Wastewater Sludge Characteristics: September 2009

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Wastewater Sludge Characteristics
Chapter · September 2009

DOI: 10.1061/9780784410516.ch02
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CHAPTER 2
Wastewater Sludge Characteristics
S. Yan, S. Bala Subramanian, R. D. Tyagi, and R. Y. Surampalli
2.1 Introduction
The activated sludge process is used extensively in wastewater treatment.
However, it generates significant amounts of waste activated sludge (WAS) during
primary (physical and/or chemical), secondary (biological) and tertiary (additional to
secondary, often nutrient removal) treatment. The sources of solids in a treatment plant
vary according to the type of plant and its method of operation (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003;
Tay et al., 2007).
The sludge requires efficient and economic management (Tay et al., 2007). Costs
associated with WAS management may constitute as much as 30–50% of the total cost of
wastewater treatment processes (Sørensen, 1996; Zhang et al., 2007). In order to treat and
dispose of the sludge that is produced in a wastewater plant, it is crucial to know the
characteristics of the sludge that will be processed. Besides the conventional disposal of
sludge, there is a growing interest in the utilization of sludge (biosolids) as a raw material
to produce various value-added products, including biopesticides, bioplastics,
biosurfactants, enzymes, etc. Therefore, it is also essential to investigate the physical,
chemical and biological characteristics of various types of sludge (biosolids) (Tirado-
Montiel et al., 2003; Yan et al., 2006).
Wastewater sludge (biosolids) management options require extensive sludge

characterization since wastewater sludges exhibit wide variations in their properties
depending on the origin of the solids, the amount of aging that has taken place, and the
type of processing to which they have been subjected (Metcalf and Eddy et al., 2003).
Many parameters have been introduced and tests developed to measure specific
properties of sludge in relation to particular methods of treatment. Conventional sludge
characteristics can be grouped in physical, chemical and biological parameters. Physical
parameters give general information on sludge processability and
Sustainable Sludge Management

SUSTAINABLE SLUDGE MANAGEMENT 7
handlability. Chemical parameters are relevant to the presence of nutrients and

toxic/dangerous compounds, so they become necessary in the case of utilization in
agriculture. Biological parameters give information on microbial activity and organic
matter/pathogens presence, thus allowing the safety of use to be evaluated.
The sludge flocs morphological (floc size distribution, fractal dimension, filament
index), physical (flocculating ability, viscosity, hydrophobicity and surface charge),
chemical (polymeric constituents and metal content) and biological parameters are
presented in this chapter. The complicated interrelationships with respect to physical,
chemical and biological factors affecting activated sludge properties are summarised. The
relative importance of each property and its impact on the bioflocculation of activated
sludge is discussed in this chapter.
2.2 Physical Characteristics

Floc size, density and fractal dimension characterize the sludge's physical
properties (Wu et al., 1997). The flocs size, fractal dimension and filament index are the
major parameters associated with sludge volume index (SVI) and zone settling velocity
(ZSV). Activated sludges containing relatively small and compact flocs with low
numbers of filaments have better compressibility and settleability. The sludge properties
SVI and ZSV are strongly influenced by the fractal dimension and filament index of
sludge flocs.
Flocculating ability and surface properties of the sludge flocs play important roles
in sludge compressing and settling abilities. Sludge with higher flocculating ability
demonstrates better compressibility. High values of hydrophobicity and negative surface
charge corresponds to high SVI and low ZSV. Highly viscous sludges demonstrate high
SVI and low ZSV.
Compressibility and settleability are defined in terms of the SVI and ZSV. The
floc morphological and physical properties have important influence on the sludge
compressibility and settleability. Sludges containing large flocs and high quantities of
filaments, corresponding to lower values of fractal dimension (Df), demonstrate poor
compressibility and settleability. Sludge flocs with high flocculating ability have lower
SVI and higher ZSV, whereas high values of hydrophobicity, negative surface charge and
viscosity of the sludge flocs correlate to high SVI and low ZSV. The quantity of the
polymeric compounds protein, humic substances and carbohydrate in the sludge and the
extracted extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) has significant positive correlations
with SVI. The ZSV is quantitatively independent of the polymeric constituents. High
concentrations of the extracted EPS are related to poor compressibility and settleability.
The cationic ions Ca, Mg, Al and Fe in the sludge improve significantly the sludge

8 SUSTAINABLE SLUDGE MANAGEMENT
compressibility and settleability (Jin et al., 2003, 2004). Table 2.1 shows the summary of
floc characteristics of the sludge flocs and physical properties of the activated sludge
from different processes.
2.2.1 Quantity
The amount of sludge to be land applied will affect site evaluation and design in
several important ways, including the land area needed, the size of transportation
equipment and storage facilities, and the cost. Quantities of sludge available also will
affect the selection of land application practices (i.e., application at agricultural, forest,
reclamation or public contact sites), as well as application rates and operating schedules.
Key factors affecting sludge volume and mass are wastewater sources and
wastewater and sludge treatment processes. For example, industrial contributions to
wastewater influent streams can significantly increase the sewage sludge quantity
generated from a given amount of wastewater. Also, higher degrees of wastewater
treatment generally increase sewage sludge volume. In addition, some sewage sludge
treatment processes reduce sewage sludge volume; some reduce sewage sludge mass; and
some increase sewage sludge mass while improving other sewage sludge characteristics
(USEPA, 1984).
2.2.2 Density
Sludge density is an important factor for monitoring and controlling sewage and
sludge treatment processes. Optical or ultrasonic density meters have been widely used
for online measurement (Yamaguchi, 1996). Biomass densities were found to vary from
1.015 to 1.07 g/mL in bench scale sequencing batch reactors (Schuler et al., 2001) and
full-scale systems (Dammel and Schroeder, 1991; Schuler and Jang, 2007). This
variability in density has been found to affect biomass settleability, with a focus on SVI
measurements (Schuler and Jang, 2007). While the mean effective particle density is 4.9–
158 kg/m3 in an anaerobic sewage treatment process (Lant and Hartley, 2007).
2.2.3 Particle Size Distribution

The settling properties of activated sludge can be affected by a number of factors such as
the median floc size and floc heterogeneity (Schmid et al., 2003), growth of filamentous
or zoogloeal bacteria, and the amount and composition of EPS in the sludge (Schmid et
al., 2003). The settling properties of the sludge are often characterized by measurement of
the SVI. However, this method only provides macroscopic settling properties. Thus,
various studies have focused on methods for more comprehensive characterization of
activated sludge flocs. Floc size distributions were previously determined by light
microscopy (Schmid et al., 2003).

