Agricultural Machinery and Equipment

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Agricultural Engineering Reviewer
AGRICULTURAL
MACHINERY AND
EQUIPMENT
by
Engr. Alexis T. Belonio

Department of Agricultural Engineering and
Environmental Management
College of Agriculture
Central Philipppine University
Iloilo City
TGIM Review Center

Institute of Agricultural Engineering
Arellano University
Taft Avenue, Manila
2004
Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

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OUTLINE
Units of Conversion
Introduction
Materials and Standards
Manufacturing Processes
Component Parts of Agricultural Machines
Power Transmission Drive
Agricultural Machinery Management
Agricultural Tractors
Tillage Equipment
Seeding and Planting Equipment
Crop Maintenance Equipment
Harvesting Equipment
Threshing Equipment
Drying Equipment
Milling Equipment
Water Pumping Equipment
Testing and Evaluation Equipment
Safety in Agricultural Machine Operation
Selection of Agricultural Machines
UNITS AND CONVERSION
1 mi = 52850 ft 1 ha = 10,000 sq m
1 in = 2.54 cm 1 cal = 4.189 Joules
1m = 3.28 ft 1 kWh = 3.6 mJ
1 mi = 1.61 km 1 hp = 0.746 kW
1 lbm = 0.453 kg 1 BTU/sec = 1055 W
1 BTU = 1055 Joule 1 kph = 0.2778 m/s
1 lbf = 4.448 kN 1 PS = 0.986 hp
1 ton = 1000 kg 1 hr = 3600 sec
1 gal = 3.78 li 1 ha/hr = 0.1 sq m/sec
1 ha = 2.47 acres 1 hp-hr = 2544.4 BTU
1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb/min
= 550 ft-lb/sec
= 76.2 kg-m/sec
1 kg = 2.2 lb
= 9.8 N
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION
Agricultural Machinery – application, use, and management of various agricultural machines, tools, and
equipment used for production and post-production operation.
Agricultural Mechanization - development, manufacture and extension of appropriate agricultural tools,

implements, and machinery using animal, human, mechanical, electrical, and other renewable sources of
energy for agricultural production and development and post harvest operations.
General Classifications of Agricultural Machinery

(1) Agricultural Field Equipment – equipment designed primarily for agricultural field operation.
This includes agricultural tractors, self-propelled machines, implements, and their
combinations.
(a) Agricultural Tractors – primarily used to supply power to agricultural implements and
farmstead equipment
(b) Agricultural Implement - designed to perform agricultural operations and are
classified as towed, mounted, and semi-mounted implements
(c) Self-Propelled Machines – designed with integral power unit to provide both mobility
and power for performing agricultural operations.
(2) Farmstead Equipment – other than agricultural field equipment used in agricultural operation
which includes livestock equipment, waste handling system, crop drying and milling systems,
material handling systems, and others.

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Classification of Agricultural Machines According to Operation

(1) Tillage Equipment - includes plow and harrow used to prepare the land to make it ready for
seeding and planting operation
(2) Seeding and Planting Equipment – used to place seeds or plant parts into the prepared seedbed
(3) Crop Maintenance Equipment – includes cultivating. weeding, spraying, dusting, as well as
irrigation equipment aim to make sure that the crop grows to produce its potential yield.
(4) Harvesting and Threshing Equipment - used to gather and separate the produced from the
panicles and make it ready for primary processing operation
(5) Drying Equipment - used to reduce the moisture of the product to a level that it can be stored
with minimum loss due to spoilage
(6) Milling Equipment - used to process the product ready for consumption
(7) Storage Equipment - used to keep the product safe from deterioration or spoilage for prolong
period of storage.
Classifications of Manufacturers and Distributors of Agricultural Machines

(1) Manufacturers – produce one or several types of farm machinery and usually do not sell other
items from other manufacturers
(2) Manufacturers-Dealers – manufacture their own line of items but also sell either consigned
items such as single cylinder engines, pumps, pump set, and other types of farm machines
(3) Dealers – carries several items and brands from varying sources and are not usually engaged
in manufacture and fabrication of agricultural machines
Chapter II - MATERIALS AND STANDARDS

Material Classifications
(1) Metals
(a) Ferrous - Iron and steel (Cast Iron, Carbon Steel, Alloy Steel, etc)
(b) None- Ferrous - Aluminum, copper, magnesium, etc
(2) Non-Metal
(a) Inorganic materials - glass, ceramics, plastic, etc
(b) Organic Materials - wood, rubber, leather, canvass, etc
Manufacturing Metals
(1) Metallic ore is mined beneath the earth surface
(2) Iron is produced from iron ore while copper is produced from copper ore
(3) Aluminum is produced from an ore called bauxite
(4) A blast furnace is used to produce metal by passing a hot gases to the furnace that is mixed
with iron ore, limestone, and coke at about 3000 C
(5) Melted metal is separated into a ladle for cooling to form pig iron. Pigs are then melted and
poured into mold to make iron, steel, and cast iron.
Metal Characteristics
(1) Hard
(2) Easy to shape
(3) High melting temperature
(4) Low specific heat
(5) Good electrical conductivity
(6) Good thermal conductivities
(7) Ability to be deformed without fracture
Classifications of Metal
(1) Pure Metal – are single element that are not combined with any other chemical element. They
are too soft, low and strength, or low in some other desired property to be used in any
commercial applications
(2) Alloys – are mixture of two or more metal to produce new metal. Example are stainless steel,
bronze, etc
Iron - a pure ferrite

Pig iron – produced from ore of hematite or magnetite in the blast furnace by melting with limestone and
coke
Cast Iron - with carbon content of 1.7 to 6/7%, low cost, good casting property, high compressive strength,
high wearing resistance, brittle and lower tensile strength
Steel – molten steel that is cast into an ingot and then rolled, forged, hammered, pressed, or machine into
desired shape
Structural steel, steel bars and cylinder, and steel plate - commonly used as machine elements and frame
Soft Centered Steel - durable to shock because the mild steel in the center layer is deformable and is higher
wear resistance than hard steel at the outer side; usually used for moldboard and share of a plow.
Classifications of Steel
(1) Low Carbon Steel – with carbon content not exceeding 0.25%.

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(2) Medium Carbon Steel – contains 0.25 to 0.50% carbon. They are usually used in making
structural and machinery steel.
(3) High Carbon Steel – carbon content is above 0.50%. They are usually used in the
manufacture of spring and tool steel
Typical Properties of Iron and Steel

1. Have an outstanding characteristics of good strength, light weight, high thermal and
electrical conductivities, and good corrosion resistance.
2. Y alloy (4%Cu, 2% Sn alloy) – it is strong as a casting and is used for cylinder head
and piston.
3. Silmin (14% Si alloy) – casting metal used for cylinder head and crankcase.
4. Duralumin (4% Cu, 0.5-1.5% Mg, 0.4 Mn alloy) – quenched at high temperature and
then aged to gradually increase strength and hardness.
Copper and Its alloys

(1) It has high electric conductivity and thermal conductivity, soft, high resistance to corrosion.
(2) Commonly use for electric wire, fuel pipe, gasket, radiator, and electric motor
(3) Brass (10-40% zinc alloy) – used for radiator, pipe, screen, and instrument parts.
(4) Bronze (5-20% tin alloy) – used for bushing, spring, pipe, fittings, sprayer and pump.
(5) Kelmet Alloy (20-40% lead alloy) used for bearing of diesel engine.
Metal Shapes
(1) Sheet - a piece of metal which has been rolled into a sheet of 3/16 in. or less in thickness.
Commonly available sizes are 3’ wide x 6’ long and 4’ wide and 8’ long. The thickness is
expressed in terms of gauge number which is equivalent to number of sheets in 1 in. thick pile
of metal sheet.
(2) Strips – a long sheet of metal that is less than 12 in. wide
(3) Plate – a metal with thickness over 3/16 in. Commonly available size is 4’ wide x 8’ long.
Thickness are given in terms of mm or in inch.
Common Shapes of Metal Bars and Sheets

Angle bar, Tee, Zee, Channel, Round, Pipe, Rail, Square, Flat, Flat (mill edge), and Plate
Common Structural Shapes of Bars

Hexagon, Octagon, I beam, H beam, Half round, Half oval, Reinforce steel bar
Properties of Metal
(1) Physical Properties – characteristics of metals when not acted upon by outside forces. This
includes color, density, weight, and electrical and heat conductivity.
(2) Mechanical Properties – characteristics exhibited by metal when outside forces are applied to
them. The understanding of these property would result in a better processing of metal into
product.
(3) Chemical Properties – characteristics of the chemical composition of metal and their
chemical reaction to other metals. Example, resistance to corrosion.
Mechanical Properties of Metal

(1) Tensile Strength – it is the greatest stress seen by the material’s resistance to being pulled
apart. It is sometimes called as the ultimate strength.
(2) Yield Strength – usually designated at a 0.2% permanent elongation.
(3) Ductility – indicate how much a material is deformed as it is stretched. The greater the
deformation the more ductile is the material.
(4) Hardness – it is the material’s resistance to penetration and permanent deformation.
(5) Brittleness – is the tendency of a material to break under impact.
(6) Compression Strength – material’s resistance to being compressed
(7) Malleability – capability of material to be shaped and formed
(8) Toughness – ability ofmaterial to widthstand bending and twisting
(9) Grain size – microscopic mesurement of metal that shows differences in sizes that relates
directly to strengths
Non-Metallic Materials
(1) Wood
(2) Rubber - Material obtained from rubber tree.It is capable to withstand extreme deformability
with more or less complete recovery upon removal of deforming force.
Engineering applications: (shock, noise, and vibration control, Sealing, Corrosion protection,
Friction production, Electrical and thermal insulation, Waterproofing, Confining other
materials, Load bearing)
(4) Plastic - Large group of materials consisting of combination of carbon and oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and other organic and organic elements. Non-metallic material that can be molded
into shape. They are light in weight, resistance to deterioration by moisture, low elastic and
thermal conductivity, and good color range. They can be classified into thermoplastics and
thermo-setting plastics Examples Acrylic thermoplastics Epoxy, Flouroplastics, Nylon,
Phenolic Resin, Phenylene oxide, Polystyrene, Polyurethene, Polyvinyl chloride, Silicone
(5) Engineering Ceramics - Materials ranging from glass to furnace brick

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This includes ceramic oxides, glass-ceramics, carbides and nitrides

(6)Fibers - The oldest engineering material that includes jute, flax, and hemp.
Usually used for engineered products such as rope, cordage, nets, water hose, and containers.
Plant and animal fibers are used for felt, paper, brushes, and heavy structural cloth.
This includes metal fibers, glass fibers, and aramid fibers
(6) Glass - A non-crystalline or amorphous solid. Most glass are made from silica, lime, and
sodium carbonate. Types includes soda-lime glass, Borosilicate glass, lead-alkali glass,
aluminosilicate glass, silica glass, and fused silica.
Chapter III – MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Welding – It is the process of of joining pieces of metals together by means of heat, pressure, or
combination of both.
Welding Processes (Soldering, Brazing, Oxyacetylene Welding, Arc Welding, Resistance Welding, MIG
Welding, and TIG Welding)
Soldering
(1) common method of joining metal sheet especially non-ferrous metal
(2) Soldering is done at a relatively low temperature of 427 C compared with other methods such
as brazing and arch welding.
(3) In this process, the solder is usually half lead and half tin (50/50).
(4) Heat is supplied either from flame, electric heated soldering gun, or copper metal heated from
a blow torch or burner.
(5) Only clean metal joints can be successfully soldered.
(6) Flux is used to coat metal prior to welding to remove oxidation that occurs in the pieces of
metal to be joined.
(7) Fluxes are classified as corrosive (acid base) and non-corrosive (rosin base)
Brazing
(1) joining technique of metal using oxyacetylene welding equipment by melting a non-ferrous
filler rod at a temperature above 427 C but below the melting point of metal being joined
(2) Brazing is much stronger joint compared with soldering.
(3) In this process there is no melting of metal being joined.
(4) Bronze welding rods (60% copper and 40% zinc) are usually used to repair gray iron and
malleable cast iron.
(5) Commercial flux or borax powder (sodium borate) are usually used to remove oxidation from
the metal being joined.
(6) Similarly, this technique uses oxyacetylene gas welding equipment to melt the rod to join the
metals to be weld.
Oxyacetylene Welding
(1) It is the common for of gas welding process using oxygen and acetylene gases to provide heat
to melt and join metal by means of fusion.
Oxyacetylene Welding Equipment

(1) A cylinder of oxygen – The taller cylinder but smaller in diameter. At full, its pressure
reaches 2200 psi
(2) A cylinder of acetylene – Usually shorter and larger in diameter. The y are low pressure
cylinder that contain only about 250 psi.
(3) Regulator – It the special valve to properly mix the oxygen and the acetylene gas.
(4) Hose – This caries the gases from the cylinder to torch. Read hose is used for acetylene gas
while the green hose is used for the oxygen gas.
(5) Blow pipe or torch
(6) Lighter – It produces a spark to ignite the mixture of gases.
(7) Pair of tongs or pliers – This is used to hold hot metal together.
Resistance Welding
(1) It uses the heat generated by electric current passing through a small area of the metal being
joined.
(2) The pressure forces heated the area together until they have fused.
(3) Spot welding is the common form of resistance welding.
Arc Welding
(1) It is the process of welding metal by passing high current into a flux-coated welding rod.
The flux serves as shield to prevent oxidation to produce stronger weld.
(2) The arc welding electrodes melt and provide filler metal to the joint.
Arc Welding Electrode

Electrode Number Application
E6013* Mild Steel
E7025 Alloy Steel
E9030 Alloy Steel
*Good for beginners

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Electrode Diameter to Current Requirement for Electric Arc Welder

Electrode Currrent
Diameter (Amp)
(in.)
1/16 60
3/32 75
1/8 100
5/32 150
3/16 200
Welding Joints (Butt, Lap, Tee, Corner, Edge)

Welding Beads – This are the lines of metal blobs that look like string of beads.
(1) Thin metals are welded with single string of welding beads or with a bead on each side of the
joints.
(2) Thick metals are welded by providing a bevel and then weld are made with several
overlapping welding beads.
Welding Position (Flat, Horizontal, Vertical, Overhead)
MIG (Metal Innert Gas) Welding

(1) uses continuous roll-fed welding rod
(2) inert gas is used to protect the weld from oxidation
(3) For steel it uses carbon dioxide while for aluminum and other metals, a mixture of argon and
helium is used
(4) easier than arc welding in terms of heat setting, rate of wire feed, and mixture of gases.
TIG (Tungsten Innert Gas) Welding
(1) tungsten inert gas welding is widely used for welding aluminum, stainless steel and other non-
ferrous metals
(2) similar to oxyacetylene welding in that the filler rod is separate from the torch and is fed with
the opposite hand.
Heat Treatment – heating process for the purpose of structural changes or hardness etc of steel and cast iron
(1) Annealing – involves slow heating of mild steel above 1500 C until austination is completed
followed by cooling slowly to room temperature to refine grains thereby improving the
machinability
(2) Normalizing – employed to homogenize structure of cast iron and mild steel especially after
heavy forging to produce product with higher strength than annealing
(3) Quenching – increasing the hardness of steel by rapid cooling
(4) Tempering – used to control the strength and toughness of steel
Surface hardening – heating of material using flame or electricity followed by quenching to achieve the
necessary hardenability
Case Hardening – surface is impregnated with carbon or some other hardening agent to give hard surface
Casting Process – consist of introducing molten metal into a cavity or mold of desired form and allowing
the metal to solidify
Powder Metallurgy – consist of successive processes of mixing powder mechanically, compacting them at
high pressure into a preliminary shape, and heating them at elevated temperature but below the melting
point of the major consistuent
Forging – plastic deformatio of metals at elevated temperature into a predeermined size or shape using
compressive force exerted through some type of die or hammer, a press, or a an upsettubt machines
Cold Metal Working – working metal at temperature below their recrystalization temperatre
Chapter IV - COMPONENT PARTS OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES
Cam - a device that produces intermittent motion or a specific motion to a member called the follower
Bushings - replaceable lining for a bearing. Materials may be wood, babbitt, bronze, chilled iron, or other
materials.
Bolts - classified as machine, carriage, stove, and plow bolts. They are specified according to length,
diameter, and type thread: N.F. (national fine) or N.C. (national course).
(1) Machine bolts - have a square or hexagonal head with the stem of the bolt fitting into the head
without any change of diameter
(2) Carriage bolts - round or oval-surface head with a square shoulder underneath extending out
some half an inch, varying according to the size of the bolt
(3) Plow bolt - have many different kinds of heads; have from one to four shoulder-like points
that fit into the groove prepared for them in whatever material they are
(4) Stove bolts - short and are usually less than ¼ in (0.6 cm) in diameter; threads run close to
the head , which may be either flat or round; used for bolting thin metal together.

