code compliance,
reactive power control, harmonic performance, static and dynamic stability, main circuit component rating and last
but not least protection and safety.
In chapter 6 aspects regarding protection and control have been covered. Amongst other things it examined
operation with low fault currents which may be the case when the WPP is connected to an HVDC converter station.
This chapter also covers the ‘light current’ aspects that support the operation such as SCADA and
communications.
It is the sincere hope of the authors that this brochure has stimulated thinking and that the guidelines provide useful
assistance to the utilities, developers and contractors who are involved in designing and constructing offshore AC
substations associated with WPPs. The document is not intended to be a design standard but has identified key
issues which have been encountered to date within the industry and that are likely to be faced, in conjunction with
others, in the future.
Page 93
8 Bibliography/References
[A] Cigré Technical Brochure 483 “Guidelines for the design and Construction of AC Offshore Substations
for Wind Power Plants
[B] Tennet TSO GmbH, “Requirements for Offshore Grid Connections in the Grid of TenneT TSO GmbH,
Bayreuth, December 21 2012
[C] Tennet TSO GmbH, “Grid Code – High and extra high voltage-“, Bayreuth, December 1 2012
[D] Cigré WG B4.55: HVDC Connection of Offshore Wind Power Plants
[E] A. Shafiu, A. Hernandez, F. Schettler, J. Finn, E. Jørgensen “HARMONIC STUDIES FOR OFFSHORE
WINDPOWER PLANTS” Published in ACDC 2010 The 9th international conference on AC and DC
transmission. October 2010 London UK
[F] A. Hernandez, A. Shafiu , S. Wijesinghe “HARMONIC AMPLIFICATION OF THE 576 MW GWYNT-Y-

th
MOR OFFSHORE WIND POWER PLANT” Published in the 11 International Workshop on Large-
Scale integration of Wind Power in Power systems. November 2012”” Lisbon, Portugal.
[G] A. Larsson “Flicker Emissions of Wind Turbines During Continuous Operation” IEEE Transactions on
Energy Conversion, Vol.17, No.1, March 2002
[H] A. Larsson “Flicker Emissions of Wind Turbines Caused by Switching Operations” IEEE Transactions
on Energy Conversion, Vol.17, No.1, March 2002
[I] M. Couvreur et al “The Concept Of Short-Circuit Power and The Assessment Of The Flicker Emission
Level” CIRED2001, June 2001
[J] NSCOGI (North Sea Countries Offshore Grid Initiative) report published by ENTSO-E in 2012
[K] McDermott R (Garrad Hassan): “Investigation of Use of Higher AC Voltages on Offshore
[L] National Electricity Transmission System Security and Quality of Supply Standard
[M] H. Bronzeado and R. Yacamini, “Phenomenon of sympathetic interaction between transformers