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Table 2.1 Summary of characteristics of sludge flocs and physical properties of the activated sludge.
Fila- Negative
Floc Flocculat- Hydro-
Df ment Surface Viscosity SVI ZSV VSS/MLSS
Parameter Size ing Ability phobicity
(-) Index Charge (mPas) (mL/g) (m/h) (%)
(μm) (%) (%)
(-) (meq/MLSS)
A [1]a 122 ± 2 2.16 ± 0.23 2 60 ± 1 65 ± 2 0.26 ± 0.07 4.75 ± 0.13 97 ± 18 2.89 ± 1.26 80 ± 2
B [1] 311 ± 2 1.96 ± 0.06 4-5 55 ± 3 68 ± 3 0.54 ± 0.02 4.59 ± 0.43 235 ± 11 1.49 ± 1.10 73 ± 5
SUSTAINABLE SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

C [1] 176 ± 3 2.12 ± 0.02 5 55 ± 1 70 ± 2 0.34 ± 0.06 10.5 ± 0.46 255 ± 5 0.52 ± 0.22 80 ± 5
D [1] 122 ± 5 2.15 ± 0.01 3-4 56 ± 2 60 ± 2 0.32 ± 0.12 5.19 ± 0.38 148 ± 5 3.04 ± 0.40 79 ± 3
E [1] 63 ± 3 2.30 ± 0.04 2-4 37 ± 4 60 ± 6 0.30 ± 0.01 4.53 ± 0.13 109 ± 11 4.02 ± 0.60 71 ± 2
F [1] 55 ± 2 2.44 ± 0.04 1 69 ± 1 64 ± 6 0.19 ± 0.03 4.96 ± 0.02 74 ± 8 2.51 ± 0.26 84 ± 4
G [1] 124 ± 3 2.09 ± 0 1 32 ± 5 48 ± 1 0.13 ± 0.05 3.97 ± 0.12 45 ± 5 5.94 ± 0.66 59 ± 1
WWTP 4-419 1.8-2.1

Dietersheim
[2]
WWTP 5-467 1.9-2.2

GroXlappen
[2]
Anaerobic 51-223
migrating bed
reactor
(AMBR) [3]
From a 500-1200 23 18-31

sequencing
batch airlift
reactor [4]
Chung-Hsien 46.8
WWTP [5]
a
References: [1] = Jin et al. (2003); [2] = Schmid et al. (2003); [3] = Lant and Hartley (2007); [4] = Zheng (2005); and [5] = Wu et al. (1997).
9
It is recognized that the amount of EPS, surface properties (colloidal properties),

floc size distribution, density, and filament length are the major factors associated with
activated sludge properties (Jin et al., 2003, 2004). The typical floc size distribution is
described in various publications (Schmid et al., 2003) as a curve with a peak at small
particles with a diameter of about 0.5–5 ȝm and one for large particles with a diameter of
30–1,000 ȝm (Table 2.1). Floc size and density measurement suggest poor dewatering
performance and increased bound water content be attributable to enlargements in the
floc size and decreases in the floc density. Experimental results indicate that increases in
the bound water and decreases in the floc density are caused by variations of both the floc
size and the aggregation configuration type, not the degree of floc compactness (Wu et
al., 1997).
The interaction between digestion conditions and the sludge physical

characteristics and behaviour was investigated for anaerobically digested primary sludge
in completely-stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) (Mahmoud et al., 2006). The CSTRs were
operated to maintain solids retention times (SRTs) of 10, 15, 20, and 30 days and
temperatures of 25 and 35°C. The change of the floc size as a result of digestion was
examined using wet sieve analysis (0.1, 0.125, 0.2, 0.5 and 1.0 mm). The results reveal a
substantial reduction in all floc sizes with improving digestion conditions. Digestion
leads to the transfer of bigger flocs into smaller ones, which has a remarkable effect on
the sludge physical behaviour. The majority of the raw and digested flocs are smaller than
0.100 mm. The dewatering results showed the existence of an optimal SRT for
dewaterability at 20 and 15 days for the reactors operated at 25 and 35°C, respectively.
The dewaterability of sludge digested at less favourable conditions, viz. 10 days at 25°C
deteriorates due to the increase in small flocs generated from destruction of larger flocs.
The digested sludge settling results showed a slight worsening but insignificant trend
with an increase in the SRT (Mahmoud et al., 2006).
Anaerobic digestion changes the sludge floc size distribution (FSD), which is
influenced by the operating conditions. Lawler et al. (1986) showed that FSD highly
influences the sludge dewaterability, e.g., dewaterability worsens with decreasing floc
size which took place in high loaded reactors. Nevertheless, no significant data have so
far been available on the sludge dewatering behaviour once the reactor is operated at a
low loading rate, viz. a long SRT.
The mass of the flocs of the digested sludge was reported to be always lower than
that of the flocs of identical size of the raw sludge (Mahmoud et al., 2006). The flocs with
a diameter in the range of 0.2–0.5 mm were dominant in all examined digested sludge
samples. The same trend was shown for the inoculum primary digested sludge brought
from the WWTP of Ede, The Netherlands. It was also found that the majority of the flocs
in the raw and the digested sewage sludge were smaller than 0.1 mm (Mahmoud et al.,
2006).
Anaerobic digestion conditions have a substantial influence on the sludge physical

characteristics and behaviour. The floc size plays an important role in sludge physical
behaviour, e.g., dewaterability. Anaerobic digestion at full methanogenic conditions

improves dewaterability up to an optimum value. Primary sludge settling characteristics

are slightly affected by the digestion process. In practice, this effect is expected to be
negligible (Mahmoud et al., 2006).
2.2.4 Particle Surface Chemistry

Sludge surface properties may be measured as specific surface area, surface
potential as negative surface charge and surface energy as internal hydrophobicity.
Surface areas are generally below 100 m2/g (Shinogi and Kanri, 2003).
2.2.5 Rheology
The flow properties of sludge can be measured using rheology. Determination of
rheological parameters such as viscosity or yield stress is very important in sewage
sludge management, e.g., designing parameters in transporting, storing, spreading
operations or in determining the design requirements for a pumping scheme (Lotito et al.,
1997). Rheological characteristics of sludges have been successfully used for the
improvement of the actual sludge treatment process (Abu-Orf and Dentel, 1999) and,
more particularly, in the operation of sludge conditioning and dewatering (Dentel et al.,
2000; Yen et al., 2002). Many researchers have investigated the relation between sludge
rheological parameters and other sludge properties such as total or suspended solids
concentration (TS or SS), solids surface characteristics and charges as well as the
capillary suction time (CST).
Rheological characteristics of sludges represent one of the best examples of

fundamentally-based properties that have also been correlated to actual processes.
Rheological measurements have thus been widely used to characterise suspensions. In
particular, numerous mathematical models have been developed to describe the relation
between shear stress and shear rate in the case of industrial suspensions or pastes such as
melt chocolate (Spinosa and Wichmann, 2004).
The application of sludge rheology to process design and equipment selection for
many unit operations, such as clarifying, thickening and dewatering, has been discussed
by Martin (1999).
2.2.6 Sludge Viscosity