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Nuts –
(a)square nuts is used on the cheaper machines while hexagonal nuts is used on the higher-class
machines;
(b)Castellated nuts are used where vibration is likely to cause the nut to work loose,
(c) Wing nuts are used where it is necessary to remove a part frequently; Lock nuts are constructed
so that they automatically lock themselves in place.
Screws
(1) Cap screws (square, hexagonal, flat, or button-type heads); closely resemble a machine bolt
with the exception that they do not have a nut on the threaded end
(2) Lag screw - head like a machine bolt, while the other end is sharp; used to attach machinery
to floors or beams with the use of shield
(3) Wood screws - small and have slots across the head so that a screwdriver can be used to
force them into the wood
Washers (flat malleable-iron, cast-iron, wrought-iron, and spring-lock washers)

(1) Split-type lock washer
(2) Non-split (internal tooth and external tooth)
Fasteners - employed on farm machines to fasten or secure sprockets and pulleys to rotating shafts and to
secure other machine components to allow the parts to be assembled or disassembled without the use of
special tools and equipment
(1) Keys - used to fasten pulleys and sprockets to shafts
(2) Pins (hallow steel or tapered pins, cotter or split-key pins)
Spring - Extension springs aid in lifting and adjusting heavy implements; compression and torsion springs
facilitate the operation of certain parts of a machine.
Shafts - rotating members, usually of circular cross-section used to transmit power or motion
Standard shafts are usually designation 1020 (cold rolled) while special purpose stainless steel
shafts is designated 304 or 316
Shaft Horsepower
HP = NT / 63000 or HP = FV / 33000
Where: HP – power transmitted, hp
T - torque, in-lb
N - shaft speed, rpm
F - force, lb
V - velocity, ft/min
Shaft Force
F = T/r
Where: F - Shaft force, lb
T - torque, in-lb
R - shaft rasius, in.
Shaft Diameter
D = [ 16 T /  Sd] 1/3
Where: D - shaft diameter, in
T - torque, in-lb
Sd - design stress, 6000 psi
Distances of Bearings on Shaft

Size, mm 24-37 43-56 62-75 87-100 113-125
Distance Between 1.83 2.44 3.05 3.66 4.27
Bearings, m
Keys - to prevent relative movement of rotating members and the shafts or spindles to which they are
mounted
Classifications
1. Parallel keys – keys whose longitudinal sides are parallel with each other
a. Square
b. Rectangular
Key ends are classified into:
a. Both ends round
b. Both ends rectangular
c. One end round
2. Taper keys – keys with a tapered longitudinal section
a. Without gib head
b. With gib head
3. Woodruff keys – keys with a semi-circular cross-section

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a. Normal form
b. Whitney form
Key Length
L = F /  allow W
Where: L - length of key, in
F - force at shft forces, lb
W - key width, in
 allow - bearing stress, 25,000 psi
Key, Shaft, and Hub Assembly

Type Explanation Applicable Key
Sliding-type Assembly that shaft and hub can slide relatively in Parallel key
axial direction
Normal Type Assembly that hub is put into the key fixed on the Parallel key and woodruff
shaft key
Fastening-type Assembly that hub is fastened on the key fixed on Parallel key, taper key, and
the shaft or assembly that the key is driven in woodruff key
between the combined shaft and hub
Bearing - permits relative motion of two parts in one or two directions with a minimum of friction while
resisting motion in the direction of the applied loads
Classifications:
(1) Plain or Journal Bearing – loads are pass through the surfaces of the parts by sliding contact
or separated by lubricants.
(2) Anti-Friction Bearing – loads are pass through the surfaces of the parts by rolling contact.
Plain Bearing - designed to carry a radial load or to carry an axial or thrust load.
Components:
a. Journal – the inside cylindrical part which is rotating or oscillating shaft
b. Bearing – which is the stationary or mobile surrounding shell.
Advantages of Plain Bearings
1.Little or no service requirements
2. Lower cost.
3. Greater tolerances between the journal and the bearing
4. No elaborate enclosure requirements.
Rolling Contact Bearing - carry the load from the rotating shaft on balls or rollers.
Advantages:
1. Relatively accurate shaft alignment can be maintained over long period of time;
2. Friction is low except at high operating speeds;
3. Heavy momentary loads can be carried without failure;
4. Lubrication is simple and requires little attention;
5. They are suitable for low speeds;
6. Replacement in case of failure is easy; and
7. Starting friction and required torque are low.
Disadvantages:
1. The expense is generally greater because of the cost of the bearing and the necessary
provision for mounting;
2. Failure can occur without warning;
3. Resistance to shock load is lower; and
4. Sensitivity to dirt and foreign matter.
Classification of Rolling Contact Bearing

1. Ball Bearings
2. Roller Bearings (Cylindrical, Conical, Spherical, and Concave)
Load Carrying Types

1. Radial
2. Thrust or axial
3. Combination of radial and thrust
Component Parts of Bearing

1. Inner race – it is the grooved on its outer surface
2. Outer race – it is the grooved on its inner surface
3. Balls
4. Separator cage – spaces the balls and reduces wear and noise
5. Seals –to prevent the entrance of dirt and loss of lubricant
B. Roller Bearings
1. Cone
2. Cup

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3. Rollers
4. Cage
5. Seals – to prevent entrance of dirt and loss of lubricant
Bearing Life
Basic Parameters in Selecting Bearings:
1. Radial load
2. Thrust Load
3. Speed
4. Required life
5. Race rotation
6. Shock and vibration condition
Factors that affects service life
1. Misalignment
2. Abnormal temperature
3. Contamination and poor lubrication
Definitions of Terms
1. Rated load - it is the load that a bearing will carry for specific period when operating at a
given speed.
2. Life – it is the total number of revolution or hours that a bearing can withstand at a given
speed before any evidence of fatigue develop on the rolling elements or the races.
3. Rated Life - the number of hours or revolutions at which 90% of the bearing population will
exceed a given speed and load before the first evidence of fatigue develops. It is called the B-
10 life and minimum life.
4. Basic dynamic radial capacity – is the constant radial load that any bearing, in 990% of the
bearing population will carry for 500 hours at 33-1/3 rpm with out evidence of fatigue.
5. Basic dynamic thrust capacity – is the constant central thrust load that 90% of the bearings
will carry for 1 million revolutions
6. Basic static radial or thrust capacity – it is the maximum radial or thrust load that can be
imposed on a non rotating bearing without causing excessive permanent deformation of the
bearing elements.
Bearing Life Formula

L = [C/F] n
where:
L - bearing life, million revolutions
C - basic dynamic capacity, kgf
F - actual radial load, kgf
n - 3.33 for roller bearings, and 3 for ball bearings
Lh = 500 [ (106 / 3x104 N)0.33 ( C/P] n

where: Lh - bearing life, hours
C - basic dynamic capacity, kgf
F - actual radial load, kgf
N - speed, rpm
n - 3.33 for roller bearings, and 3 for ball bearings
Radial Load Acting on Shaft Formula
F = [KW x 19.1x10 6 x K] / [PDxRPM]

where: F - radial force on the shaft, N
KW - power transmitted, KW
PD - pitch diameter of sheave, sprocket, and so on, mm
RPM - speed of shaft, rpm
K - drive tension factor, 1 for chain drive and gears,
and 1.5 for V-belt drive
Types of Ball Bearing

(1) Single Row Radial – referred as deep groove bearing and normally sued for radial and thrust
load
(2) Double Row – provides heavy radial and light thrust load without increasing the outside
diameter of the bearing; 60-80% wider than the single row bearing
(3) Internal self-aligning double row – used primarily for radial load where self-alignment (+ or
-4 deg) is required
(4) Angular contact – designed to support the combined radial and thrust laod or heavy thrust
load depending on the contact-angle magnitude
Types of Roller Bearing
(1) Cylindrical roller – utilized 1:1 to 1:3 cylinder length/diametre ratio rolling element; normally
used for heavy radial loads
(2) Needle bearing –roller whose length is at least 4 times its diameter; useful where space is a
factor
(3) Tapered –used for heay radial and thrust loads

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(4) Spherical – excellent for heavy radial and moderate thrust thrust laod; they are internal self
alignment type
Bearing Failures
1. Improper lubrication
2. Faulty mounting
3. Improper maintenance or handling
4. Intrusion of foreign matters
Rules in the Use of Lubricants

Grease is use when:
(1) Temperature is not over 93 C
(2) Spped are low
(3) Unusual Protection is required from the entrace of debris
(4) Simple bearing seals are desired
(5) Ope3ration for long period without attention is required
Oil is used when:

(3) The temperature os over 93 C
(4) Speed are high
(5) Oiltight seal are readily employed
(6) Bearing type is not suitable for grease
(7) The beraing is lubricated from central supply that is also used for other machine parts.
Chapter V - POWER TRANSMISSION DRIVE
Classifications of Power Transmission Drive

(1) Belt and pulley
(a) Flat belt and pulley
(b) V-belt and sheaves
(2) Sprocket and Chain
(a) Roller chain
(b) Pintle and other chain
(3) Gears
(a) Gears for parallel shaft
(b) Gears of perpendicular shaft
(c) Gear Boxes
(4) Direct Drive
(a) Coupler
(b) Flexible Shafting
(c) Universal Joint
Belt and Pulley
(1) Belt and pulley drive is the most simple method of transmitting power in agricultural
machines.
(2) It is widely adopted in driving various production and postproduction parts of agricultural
machines.
(3) Cost of transmitting power is very much lower compared with sprocket and chain and gear
drives.
Classifications of Belt and Pulley Drive

(1) Flat Belt – a flexible material which are band on two or more pulleys where power is
transmitted from driver to the driven pulley. Power transmission primarily depends on the friction between
the belt and the pulley surfaces.
(2) V Belt – a transmission system that consists of an endless flexible belt that transmit power by
contacting and gripping the sheaves which are keyed to the shaft of a driving and the driven machine.
Characteristics Flat Belt and Pulley Drive

(1) Suitable for high speed drives.
(2) Adaptable to dusty and abrasive environment.
(3) Transmit power on a long distance shaft.
(4) Longer life, high efficiency, low cost, and low maintenance.
(5) Also applicable for short distance drive by using pivoted or spring actuated motor bases.
Characteristics of V-Belt and Sheave Drive

(1) Suitable for long center distance drive.
(2) Ability to transfer heavy tensile load.
(3) Usually used to transmit power between parallel shaft. In some cases they can also be used for
non-parallel drive.
(4) Applicable for single or in multiple sheaves.
(5) Prone to elongation because of wear and operation, hence there is a need of mechanism to
maintain the proper tension to take up the belt slacks.

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(6) They rotate with slip and creep condition, therefore, the angular velocity between the two shaft
is neither constant nor exactly equal to the ratio of the sheave pitch diameter. Power losses
caused by slip and creep ranged from 3 to 5 % for most belt drives.
(7) They allow an efficient and easily operated method of varying the angular velocity ratio by
employing spring loaded adjustable-width sheaves. The diameter of the sheave is a function of
the belt tension.
Types of Belt
(1) Flat Belt – It is used to transmit rotary motion and power between two shafts which lie flat on
the face of the corresponding pulley.
(2) Narrow V Belt – It is a belt with trapezoidal cross-section to transmit rotary motion to
parallel shafts.
Belt Materials
(1) Leather – It can carry significant load up to 500 hp and can provide long service life.
However, they are costly, they must be cleaned and dressed. They are also prone to stretch
and shrink. They are normally limited to low or moderate speed.
(2) Rubberized fabric or cord - This is a combination of both fabric and chord reinforcement
provides the strength of chord reinforcement and the abrasion resistance of fabric.
V-Belt Specifications
Type Width (mm) Height (mm) Power Range

(watts)
A 13 8 186 – 1,457
B 16 10 764 – 18,642
C 22 13 11,186 – 74,570
D 32 19 37,285 – 186,425
E 38 25 74,570 and above
Note Agricultural v-belt is designated with the type having letter H. Example HA, HB, etc
Ordering Belts
(1) Flat belts are ordered according to the material, width and number of plies. Example, canvas
type flat belt 4 inches wide, 4 plies.
(2) V-belts are ordered according to brand, type, (A, B, C, D, E, etc) and length. Example,
Mitsubishi B-52 belt means type B with circumferential length of 52 inches.
Pulleys and Sheaves

(1) Pulleys and sheaves are used to transmit the power from the belt to the shaft.
(2) They are generally made of cast iron. However, there are steel pulleys that are also available
and are made in various sizes and combinations.
(3) Pulley and sheaves should be carefully selected to fit the need and requirement of a drive.
Classifications of Belt Drive

(1) Open belt drive
a. Pulley shaft are parallel with each other
b. Pulley have the same direction
c. Shorter belt length
d. Samller arc of contact of belts on two pulley
e. Suitable for v-belt and flat belt drive
(2) Cross belt Drive
a. Pulley shat are parallel with each other
b. Pulley direction asre opposite
c. Requires longer belt length
d. Higer arc of contact of belts on pulleys
e. Suitable for flat belt or special type of v-belt
(3) Quarter Turn Drive
a. Pulley shaft are perpendicular with each other
b. Requires longfer belt than open belt drive
c. Relatively higher arc of contact between belt and pulley
d. Suitable for flat belt or special type of v-belt
Pulley Speed and Diameters

N1 D1 = N2 D2
Where: N1 - speed of the driver pulley, rpm
N2 - speed pf driven pulley, rpm
D1 - diameter of driver pulley, in.
D2 - diameter of driven pulley, in.
Speed Ratio
SR = N1/N2
Where: Sr - speed ratio
N1 - speed of driver pulley, rpm
N2 - speed of driven pulley, rpm

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Belt Velocity (linear speed of belt)

Vb = 0.262 D N
Where: Vb - belt velocity, fpm
D - pulley diameter, in
N - pulley speed, rpm
Belt Length
(1) Open Drive L = 2C + 1.57 (D1+D2) + (D1-D2)2 / 4C
(2) Crossed Drive L = 2C + 1.57 (D1+D2) + (D1+D2)2/ 4C
(3) Quarter Turn Drive L = 1.57 (D1+D2) + (C2+D12) + (C2 + D22)
where: L - length of belt, in.