caused by inrush currents,” in Proc. Inst. Elect Eng., Sci., Meas. Technol., Jul. 1995, vol. 142, no. 4,
pp. 323–329
[N] I. Hassan, H. V. Nguyen, and R. Jamison, “Analysis of energizing a large transformer from a limited
capacity engine generator,” in Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Winter Meeting, Singapore, 2000, vol. 1,
pp. 446–451
[O] I.Arana, A. Hernandez et al “Energization of Wind Turbine Transformers with an Auxiliary Generator in
a Large Offshore Wind Farm During Islanded Operation”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery Vol 26
NO.4, October 2011.
[P] R. Turner, K.S. Smith, Transformer Inrush Currents – Harmonic analysis in interconnected power
systems, IEEE Industry Applications Society Magazine, Vol 16, 2010
[Q] Rasmussen C, Jørgensen P, Havsager J, Nielsen B, Andersen N. Improving voltage quality in Eastern
Denmark with a dynamic phase compensator. Fifth International Workshop on Large-scale Integration
of Wind Power and Transmission Networks for Offshore Wind Farms, Glasgow, 2005; 387–392
Page 94
[R] Reference: “Standardization of VSC-HVdc Interface with Offshore Wind Generation”,Einar Larsen,
Goran Drobnjak, General Electric Company, CIGRE Colloquium on HVDC and Power Electronic
Systems, San Francisco, March 7-9, 2012
[S] M. Goraj, Y. Epassa, R. Midence, D. Meadows “Designing And Deploying Ethernet Networks For
Offshore Wind Power Applications - A CaseStudy”
[T] Y.Jiang-Häfner, M.Hyttinen, and B.Pääjärvi, “On the Short Circuit Current Contribution of HVDC Light”
[U] IEC 61400-24 Ed.1: Wind turbines - Part 24: Lightning protection
[V] IEC 60287: Electrical cables: Calculation of the current rating
[W] R. van de Sandt, J. Löwen, J. Paetzold and I. Erlich “Neutral Earthing in Off-Shore Wind Farm Grids”
[X] Johan Enquist, “Ride-through of Offshore Wind Parks”, pp45-46; Göteborg, Sweden 2007
[Y] Jeff Roberts, Dr Hector J. Altuve, Dr. Daqing Hu “Review of Ground Fault Protection Methods for
Ungrounded and Compensated Distribution Systems”. USA
[Z] Cigre, Technical Brochure 465 “Modern Techniques for Protecting and Monitoring of Transmission
Lines”, June 2011
[AA] Cigré, Technical Brochure 466 “Engineering Guidelines for IEC 61850 Based Digital SAS”, June 2011
[BB] ENTSO-E internal draft statement (under revision and consideration before issuing to IEC)
[CC] M. P. Pozzuoli, “Ethernet in Substation Automation Applications – Issues and Requirements”, White
paper, www.ruggedcom.com
[DD] Cigré, Technical Brochure 460 “The use of Ethernet Technology in the Power Utility Environment”D,
April 2011
[EE] Cigré, Technical Brochure 484 “Impact of HVDC Stations on Protections of AC Systems”, December
2011
[FF] Feltes C and Erlich I: “Variable frequency operation of DFIG based wind power plants connected to
the grid through VSC-HVDC link,” IEEE Power Engineering Society general meeting, 24-28 June 2007
OffshoreGrid: "Offshore Electricity Infrastructure in Europe", October 2011
[GG] OffshoreGrid: "Offshore Electricity Infrastructure in Europe", October 2011
[HH] CIGRE TB513, “Final Report of the 2004 – 2007 International Enquiry on Reliability of High Voltage
Equipment, Part 5 – Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS)”
[II] CIGRE TB509, “Final Report of the 2004 – 2007 International Enquiry on Reliability of High Voltage
Equipment, Part 1 – Summary and General Matters”
[JJ] DECC - Research into GB offshore Electricity Transmission Development. Lessons Learnt", SKM,
14th Feb 2012
[KK] Nicholas W. Miller, Kara Clark, Mark E. Cardinal, Robert W. Delmerico, GE Energy ; "GE Wind Plant
Dynamic Performance for Grid and Wind Events"
Page 95
[LL] Goran Drobnjak, Nicholas Miller, Stephan Wachtel, (all GE Energy); “Regelreserven und
Regelungskonzepte von Windkraftwerken”, Die Dynamik des Netzes (ETG-FB 127), VDE
[MM] Vladislav Akhmatov, (Energinet.dk); “Experience with Voltage Control from Large Offshore Windfarms:
The Danish Case”, Wind Energy, 2009, vol. 12, pp. 692-711.
[NN] Tao Sun, Zhe Chen, and Frede Blaabjerg, "Flicker Study on Variable Speed Wind Turbines With
Doubly Fed Induction Generators", IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 20,
NO. 4, DECEMBER 2005
[OO] J. N. Nielsen, V. Akhmatov, J. Thisted, E. Grøndahl, P. Egedal, M.N. Frydensbjerg, K.H. Jensen,
"Modelling and fault-ride-through tests of Siemens Wind Power 3.6 MW variable-speed wind turbines",
Wind Engineering, vol. 31, no. 6, 2007, p. 441-452.
[PP] V. Akhmatov, B. Andresen, J.N. Nielsen, K.H. Jensen, N.M. Goldenbaum, J.Thisted, M. Frydensbjerg,
” Unbalanced short-circuit faults: Siemens Wind Power full scale converter interfaced wind turbine
model and certified fault-ride-through validation”, EWEA-2010 Conference and Exhibition, 20-23 April
2010, Warsaw, Poland, 9 p.
[QQ] Department of energy & Climate Change, DECC, Offshore Transmission Coordination Project
Conclusions Report, March1 2012
[RR] V. Akhmatov, “Induction Generators for Wind Power”, Multi-Science Publishing Company, Essex,
Great Britain, 2007, 258 pp.
[SS] V. Akhmatov, “Excessive over-voltage in long cables of large off-shore windfarms”, Wind Engineering,
Volume 30, No. 5, 2006, pp.375-383.
[TT] National Grid, The System Operator Transmission Owner Code (STC),
http://www2.nationalgrid.com/UK/Industry-information/Electricity-codes/STC/The-STC/), Dec 9 2013
[UU] CIGRE TB 379, “Update of service experience of HV underground and submarine cable systems”,
April 2009
Page 96
9 Glossary of Abbreviations and Special Terms