Sludge viscosity was measured in the range of 4–5 mPa for sludges with an SVI
lower than 150 mL/g. For these sludges, there is a linear correlation between viscosity
and SVI (Jin et al., 2003, 2004). With an increased in SVI, the flocs are larger and more
irregularly shaped with filaments or other irregularities protruding from the floc surfaces,
resulting in resistance to shear due to physical interaction forces between the flocs or
aggregates of flocs. It is clear that the quality of filaments as well as the structure of the
core of the flocs influence the viscosity. Although the relationship between the ZSV and
sludge viscosity is insignificant, highly viscous sludges have low ZSVs. These results
indicate that the viscosity can be used as an indicator of the compressibility of activated

sludge. However, there is a lack of information in the literature regarding the relationship
between the rheological properties of activated sludge and the compressibility and
settleability (Jin et al., 2003, 2004).
The selection of the most suitable system and equipment for storage and
transportation depends basically on the sludge physical consistency. Therefore, the
knowledge of the rheological characteristics is an essential condition for choosing the
installation, designing it and operating the whole system (Spinosa and Wichmann, 2004).
Sludge physical characteristics play important roles in the operation of membrane
bioreactors (MBR) due to their influence on filtration and their effects on handling of
excess sludge (Pollice et al., 2007). These systems are designed to maintain high solid
concentrations, thus limiting sludge production and the related operational costs of the
process.
2.2.7 The Flocculating Ability

For most sludges, the flocculating ability is significantly correlated with the SVI
and ZSV. Sludges with a high flocculating ability demonstrate high compressibility and
settleability. As indicated, these sludges have a low SVI and flocculating ability (< 40%),
but settled fast (Jin et al., 2003, 2004).
2.3 Chemical Characteristics

A typical chemical composition and properties of untreated and digested sludge is
reported in Table 2.2.
2.3.1 Total Solids Content

The TS content of sewage sludge includes the suspended and dissolved solids and
is usually expressed as the percent of total solids present in sewage sludge. TS can affect
the design of a potential land application system in several ways, including:
• Size of transportation and storage systems—the higher the solids content, the lower
the volume of sewage sludge that will have to be transported and stored because less
water will need to be handled;
• Mode of transport—different types of transportation to the land application site (e.g.,
trucks, pipelines) will be used, depending on the solids content of the sewage sludge
to be applied;
• Application method and equipment—the method of sewage sludge application (e.g.,
surface spreading, injection, spray irrigation) and the type of application equipment
needed will vary depending on the solids content of the sewage sludge; and
• Storage method—different storage methods will be used, depending on the solids
content (e.g., tanks for liquid sewage sludge versus stockpiles for dewatered sewage
sludge). In general, it is less expensive to transport sewage sludge with a high solids
content (dewatered sewage sludge) than to transport sewage sludge with a low solids

content (liquid sewage sludge). The cost savings in transport should be weighed
against the cost of dewatering the sewage sludge. Typically, liquid sewage sludge has
solids content of 2–12 percent solids, while dewatered sewage sludge has a solids
content of 12–40 percent solids (including chemical additives). Dried or composted
sewage sludge typically has solids content over 50 percent. The TS content depends
on the type of sewage sludge (primary, secondary, or tertiary), whether the sewage
sludge has been treated prior to land application, and how it was treated. Treatment
processes such as thickening, conditioning, dewatering, composting, and drying can
lower the water content and, thus, raise the percent solids. The efficiency of these
treatment processes, however, can vary substantially from time to time, producing
sewage sludge with substantially lower solids content than anticipated. Land
application sites, therefore, should be flexibly designed to accommodate the range of
variations in the sewage sludge solids content that may occur as a result of variations
in the efficiency of the wastewater and sewage sludge treatment processes. Without
this flexibility, operational problems would be encountered at the site (USEPA,
2004).
Table 2.2 Typical chemical composition and properties of untreated/digested sludge.

Untreated Digested
Item/Sludge Reference
Primary Primary
Total dry solids (TS), % 2.0–8.0 6.0–12.0 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Volatile solids (% of TS) 60–80 30–60 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Grease and fats (% of TS) Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Ether soluble 6–30 5–20 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Ether extract 7–35 — Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Protein (% of TS) 20–30 15–20 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Nitrogen (N, % of TS) 1.5–4 1.6–6.0 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Phosphorous (P2O5, % of TS) 0.8–2.8 1.5–4.0 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Potash (K2O, % of TS) 0–1 0–3.0 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Cellulose (% of TS) 8.0–15.0 8.0–15.0 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Iron (not as sulfide) 2.0–4.0 3.0–8.0 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Silica (SiO2, % of TS) 15.0–20.0 10.0–20.0 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) 500–1500 2500–3500 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Organic acids (mg/L as HAc) 200–2000 100–600 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Energy content 10,000–12,500 4000–6000 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
pH 5.0–8.0 6.5–7.5 Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
Polymer
Protein (sludge) 217–353 Jin et al., 2003, 2004
Protein (EPS) 28–56 Jin et al., 2003, 2004
Humic substances (Sludge) 73–195 Jin et al., 2003, 2004
Humic substances (EPS) 17–51 Jin et al., 2003, 2004
Carbohydrate (Sludge) 55–93 Jin et al., 2003, 2004
Carbohydrate (EPS) 5.7 – 40 Jin et al., 2003, 2004
Total extracted (EPS) 52 –119 Jin et al., 2003, 2004
2.3.2 Volatile Solids Content

Sludge volatile solids (VSs) are organic compounds that are reduced when the
sludge is heated to 550°C (1,022°F) under oxidizing conditions. The VS content of
sludge provides an estimate of the organic content of the material. The VS content is

most often expressed as the percent of total solids that are volatile solids (VS). VS is an
important determinant of potential odor problems at land application sites. Reduction of
VS is one option in the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Part 503
regulation for meeting vector attraction reduction requirements. Most unstabilized
sewage sludge contains 75 to 85% of VS on a dry weight basis. A number of treatment
processes, including anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, alkali stabilization, and
composting, can be used to reduce the sludge VS content, and thus, reduce the potential
for odor. Anaerobic digestion—the most common method of sludge stabilization—
generally biodegrades about 50 percent of the VSs in a sewage sludge.
2.3.3 pH
The pH of sewage sludge can affect crop production at land application sites by
altering the pH of the soil and influencing the uptake of metals by soil and plants.
Pathogen levels and vector control are the major reasons for pH adjustment of sewage
sludge. Low pH sludge (less than approximately pH 6.5) promotes leaching of heavy
metals, while high pH sludge (greater than pH 11) kills many bacteria and, in conjunction
with soils of neutral or high pH, can inhibit movement of heavy metals through soils.
Some of the USEPA Part 503 pathogen reduction alternatives include raised pH levels.
2.3.4 Organic Matter