C - center distance between pulleys, in.
D1 - diameter of driver pulley, in.
D2 - diameter of driven pulley, in.
Sprocket and Chain Drive

(1) consists of an endless chain whose links engage the teeth of sprocket keyed to the shaft of the
driving and driven mechanism.
(2) used to transmit power and to synchronize motion or maintain a fixed-speed ratio between
rotating shafts.
(3) chain and sprocket drives are commonly used in the construction of transmission boxes for
power and puddling-type floating tillers.
Characteristics
(1) Shaft distances are unrestricted, i.e. the drive is well suited for long and short-center
distances.
(2) It do not creep or slip.
(3) They maintain a positive speed ratio between the driver and the driven shafts
(4) They are more physically more compact than belt drive
(5) They require more accurate alignment of the shaft and the sprockets.
(6) Arc of contact is smaller for chains than for belts.
(7) They are more practical for low speed.
Types of Chain
(1) Detachable Chain
(2) Pintle Chain
(3) They are used for slightly higher speed (up to about 450 fpm) and heavier loads
(4) They are made of individual cast ling having full round barrel end with offset sidebars.
Sprockets Types
(1) plain plate
(2) with hub on one side only
(3) with hub on both sides
(4) detachable hub
Selection of Chain and Sprockets

(1) Smallest applicable chain number is suitable for high speed and quite operation.
(2) Power capacity varies with chain pitch.
(3) Short pitch with high working load can be obtained by the use of multiple strand chain.
(4) Smallest sprocket selected must be large enough to accommodate the shaft.
Useful Terms
(1) Chain Pitch – difference between adjacent joint members
(2) Pitch Diameter – diameter of the pitch circle that passes through the centers of the link pins as
the chain wrapped on the sprocket
Chain and Sprocket Size

(1) size of chain and sprocket drive is designated as RC Number
(2) the higher the chain number the larger is the loading capacity of the drive
(3) Biycycle chain ususally used RC 10 while RC 40 to 60 are commonly used for power tiller
transmission boxes
Sprocket Speed
Nr T r = Nn Tn
Where: Nr - speed of driver sprocket, rpm
Tr - number of teeth of driver sprocket
Nn - speed of driven sprocket, rpm
Tn - number of teeth of driven sprocket
Speed Ratio
Sr = Nr/Nn
Chain Velocity
V = p T N / 376
Where: p - chain pitch, in
T - number of teeth of sprocket

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N - sprocket speed, rpm

Length of Chain
L = 2 C + [(Tl – Ts) / 2 ] + [(Tl-Ts)/ 4 2 C ]
Where: L - length of chain, pitches
C - center distance between shafts, pitch
Tl - number of teeth of large sprocket
Ts - number of teeth of small sprocket
Chain Pull
Fc = 1000 P/V
Where: Fc - chain full, kg
P - chain power, kW
V - chain velocity, m/s
Factors Causing Chain Tension

(1) Pull required for power transmission.
(2) Centrifugal force generated as the chain travels around the sprockets and over the curved path
between sprockets.
(3) Catenary effect caused by the weight of the chain between sprockets.
(4) Chordal action.
Factors Affecting Rate of Chain Elongation

(1) Chain tension.
(2) Projected bearing area.
(3) Smoothness and hardness of the contacting surfaces.
(4) Frequency and type of lubrication.
(5) Frequency and degree of articulation in the chain joints.
(6) Dust, dirt, and other abrasive or corrosive materials
Lubrication
(1) Manual Lubrication – Oil is supplied periodically with brush or spout can once every 8 hours
of operation.
(2) Drip Lubrication – Oil drops are directed between the link plate edges from a drip lubricator.
(3) Bath or Disc Lubrication – The lower strand of chain runs through a sump of oil in the drive
housing
(4) Oil Stream Lubrication – The lubricant is usually supplied by a circulating pump capable of
supplying each chain drive with a continuous stream of oil.
Gear Drive
(1) most durable and rugged of all mechanica drives
(2) can transmit high power at efficiencies up to 98%
Gear size is normally defined in terms of pitch circle or pitch diameter

Addendum – height of gear tooth beyond the pitch circle
Dedendum – dpeth of tooth below the pitch circle
Circular pitch – spacing of the gear teeth measured along the pitch circle
Gear depth – sum of the addendum and dedendum
Diametral pitch – ratio of the number of teeth to the ptich diameter in inches
Gear with parallel shafts (spur, Helical, Harmonic drive, Planocentric)

Gear with intersecting shafts (worm, beveloid, hypoid, face, helicon. Spiral bevel, zerol, crossed helical,
spiroid, cavex worm, cone drive)
Speed Ratio
SR = N1/N2
Where: N1 - rpm of driver gear
N2 - rpm of driven gear
Design Power
Pd = Pr x SF
Where: Pr - required power, kW
SF - service factor, 1.0 to 1.6 for type of load and 0.2 to 1.0 for type of lubrication
Summary of Gear Types

Type Applications Advantages Disadvantages
External spur Parallel shafting Moderate cost Small contact ratio
Moderate speeds No end thrust
Internal spur Parallel shafting Short centers Difficult mounting
Moderate speeds Large contact ratio Expensive
Same shaft directions Partial safety guard
No end thrust
Helical Parallel shafting Quiet operation End thrust
High speeds High load-carrying capacity
Herringbone Parallele shafting No end thrust Expensive

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Heavy duty Large tooth contact

High load-carrying capacity
Bevel types
Straight tooth Angular drives Moderate cost Difficult mounting
Moderate speeds
Zerol Angular drives Long gear life Expensive
Smooth and quiet Difficult mounting
Low stress concentration at
tooth tip
Spiral Right-angle drives Good tooth meshing Expensive
High speeds High load-carrying capacity Difficult mounting
Hypoid Nonintersecting shafts Mounting rigidity possible Expensive
Right-angle drives High load-carrying capacity
Worm gears Nonintersecting shafts High ratios Difficult mounting
Right-angle drives Quiet operation
High load-carrying capactiy
Compact
Self-locking possible
Rack and pinion Rotary to linear or Compact Difficult mounting
linear to rotary Slow speeds
Small contact ratio
Couplers
(1) Used to connect sections of shafts or to connect a driver shaft end by end to a driven shaft of a
machine.
(2) should be capable of transmitting the rated torque capacity of the shaft while accommodating
any misalignment between shafts.
(3) Classifications of coupling
(a) Rigid couplings – suitable for low speeds and accurately aligned shafts
(b) Flexible coupling
- used to take care of a small amount of unintentional alignment
- used to provide for axial movement of a shaft (end float)
- used to alleviate shock by providing transfer of power through springs or absorb
some of the vibration in the coupling.
(4) Diameter of the hub should be approximately 1.75 to 2 times the diameter of the shaft.
Chapter VI - AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY MANAGEMENT
Field efficiency - Ratio of effective field capacity to field capacity, expressed in percent.
f = (efc/tfc) x 100
where: f - field efficiency, %
efc - effective field capacity, ha/hr
tfc - theoretical field capacity, ha/hr
Functional efficiency - Ratio of the actual effectiveness of a machine to its theoretical effectiveness,
expressed in percent. Threshing efficiency of a combine is an example of a functional efficiency.
fn = (efc/tfc) x 100
where: f - field efficiency, %
aem - actual effectiveness of machine, kg/hr
tem - theoretical effectiveness of the machine, kg/hr
Effective field capacity - Actual rate of land processed in a given time.
efc = f (0.1 W V)
Where efc - effective field capacity, ha/hr
fn - field efficiency, decimal
W - implement width, m
V - implement velocity, kph
Theoretical field capacity - Rate of the performance obtained if machine performs its function 100% of the
time at a given operating speed using 100% of its theoretical width.
tfc = (0.1 W V)
Where efc - effective field capacity, ha/hr
W - implement width, m
V - implement velocity, kph
Field speed - Average rate of machine travel in the field during an uninterrupted period of functional
activity. For example, functional activity would be interrupted when the implement is raised out of the soil.
Field time - The time a machine spends in the field measured from the start of functional activity to the
time the functional activity for the field is completed.
Economic life of machine - The useful service life of a machine before it becomes unprofitable for its
original purpose due to obsolescence of wear.
Field load factor - The ratio of engine power used in performing an operation to engine power available.
Effective operating width - The width over which the machine actually works. It may be more or less than
the measured width of the machine.
Theoretical operating width - The measured width of the working portion of a machine. For row crop
machines, it is the average row width times the number of rows.
Individual operation - Operating one or more similar machines as one unit.

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Parallel operation - Causing two or more similar machines to perform their respective functions
simultaneously.
Series operation - Causing two or more machines to perform their respective functions in sequence; each
machine operation, except the first, it is dependent upon previous operations, and stopping one machine
would halt all subsequent machines.
System machines - An arrangement and use of two or more machines to achieved a desired output.
Timeliness - Ability to perform an activity at such a time that crop return is optimized considering quantity
and quality of product.
Timeliness coefficient - A factor used to estimate the reduction in crop return (quantity and quality) due to
lack of timeliness in performing an activity.
Custom cost, machine - The amount paid for hiring equipment and operator services to perform a certain
task. Custom cost normally include a charge for the operation of the basic machine, and may or may not
include supplemental labor and equipment for such tasks as handling into storage or transport of a
harvested crop, transportation of seed or fertilizer to the field, etc. Charges may be determined on the basis
of area, time, transport distance or quantity of crop processed.
Operating costs, machine - Costs which depend directly on the amount of machine use. Examples are
labor, fuel, lubrication, and repair and maintenance costs.
Ownership costs, machine - The costs which do not depend on the amount of machine use. Examples are
depreciation, interest on investment, taxes, insurance, and storage.
Total cost, machine - The sum of ownership and operating costs.
Actual depreciation - Change in value of a machine.
Estimated depreciation - The change in value as determined by the difference between purchase price and
estimated future vale, both in constant dollars.
Straight line, declining balance, sum of years' digits depreciation - Methods to spread the change in
machine value over the economic life of the machine. This method may disagree with estimated
depreciation.
Lease - A lease in a contract for the use of a machinery for an agreed period of time in return for periodic
payments. Ownership remains with the lessor. The lessee acquires the right of temporary possession and
use.
Obsolescence - The process of becoming obsolete.
Obsolete - The condition of a machine when it is either out of production and parts to repair and update it
are not available from normal suppliers, or it can be replaced by other machine or method that will produce
greater profit.
Price - Market value per unit. Examples are the price of grain, usually dollars per unit measure; of labor,
dollars per hour; or machines, dollars per machine.
Rent - A rental agreement is a short-term contract that permits the use of machinery in exchange for a fee.
Gross - The return for sale of a service or product and the value received for a service or product before
expenses are deducted.
Net - The return for sale of a service or product and the value received for a service or product, less all
expenses except income taxes.
Continuous duty - A service requirement that demands operation for an indefinitely long period of time.
Failure - The inability of a machine to perform its function under specified field and crop conditions.
Fuel consumption, specific - The fuel consumed by an engine to deliver a given amount of energy
(kilograms of fuel per kilowatt-hour).
Maintenance and service - Periodic activities to prevent premature failure and to maintain good functional
performance. Examples are refueling, changing oil and filters, cleaning, lubricating, and adjusting
components.
Major overhaul - Extensive rebuilding which extends the useful life of a machine, increases its value or
adapts the machine for a different use.
Repair - Restoring a machine to operative condition after breakdown, excessive wear, or accidental
damage. Repairs are less extensive than major overhauls and normally do not alter the value of the
machine.
Operating Cost Analysis

Investment Cost (IC) Machine, prime mover, and shed Cost
Fixed Cost
Depreciation = (IC – 0.1IC)/ (LS 365)
Interest on Investment = 0.24 IC/365
Repair and maintenance = 0.10 IC / 365
Insurance = 0.03 IC / 365
Total Fixed Cost = Dep + Interest + R & M + Ins
Variable Cost
Labor = No. of person x Rate/day
Fuel = Amt of fuel used x Cost of fuel
Gasoline/diesel/electricity = Fuel consumed (lpd) x Fuel Cost (P/liter)
Total Var Cost = Labor + Fuel + Gasoline
Total Cost = TFC + TVC
Capacity Hactare/day or kg/day
Operating Cost Peso per hectare or Peso per kilogram
Cost-Return Analysis
Investment Cost
Annual Fixed Cost = total fixed cost (P/day) x 365
Annual Variable Cost = total variable cost (P/day) x operating period per year

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Annual Cost = annual fixed cost + annual variable cost

Annual Net Income = (Custom rate – Operating Cost) x operating period
Return on Investment = (Annual Net Income / Investment Cost) x 100
Payback Period = Investment Cost / Annual Net Income
Benefit Cost Ratio = Annual Net Income / Annual Cost
Chapter VII - AGRICULTURAL TRACTORS

Characteristics
1. Standard tractor – two-wheel drive has a center of gravity located one-third of the wheel base
ahead of the rear axle while for four wheel drive tractor, the center of gravity is located at the
mid center of the tractor.
2. General-purpose tractor - generally smaller and has more accessories: adjustable wheels and
automatic controlled, quick hitching three point hitch, easy exchanged of implements and
wheel tread.
Classification of Tractors
1. Use (Farm or agricultural, Industrial, Forestry, Military, and Earth working)
2. Farm Tractor (Standard, General purpose, All purpose, Utility, Row crop, Special, Orchard,
vineyard, Lawn)
3. Running Gear (Wheel - two wheel, tricycle, four wheel; Crawler - Track layer; and Semi
Crawler- Half Track )
4. Type ( Walking Garden; Riding; Tool Carrier; Tandem; Compact-mini; Large, Extra large,
Super large; Frameless, Unit construction; Frame, Chassis construction.
5. Drive (Rear wheel drive; Four wheel drive -unequal wheel)
6. Steering (Front wheel; Rear wheel; Articulated frame; Four wheel; Crab; Front axle; and
Skid steering)
7. Engine (Diesel; and Gasoline)
Functions of Four Wheel Tractor

1. Pulling machines behind it
2. Pushing machine in front of it
3. Operating machine mounting on it
4. Transmitting power to other machines through its power take-off
5. Raising, lowering, and controlling machines and attachment by its hydraulic power.
6. Driving machines through belt power
7. Transmitting power through flexible shaft.
8. Furnishing power for fast high way transportation and hauling.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Tractors

1. Can work continuously at heavy loads.
2. Not affected by bad weather.
3. Adapted to draft, belt and power take-off work.
4. Has considerable range of working speed.
5. Little attention required when not in use.
6. Requires no fuel when not in use.
7. Quickly available when needed in an emergency.
8. Requires small storage space.
9. Requires cash expenditures for fuel and lubricants.
10. Limited overload capacity.
11. Requires some mechanical skill successful operation.
12. Inflexibility of size of power unit for economical power production under some condition.
Classifications of Agricultural Tractors

1. Compact Tractor
– four-wheeled tractor of less than 20 hp brake horsepower
– used for land scraping and gardening rather than for massive agricultural works
– equipped with single 12-in moldboard plow and capable to plow 1 hectare within 11 to 14
hours.
2. Farm Tractor
– four-wheeled tractor with no less than 20 hp brake horsepower
– classified into: two-wheel, front wheel assisted, and four wheel drive.
3. Special Type of Tractor
(a) Tractor-type tractor
– consist mainly of two heavy-duty endless, metal link device known as tracks for
traction purposes
– for heavy-duty operation such as earth-moving and industrial jobs requiring higher
power.
(b) All purpose or row crop tractor
- designed to handle field and belt jobs including the planting and inter-tillage
activities
- have greater clearance both on horizontal and vertical, easy to adapt on usual row
width drop, quick and short turning ability, convenient and easy to handle, quick and
easy attachment and removal of field implements and attachment, equipped with
power lift and power take-off units.