This section comprises of two tables. The first shows abbreviations which have been used throughout this brochure
and the second shows words and phrases which may have special meaning within this brochure.
9.1 Table of Abbreviations Used

Abbreviation Full Text
AC Alternating Current
CB Circuit Breaker
DC Direct Current
DFIG Doubly Fed Induction Generator
EMF Electromagnetic Field
EMT Electromagnetic Transient
FRT Fault Ride Through
GCB Gas Circuit Breaker
GIS Gas Insulated Switchgear
GIT Gas Insulated Transformer
HV High Voltage
H/V/AC Heat Ventilation and Air Conditioning
HVAC High Voltage Alternating Current
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IED Intelligent Electronic Device
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
IP Internet Protocol
LAN Local Area Network
MaF Major Faults
MiF Minor Faults
MSC Mechanically Switched Capacitor
MV Medium Voltage
NUI Normally Unmanned Installation
O&M Operation And Maintenance
OFTO Offshore Transmission Owner
OLTC On Load Tap Changer
ONAF Oil Natural Air Forced
PCC Point of Common Coupling (grid connection)
PoWS Point of Wave Switching
PIR Pre-insertion resistor
RMS Root Mean Square
RTU Remote Terminal Unit
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SCS Station Control System
STATCOM Static Compensator (usually VSC type)
SVC Static Var Compensator
TAO Transmission Asset Owner
TOV Temporary Overvoltage
TSO Transmission System Operator
VLAN Virtual Local Area Network
WPP Wind Power Plant
VSC Voltage Source Converter
WTG Wind Turbine Generator
Table 12: Abbreviations
Page 97
9.2 Table of Special Terms as Used in this Brochure
Word or Phrase Definition

(N-1) Requirement that the system configuration operates 100%
with one system out of operation.
(N-2) Requirement that the system configuration operates 100%
with two systems out of operation.
AC collector substation In this brochure to relate to an offshore AC platform which
'collects' the array cables from a number of wind turbines
and then, at a stepped-up voltage, provides connection to an
HVDC hub or hubs.
Collection Grid Medium voltage network which connects the wind turbines
with the substation (offshore or onshore).
DC-chopper A DC-chopper is the same as a DC braking resistor.
Developer/Owner/ The organization responsible for developing, owning or
Operator operating the whole or part of a WPP. In some cases this
may be the same organization which does all three functions
whilst in other circumstances this could be three separate
organizations.
Export cable A cable connecting the offshore substation to the system
onshore used to export the power from the WPP.
Fatigue Degradation of material caused by cyclic stress.
Generator The organization responsible for Generating Energy.
J-tube A J-shaped tube mounted inside or outside the substructure
in order to guide a cable between the seabed and cable deck
on the topsides. The purpose is to protect the cable from
environmental loads (wave, current, wind etc.).
Lost Generation Part of generation system out of operation.
Lost Transmission Part of Transmission system out of operation.
Monopile A single large pile made from steel which is driven into the
seabed to support a structure.
Normally Unmanned An installation which is normally not manned during its
Installation operation.
Offshore Installation This usually refers to the complete WPP which is located
offshore, consisting of the wind turbine generators, the
offshore substation and the interconnecting cabling.
Offshore Substation An offshore substation is a substation designed for the
purpose of transforming the voltage from the collection
voltage to a suitable transmission voltage for efficiently
exporting the power to the onshore network.
Platform This is the steel structure on which the offshore substation
equipment is mounted.
Topside Structure or building placed on a sub structure to provide
housing of the HV equipment included for an offshore
substation.
Table 13: Special terms
Page 98