The relatively high level of organic matter in sewage sludge allows the sludge to
be used as a soil conditioner to improve the physical properties of soil (e.g., increased
water infiltration and water-holding capacity). The soil conditioning properties of sewage
sludge are especially useful at reclamation sites such as mine spoils.
2.3.5 Nutrients
Nutrients present in sewage sludge, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and
potassium (K), among others, are essential for plant growth and endow sewage sludge
with its fertilizing properties. Nutrient levels are key determinants of sewage sludge
application rates. Excessive nutrient levels due to high sludge application rates can result
in environmental contamination of groundwater and surface water and should be avoided.
The USEPA Part 503 regulation requires that bulk sewage sludge be applied to land at the
agronomic rate for N at the application site.
Table 2.2 shows levels of nutrients typically present in sewage sludge. Nutrient
levels, however, particularly N levels, can vary significantly, and thus, analysis should be
conducted on the actual sewage sludge being considered for land application. Typically,
nutrient levels in sewage sludge are considerably lower than those in commercial
fertilizers, especially K, which is usually less than 0.5 percent in sewage sludge (Table
2.2). Thus, supplemental fertilization will usually be needed along with sewage sludge to
promote optimum vegetative growth. More sewage sludge can be applied for additional
nutrients as long as the USEPA Part 503 cumulative pollutant loading rates (CPLRs) are
not exceeded, or the USEPA Part 503 pollutant concentration limits are met. When the

pollutant concentration limits are met, the application rate for the sewage sludge is not
impacted by the amount of each pollutant in the sewage sludge.
Nitrogen. Nitrogen may be present in sewage sludge in an inorganic form, such

as ammonium (NH4) or nitrate (NO3), or in an organic form. The form in which N is
present in sewage sludge is a key factor in determining how much N is available to
plants, as well as the potential for N contamination of groundwater. Generally, inorganic
N as NO3 is the most water-soluble form of N, and therefore, is of the most concern for
groundwater contamination because of its high mobility in most soil types. Inorganic N in
the form of NH4 can readily volatilize as ammonia (NH3) when sewage sludge is applied
to the soil surface rather than incorporated or injected, and thus, may not be available to
plants. Organic N must be decomposed by soil microorganisms, or mineralized to
inorganic NH4 and NO3, before this form of N is available for plants to use. Therefore,
organic N can be considered a slow-release form of N. The concentrations of organic and
inorganic N in sewage sludge are affected by the type of sludge treatment and handling
processes used. Most of the organic N in sewage sludge is associated with the sludge
solids, and thus, organic N levels are not appreciably altered by sludge dewatering or
drying procedures. In contrast, the water-soluble inorganic forms of N and their
concentrations will decrease dramatically during dewatering (e.g., drying beds,
centrifuges, presses). Some heat or air drying processes or lime treatment will reduce
NH4 because of NH3 volatilization, but will not affect NO3 levels.
Phosphorous, Potassium, and Other Nutrients. Sewage sludge contains

varying concentrations of other macro- and micronutrients required for plant growth.
Some sludge constituents, such as P, calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe),
readily form insoluble compounds with sludge solids, and thus, remain at relatively high
levels in sewage sludge. Other sewage sludge constituents, such as K and sodium (Na),
are water-soluble and are discharged with the treated wastewater, unless special advanced
treatment processes are used to remove them. Of the water-soluble constituents that do
remain in the sludge, dewatering of sludge (e.g., by centrifuges or presses) will further
reduce their concentrations in sludge, while air or heat drying will result in increased
levels because these constituents are nonvolatile.
2.3.6 Metals
Sewage sludge may contain varying amounts of metals. At low concentrations in
soil, some of these metals are nutrients needed for plant growth and are often added to
inorganic commercial fertilizers. At high concentrations, some metals, however, may be
toxic to humans, animals, and plants. Based on an extensive risk assessment of metals in
sewage sludge, the USEPA Part 503 rule regulates 10 metals in sewage sludge that is to
be land applied, including arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury,
molybdenum, nickel, selenium, and zinc. Concentrations of heavy metals in sewage
sludge may vary widely, depending on the sludge origins (Table 2.3).
2.3.7 Organic Chemicals

Sewage sludge may also contain synthetic organic chemicals from industrial
wastes, household products, and pesticides. Most sewage sludge contains low levels of
these chemicals and does not pose a significant human health or environmental threat.
The USEPA Part 503 does not regulate organic chemicals in sewage sludge because the
organic chemicals of potential concern have been banned or restricted for use in the
United States; are no longer manufactured in the United States; are present at low levels
in sewage sludge based on data from the USEPA’s 1990 National Sewage Sludge Survey
(NSSS); or because the limit for an organic pollutant identified in the USEPA Part 503
risk assessment is not expected to be exceeded in sewage sludge that is used or disposed
(USEPA, 1992).
Table 2.3 Typical metal content in wastewater sludge.

Metal Dry Sludge Guideline Reference
(mg/kg) (USA ‘503’)
Arsenic 1.1–230 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
and Zabaniotou, 2008
Cadmium 1–3.41 39 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Chromium 10–990,000 3000 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Cobalt 11.3–2490 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Copper 84–17,000 1500 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Iron 1000–154,000 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Lead 13–26,000 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Manganese 32–9870 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Mercury 0.6–56 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Molybdenum 0.1–214 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Nickel 2–5300 420 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Selenium 1.7–17.2 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Tin 2.6–329 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
Zinc 101–49,000 2800 Viraraghavan and Lonescu, 2002; Fytili
2.3.8 Emerging Pollutants

Very few countries have rules limiting the concentration of any organic chemicals
in sewage sludges (Beck et al., 1996; Harrison et al., 2006). The European Union is
considering establishing limits for a handful of organic chemicals. The review by
Harrison et al. (2006) shows that 516 organic compounds (grouped into 15 classes) have
been reported in the literature.