17
(c) Orchard tractors

– small and medium size tractor designed for operation with advantage under trees
– built with lower and few projecting parts and has fenders for protection purposes.
Determination of Tractor Size is Based on:

1. Weight
2. Horsepower
2. Implement capacity
Construction and Main System of Tractor

1. Engine
a. Cylinder, cylinder head
b. Piston, piston ring, piston pin
c. Connecting rod
d. Crank shaft, crank gear, timing gear, fly wheel
e. Valve system (valve, cam gear, cam shaft, push rod, rocker arm fuel system (fuel
tank, fuel pipe line, fuel transfer
f. pump, fuel filter, injection pump, injection nozzle; for gasoline - carburetor, choke
valve, throttle valve)
g. Electric system (ignition system for gasoline engine, generating system, starting
system, battery and lighting system)
h. Cooling system (radiator, water pump, water jacket, fan, thermostat, pipe
connection)
i. Lubricating system (Oil pump, oil line, oil gauge, filter)
j. Governor system
(a) Centrifugal governor - controlled by centrifugal force on weight
(b) Hydraulic governor - controlled by hydraulic pressure from pump
(c) Pneumatic governor - controlled by negative air pressure in suction
(d) Electronic governor - controlled by electro-magnetic force.
Tractor Power Performance

Drawbar power = 0.75 to 0.81 x net engine power
= 0.92 to 0.93 x axle power
= 0.86 to 0.89 x power take off horsepower
Power take off power = 0.87 to 0.90 x net engine power
= 0.90 to 0.92 x transmission power
Axle power = 0.85 to 0.89 x transmission power
= 0.94 to 0.96 x power take off horsepower
Transmission power = 0.96 to 0.98 x net engine power
Turbo Charge of Tractor Engine

Increases the output of the tractor engine by about 20%.
Functions of Power Transmission and Power Take-off System

1. transmit engine power to the wheel axle and PTO shaft
2. change the engine torque and speed into high torque and low speed required by wheels and
PTO shaft
Clutch - drive used to contact and disconnects the tractor engine from its power train so that the gear can be
shifted or the tractor can be stopped without stopping the engine
Differential - special arrangement of gears so that it will permit one driving member to rotate slower or
faster than the other and permit operation of driving wheels at different speed for easy turn
Differential lock - improve its traction and to keeps it direction stable during running condition
Final drive - gear reduction located in the power train between the differential and the driving wheels and
transmits power of low speed and large torque to the rear axle and wheels
Power Take-Off Shaft (PTO)

- used for driving field machines such as rotary tiller, hay baler, corn picker, and in stationary
position such as self-unloading forage wagon, irrigation pumps and others
- PTO standards
a. 540 rpm power take-off shaft - 35 mm diameter PTO shaft, 6 spline.
b. 1000 rpm power take-off shaft - 35 mm diameter PTO shaft, 21 spline.
c. 1000 rpm power take-off shaft - 45 mm diameter PTO shaft, 20 spline.
Classifications of Hitch System and Controls

1. Drawbar hitch type - for large, heavy implement or trailers

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a. fixed type
b. swinging drawbar
c. link drawbar
2. Semi-mounted type - for planter, cultivator, etc.
3. Direct mounted or integral type - three point hitch system
4. Direct connected type - for rotary tiller
Wheel Type
1. Rubber tire - pneumatic tire or solid tire
2. Steel wheel - lug wheel, cage wheel
3. Auxiliary - strike, girdle, half track, float lug, additional wheel, wheel weight
4. Drive - rear wheel, four wheel drive
Inflation pressure of tractor tire ranged from 1.5 to 2 kg/cm2 for front tire and 0.8 to 1.3 kg/cm2 for rear
tire.
Drawbar Pull
- one of the most important factors in the performance of the tractor
- plowing and other land preparation, and transport operations are affected by the drawbar
performance of the tractor.
- affected by the wheel slip and the engine power
- affected by the tractor weight and type, the type and shape of the running gears or wheel, condition
of the ground surface, inflation pressure of tires, and others.
Coefficient of traction ranged from 32-75% depending on the condition of the ground
while wheel slip ranged from 5 to 16%
Running Resistance
- sum total of all the resistance acting on the tractor
- includes the rolling resistance for the soil surface, air resistance, acceleration resistance, slope
resistance, etc.
R = Cr x W
where: R - rolling resistance, kgf
Cr - coefficient of rolling resistance, 0.01 to 0.4 for wheel type and
0.05 to 0.12 for crawler type
W - weight of tractor, kgf
Engine output, axle power, PTO power and mechanical efficiency of tractors
Pw = m Pe
PPTO = m Pe
where: Pe - engine power, kw
Pw - wheel axle power, kw
PPTO - PTO power, kw
m - mechanical efficiency, 0.75 to 0.95
Wheel axle torque, thrust, drawbar pull, and rolling resistance of tractors
T = 1000 N / 2 n
where: T - wheel axle torque, N-m
n - rpm of wheel axle, rpm
N - wheel axle power, kw
Wheel axle power, wheel axle power, and traction efficiency of tractors
Pd = Pw - Pl = Pw - (Ps + Pr)
where: Pd - drawbar power or effective power, kw
Pl - lost power, kw
Ps - lost power by slip of wheel, kw
Pr - lost power by rolling resistance, kw
Traction efficiency, d
d = Pd/ Pw
where: d - traction efficiency
Pd - drawbar power, kw
Useful Terms
(1) Ballast - mass that can be added or removed for the purpose of changing total load or load
distribution.
(2) Flotation - ability to resist sinkage in the surface being traversed.
(3) Load Transfer - change in the distribution of the force normal to the undistributed supporting
surface on which the traction or transport devices are operating as compared to forces for static
vehicle

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(4) Towing Force - force required in the direction of travel to overcome the resistance from the
supporting surface and the internal resistance of the device.
(5) Rolling resistance - difference between gross traction and net traction; accounts for all energy
losses of a traction device not attributed to slip
(6) Drawbar Power - product of the drawbar pull and the vehicle velocity in the direction of travel
(7) Drawbar Pull - force in the direction of travel produced by vehicle at the drawbar or hitch
(8) Sinkage - Deformation of the supporting surface normal to the direction of travel of the traction
or transport devices
(9) Traction Device - for propelling a vehicle using forces from supporting surface; maybe a wheel,
tire, track, or belt
(10) Tractive Efficiency - ratio of the output power to input power.
(11) Input Power - product of the input torque and angular velocity of the driving axle of a traction
device
(12) Output Power - product of the net traction and of a traction device.
(13) Ply Rating - identification of a given tire with the maximum recommended load when used in a
specific type service
Travel Reduction or Slip

S = (An – Al) x 100 /Al
where: S - slip, %
An - the advance under no load conditions per wheel or tract revolution, m
Al - the advance under actual load conditions per wheel or tract revolution, m
Minimum slip range for maximum tractive efficiency

Concrete - 4-8%
Firm Soil - 8-10%
Tilled Soil - 11-13%
Soft Soil and Sand - 14-16%
Chapter VIII - TILLAGE EQUIPMENT
Soil tillage - influenced the biological, chemical, and physical characteristics of the soil in such a way as to
create the optimum conditions for the germination and development of the plants.
Groups of Tillage Operation

1. Stubble or Post Harvest Cultivation – consist of shallow operations carried out shortly after the
harvest to clear the field of weed and crop residue and to restore the soil structure
2. Main Tillage – normally the deepest operation that is performed during the period between two
crops to control weeds, restore the soil structure in the arable layer where most of the roots
develop and to prepare the land for seedbed preparation
3. Seedbed Preparation – shallow operation intended to prepare the seedbed or make the soil
suitable for planting
4. Crop Management Tillage Operation - very shallow operation aimed to control weeds, break
up surface crust to improve water infiltration and crop emergence and for forming ridges that
encourage early growth and facilitate the harvesting of root crops
Principal Objectives of Soil Tillage

1. Elimination and permanent control of the original vegetation (often considered as weeds);
2. Creations of conditions favoring the germination, and emergence and growth of the cultivated
plants; and
3. Conservation and improvements of the soil as the growth medium cultivated crops.
Types of basic operations involved during tillage operation:

1. Reduction of volume (compaction) of the soil;
2. Cutting of soil;
3. Shear plane formation (crumbling, pulverization) in the soil;
4. Transport or movement of soil from one place to another place; and
5. Deformation of the soil mass.
Factors Affecting the Energy Requirement in Tillage Operations

1. Soil type
2. Condition of the soil (moisture content, bulk density, structure)
3. Shape, working depth and speed of tool
4. Climatic conditions
5. The extent to which the power source and implement or tool match
6. Correct adjustment or use of the implements
Criteria in Choosing the Correct implement for Tillage Operation

1. Trouble-free performance under the given conditions (implement effect) taking the entire
sequence of implement into considerations;
2. Potential side-effects which maybe expected such as weed control, soil compaction, erosion,
salinization, mineralization, decomposition of humus, loss of conservation of water;
3. Sufficient capacity to cover the entire are in the time available, allowing for the size, shape
and accessibility of the fields;

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4. Compatibility with the available tractor(s), the implements, available p.t.o, power, carrying
and lifting capacities, standards and mounting systems:
5. Maintenance requirements, supplies of spare parts, standardization;
6. Labor requirements;
7. Need to instruct the operators in using and servicing the equipment; and
8. Available results of international recognized testing methods and practical test.
Kinds of Tillage Operation

1. Broadcast Tillage – tillage of an entire area as contrasted to a partial tillage as in bands or
strips.
2. Deep Tillage – primary tillage operation which manipulates soil to a greater depth than
300mm.
3. Earth Moving – tillage action and transport operations utilized to loosen, load, carry, and
unload soil.
4. Land Forming – tillage operation which move soil to create desired soil configurations.
5. Land Grading – tillage operation which move soil to establish a desired soil elevation and
slope.
6. Land Planing – tillage operation that cuts and moves small layers of soil to provide smooth,
refined surface condition.
7. Oriented Tillage – tillage operation which are oriented in specific paths or directions with
respect to the sun, prevailing winds, previous tillage actions, or field base lines.
8. Rotary Tillage – tillage operation employing power-driven rotary action to cut, break up, and
mix soil.
9. Soil Cultivation – shallow tillage operation performed to promote growth of crop plants by
creating a soil condition conducive to aeration, infiltration, and moisture conservation or to
pest control.
10. Tillage – mechanical manipulation of soil for any desired purpose.
11. Primary Tillage – tillage, which constitutes the initial major soil-working operation, normally
designed to reduce soil strength, cover plant materials, and rearrange aggregates.
12. Secondary Tillage – tillage, following primary tillage, which are designed to control weed
growth and to create specific soil surface configurations before seeding.
13. Tillage Depth – tool depth, vertical distance from the initial soil surface to a specified point of
penetration of the tool.
Tillage Systems
1. Conservation Tillage – system that maintains a minimum of 30% residue cover on the soil
surface after planting or maintains at least 1,100 kg/ha of flat small grain residue equivalent
on the soil surface during the critical erosion period.
2. Conventional Tillage – System traditionally performed in preparing a seedbed for a given
crop and grown in a given geographical area.
3. Minimum Tillage – system wherein least soil manipulation is performed.
4. Mulch Tillage – system in which tillage of the total soil surface is performed in such a way
that plant residue is specifically left on or near the soil surface.
5. Optimum Tillage – idealized system which permits a maximized net return for a given crop
under given conditions.
6. Precision Tillage – subsoiling under the plant row prior to planting usually intended for
subsurface drainage.
7. Reduced Tillage – system in which the primary tillage operation is performed in conjunction
with special planting procedures in order to reduce or eliminate secondary tillage operations.
8. Reservoir Tillage – system in which the large number of depressions or small reservoirs are
form to hold rain or sprinkler applied water.
9. Ridge Tillage – system in which the ridges are formed during cultivation or after harvest and
maintained from year to year in the same location.
10. Strip Tillage – system in which only isolated bands of soil is tilled.
Specific Tillage Operation

1. Anchoring – tillage to partially bury and thereby prevent movement of materials such as plant
residues or artificial mulches.
2. Bedding – (ridging, listing), tillage which forms a ridge and furrow soil configuration.
3. Bulldozing – pushing or rolling of soil by a steeply inclined blade.
4. Chisel Plowing – tillage in which a narrow curved shank is used.
5. Combined tillage operations- operations simultaneously utilizing two or more different
types of tillage tools or implements ( subsoil-lister, lister-planter combinations) to simplify,
control or reduce the number of trips over a field.
6. Harrowing – operation which pulverizes, smooths, and firm the soil.
7. Incorporating or mixing – operation which mix or disperse foreign materials, such as
pesticides, fertilizers or plant residues into the soil.
8. Middle Breaking or hilling-up – operation wherein a lister is used in a manner that forms a
furrow midway between two previous rows of plants.
9. Off barring – operation that cuts and throws the soil away from the base of plants.
10. Moldboard Plowing – operation which performed cut the soil with partial or complete soil
inversion.
11. Residue Processing – operation that cut, crush, anchor or otherwise handle residues in
conjunction with soil manipulation.

21
12. Subsoiling – deep tillage, below 350 mm for the purpose of loosening soil for root growth
and/or water movement.
13. Vertical Mulching – operation I which a vertical band of mulching material is injected into the
slit immediately behind a tillage tool shank.
Tillage Equipment
1. General-Purpose Tillage Implement – implement performing functions simultaneously that of
initial cutting, breaking and pulverizing the soil.
2. Plow-Harrow – Implement which works under the combined principles of the regular disc
plow and harrow.
3. Rotary Tiller – implement used for broadcast or strip tillage and is also used as a chemical
incorporator and as row crop cultivator.
4. Spiral Plow or rotary plow – implement which consists of two horizontal power driven spiral
flanged shafts which rotate vertically.
5. Primary Tillage Implement – implement used for cutting, displacing and/or shattering the soil
to reduce soil strength and to bury or mix plant materials, pesticides, and fertilizers in the
tillage layer.
6. Chisel Plow – implement which shatters the soil without complete burial or mixing of surface
materials.
7. Disc Plow – implement with individually mounted concave disc blades which cut, partially or
completely invert a layer of soil to bury surface material, and pulverize the soil.
8. Moldboard Plow – implement which cuts, partially or completely inverts a layer of soil to
bury surface materials, and pulverizes the soil.
9. Right-Hand Plow – turns the furrow slice to the right of the plow.
10. Left-Hand Plow – turns the furrow slice to the left of the plow.
11. Two-Way Plow – eliminate back and dead furrows and is used for surface irrigation.
12. Subsoiler – implement for intermittent tillage at depths sufficient to shatter compacted
subsurface layers.
13. Secondary Tillage Implement – implement used for tilling the soil to a shallower depth than
primary tillage implements, provide additional pulverization, mix pesticides and fertilizers
into the soil, level and firm the soil, close air pockets, and eradicate weeds.
14. Comb-Tooth Harrow – implement used for breaking clods after initial plowing, for
subsequent operations prior to transplanting and for puddling and leveling.
15. Disc Harrow – implement used to pulverize the soil and put it in a better tilt for the reception
of the seed.
16. Single-Action Disc harrow- consists of two gangs of discs, placed end-to-end at an angle,
which throw the soil in opposite directions.
17. Double-Action Disc Harrow or Tandem Disc Harrow – consists of two or more gangs, in
which a set of two gangs follows behind the front gangs and is arranged in such a way that the
disc on the front gangs throw the soil in one direction (usually outward) and the disc on the
rear gangs throw the soil in the opposite directions.
18. Offset Disc Harrow – consists of two gangs wherein one is located behind the other at an
angle and the harrow is operated in an offset position in the relation to the tractor.
19. Field Cultivator – implement for the seedbed preparation, weed eradication, or follow
cultivation subsequent to some form of primary tillage.
20. Packer – implement for crushing soil clods and compacting the soil.
21. Roller-Harrow – implement used for seedbed preparation which crushes soil clods and
smooths and firms the soil surface.
22. Rotary Hoe – implement for dislodging small weeds and grasses and for breaking soil crust
and is used for fast, shallow cultivation before or soon after crop plants emerge.
23. Row Crop Cultivator – implement wherein the frame and cultivating tools are designed to
adequately pass through the standing crop rows without crop damage.
24. Spike-Tooth Harrow – implement consisting of long spikes attached rigidly to cross bars and
staggered to attain maximum stirring and raking of soil.
25. Spring-Tooth Harrow – implement consisting of long, flat and curved teeth made to spring
steel.
26. Cultivating Tillage Implement – implement consisting shallow post-plant tillage to aid the
crop by loosening the soil and/or by mechanical eradication of undesired vegetation.
27. Continuous-Tool Bar Cultivator – implement consisting of tool bars that extend across the top
of the rows, which allow lateral adjustments of the tools for different row spacing.
28. Separated Gang Cultivator – implement consisting of the tool bars that drop down between
the rows to provide maximum vertical clearance for the plants.
29. Bed Shaper – soil-handling implement which forms uniform ridges of soil to predetermined
shapes.
30. Blade – soil-working tool, consisting of an edge and a surface, which is primarily designed to
cut through the soil.
31. Coulter – circular, flat tool used to cut plant material and soil.
32. Draft – force to propel an implement in the direction of travel which is equal and opposite to
drawbar pull.
33. Effective Operating Width – operating width excluding overlap.
34. Edge Clearance Angle – effective angle which is included between the line of travel and a line
drawn through the back or nonsoil-working surface of the tool at its immediate edge.
35. Ground Clearance – minimum vertical distance between the soil surface and a potentially
obstructing machine element.