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Special Considerations for AC Collector

P. Sandeberg, Convenor (SE), P. Moran, Secretary (IE),

Special Considerations for AC Collector

2.5.2.1 Inrush currents during energisation ........................................................................ 34

6.4.2 IEC 61850/Ethernet comms protocol – considerations for offshore substations

• Fault ride through

• Number of AC collector substations

• Reactive Power Compensation

1.2 Reading the Guideline

Voltage Level (kV)

Table 1: Examples of nominal vs. rated voltage levels

1.3 Definition of Scope of Work

2.1 Overall Topology

For the North Sea countries see also [J].

• WPP power rating and footprint (size and shape)

Different topologies are discussed in the following sections.

2.1.1 CONNECTION TO A HVDC SCHEME VIA AC COLLECTOR SUBSTATIONS

Figure 1: WPPs connected to HVDC scheme via AC collector substations

2.1.2 INTERLINKS BETWEEN AC COLLECTOR SUBSTATIONS AND HVDC SCHEMES

2.1.3 WIND TURBINES DIRECTLY LINKED TO THE HVDC SCHEME

2.2 Voltage and Power Ratings

2.2.1 CHOICE OF HVAC VOLTAGES

Disadvantages of using higher voltages are:

• costs of the transformers and switchgear bays increase

2.2.2 CHOICE OF MVAC VOLTAGES

• Higher voltages reduce fault levels for a given MVA generation.

Wind turbine rating 33 kV Collecting Grid (%) 66 kV Collecting Grid (%)

2.2.3 POWER CAPACITY ON EACH PLATFORM AND NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS

Project Rated System DC Cable Number

• 280 MVA for 33 kV array voltage

• specially-designed equipment to work at non-standard conditions will increase the cost

2.3.1 VARIABLE FREQUENCY

• reduce the rating of DFIG converters

2.3.2 FIXED FREQUENCY

2.3.2.1 Frequency above standard 50 or 60 Hz

• Advantage of higher frequencies:

2.3.2.2 Frequency below standard 50 or 60 Hz

• Advantage of lower frequencies

2.4.1 CAPITALISED VALUE OF LOST GENERATION

• The full life cycle cost of the WPP

• The regulatory requirements applicable for the WPP

Figure 7: A typical power duration curve

2.4.2 SPECIFIED DESIGN AVAILABILITY FOR THE TRANSMISSION ASSETS

2.4.2.1 Availability design considerations

2.4.3 RELIABILITY AND AVAILABILITY OF COMPONENTS

• Design Service Life Requirement

2.4.3.1 O&M and redundancy philosophy

2.4.3.2 Reliability data and calculations

2.4.3.3 Component Electrical Conditions

2.4.3.4 Component Environment/ Ambient Conditions

2.4.4 EQUIPMENT FAILURE

2.4.4.1 Gas Insulated switchgear (GIS)

Figure 9: GIS equipment failure distribution (source: [HH]).

Failure locations of Substation Transformers

Figure 10: Failure location of substation transformers (source: CIGRÈ).

Heat, ventilation and air conditioning:

2.5 Auxiliary Power

2.5.1 AUXILIARY POWER DURING ISLAND CONDITIONS

2.5.2 DIESEL GENERATOR RATING

2.5.2.1 Inrush currents during energisation

2.5.2.2 Fatigue and life time reduction (Wet stacking)

2.5.2.3 Auxiliary power concept