Few, if any, sewage sludges will exhibit the toxicity characteristic. If, however,
factors are present indicating a possible toxicity problem (e.g., the treatment works
receives significant loadings of pollutants covered by the test for toxicity) and the
treatment works does not have current data showing that the sludge is not hazardous, it is
advisable for the treatment works to test the sewage sludge for toxicity (USEPA, 1990).
The test for toxicity is the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP). This test
can be used for both sewage sludge and domestic seepage. For the TCLP test,
concentrations of pollutants in a TCLP sewage sludge extract are compared to regulatory
levels for toxicity. Mantis et al. (2005) conducted the chemical analyses of seven
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), total
organic carbon (TOC), and seven heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Mn, and Zn) in
sludge.
The European Union, in the 3rd draft of the “Working document on sludge”,
proposes limit values for concentrations of the following organic compounds or
compound groups if sludge is to be used in agriculture:
• “AOX”, the so-called “sum of halogenated organic compounds;”

• linear alkylbenzene sulphonates (LAS);
• di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP);
• “NPE” (nonylphenole and nonylphenole ethoxylates with 1 or 2 ethoxy groups);
• polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs);
• polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs); and
• polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and -furans (PCDD/Fs).
AOX. “AOX” is the abbreviation of the sum parameter for water soluble
“adsorbable organic halogens” in which ‘A’ stands for adsorbable, ‘O’ for organic and
‘X’ for the halogens (i.e., chlorine, bromine and iodine). The analytically determined
parameter of AOXs does not represent a specified chemical substance. Rather, it is
defined by the binding of a halogen-containing chemical to activated carbon. Several
industries, such as the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and waste incineration
are important sources of AOX formation. PVC itself, which is otherwise regarded as
inert, may enhance the AOX measured significantly. In the context of soil contamination
it is noteworthy that some organic halogens may be transformed in the soil to more toxic
compounds such as vinyl chloride, which is a known human carcinogen (Salkinoja-
Salonen et al., 1995).
Madsen et al. (1997) reported concentrations of AOX in the range from 75–890
mg Cl/kg dm in sludge samples of 19 municipal wastewater treatment plants in Denmark
in the year 1995. UMK-AG (2000) reported the concentrations in the range of 196–206
mg/kg dm for the years 1994 to 1996 in Germany.
LAS. Anaerobic treatment of sludge is widely used but it must be investigated

with respect to its ability to remove certain organic contaminants which may be toxic for
many organisms at certain concentrations. Presently, linear alkylbenzene sulfonates
(LAS) are the most important group of surfactants used in detergents and cleaning

product formulations for household and industry (Berna et al., 1989). In the literature
their behavior is well documented under aerobic treatment, and they are known to
biodegrade rapidly under these conditions (Giger et al., 1987; Schoberl, 1989; Romano
and Ranzani, 1992; Prats et al., 1997). However, there are uncertainties about their
biodegradation under anaerobic conditions. Furthermore, at wastewater treatment plants
at least 20% of the mass load on LAS entering the plants will be present on the suspended
solids. In most activated sludge treatment plants, the suspended solids are removed via
primary settling and are directed to an anaerobic digester (Angelidaki et al., 2004).
There are generally large differences in the quantity of LAS in different kinds of
sludges. In general, sludges exposed to aerobic conditions contain far less LAS than
primary sludge or anaerobically digested sludge (Giger et al., 1989). This is a further
argument to suggest that LAS is enriched in anaerobic treatment plants and does not
really undergo biodegradation (Giger et al., 1989). The huge range of values and
variations from the different authors can be attributed to the different measuring
techniques used to quantify LAS (Painter and Zabel, 1989). Table 2.4 shows typical
concentrations of LAS in various sludges and sludge-amended soils.
Table 2.4 Typical concentration of LAS in various sludges (Angelidaki et al., 2004).
Type of Sludge LAS Concentration Reference
(g/kg dry weight)
Primary sludge 5.34–6.31 (Painter and Zabel, 1989)
Activated sludge 0.09–0.86 (Painter and Zabel, 1989)
Anaerobically digested sludge 5–15 (Jensen, 1999)
5.2–30.2 (Painter and Zabel, 1989)
2–10 (Giger et al., 1989)
2.1–2.9 (Painter and Zabel, 1989)
0.1–0.5 (Jensen, 1999)
digested sewage sludges 12 (McEvoy and Giger, 1985)
six municipal sewage sludges 0.02–0.43 (Eganhouse et al., 1988)
sewage sludges with 0.125–0.180 (Sweetman et al., 1994)
predominantly industrial and
domestic catchments. 0.153–0.176
after conventional and pre- 0.8–2.4 mg/kg-1 (C10), (Carballa et al., 2007)
ozonation treatment of sewage 13.6–20.8 mg/kg-1 (C11),
sludge 20.2–43.7 mg/kg-1 (C12) &
19.1–39.7 mg/kg-1 (C13).
Air-dried digested sludge 0.15–0.16 (Painter and Zabel, 1989)
Agricultural soils amended with 0.0002-0.02 (Jensen,1999)
anaerobic digested sludge
in non-digested sludge 8.4–14.0 (average 12.6) (Prat et al., 1993)
after anaerobic digestion range 12.1–18.8 (average 15.8) (Prat et al., 1993)
After aerobic fermentation process dropped to 6.0 (Prat et al., 1993)
0.13 to 32 (Gomez-Rico et al., 2007)
aerobically treated sludges 0.011 (Törslöv et al., 1997)
anaerobically treated sludges 13.6 (Törslöv et al., 1997)

Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). Phthalates are incorporated into plastics as

plasticisers. DEHP is the most common phthalate esters. Phthalates are used as softeners
in plastics (PVCs). Other uses include additive functions in paints, lacquers, glues, inks,
etc. Many phthalates are degradable under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions but the
sorption to particles reduces the actual degradation rate considerably. The substances
have a potential for uptake in plants. They are toxic to soil organisms, and some
phthalates are suspected to have hormone mimic properties (Madsen et al., 1997). A
summary on the concentrations of DEHP in sewage sludges is shown in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Concentrations of DEHP in sewage sludges.

Sample Range Mean References
# (mg/kg dw) (mg/kg dw)
1 <1–140 58 (Paulsrud et al., 2000)
2 27–1115 83 (Vigerust, 1989)
3 25–661 170 (Paulsrud et al., 2000)
4 3,9–170 25 (Törslöv et al., 1997)
5 17–120 38 (Törslöv et al., 1997)
4-Nonylphenole (NPE). NPE is a widespread degradation product of non-ionic

alkylphenol polyethoxylate (APEO) surfactants (Bokern, and Harms, 1997). Due to the
problems caused by foaming on surface waters, there has been an increase in the adoption
of more readily biodegradable detergents such as non-ionic 4-alkylphenole
polyethoxylates, which are used in large quantities in detergents. NPE has been identified
as a toxic degradation product of alkylphenole polyethoxylate (Jones and Northcott,
2000). NPEs are used as surface active agents in cleaning products, cosmetics and
hygienic products, and in emulsifications of paints and pesticides. Due to the hazardous
properties, the NPEs are slowly being phased out of the market.
APEO applications also include pesticide formulations and industrial products,

with 80% as nonylphenol polyethoxylates (NPEO) and 20% as octylphenol ethoxylates
(OPEO). However, the use of APEOs is banned or restricted in Europe because their
degradation products are toxic and estrogenic to aquatic organisms (Jobling et al., 1996).
NPEOs are widely used in a number of commercial and household formulations,
including detergents, cosmetic products, water-based paints, inks and textiles (Birkett and
Lester, 2003). The overview of concentrations found in various sludge samples is shown
in Table 2.6.
PAH. PAHs are a by-product of incomplete combustion; their main source is the
burning of fossil fuels. PAHs are ubiquitous in the environment and may be formed
naturally (e.g. by forest fires). Many PAHs are known or suspected
carcinogens/mutagens. Table 2.7 shows a summary on PAH concentrations in sludge.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). Commercial production of PCBs began in