22
36. Hitch – portion of an implement designed to connect the implement to a power source.
37. Implement Width – horizontal distance perpendicular to the direction of travel between the
outermost edges of the implement.
38. Injector – miniature plow attachment whose purpose is to turn over a small furrow slice
directly ahead of the main moldboard plow bottom, to aid in covering trash.
39. Lateral Tool Spacing – horizontal distance between corresponding reference points on
adjacent tools when projected upon a vertical plane perpendicular to the direction of travel.
40. Line of Travel – line and direction along which the tillage implement travels.
41. Lister-Planter – combined tillage implement which is composed of a lister and a planting
attachment to permit a single listing-seeding operation with the planter normally being
operated in the furrow.
42. Longitudinal Tool Spacing – horizontal distance between corresponding reference points of
two tools when projected upon a vertical plane parallel to the direction of travel.
43. Mechanical Tillage Implement – single or groups of soil-working tools together with power
transmission structure, control, and protection systems present as an integral part of the
machine.
44. Tilt Angle – angle in vertical plane perpendicular to the rdirection of trave;l, between a tool
axis and the soil surface
45. Side Angle or Disc angle – angle in the soil surface plane between a tool axis and the line
which is perpendicular to the direction of travel
46. Lift angle or rake angle – angle in a vertical plane parallel to the direction of travel between a
tool axis and the soil surface
Soil and Surface Characteristics

1. Back Furrow – raised ridge left at the center of the strip of land, when plowing is started
center to side.
2. Dead Furrow – open trench ( about twice the width of one plow bottom) left in between the
adjacent strips land after finishing of plowing.
3. Furrow – trench left when the plow bottom cuts and turns the furrow slice.
4. Furrow Crown – peak of the turned furrow slice.
5. Furrow Depth – ditch depth, pat depth, trench depth, depth of depression below a specified
(initial or subsequent) soil surface.
6. Furrow Slice – soil mass cut, lifted, pulverized, inverted and thrown to one side of the plow
bottom.
7. Furrow Wall – undisturbed or unbroken side of the furrow.
8. Head Land – unplowed soil at the end of the furrow strip.
9. Land – unplowed soil.
10. Ridge Height – Bed height, hill height, windrow height, height of the soil above a specified
(initial or subsequent) soil surface
11. Root Bed – soil profile modified by tillage or amendments for use by plant roots.
12. Root Zone – part of the soil profile exploited by the roots of the plants.
13. Seedbed – soil zone which affects germination and emergence of seeds.
14. Soil Density – weight of a unit volume of soil expressed on either a wet basis (including soil
and water) or on a dry basis (soil only, most common).
Classifications of Main Tillage Equipment

1. Primary Tillage - an operation that constitutes the initial major soil working operation. It is
normally designed to value soil strength, cover plant materials, and rearrange aggregate.
2. Secondary Tillage - is intended to create refined soil conditions following primary tillage.
Objectives of Main Tillage Operation

1. To develop a desirable soil structure for a seed bed or rootbed.
2. To control weeds or to remove unwanted crop plants.
3. To manage plant residues.
4. To minimize soil erosion by following such practices as contour tillage, listing, and proper
placement of trash.
5. To establish specific surface configurations, for planting, irrigating, drainage, harvesting
operations and others.
6. To incorporate and mix fertilizers, pesticides, or soil amendments.
7. To leave a surface as level as possible to facilitate the movement of machines.
Primary Tillage Equipment

1. Moldboard plow
2. Disk plow
3. Rotary plow
4. Chisel plow
5. Subsoiler
Secondary Tillage Equipment

1. Harrow (Spike Tooth, Spring Tooth, Disk, Power)
2. Roller
3. Pulverizer
4. Mulcher
5. Lister

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6. Middlebreaker - This can be described as lister without planting attachments. They are used
in soils with poor internal drainage to make ridges or beds on which to prepare a seedbed.
7. Field Cultivators - Implement which are constructed more lightly than chisel plows and have
closer spaced standards designed to operate 7 - 12 cm (3 - 5 in.) deep.
Some Effects of Primary Tillage Implements
Implement/Effect Moldboard Plow Disc Plow Rotary Tiller Chisel Plow

Pulverizing Medium Medium Big Small
Loosening Big Medium Medium Big
Mixing Small Medium Big Small
Inverting Big Medium Small Small
Draft of Plow
1. the amount of pull required to move plow is dependent on the size of the plow and the depth of
plowing
2. in plowing at least 3/4 of the available power should be used
3. one moldboard plow bottom requires about 10-20 hp is required in order to pull the implement.
unit draft - force required per unit cross-sectional area of the plow's action and is dependent on the width
and depth of the plow
Factors Affecting the Draft of a Plows

1. Soil condition
2. Topography
3. Adjustment of the plow
4. Hitch of the tractor
5. Depth and rate of plowing
6. Sharpness of shares, coulters, and jointers
18 % is used for pulling

48 % is used for cutting the furrow slice
34 % is used turn the furrow slice
Center of Resistance of Plow - the point where all the horizontal and vertical force meet together
(a) moldboard - located at the intersection between the share and moldboard and to the right of the
(b) disk plow - located at the left and below the center of the disk and is closer to the furrow wall
Center of pull of the tractor - the point halfway between the driving wheels, 3-4 in. in front of the rear axle
and the height of the front support for the tractor drawbar.
Classification of Tractor Mounted Tillage Equipment

1. Trailing - the equipment is attached to the tractor hitch and are being adjusted mechanically
both for vertical and horizontal.
2. Semi-mounted - called as direct connected plow wherein the front of the plow is connected to
the tractor while the furrow wheel of the plow supports the rear end.
3. Integral-mounted - mounted at the rear of the tractor where it is lifted or picked-up by its
hydraulic system
Disk Harrow - used in a wide variety of field operation from cutting of vegetables matter that maybe on the
surface, pulverizing to covering of seed when sown by broadcasting
Advantages
1. Ability to work in organic matter up to the size of maize stalks
2. Reduction of erosion when plant residue can be mulched (in one pass)
3. Simple to operate, maintain, and service
4. Highly reliable
5. Rolls over obstacles.
6. Products hardly compaction soles.
7. Reduces evaporation by capillary action.
Disadvantages
1. Not very effective against root-propagating weeds.
2. May cause slaking, crushing, and possibly erosion in the event of over-intensive tillage.
3. Usually needs more than one pass (compaction by tractor wheels).
4. High draught requirement
5. Hardly any possibility of combining it with other implement.
Types of Gang Arrangement for Disk Harrow

(1) Single action - Two gang placed end which throw the soil opposite in direction.
(2) Double action or "tandem" - Set two gangs follows behind the front gangs so as the front gang
thrown the soil outward while the rear gang throw the soil inward.
(3) Offset - harrow is set in an offset position either on the right or left of the tractor.

24
Special Trailing Disk Harrow - built heavy enough to chop up brush on pasture lands and excessively
heavy crop residue (sugarcane) requires 110 to 130 drawbar horsepower for a 13 feet 24-disk 28" diameter
and weight of 8,900 lb.
Mounted Disk Harrow

- designed to be used with tractors equipped with thee-point hitch and hydraulic lift system
- known as direct connected, pick-up, and lift type harrow
- sizes ranges from 5 to 6 feet for double action, 3-3/4 to 6-3/4 feet for offset type
- single action mounted disk harrow are usually of heavy type
Factors Affecting the Depth Penetration of Disk Harrow

1. Angle of the disk gang.
2. Weight of the harrow.
3. Sharpness of disks.
4. Size of disks.
5. Concavity of disks.
6. Angle of hitch
Drawbar Pull
F = A s
where: F - drawbar pull, kg
A - cross-sectional area of cut of implement, m2
s - soil draft, kg/m2
Drawbar Horsepower
DHP = F V / 76.2
where: DHP - drawbar horsepower, hp
F - drawbar pull, kg
V - implement velocity, mps
Theoretical Field Capacity
Ct = 0.1 W V
where: Ct = theoretical field capacity, ha/hr
W = implement width, m
V = implement speed, kph
Effective Field Capacity
Ce =  Ct
where: Ce = effective field capacity, ha/hr
Ct = theoretical field capacity, ha/hr
 = field efficiency
Cutting Width formula for Disk Plow and Harrow
(1) Disk Plow
Cutting Width = 0.95 N S + 0.3 D
(2) Single Disk Harrow (18 degree cutting angle)

(3) Tandem Disk harrow (18 deg cutting angle)

(4) Double Offset Disk Harrow (18 deg cutting angle)

Cutting Width = 0.95NS + 0.85D
(5) Offset disk Harrow

where:
N - Number of spaces between disk blades
S - Blade spacing, m
D - Diameter of disk blades, m
Tillage Equipment for Small Rice Farm
Power Tillers - two-wheeled and hand operated tractor primarily used as substitute for draft animals
Accessories and Attachment (upland cage wheel, pneumatic tire for transporting, centrifugal pump and
stand, rotary mower, rotary tillage and ridging blades, and trailer)
Classifications of Power Tiller

1. Light duty, single axle - single-axle type equipped with 4 to 6 hr air- cooled gasoline engines
2. Medium duty, single or double axle - either single or double axle type and equipped with 6 to 8 hp
air-cooled gasoline engine
3. Heavy duty, double axle - double-axle type equipped with 9 to 12 hp engine.
Power Tiller Implements ( Moldboard Plow, Disk, Spiral Plow, Cagewheel Combined with Comb Harrow)

25
Puddling-Type Floating Tiller - Used for tilling water-logged areas consisting of front mounted cagewheel
and a floatation chamber
Advantages
1. Suitable for waterlogged as well as normal field condition.
2. Higher field capacity.
3. Fewer passes are required.
4. Lower cost per hectare.
5. Able to till edges and corners of field.
Disadvantages:
1. Considerable effort is required to maneuver and control the forward speed.
2. Requires leveling due to the shape created by the floatation structure.
3. Difficult to transport and cannot be used for subsidiary operation such as harrowing and
transporting.
Chapter IX - SEEDING AND PLANTING EQUIPMENT
Equipment used to place the seeds or plant part into the soil and keep it from weeds and insect pest and
diseases until it is fully grown and is ready for harvesting.
Functions of seeder/planter
1. To meter the seeds/plant parts of different sizes and shapes.
2. To place the seed/plant parts in the acceptable pattern distribution in the field.
3. Place the seed/plant parts accurately and uniformly at the desired depth in the soil; and
4. To cover the seed/plant parts optionally and compact the soil around it to enhance germination
and emergence.
Classification of Seeder
A. According to the Methods of Seeding
1. Drills - machines that prepare the soil, meter the seed, and position the seeds in one operation.
2. Field Distributors - machines that consist of a seed box with metering devices in the bottom of
the hopper, and in no way to prepare the soil for the seed, used as fertilizer as well as for the
seed
3. Broadcasters - machine that meter the materials onto a revolving flanged wheel, least
expensive to purchase, has the highest work capacity but is the hardest to calibrate because of
uneven distribution from the flanged wheel, unequal seed weight and shape, and difficulties
with wind and uneven soil surface
According to the Source of Power

1. Manually Operated
2. Animal Drawn (Single Animal or Pair-Operated)
3. Power Tiller Operated
4. Tractor Type (mounted or pull type units)
5. Self-Propelled unit (operated by hydraulic motors etc.)
Different Kinds of Seeder/Planter

1. Jab Planter - manually power machine of about 85 cm long and weigh 3.2 kg when filled with 1
kg of maize seed
2. Plow-Attached Multi-crop Seeder - designed as simple attachment to the native plow, has a
capacity of 0.136 ha/hr (or more man-day per hectare
3. Power Tiller-Attached Multi-crop Seeder
4. Drum Seeder - designed for planting pre-germinated rice seed in rows so that manually operated
mechanical weeder can be used
5. Rice Transplanter - place rice seedling at a proper spacing in a well prepared paddy soil
6. Air Seeders - machine with points of seed deposition which are behind multiple shovel; or sweep
tillage tools of a chisel plow or field cultivator
Type of Seeeder/Planter
1. Manually Operated or Hand Seeder – type of seeder which deposit the seed in holes with spacing
set by the operator
2. Tractor power driven seeder and planter – type of seeder with metering mechanisim driven by the
ground wheel or by power take-off from a tractor.
3. Seed Drill – type of tractor - type of power driven seeder which drills and deposit the seeds at a
specified rate and depth and in narrow-spaced rows
4. Row-Crop planter – type of tractor power-driven seeder which can deposit the seeds at a specified
rate in hill and row spaced to permit inter-row cultivation and also functions as a seed drill of
required
5. Hill Drop Planter – type of row crop plnater which is designed to deposit one or more seeds in a
hill at equal intervals
6. Check row planter – type of row crop planter whichenables operator to perform hill planting at a
definite spacing (in check or squares) to facilitates mechanical weed control and other opreations

26
Factors Affecting the Performance of Seeders and Planters

1. Seed Related Factors
a. Quality of seed
b. Method of seed treatment
2. Soil Related Factors
a. Soil bulk density e. Specific volume
b. Soil porosity f. Soil cohesion
c. Soil water g. Soil air
d. Soil temperature h. Soil strength
3. Mechanical Factors
a. Seed damage during metering
b. Uniformity of depth of placement of seed
c. Uniformity of distribution of seed along rows
d. Transverse displacement of seed form the row
e. Prevention of loose soil getting under the seed
f. Degree of soil compaction level above the seed
g. Uniformity of soil cover over the seed
h. Changes of mixing fertilizer with seed during placement in the furrow.
Basic Functions of a Seeder/Planter

a. open the seed furrow to proper depth (furrow opener)
b. meter the seed (metering device)
c. deposit seeds in furrow in acceptable pattern (metering device and seed tube)
d. cover seed and compact soil around it to the proper degree for the type of crop involved (furrow
covering device).
Types of Furrow Opener

a. full or curved runner - commonly used
b. stub runner -corn planters in rough or trashy land
c. hoe - for stony or root infested soil
d. disc copener - for hard or trashy ground in wet sticky soil (single or double disc)
Types of Metering Devices

a. cell type - moving member has cells
b. fluted wheel or external forced feed (fluted cylinder rotating about a horizontal axis)
c. double run or internal force feed
d. augers
e. variable orifice
Types of Delivery Tube

a. spiral ribbon
b. smooth tubular
c. telescopic (small to larger tubes)
Types of Furrow Covering Devices

a. drag chains
b. disc coverers
c. blade coverers
d. shovels
e. press wheels
Number of Plants/Hectare
Np = (10,000) A / (Sp x Sr)
where: Np - number of plants per hectare
Sp - plant spacing, m
Sr - row spacing, m
A - area, hectares
Grams of seed to sow per hill from a given seeding rate