1929. PCBs are produced by chlorination of biphenyl, which has 10 positions available
for chlorine atoms, producing a theoretical mixture of up to 209 possible compounds
distributed among 10 levels of chlorination. The chemical and physical stability of PCBs,

ded from ascelibrary.org by OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY on 06/01/14. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all ri
20
Table 2.6 Typical concentration of APEO and their degradation products in various sludges.
NP and OP Concentration (μg/g dry weight)
Type of Sludge
4-NP NP1EO NP2EO NPEO Reference
(i.e., NPE1) (i.e., NPE2)
4.61 1.21 0.39 Hawrelak et al. (1999)
3.98 0.17 0.14 Hawrelak et al. (1999)
SUSTAINABLE SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

2.35 0.07 0.08 Hawrelak et al. (1999)
In the sludges of 100-500 100-500 5-150 (La Guardia et al., 2001)
municipal sewage
treatment plants in
Canada
In a Danish study of 20 15 average = 15 (TørCshløevm et al., 1997)

sludge samples
Anaerobic digestion 0.450-2500 Gomez-Rico et al. (2007)
Six municipal sewage 0.02-0.43 Eganhouse et al. (1988)

sludges
Sewage sludges with 0.125-0.180 Sweetman et al. (1994)

predominantly industrial
and domestic catchments 0.153-0.176
Swedish sewage sludge 3.9 (Samsøe-Petersen, 2003)

Air-dried digested sludge 0.15-0.16 Painter and Zabel (1989)
Agricultural soils 0.0002-0.02 Jensen (1999)
amended with anaerobic
digested sludge

Table 2.7 Concentrations of PAH in sewage sludges.

Samples Range Median References
(mg/kg dw) (mg/kg dw)
Sum of 18 compounds <0.01-8.5 – (Törslöv et al., 1997)
Sum of 18 compounds 0.42-2.4 – (Törslöv et al., 1997)
Sum of 6 compounds 0.7-30 3.9 (Paulsrud et al., 2000)
1.6 (Tideström, 1997)
Sum of 6 compounds 0.4-12.83 – (UMK-AG, 2000)
Sum of 16 compounds 0.25-16.28 – (UMK-AG, 2000)
their electrical resistance, low volatility and resistance to degradation at high

temperatures added to the commercial utility of PCBs. A summary on PCB
concentrations from various sludge samples is presented in Table 2.8. Di Toro and
McGrath (2000) found PCBs in almost all the samples that were examined, with a
maximum concentration of 0.105 mg/kg. Results from the first US National Sewage
Sludge Survey, confirmed that concentrations of PCBs in most US biosolids were much
lower than those found in the previous US surveys (Chaney et al. 1998). According to an
USEPA’s estimation, the 98th percentile of the biosolid PCB concentration was 0.21
mg/kg dw. Paulsrud et al. (2000) found that the PCB content in Norwegian sludge
samples were far below the German and Swedish standards for PCB and, in general,
were lower than those reported in previous studies in Scandinavia. They found variations
between monthly samples from each plant to be larger than differences between plants.
Hembrock-Heger (1992) compared untreated soils and soils treated with sewage sludge.
Most PCB concentrations were near the detection limit (1 ȝg/kg for each congener).
Table 2.8 Concentrations of PCB in sewage sludges.

Samples Range Mean References
(mg/kg dw) (mg/kg dw)
1 0.017-0.10 0.0422 (Paulsrud et al., 2000)
2 0.0006-0.232 0.113 (Paulsrud et al., 2000)
3 0.080-7 - (Paulsrud et al., 2000)
4 0.1 (Paulsrud et al., 2000)
5 < 0.2 - (UMK-AG, 2000)
Polychlorinated Dibenzo-P-Dioxins and -Furans (PCDD/Fs). PCDD/PCDFs

are two groups of tricyclic, planar aromatic compounds. They are not intentionally
produced, but may form during the production of chlorinated compounds such as
pentachlorophenol or during combustion processes where chlorinated substances are
present. There are potentially 75 PCDDs and 135 PCDFs congeners, which belong to 8
homologue groups according to the numbers of chlorine atoms present. PCDD/PCDFs
are ubiquitous in the environment at extremely low levels. The data of concentrations of
PCDD/PCDFs in sludge are shown in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9 Concentrations of PCDD/F in sewage sludge.

Samples Range Mean References
(ng/kg dm) (ng/kg dm)
1 3.0-68.8 6.26 (Paulsrud et al., 2000)
2 5.7-115 20.5 (Paulsrud et al., 2000)
3 10.3-34.2 (Paulsrud et al., 2000)
4 17-22 (UMK-AG, 2000)
2.4 Biological Characteristics

The microbial community named "activated sludge" is a mixed population of
microorganisms containing many species of viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, metazoa
and algae. Population shifts within the microbial community may result from changes in
the plant operating conditions and cause sludge quality problems such as poor sludge
settling, compaction, and dewatering (Chipasa and Medrzycka, 2004; Nielsen and
Nielsen, 2002; Nielsen et al., 2004; Wagner and Loy, 2002). Today, most modern
wastewater treatment processes rely on the composition and activity of their microbial
community in activated sludge. Therefore, the analysis of the microorgansms in
activated sludge is of considerable interest. Determination of the dominant role of the
microorganisms in the activated sludge allows the treatment process to be controlled to
improve the performance of WWTPs (Nielsen et al., 2004; Yan et al., 2007).
Many different bacterial groups are present in activated sludge systems. The
bacteria are present either as single cell microcolonies or as filamentous bacteria. The
bacterial count in activated sludge is in the range of 1–10 × 1012/g VSS. Of these,
typically 80% are active or alive (Nielsen et al. 2004). In a nutrient removal treatment
plant, many bacterial strains having different functions may be present including
phosphorus accumulating organisms (PAOs) (Ansa-Asare et al., 2000; Carucci et al.,
2001; Crocetti et al., 2000; Kawaharasaki et al., 1999; Lina et al., 2003; Nakamura et al.,
1995; Nielsen et al., 1999; Oehmen et al., 2005; Pijuan et al., 2005; Reddy and Bux,
2002; Sidat et al., 1999; Wong et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2003); ammonia-oxidizing
bacteria (Purkhold et al., 2000); nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (Nogueira et al., 2002); nitrate-
reducing bacteria (Drysdale et al., 1999; Etchebehere et al., 2001; Jetten et al., 2001;
Khan and Hiraishi, 2001; Dionisi et al., 2002; Juretschko et al., 2002; Nogueira et al.,
2002); glycogen accumulating organisms (GAO) (Liu et al., 1996; Seviour et al., 2000);
filamentous micro-organisms (Blackall et al., 1996b; Kitatsuji et al., 1996; Kämpfer,
1997; Rossett et al., 1997; Kanagawa et al., 2000; Francis et al., 2002); Fe(III)-reducing
bacteria; sulfate-reducing bacteria (Kjeldsen et al., 2004); and methane-producing
bacteria (Nielsen and Nielsen, 2002; Nielsen et al., 2004). Iron reducers, sulfate reducers
and methanogens groups are usually considered less important in the normal activated

sludge processes. Under some conditions (e.g., when bulking problems appear),
domination of sulfide and useful oxidizing bacteria can be observed.
It is important to note that up until now, the majority of the bacteria in activated
sludge are just roughly known as aerobic heterotrophs or denitrifiers, and very little is
known about their main functions in the sludge (Wagner and Loy, 2002; Nielsen et al.,
2004). These groups of bacteria can be observed in most types of treatment plants.
However, the direct taxonomical identity on a species level is presently almost unknown
except a few bacterial groups. Most of these groups and other bacterial species in the
sludge are still uncultured so that they can only be detected by molecular methods
independent of cultivation (Copkuner, 2002; Forster et al., 2002; Kim et al., 2004;
Nielsen and Nielsen, 2002; Nielsen et al., 2004; Radajewski et al., 2000). A great
number of microorganisms have been isolated and the genera most frequently found are
cited as follows: Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Achromobacter, Enterococcus, Acinetobacter,
Aeromonas, Alcaligenes, Arthrobacter, Escherichia, Salmonella, Proteus,
Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, Corynebacterium, Clostridium,
Penicillium (Mehandjiyska, 1995). Besides, many researchers report that the majority of
bacteria in activated sludge belong to Gram-negative genera (Pick, 1995; Sharifi-Yazdi
et al., 2001; Yan et al., 2007).
The four major types of human pathogenic (disease causing) organisms (bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, and helminths) all may be present in domestic sewage. The actual
species and quantity of pathogens present in the domestic sewage from a particular
municipality (and the sewage sludge produced when treating the domestic sewage)
depend on the health status of the local community and may vary substantially at
different times. The level of pathogens present in treated sewage sludge also depends on
the reductions achieved by the wastewater and sewage sludge treatment processes.
Potential pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and eggs of parasitic

worms, are often present in municipal wastewater and raw sewage sludge. Pathogens
also are present in domestic seepage. Pathogens can present a public health hazard if
they are transferred to food crops grown on land to which sewage sludge or domestic
seepage is applied, contained in runoff to surface waters from land application sites, or
transported away from the site by vectors such as insects, rodents, and birds. For this
reason, the USEPA Part 503 regulation specifies pathogen reduction and vector
attraction reduction requirements that must be met by sewage sludge applied to land
application sites. Table 2.10 illustrates the different types of pathogens typically found
in sewage sludge and domestic seepage.
Generally, sewage sludge intended for land application is stabilized by chemical

or biological processes. Table 2.11 (USEPA, 2002) shows typical levels of some
pathogens in unstabilized and stabilized sewage sludge. Stabilization greatly reduces the

Table 2.10 Principal pathogens of concern in municipal wastewater and sewage sludge.
Organism Disease/Symptoms
Bacteria
Salmonella sp. Salmonellosis (food poisoning), typhoid fever
Bacillary dysentery
Shigella sp.
Vibrio cholerae Cholera
Campylobacter jejuni Gastroenteritis
E. coli (pathogenic strains) Gastroenteritis
Enteric Viruses
Hepatitis A virus Infectious hepatitis
Norwalk and Norwalk-like viruses Epidemic gastroenteritis with severe diarrhea
Rotaviruses Acute gastroenteritis with severe diarrhea
Enteroviruses
Polioviruses Poliomyelitis
Coxsackieviruses Meningitis, pneumonia, hepatitis, fever,
cold-like symptoms, diarrhea, etc.
Echoviruses Meningitis, paralysis, encephalitis, fever,
cold-like symptoms, diarrhea, etc.
Reovirus Respiratory infections, gastroenteritis
Astroviruses Epidemic gastroenteritis
Calciviruses Epidemic gastroenteritis
Protozoa
Cryptosporidium Gastroenteritis
Entamoeba histolytica Acute enteritis
Giardia lamblia Giardiasis (diarrhea, abdominal cramps, weight loss)
Balantidium coli Diarrhea and dysentery
Toxoplasma gondi Toxoplasmosis
Helminth Worms
Ascaris lumbricoides Digestive/nutritional disturbances, abdominal pain,
vomiting, restlessness
Ascaris suum Symptoms such as coughing, chest pain, and fever
Trichuris trichiura Abdominal pain, diarrhea, anemia, weight loss
Toxocara canis Fever, abdominal discomfort, muscle aches,
neurological symptoms
Taenia saginata Nervousness, insomnia, anorexia, abdominal pain,
digestive disturbances
Taenia solium Nervousness, insomnia, anorexia, abdominal pain,
Necator americanus Digestive disturbances
Hymenolepis nana Hookworm disease, Taeniasis
number of pathogens in sewage sludge, including bacteria, parasites, protozoa, and

viruses (Sagik et al., 1978), as well as odor potential. Nevertheless, even stabilized
sewage sludge will usually contain some pathogens; thus the USEPA Part 503 regulation
requires that specific processes to reduce pathogen levels be undertaken prior to land
application and that site restrictions for certain types of sewage sludge be followed. The

USEPA Part 503 pathogen and vector attraction reduction requirements serve to protect
operating personnel, the general public, crops intended for human consumption,
groundwater, and surface water from potential contamination by unacceptable levels of
pathogens. The USEPA Part 503 requirements also are designed to ensure that regrowth
of bacteria does not occur prior to use or disposal.
A study was conducted in Mexican (Jiménez et al., 2004), in which, wastewater

sludge was classified according to the proposed sludge regulation (NOM-004-ECOL-
2001). This regulation is partially based on the USEPA’s with slight modifications with
respect to microbial limits: class B biosolids include a limit for Salmonella sp. and
helminth ova (<300 MPN/g TS and < 35 ova/g TS, respectively). Table 2.12 presents
the results of the microbial analyses. With respect to faecal coliforms, their
concentration ranged from 2.4 × 105 MPN/g TS up to 1.1 × 109 MPN/g TS.
Table 2.11 Typical pathogen levels in unstabilized and anaerobically digested sludges.
Pathogen Typical Concentration Typical Concentration
in Unstabilized Sludge in Anaerobically Digested
(No./100 mL) Sludge
(No./100 mL)
Virus 2,500 - 70,000 100 - 1,000
Fecal coliform bacteria 1,000,000,000 30,000 - 6,000,000
Salmonella 8,000 3 – 62
Ascaris lumbricoides- 200 - 1,000 0 - 1,000
Helminth
Table 2.12 Microbial content in wastewater sludge.