Ws = (Rs x Sp x Sr) / 10
Where: Ws - weight of seed needed/hill, kg
Rs - rate of seeding, kg/ha
Sp - plant spacing, m
Sr - row sapcing, m
Wheel Slip
Sw = (Nw – No) 100 /Nw
Where: Sw - wheel slip, %
Nw - sum of revolutions of all driving wheels for a given distance with slip, rev
No - sum of revolutions of all driving whees for a given distance without slip, rev
Implement width
W = n x Sr

27
Where: W - working width, m

n - number of rows
Sr - row spacing, m
Effective diameter of Ground Wheel

De = d / ( N)
Where: De - effective diameter, m
d -distance for a given N
N - number of revolutions, rev
Delivery Rate
Q = (10,000 L ) / ( De N W)
Where: Q - delivery rate, kg/ha
L - delivery for given N, kg
De - effective diameter of growund wheel, m
N - numbre of revolutions, rev
W - working width, m
Chapter X - CROP MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT
Sprayer
a. to break the liquid droplets of effective size and distribute
them uniformly over the surface or space to be protected
b. regulate the amount of chemical solution to avoid
excessive application that might prove harmful or wasteful
Spray particle size - primary factor that effects performance of the sprayer
Particle size plays a significant role in relation to
1. Penetration and carrying ability of sprayer;
2. Efficiency of catch of spray or dust by plants surfaces;
3. Uniformity and competencies of coverage;
4. Effectiveness of individual particles after deposition; and
5. Drift which is a function of the rate of fall of particle in relation to horizontal velocity, and
related to particle size and local climatology.
Classification of Sprayer
1. Hand sprayer
a. compressed-air sprayer
b. Knapsack sprayer
2. Power Sprayer
a. Hydraulic or field sprayers
b. Hydro-pneumatic sprayer
c. Blower sprayer
Hand Operated Hydraulic Sprayer (HOHS)
Basic Components
1.Reservoir system (tank 3.8 to 22.5 liter size, filled cap, strainer)
2.Pump assembly
3.Delivery assembly.
Types HOHS
1.Compressed-Air Sprayer - simple in design and operation, and are relatively inexpensive to buy
and maintain, particularly useful for spot and small-area spraying
a. Parts: spray tube, plunger-type pump, dip tube, spray hose, extension spray tube, cutoff valve
and nozzle
b. tank usually has a capacity between 7.5 and 15 liters and can withstand pressure up to 3.5
kg/cm2
2. Knapsack Sprayer – carried on the back by means of shoulder straps

a. simple design and operation, and are relatively inexpensive to buy and maintain tank is
usually shaped to fit comfortably on the shoulders
b. capacity up to 22.5 liters pump used are diaphragm pump and the plunger-type pump with
cap leather
c. capable to maintaining pressures up to about 4.2 to 5.4 kg/cm2
d. useful for boom spraying when series of four nozzles or more are operating at the same
time
Hydraulic Energy Sprayer Nozzles

1. hydraulic energy nozzles are obviously dependent on hydraulic energy
2. relationships of the hydraulic energy to the spray droplets
a. the higher the pressure, the smaller the droplets.
b. the higher the pressures the higher the amount of chemical forced through them in unit
time (flow rate).
c. the higher the pressure the wider the angle of the spray.

28
Nozzle Type
1. Cone-Type Nozzle
a. operates at between 2.76 and 4.14 bar (40-60 psi) which is usual range pressure found in
hydraulic energy type sprayers
b. best suited for spraying crops because they produce a spray in which droplets approach the
leaves from several angles as compared to the fan type nozzle
2. Fan-Type Nozzle
a. nozzle is composed of a single element, the nozzle tip
b. shape of the hole is responsible for the shape of the spray and the angle formed
3. Impact-Type Nozzles
a. spray formed has a fan-type
b. used extensively for the application of herbicides, both pre and post emergence
Purpose of Calibrating Knapsack Sprayer

a. to determine the application rate per hectare suing a certain sprayer.
b. to determine the number of sprayer loads per hectare and the amount of chemical to be mixed per
load.
Steps in Calibrating Sprayer

1. Prepare the sprayer
2. Determine the walking speed
3. Determine the width of spray or swath.
4. Calculate the area sprayed in 1 min.
Area sprayed in 1 min = distance covered in 1 min (m/min) x swath
5. Determine the nozzle discharge
6. Calculate the application rate
10,000 m2/ha x delivery (li/min)
Application rate (li/ha) = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
swath (m) x speed (m/min)
7. Calculate liquid herbicides or insecticides to mix in each sprayer load.
amount of chemical/ha in cc or ml
Amount of chemical per load = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
No. of load per hectare
Power Sprayer
1. uses plunger or piston pumps
2. consist of 2 or 3 bronze cylinders and plungers, suction and delivery valves, an air chamber, a
pressure regulator and a crank mechanism
3. air chamber is used to reduce fluctuations in the delivery volume of the plunger pump, air in the
air chamber is compressed with the increase in discharge volume, volume of the air chamber
(1.2-1.61) is about 6 to 7 times of discharge volume of the pump
4. regulator is used to adjust pressure
5. nozzle is the atomizing device whereby the liquid stream from an orifice is broken up by its
inherent instability and its impact upon the atmosphere or by impact upon a plate or another jet
6. pneumatic atomizing (two-fluid) nozzles, in which compressed air is employed for atomization,
has been used on some special low-volume sprayers because fine atomization can be obtained at
low liquid pressure
Rotary atomizer
1. liquid type chemical is dropped on a handstand cone-type disk or flat disk that rotates at a speed
of 3,000 to 14,000 rpm and the chemical is atomized by the centrifugal force
2. mean diameter of droplets is in the range of 50-300m.
Boom sprayer
1. has horizontal booms mostly 5 to 15 m long with nozzles pointed downward and attached
directly to the booms
2. nozzles are usually spaced at intervals of 38-51 cm
3. fan-spray nozzle is widely used on field sprayers because the shape of their spray distribution
pattern makes uniformity of coverage less sensitive to boom height than that of a hollow-cone
nozzle
4. hollow-cone nozzles may be preferred for fungicides because of the greater degree of
atomization
Total Quantity Discharge of Boom sprayer

QD = Qd1 n
= (60 B V Q) / 10,000
Spraying Speed of Tractor
V = 167 QD/(B Q)
where: Qd1 - discharging quantity of one nozzle. lpm

n - number of nozzles
B - width of boom sprayer, m
V - travelling speed of tractor during spraing, m/s
Q - spraying quantity per hectare, l/ha

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Time to Change Mixture

T = (300 V) / Q
Where: T - time to change mixture, hr
V - volumeof mixture, liters
Q - flow rate through all of the nozzles, lph
Mist blower or Air Blast Sprayer

1. has the mist nozzle at the end of the discharging pipe
2. liquid is sent from the tank to the mist nozzle by the pressurized air at the rate of 3.55-4 lpm
3. chemical is atomized by the air from a fan, the quantity is in the ranged of 20-25 m 3/min, and the
wind velocity is about 80-130m/s
4. diameter of the droplets is in the range of 30-100 m, and they travel a long distance with the air
stream
Duster - compressed air from the fan is guided to the bottom of the tank to agitate the powder of granules
Fog machine - sprays liquid-type chemicals as an aerosol
Weeder
Problems associated with weeds
1. Reduces rice yield and quality;
2. Intensity problems with insects, diseases and other pests by serving as hosts;
3. Reduce harvesting and processing efficiency;
4. Reduce efficiency of irrigation system by restricting the flow of water in reservoirs, canals,
and ditches;
5. Cause assumption of energy for their control;
6. Maybe poisonous and injure animals and human; and
7. Reduce the volume and productivity
Methods of Weed Control

1. Manual weeding requires about 120 man-hour to finish one hectare
2. Mechanical weeders require 80-90 hours to finish the same area.
Different weed control measures

1. Manual weeding
2. Chemical weeding
3. Flame weeding
4. Mechanical weeding
Factors Influencing the choice of methods for controlling the weeds

1. type and age of the crop.
2. Type and sizes of weeds or grasses.
3. Timeliness
4. Availability of equipment
5. Other factors.
Mechanical weeding is the most important and economical method of controlling weeds and grasses.
Objectives of weeding are:
1. To control the growth of weeds.
2. To improve the potential condition of the soil by
a. Reducing the evaporation from soil surface;
b. Improving infiltration of rainfall and surface water;
c. Reducing run-off of surface water and so reducing the severity of soil erosion;
d. Maintaining ridges or mound on which the crop is growing.
Weeder - a mechanically operated machine that removes weeds or grasses from the crops. This machine is
either operated manually or by a separate power driven source.
Classifications of Mechanical Weeder

1. Manual weeder
2. Animal or Tractor Drawn Weeder
3. Power Weeders
Different Kinds of Weeder

1. Spin Tiller
2. Single-Row Rotary Weeder
3. Single-Row Claw Rotary

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4. Two-Row Rotary Weeder

5. Three-Row Weeder
6. Blade Hoe
7. V-Blade Hoe
8. Wheel-Hoe
9. Power Weeder
10. Cono Weeder
Weeding index - ratio between the number of weeds removed by weeder to the number present in a unit
area, and is expressed as a percentage
Iw = (W1 - W2) 100 / W1

where: Iw = Weeding index
W1 = Weeds before weeding
W2 = Weeds after weeding
Performance index- measurement of the performance of a weeder and is directly proportional to the area
per unit time, the weeding index and the quality of work (undamaged plant) and inversely proportional to
the power required
Ip = (Cf Q Iw) / P
where: Ip - performance index
Cf - Field capacity, ha/hr
Q - (100-percent plant damage)
Iw - Weeding index
Pi - power input, hp
Chapter XI - HARVESTING EQUIPMENT
Grain Harvesting - consist of unit operations of cutting stalks, binding to make bundles for easy handling or
carrying and threshing to separate grains from stalks
Classifications
1. Hand tools
a. Sickle
b. Scythe
2. Mechanical Equipment
a. Reaper
b. Reaper binder
c. Stripper harvester
d. Combine harvester-thresher
Reaper - machine that cuts the grain and places it in a window where it is gathered and bound into sheaves
and carried to thresher
Star Wheel Velocity

Vsw = Vf / cos A
Where: Vsw - star wheel velocity
Vf - forward velocity, m/s
A - angle of inclination of star wheel
Flat belt conveyor velocity

Vfb = 1.4 Vf
Where: Vfb - velocity of flat belt conveyor, m/s
Vf - forward velocity, m/s
Knife Velocity
Vk = 1.3 to 1.4 Vf
Where: Vk - knife velocity, m/s
Vf - forward velocity
Reaper Binder - machine to cut and bind the crops in form of bundles of about 10 cm
Basic Parts of Reaper Binder
1. Divider and pick-up device - located at the front of the machine to divide the crops and at the
same time to slightly raise lodged crops.
2. Cutting device - reciprocating device that cuts the standing straw
3. Conveying device - used to collect and convey cut straws for binding or to place it on a window
for the case of reaper alone.
4. Binding device - use to put together the cut straw in a bundle for ease of hauling
Ways to Reduce Harvesting Losses:

1. Avoid sharp turning when cutting

31
2. Reduce cutting speed when harvesting shattering varieties

3. Clear rice panicle off the conveying device (upper lugs and star wheel)
4. Maintain uniform cutting height during harvesting operation
5. Stop reaper at the end of each cutting length with the cutter running
Stripper Harvester - involves the stripping or combing of grain from the plant while the plant remains
anchored
Combine Harvester-Thresher - machine that is self-propelled which cuts the plant and subsequently
performs threshing at the same time
Guidelines for Optimum Grain Yield during Harvesting

1. Know the varietal characteristics of the crop particularly the date of harvesting.
2. Approximately 7-10 day before the harvest date, or when the uppermost grain are the hard dough
stage turning from green to yellow, the field should be drained to hasten and attain uniform
maturity and to provide easy operation of the field.
3. Observe the plant daily before harvesting by dehulling a few most matured grains from the tiller.
Matured grains are characterized by a clear and firm grain.
4. Start harvesting when at least 80% of the grains of those that are the upper portion of the panicle
are golden in color, and at the base are in hard stage.
5. When the moisture of the grain is at the range of 20 to 25%, the grain is ready for harvesting.
Disadvantages of Early or Delayed Harvesting

1. Early harvesting will allow larger percentage of immature and unfilled grains.
2. Delayed harvesting will reduced yield due to shattering and attacks of birds, insects, and rodents.
3. Delayed harvesting will also reduce head rice recovery of paddy when milled.
Forage Harvester
1. used to harvest and cut crops into short lengths for direct feeding to livestock, or storage and
subsequent ensiling or dehydrating
Types
1. Precission cut forage harvester – uses feedingmechanism to meter crop into the cutting or
shearing mecahnism at a uniform velocity to produce 3 to 50 mm particle length.
2. Non-precission cut forage harvster – genrallyuses a rotary impact cutting device to cut standing
crop or windrows directlyt into shorter pieces.
Chapter XII - THRESHING EQUIPMENT
Threshing - process of detaching the grain from the panicle

Mechanical threshing
- grain is detached or separated from the panicle by subjecting it to the impact of action of the rotating
part of the thresher such as peg-tooth, wire loop, or a rasp bar
- has a capacity ranging from 500 to 2000 kg/hr.
Definition of Terms
1. Actual Capacity - the threshing output collected per unit time
2. Blower loss - the ratio of the weight of collected grains blown with the straw to the total grain
input expressed in percent
3. Clean Threshed Grain - threshed grain with 100% purity exclusive of empty grains
4. Concave - the part of the thresher which encloses the threshing cylinder and allows the
separation of the grains from the panicles
5. Threshing Cylinder - part of the thresher that rotates about the axis equipped with either pegs,
rasp bar, or wire loop on its periphery
6. Threshing Cylinder Efficiency - the ratio of weights of clean threshed grain recovered from all
outlets loss to the total grain input expressed in percent
7. Threshing Recovery - the ratio of the weights of clean threshed grain at the main grain outlets to
the total grain input expressed in percent
8. Unthreshed Loss - the ratio of the weights of grains that remain in the panicles to the total grain
input expressed in percent.
Classification of Mechanical Thresher

According to Operation
1. Through-Flow Thresher - harvested rice is threshed while the cut plants are wholly fed into the
machine in an opening perpendicular to the cylinder and directed to an outlet which is also
perpendicular to it
2. Axial-Flow Thresher - the stalk with the grains is fed into one of the threshing chambers and
the materials moved axially the straw is thrown out at the other end when all the grains are
removed
According to Methods of Feeding
1. Throw-In Type - the whole cut rice plants are fed into the machine and major portion of the
grains is threshed by the initial impact of the bars or spikes on the cylinder and further
threshing is accomplished as the moving panicles hit the spikes or bars of the concave

32
2. Hold-On Thresher – the stalk during opertion is held mechanically by the operator until all the
grains are detached from the panicle
According to Threshing Units

1. Rasp Bar Cylinder - equidistant bar-like protrusion in parallel orientation is laid on the
periphery of the cylinder.
2. Wire Loop - wire loop of the same arch and of equal sizes is attached around the periphery of
the cylinder in tandem arrangement
3. Peg-Tooth - spikes or pegs of equal length are attached around the periphery of the cylinder in
tandem fashion
Recommended Operating Speed for Various Types of Mechanical Thresher

Cylinder Type Hold-on Feeding Throw-In Feeding
(fpm) (fpm)
Wire Loop without concave 2650 3650
Wire Loop with concave 2150 2900
Peg Tooth 2150 2900
Rasp bar 2650 3650
Classification and Description of Axial-Flow Mechanical Thresher

1. Portable Axial-Flow Thresher without Oscillating Screen
A. simple and lightweight thresher to allow easy movement of machine on field where
there is a n existing pathways
B. consists of a metal frame, peg-tooth cylinder with throwing paddles on one end and
enclosed by a cover with spiral louvers, and a wire mesh or round-rod lower
2. Portable Thresher with Oscillating Screen.

A. consist of a metal frame, peg-tooth cylinder with straw throwing paddles on one end, a
cover containing spiral louvers, and a round-rod concave
B. it has a feeding tray, oscillating screen, centrifugal blower for winnowing screen,
removable lifting bars for transport, and a 7-hp gasoline engine
3. Mobile Axial Flow Thresher
A. it is a trailing type machine which is intended to be drawn by jeep or a power tiller
B. large in sizes as compared to the portable thresher.
4. Self-propelled Axial Flow Thresher
A. threshers designed on top of jeep for ease of transport and mobility
Throughput Capacity
C = Wg/Ta
Where: C - throughput capacity, kg/hr
Wg - weight of threshed grain, kg
Tt - threshing time, hr
Thresher Losses
Lt = Lb + Lse + LU + Lsc
Where Lt - total losses
Lb - blower loss, kg
Lse - separation loss, kg
Lu - unthreshed loss, kg
Lsc - scattering loss, kg
Percent Losses
% Lb = Lb 100 / (Ctg + Lt)
% Lse = Lse 100 / (Ctg + Lt)
% Lu = Lu 100 / (Ctg + Lt)
% Lsc = Lsc 100 / (Ctg + Lt)
where: Ctg – clean threshed grain, kg
Factors Affecting Threshing Capacity

1.Moisture content of threshed grain
2.Straw to grain ratio
3.Length of straw cut
4.Variety of crop
5.Operational skill
Factor Affecting the Power Requirement of Thresher

1.Feeding Rate - the higher the amount of materials being fed the higher is the power requirement
2.Moisture Content of Crops - wet crops has higher power requirement than dry crops
3.Length of straw - the longer the length the higher is the power requirement
Chapter XIII - DRYING EQUIPMENT
Drying – process of reducing the moisture content of the product to an equilibrium moisture level to
supress the growth and development of harmful bacteria that cause deterioration and spoilage

33
Advantages of Mechanical Grain Dryers

1. Wet grain can easily be dried in a shorter time as compared with sundrying.
2. Drying of paddy can be regardless of weather condition.
3. Programming of farm activities can be more convenient and more profitable with mechanical
dryer.
4. Procurement program can be better managed and can provide more opportunities to produce
more stocks especially during rainy season when farmers are willing to sell their product at a
lower price.
5. More wet paddy can be dried even with a limited space.
6. Good quality grains can be produced due to controlled drying procedure
7. Low labor requirement
Methods of Drying
1. Traditional Method - thin layer of paddy is spread directly under the heat of the sun on a
concrete pavement or any other suitable materials
2. Mechanical Method - grains are placed in a drying bin where heated air is blown though a drying
chamber from the fuel burning unit
Types of Mechanical Dryer

1. Batch-Type Dryer - grains are being dried at stationary position
a. Shallow-Bed or Flat-Bed - maximum depth of grain ranges from 6 to 24 inches.
b. Deep Bed - grain depth ranges from as high as 12 feet
2. Continuous-Flow Type Dryer - involves a continuous grain movement within the drying
chamber either by gravity or mechanical means
Classifications
a. Non-mixing Type - Grains continuously move downward between two parallel screens or
perforated sheets on which heated air is blown through the screens perpendicularly to downward
moving grains.
b. Mixing Type - Grains are moved downward in zigzag mode by means of baffles or alternating
rows of intake and exhaust ducts while heated is blown through the grain mass. This
classification of dryer is further sub-classification into:
(1) Baffle-Type - similar in design to the non-mixing type dryer except
that it is equipped with sheet metal baffles which creates turbulence and mixing of
grains.
(2) LSU-Type - consists of a vertical compartment in which there are
rows of air channel, air channels are shaped like an inverted V
Parts of Mechanical Dryer

1. Burner – supplies the needed heat for drying by burning either a fossil or biomass fuel
- Direct Method - the flame heats directly the drying air and forced through the drying chamber
to the grain mass by means of fan or a blower.
- Indirect Method - drying air is being heated through a heat exchanger in order that the product
of combustion will not mix the drying air and the grains.
2. Heat Exchanger - converts heat from the fuel or flue gas into clean air
3. Fan or Blower - supplies the required amount of air and pressure needed by the system
4. Drying Bin - is where the grains undergo drying process
5. Tempering Bin - is where the grains are held temporarily after each drying pass to allow the
grains to rest and equilibrate the moisture within the layer of the grain itself.
6. Plenum Chamber - is the component placed before the drying bin to convert the velocity pressure
of the air into a static pressure thereby allowing a much uniform distribution of air within the
cross-section of the bin.
7. Safety Control Network – it includes accessories such as the moisture meter, thermometer,
manometer and others that monitor the condition and control the grains being dried
8. Conveyors - are used to load and unload the grains into and from the dryer.
9. Accessories - include the receiving bin, paddy cleaner, tempering bins, bagging machine,
autoweigher, and others.
Grain Drying-Air Temperature

a.Drying temprature 43.3C is safe for the grains that are intended for seeds
b.45 to 55 C for milling purposes
c.52C will kill the germ of most seeds including rice
d.flash drying of hig moisture grain is possible for paddy grain 90 C for 1 minute exposure
Drying Rate
6.1 to 2 % per hour is the standard use for the rate of moisture removal
7.10% can be done during flash drying for high mositure grain.
Grain breakage
1. paddy start to fissure when drying at high temperature is done below 16%

34
Definition of Terms
Grain Drier - device for removing excess moisture, generally by forced ventilation
with or without addition of heat, to prevent the development of
favorable environment for growth of molds and insects that normally
cause spoilage.
Heated-Air Dryer - A device used to remove grain moisture by blowing artificially heated
air until the required moisture content is attained.
Batch-Type Dryer - a type of mechanical dryer wherein the grain is kept in the drying
chamber until the grain reaches the required moisture content.
Vertical-Bin Dryer - A batch-type dryer with a vertical grain holding bin and uses for deep
bed drying
Flat-Bed Dryer - A batch-type dryer with horizontal grain holding bin and is
used for drying grains having a maximum drying layer
thickness of 457 mm.
Recirculating Dryer - A batch-type dryer equipped to circulate or mix grain
during the drying operation.
Continuous-Flow - A type of mechanical dryer wherein grain is passed
Type Dryer continuously through a drying chamber utilizing agitator, either by
mechanical means or by force of gravity, until the grain reaches the
specified moisture content reduction per pass and subsequent cooling is
affected through the tempering bins before another pass.
Non-Mixing Type - A continuous flow dryer where the grain flows through a
Continuous-Flow Dryer column in a straight path.
Mixing-Type - A continuous flow type dryer wherein the grain path during
Continuous-Flow operation is being diverted.
Plenum Chamber - An air chamber maintained under pressure usually connected to one or
more distribution ducts in a drying system.
Burner Efficiency - The ratio of the heat supplied to the heat available expressed in percent.
Airflow Rate - The volume of air in cubic meters delivered to the mass of grains per
minute.
Drying-Air - The temperature of air entering the grain being dried.
Temperature
Drying rate - The amount of moisture content removed from the grain for a certain
period of time the grain is exposed in the drying chamber.
Heat Utilization - The ratio of the total heat requirement to the heat supplied
Efficiency by the burner.
Tempering - A process of diffusing moisture to the surface of the grains to attain
equilibrium moisture.
Static Pressure - The pressure build-up in the plenum chamber to maintain an
equilibrium in the grains, resistant to airflow in the drying chamber,
expressed in head, cm of water.
Relative Humidity - The partial pressure exerted by the water vapor molecules in moist air.
Dry-Bulb - The temperature of moist air indicated by an ordinary
Temperature thermometer.
Wet-Bulb - The temperature of moist air indicated by a thermometer
Temperature whose bulb is covered with a wet wick. The airflow passing over the
wick should have a velocity of at lest 15 feet per second.
Dew-Point Temperature - The temperature at which condensation occurs when the air is cooled at
constant humidity ratio and constant atmospheric pressure.
Humidity Ratio - The weight of the water vapor contained in the moist air per unit weight
of dry air.
Specific Volume - The volume of moist air defined as the volume per unit weight of dry
air.
Enthalpy - The heat content of the moist air per unit weight of dry air above
certain reference temperature.
Dryer Capacity
Cd = Wi / Td
Where: Cd - dryer capacity, kg/hr
Wi - initial weight of grain, kg

35
Td - drying Time (hr)
Moisture Reduction per Hour

Mr = (Wi – Wf) / Td
where: MR - Moisture reduction per hour, kg/hr
Wi - Initial weight of material, kg
Wf - Final weight of material, kg
td - Drying time, hr
Final Weight of Material

Wf = [Wi (100 - MCi)] / (100 - MCf)
where: Wf - final weight of the material, kg
Wi - initial weight of material, kg
MCi - initial moisture content, %
MCf - final moisture content, %
Heating System Efficiency

HSe = [Qsd 100 ] / Qaf
where: HSE - heating system efficiency, %
Qsd - heat supplied to the dryer, kJ/hr
Qaf - Heat available in the fuel, kJ/hr
Heat Supplied to the Dryer

Qsd = [(h2-h1) Q 60 / [Vs]
Where: h2 - enthalphy of the drying air, kJ/kg dry air
h1 - enthalpy of the drying ambient air, kJ/kg dry air
Q - airflow rate, m3/min
Vs - specific volume of air, kg/m3
Heat Available in Fuel

Qaf = FRf x HVf
Where: Qaf - heat available in fuel, kJ/hr
FRf - fuel feed fate, kg/hr
HVf - fuel heating value, kJ/kg
Heat Utilization
HU = (Qs x td) / Mr
where: HU - Heat utilization
Qs - Heat supplied, kJ/hr
td - Drying time, hr
Mr - amount of moisture removed, kg
Heat Utilization Efficiency - indicates the overall thermal efficiency of the dryer
HUE = (THU 100) / HSd
Where: HUE - heat utilization efficiency, %
THU - total Heat Utilized, kJ/hr
HSd - heat supplied to the dryer, kJ/hr
Chapter XIV - RICE MILLING EQUIPMENT
Milling is the process of converting paddy into rice

Processes:
1. Cleaning - removing foreign materials such as rice straws, stones, seeds, etc. from paddy.
2. Dehusking and husk separation - removing the husk from the paddy with a minimum damage to
the grain, and separating the husk from paddy.
3. Paddy separation - separating dehusked paddy from the remaining grains. Most dehusker
removes about 90% of the husk.
4. Bran removal - removing all or part of the bran layer from the grain to produce polished rice.
5. Grading - separating or grading broken grains from unbroken rice. Broke are separated into
different sizes.
General Types
1. Small-capacity single machine
a. operated at the village level for custom milling, e.g. steel huller, single pass rubber roll
rice mill either stationary and travelling models
b. capacity ranged from 45 to 270 per hour.
2. Large-capacity multiple machine
a. used for commercial milling
b. sizes varies from 2 to 4 tons of paddy per hour
c. consists of several stages of milling machines that dehusk rough rice, separates brown
rice, and for removing bran
d. conveying equipment are used to move paddy and its by-product into various machineries
Rice Milling Principles and Methods

36
Operation Equipment By-Product

Precleaning and de-stoning Pre-cleaner and Foreign material such as
Destoner straw, chaff, weed seeds,
stones, metal sands
Paddy grading Thickness or length Paddy different length or
grader thickness
Hulling or dehusking Under-runner stone disc Paddy of different length or
or rubber roll thickness
Sifting Plansifter Coarse bran and germs
Husk aspiration Husk Aspirator Husk
Separation of paddy and brown rice Paddy Separator Return paddy
Brown rice grading Thickness length or Immature kernels or brown
grader rice of different length or
thickness
Conditioning of brown rice (exposing brown rice Conditioning tank None
to steam and air to increase moisture content from
14 to 15%)
Tempering of brown rice (allow steamed brown Tempering Bins None
rice to equalize to a uniform moisture content of
15%)
Abrasive whitening (from brown rice to Abrasive Whitener or Bran and germ
undermilled rice) Whitening Cone
Friction whitening (from undermilled to milled Friction whitener Fine bran
rice)
Rice polishing or refining (from milled rice to Polisher or Refiner Very fine bran
polished rice)
Sifting Plansifter or Gyrosifter Brewer's rice
Rice grading 9from mixture of polished rice to Indented Cylinder Broken grain
whole and broken rice) Grader
Sorting 9with mixed discolored grains to purely Color Sorter Discolored grain
white milled rice0
Glazing or coating (addition of nutrients in the Glazing Drum None
from of glucose talcum or lyzine)
Blending (whole enriched milled rice with Mixing or None
brokens with known percentages) Proportioning Tanks
Weighing Auto Weigher None
Packaging Packing Machine None
Dehusking Equipment
1. Steel hullers
a. combines the dehusking ad polishing process in one operation
b. husking is accomplished due to friction between grains and steel parts of the huller which cause
the husk and bran to be scraped of
c. has lower head rice recovery and high power requirement
d. steel huller operates at 800-900 rpm for smaller mill and 600-800 rpm for larger mill
2. Under-runner Disc Sheller
a. consists of two horizontal iron disc partly coated with abrasive layer
b. top disc is fixed to the housing while the bottom disc rotates
c. paddy is fed at the center and moves outward by centrifugal force which cause the grain to
dehusked due to friction
d. advantage is that it is simple and lower cost
e. disadvantage is the high broken grains
3. Rubber Roll paddy Husker

a. consist of two rubber rolls rotating opposite in direction at different speed
b. one roll moves slower than the other by 25%
c. difference in the peripheral speed causes the shearing action which dehusked the grains
d. faster rubber rolls worn out quicker than the other
e. wearing out rubber roll reduces the diameter and capacity of the huller
f. advantage is the high milling recovery while the disadvantage is the cost replacement of the rubber
roller
g. average capacity of the pair of rubber is 100-200 tons paddy per pair
h. optimum age of rubber begins 2-3 months after manufacture and decreases rapidly when the
rubber is 6-9 months old
Number of Bags
Rubber Roll Size (in.) Number of Bags (50 kg paddy processed per pair
of rubber roll)
2-1/2 200-250
3 300-350
4 400-600
6 850-900
8 950-1000

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10 1500-2000
Hulling efficiency ranged from 60-88%
Paddy Separation Equipment