Value Faecal Salmonella sp. Helminth Ova
Coliforms (ova/g TS)
log (MPN/g TS) log (MPN/g TS) Viable Total
Mean 7.6 ± 1.0 5.2 ± 1.3 72 ± 38 77 ± 43

Max 9.0 7.4 160 178
Min 5.4 2.9 4 4
Proposed limits NOM-
004-ECOL-2001 Class
B sludge < 6.30 < 2.48 NA < 35
2.5 The Role of Sludge Characteristics on Production of Value-

Added Products from Sludge
There is an increasing interest in studying physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of WAS in order to utilize WAS as a raw material for production of

various value-added products, including bioplastics, biosurfactants, enzymes and

biopesticides, etc. (Tyagi et al., 2002).
Viscosity is found to affect biopesticide production on fermentation, formulation

and field application when sludge is used as the raw material. The viscosity showed the
impact on oxygen mass transfer in the fermenter, and therefore, affected formulation of
the product and its field application (Vidyarthi et al., 2002).
The chemical and biological characteristics of sludge play the major role on
value-added products when the sludge is used as the raw material. The effect of sludge
solids concentrations has been extensively studied. The optimal suspended solids
concentration was found of 30 g/L whereas, a lower (< 20 g/L) or higher (> 30 g/L)
solids concentration was less efficient when wastewater sludge was used as the raw
material for production of antagonistic Trichoderma sp. conidial spores (Verma et al.,
2005). Yan et al. (2008) found the optimal sludge suspended solid concentration was 15
g/L when pulp and paper wastewater sludge was used as the mix culture for bioplastic
production. Pre-treatments of sludge increased dissolved solids through solubilization of
organic matter, enhancing nutrient availability for T. viride. Thermal alkaline hydrolyzed
sludge showed an immense potential as a pre-treatment of choice for the growth of
Trichoderma sp. (Verma et al., 2005).
2.6 Conclusion
The physical, chemical and microbial sludge properties vary for each WWTP.
Therefore, a detailed understanding of the correlation of variations in sludge physical,
chemical and microbial characteristics in different WWTPs, e.g. a certain malfunction,
requires information about all factors. Activated sludge flocs consist of numerous
constituents which, together with other factors, are responsible for floc structure and floc
properties. These properties largely determine the sludge properties such as flocculation,
settling and dewaterability. The morphological and physical properties of the sludge
flocs had relatively more significant influence on the compressibility and settleability
than the chemical properties. Sludge microproperties such as floc size and density play
influential roles in defining both the rate and extents of waste sludge dewatering
mechanisms. The relative amounts of the different bacterial groups determine both the
general structure and the properties of flocs in a certain treatment plant, and the response
to different external conditions on a short term basis (minutes or few hours). The
physical, chemical and microbial properties are directly responsible for the effectiveness
and success of the wastewater treatment process, organic matter reduction, and nutrient
removal depending on the differences influent of wastewater and the operation process.

To prevent elevated levels in digested sewage sludge, organic substances must be

aerobically and anaerobically degradable. Such properties must be postulated in
particular for chemicals like the components of laundry- and dish-washing detergents
and surface cleaners which are used in high amounts directly in water. If this condition
is not fulfilled, problems of residual levels in sludge-treated soils will be encountered.
Legislative requirements for efficient treatment of sludge and safe sludge

disposal measures are increasingly expected to empower the future demand for sludge
treatment equipment. The USEPA and other regulatory bodies are encouraging the reuse
and recycling of sludge, and recovering energy from waste materials such as sludge.
More research is recommended into the interaction between sludge physical-chemical-
biological characteristics and the treatment conditions.
2.7 Acknowledgements
The authors are sincerely thankful to the Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada (Discovery Grants A4984, Canada Research Chair), the
views or opinions expressed in this chapter are those of the authors and should not be
construed as opinions of the USEPA.
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Wastewater Sludge Characteristics

Chapter · September 2009

Shenshen Yan Balasubramanian Sellamuthu

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Wastewater Sludge Characteristics

S. Yan, S. Bala Subramanian, R. D. Tyagi, and R. Y. Surampalli

Wastewater sludge (biosolids) management options require extensive sludge

Sustainable Sludge Management

handlability. Chemical parameters are relevant to the presence of nutrients and

2.2 Physical Characteristics

Sustainable Sludge Management

2.2.3 Particle Size Distribution

Sustainable Sludge Management

SUSTAINABLE SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

WWTP 4-419 1.8-2.1

WWTP 5-467 1.9-2.2

From a 500-1200 23 18-31

It is recognized that the amount of EPS, surface properties (colloidal properties),

The interaction between digestion conditions and the sludge physical

Anaerobic digestion conditions have a substantial influence on the sludge physical

Sustainable Sludge Management

improves dewaterability up to an optimum value. Primary sludge settling characteristics

2.2.4 Particle Surface Chemistry

Rheological characteristics of sludges represent one of the best examples of

2.2.6 Sludge Viscosity

Sustainable Sludge Management

2.2.7 The Flocculating Ability

2.3 Chemical Characteristics

2.3.1 Total Solids Content

Sustainable Sludge Management

Table 2.2 Typical chemical composition and properties of untreated/digested sludge.

2.3.2 Volatile Solids Content

Sustainable Sludge Management

2.3.4 Organic Matter

Sustainable Sludge Management

Nitrogen. Nitrogen may be present in sewage sludge in an inorganic form, such

Phosphorous, Potassium, and Other Nutrients. Sewage sludge contains

2.3.7 Organic Chemicals

Sustainable Sludge Management

Table 2.3 Typical metal content in wastewater sludge.

2.3.8 Emerging Pollutants

Sustainable Sludge Management

• “AOX”, the so-called “sum of halogenated organic compounds;”

LAS. Anaerobic treatment of sludge is widely used but it must be investigated

Sustainable Sludge Management

Sustainable Sludge Management

Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). Phthalates are incorporated into plastics as

Table 2.5 Concentrations of DEHP in sewage sludges.

4-Nonylphenole (NPE). NPE is a widespread degradation product of non-ionic

APEO applications also include pesticide formulations and industrial products,

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). Commercial production of PCBs began in

Sustainable Sludge Management

SUSTAINABLE SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

In a Danish study of 20 15 average = 15 (TørCshløevm et al., 1997)

Anaerobic digestion 0.450-2500 Gomez-Rico et al. (2007)

Six municipal sewage 0.02-0.43 Eganhouse et al. (1988)

Sewage sludges with 0.125-0.180 Sweetman et al. (1994)

Swedish sewage sludge 3.9 (Samsøe-Petersen, 2003)

Sustainable Sludge Management