1. Compartment-Type Paddy Separator
a. made of steel or wood consisting of number of compartments in one or more decks
b. number of compartments determine the capacity
c. each compartment has a capacity of 40 kg brown rice per hour for long grains and 60 kg/hr
for short grains
2. Tray Separator
a. consists of several indented trays mounted one above the other about 5 cm apart all attached
to an oscillating frame
b. tray moves up and forward causing the brown rice and paddy to be separated
c. capacity ranges from 1.2 to 9.5 tons per hour
Bran Removal
1. Vertical abrasive Whitener
a. dehusked paddy enters the top center and moves outward by centrifugal force to the edge of
metal cone
b. cone has abrasive surface and turn inside a cylinder covered with screen
c. clearance between the cone and screen is adjusted at 10 mm by raising and lowering the cone
d. vertical rubber brakes (30 to 50 mm wide) is placed at an interval around the cone
e. abrasive action takes place on brown rice as it moves down between the cone and the screen
f. peripheral speed of the cone is about 13 m/s
g. air aspiration through the whitener reduces breakage caused by heating and keep the dust out of
the mill
2. Horizontal Abrasive Whitener
a. more compact that the vertical abrasive whitener
b. machine consists of an abrasive roll (emery stone to steel shaft) operating in a cylindrical metal
perforated screen mounted horizontally
c. brown rice enter at the end and discharge at the other end
d. bran removal is accomplished similar to the vertical abrasive whitener.
3. Horizontal Friction Whitener
a. often called a jet or pneumatic peeler
b. machine uses a friction process in which the bran is peeled off by friction of the rice grains
c. steel hullers are also used as friction-type whitener
d. air is used to remove bran
4. Rice Polishers
a. these are sometimes called peelers or refiners to make the rice more glossy and highly polished
b. made of vertical or horizontal abrasive whitener wherein the cone are covered with leather
strips and operated at lower rpm
c. leather strips rolls the whitened rice against the screen which make the remaining bran to
removed and rice become shinier and glossier
d. machine produces few broken grains and power consumption is less than by 30-40% of the
whitener
Grading Equipment
1. Vibrating or rotary sieves - used for separating small broken grains.
2. Trieurs, rotating cylinder, or drum grader - used for large broken grains.
Indices for Efficient Milling

1. grain factors
2. mechanical factors
3. operational factors
Percentage broken milled rice = [Wt. of broken grains x 100] / Wt. of milled rice
Percentage brewer's rice = [Wt. of brewers rice x 100] / Wt. of milled rice
Head rice recovery = [Wt. of head rice x 100] / Wt. of milled rice
Milling recovery = [Wt. of milled rice x 100] / Wt. of input paddy
Chapter XVI - WATER PUMPING EQUIPMENT
Pump - is a device used to lift and delivers water

Classification of Pumps
1. Positive Displacement Pumps - pumps wherein a constant volume of liquid is generated for every
working stroke of the piston or of the pumping unit
2. Non-Positive Displacement Pumps - pumps wherein the volume of liquid generated for every
working stroke of the propeller or of the pumping unit varies with the discharge head
Lift Pump
1. used for pumping water from a source level of pump spout only and are operated by hand or
windmill
2. operate on shallow well source 20 to 40 ft
Force Pump

38
1. used for pumping water from a source and to deliver it to higher elevation or against pressure such
as elevated reservoir and/or pressure tanks
2. operate for shallow or deep well up to 1500 feet.
Centrifugal Force Pump

1. has wide application on farms and in homes
2. most efficient in handling large volumes of water at low pressures and low suction heads. It is
relatively inexpensive and is efficient in operation if used for the purpose for which it was
designed
3. consist of an impeller mounted within the housing and is only the moving part of the pump
Turbine Pumps
1. modified from centrifugal pump
2. used to move water through the pump, but the design of the impeller and housing is such that
much higher pressures and suction heads are obtainable than with the straight centrifugal pumps
of the same size
3. consists of a series of turbines called stages arranged one above the other with drive shaft
extending to the surface
4. discharge pressure increases with the number of stages in the pump
5. the deeper the well the more stages is required
Jet Pumps
1. combination of a conventional water pump of some kind usually a centrifugal pump, and an
ejector or reducer which commonly referred to as "jet"
Diaphragm Pump
5. has the same type of drive as reciprocation pump and is suitable for high-output small-pumping
heads
6. consists a cylinder closed at the lower end with a circular diaphragm of rubber of some other
flexible material fixed at the top end
3. reciprocating connecting rod is fixed at the center of the cylinder
4. valve allows water movement in only one direction through the cylinder
5. advantages are large-volume flow per stroke, self-priming with air-filled suction line, and easy to
build
Spiral Pump
1. follows the principle of a conveyor where a waste hose is spirally wounded around an inclined
rotational axis and is driven directly by a low-speed prime mover
2. suitable for transporting surface water
Bucket wheel Pump

1. bucket wheel pump operates like a simple chain conveyor consisting endless chain with pails,
cups, or other bailing container
2. suitable for head up to 3 meters.
Rotary Pump
1.has a rotating member eccentrically located at the casing
2.has vanes that swing during rotation where water is trapped
3.self-priming and is capable of operating against a suction head up to 8 meters
4.swinging vane pumps are suitable for moderate volume and low-head pumping
5.starts operating in low speed.
Classification According to their Position with Respect to Well Structure

1. Shallow-well pump - operate within the limit of suction lift of 6.7 to 7.6 m
2. Deep well pump - pumps installed within the well casing and usually pump inlet submerged
below the pumping level
Pumps Classifications
Lift Pump Shallow Well Bucket
Chain

39
Single Acting Plunger Type

Deep Well Single Acting Plunger Type
Force Pump Shallow Well Single Acting Plunger Type
Differential Acting Piston Type
Double Acting Piston Type Single Cylinder
Duplex
Centrifugal Single Stage
Multistage
Turbine Multistage
Jet Centrifugal
Turbine
Helical, Rotary, Screw Type
Submersible
Deep Well Single Acting Plunger Type
Differential Plunger Type
Double Acting Plunger Type
Jet (with centrifugal)
Submersible (with multistage centrifugal)
Turbine (multistage)
Helical, Rotary, Screw Type
Selection Table for Pump capacity and Head

Type of Pump Low Capacity Medium Capacity High Capacity
LH HH LH HH LH HH
Centrifugal Single-Stage x x x x x x
Mixed Flow x x
Axial Flow x
Portable
Submersible x x x
Reciprocating Plunger
x
Reciprocating Piston
x x x x
Gear x x x
Vane x x x
Screw x x x x
Diaphragm x X
Performance of Water Pumps

Pump Type Range of Head Efficiency Starting Speed
Suction Discharge (%) Torque (rev/min)
(m) (m)
Piston 7 100 80 High 30
10 30 80 High 30
Double Acting Piston
7 100 85 High 30
Screw 0 5 60 Low 30-400
Diaphragm 7 30 90 High 30
Rope and Bucket 0 50 High 2
Spiral Wheel 0 1 60 Low 80
Propeller 0 7 60 Low 400-2000
400
Performances of Water Pumps
Pump Type Range of Head Efficiency Starting Speed
Suction Discharge (%) Torque (rev/min)
(m) (m)
10 30 80 High 30
Double Acting
Screw 0 5 60 Low 30-400
Diaphragm 7 30 90 High 30
Rope and Bucket 0 50 High 2
Spiral Wheel 0 1 60 Low 80
Propeller 0 7 60 Low 400-2000
401
Water horsepower - amount of water that can be delivered per unit time for a given lift.
WHP = (Q x h) /273
where: WHP - water horsepower, hp
Q - discharge, m3/hr
h - vertical lift, m

40
Pump efficiency - ratio of the water horsepower and the brake horsepower of the pump
p = (WHP 100)/ BHP
where:  p - pump efficiency ,%
WHP - water horsepower, hp
BHP - brake horsepower, hp
Pump Type Overall Efficiency

New electric motor and water pump 95
Reconditioned pump and motor units 60
Pump Characteristics Curve

1. represents the interrelationship between speed, head discharge, and horsepower
2. enables one to select a pump which fits operating conditions and thus attain a relatively high
efficiency with low operating cost
Factor for the Selection

1. head-capacity of the well
2. initial cost
3. space requirement
4. type of power unit and pump characteristics
5. storage capacity, rate of replenishment and well diameter
6. other possible uses of pump
Factors to Consider in Selection of Power Units for Pumps

1. Amount of power required
2. Initial cost
3. Availability and cost of energy fuel
4. Duration and frequency of pumping
5. Maintenance and convenience of operation
6. Durability and dependability of unit
7. Labor availability and quality
Pump Laws
Q1 / Q2 = n1 / n2
H1 / H2 = n12 / n22
(bhp)1 / (bhp)2 = n13 / n23
For geometrically Similar Pumps

Q2 / Q1 = (D2 / D1)3
H2 / H1 = (D2 / D1)2
(bhp)2 / (bhp)1 = (D2 / D1)2
where: Q - discharge
D - impeller diameter
H - head
n - rpm
bhp - brake horsepower
Chaoter XVII - TESTING AND EVALUATION OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY

Purposes
1. it is the critical assessment of a machine or process under a given set of operating conditions
2. it provides functional data for the assessment of the performance of the machine including the rate
and quality at which the operations are accomplished
Criteria in Evaluation of the performance of a machine

1. Capacity and power requirement
2. Quality of material or operation handled by the machine
3. Operator performance
4. Reliability of machine parts and components
5. Environment effect
6. Safety
7. Cost of operation
Need for Testing and Evaluation

1. needs the assurance that the machine that is intended to buy will perform according to requirment
and that the use of such machine will bring economic benefits
2. to provide financial institutions and government agencies the needed informaion regarding the
machine performance
3. agencies and institutions doing research and development work on farm mechanization will be
provided with information on design modifications, adjustments in operating conditions as well as
overall machine performance which are needed in attaining optimum and efficient operation of
specific machines

41
Steps in Testing and Evaluation

1. Know the machine\
2. Know the objectives
3. Design the test procedure.
4. Preparing the test instruments
5. Testing the machine
6. Analysis of samples
7. Analysis of data
8. Preparing the report
Testing Instrument
Length - Meter stick, push roll tape
Thickness - Caliper, micrometer
Shaft speed - Tachometer
Temperature - Low – glass bulb thermometer, thermocouple wire, infrared
Pressure - manometer
Velocity - Machine - odometer
- Air - thermoanemometer
Power - brake dynamometer
Force - spring scale, strin gauge, load cell
Chapter XVIII - SAFETY IN AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY
Accident - unplanned but not necessarily damaging event which interrupts completion of an activity
Factors Responsible for Accident
1. Man – human factor
a. age
b. experience
c. education and training
d. strain, fatique, comforts, etc
2. Machine
a. Poor design and manufacturing
b. Lack of safety devices, measures, and instructional procedue in the use of machine
3. Operational Environment
a. Knowledge on weather, terrain, crop condition
Common Nature of Accident

1. Overturning of tractor during operation
2. Overrun while running on roads due to failure of usingbrakes properly
3. Hydraulic failure
4. Cloth entanglement with belt and protruding part of pulley
5. Inhaling and physical contact with chemical during spraying
6. cutting hands while feeding into thresher without safety shield
7. Inhilation of dust particles
8. Electric shocks especially during water pumping with electric motor
9. Burning of skin upon touching hot surfaces on furnaces, dryers, and related equipment
Safety Precautions
1. Familiarize self with the operation of the machine
2. Check machine before operating it
3. Never leave machine unattended without stopping engine
4. Do not fill fuel tank while engine is operating
5. Do not attempt to oil or grease or adjust machine while in operation
6. Keep all shield guard in place
7. Operation should be done by highly trained or qualified person
8. Use machine with shields and protective devices on feeding section
9. Never operate machine in close garage or shed
10. Do not operate machine with loose parts
11. Provide first aid kit
12. Keep fire extinguisher handy at all time
13. Take time for safety
Chapter XIX – SELECTION OF AGICULTURAL MACHINES

Factors Need to Consider in the Selection of Farm Machines
1. Trade Mark - distinguishing mark, device, or symbol affixed by a manufacturer merchant, or
trader to his goods in order to identify them as his goods and distinguish them from the goods
manufactured, sold, or dealt in by others
2. Trade Name or Brand Name - name by which an article is called or given by a manufacturer
to an article to distinguish it as one produced by that company
3. Models - indicate the type of machine, the size, or an improvement or new design
4. Repairs - before considering the purchase of any machine, it is well to look into the source of
repair; machine should be examined to see whether the various parts are accessible for
making repairs when needed

42
5. Design - the arrangement of the parts to show the difference of make-up in machines of the
same type; provision of safety devices should be carefully considered; the machine should
have a finished appearance and style without sacrificing strength and performance.
6. Ease of Operation - simply depend upon the correct adjustment, when properly adjusted; little
effort is required for the operator other than the steering and turning of the machine.
7. Ease of Adjustment - careful study should be made of the methods for adjusting the various
parts; devices designed to simplify adjusting the equipment are time and labor savers.
8. Adaptability to Work Condition - many implements on the markets which are not adaptable
to every condition; machine may work in one locality and be an absolute failure in another
because it is adapted to certain soil conditions or types of crops grown.
9. Quick change of of Units - time and labor required to dismount one unit and mount another
are important considerations in selecting farm equipment.
10. Maneuverability - greatly reduced when machines are mounted in front of row-crop tractors.
11. Comfort - comfortable seat should be supported with shock-absorbing devices; seat should
be stable and adjustable to suit different sized individuals.
12. Other factors such as power requirements, cost of operation, initial cost, years of service
expected and whether the purchase of the equipment is economical in relation to the size of
the farm and the work to be performed by the equipment.

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1

Agricultural Engineering Reviewer

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio

TGIM Review Center

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

UNITS AND CONVERSION

Agricultural Mechanization - development, manufacture and extension of appropriate agricultural tools,

General Classifications of Agricultural Machinery

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

Classification of Agricultural Machines According to Operation

Classifications of Manufacturers and Distributors of Agricultural Machines

Chapter II - MATERIALS AND STANDARDS

Iron - a pure ferrite

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

Typical Properties of Iron and Steel

Copper and Its alloys

Common Shapes of Metal Bars and Sheets

Common Structural Shapes of Bars

Mechanical Properties of Metal

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

This includes ceramic oxides, glass-ceramics, carbides and nitrides

Chapter III – MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Oxyacetylene Welding Equipment

Arc Welding Electrode

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

Electrode Diameter to Current Requirement for Electric Arc Welder

Welding Joints (Butt, Lap, Tee, Corner, Edge)

MIG (Metal Innert Gas) Welding

Chapter IV - COMPONENT PARTS OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

Washers (flat malleable-iron, cast-iron, wrought-iron, and spring-lock washers)

Distances of Bearings on Shaft

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

Key, Shaft, and Hub Assembly

Classification of Rolling Contact Bearing

Load Carrying Types

Component Parts of Bearing

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

Bearing Life Formula

Lh = 500 [ (106 / 3x104 N)0.33 ( C/P] n

Radial Load Acting on Shaft Formula

F = [KW x 19.1x10 6 x K] / [PDxRPM]

Types of Ball Bearing

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

Rules in the Use of Lubricants

Oil is used when:

Chapter V - POWER TRANSMISSION DRIVE

Classifications of Power Transmission Drive

Classifications of Belt and Pulley Drive

Characteristics Flat Belt and Pulley Drive

Characteristics of V-Belt and Sheave Drive

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

Type Width (mm) Height (mm) Power Range

Pulleys and Sheaves

Classifications of Belt Drive

Pulley Speed and Diameters

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021

Belt Velocity (linear speed of belt)

where: L - length of belt, in.

Sprocket and Chain Drive

Selection of Chain and Sprockets

Chain and Sprocket Size

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio/CPU Iloilo City 3/9/2021