Ananda K C o om aras w amy .

(fo r m e r ly ti tle d Why Ex h i bi t Wo r ks o f A r t)

D OV ER P UBLICATI ONS INC . N ew York ,

New York
 h
T i s b oo k h a s no t be e n co pyri gh te d ; q u o ta ti o ns lo n g or s h or t m ay
h
b e m a d e w i t o u t e x p r es s e r m i ss i o n p .

h
T i s n e w D o v e r e d i ti o n rs t
, fi h
p u b li s e d i n 1 956 i s a n u n a b r id e d
, g
a n d u n a l te r e d r e p u b l i ca ti o n o f th e fi
rs t e d i ti o n o f th e w o r k o r i i g
b h
n a l ly p u l i s e d u nd er th e ti tl e Wh y E x h i bi t Wo r ks of A r t .

L i br a r y o f Co n g r es s Ca ta l o g Ca r d N u m be r : 5 7 3 49 6
-

M a n u f a ctu r e d i n th e Un i te d S ta te s of A m er i ca

b
D ov e r P u l i ca t i on s , I n c .

1 80 V a r i ck S t r e e t
 C O N T EN T S
C h ap ter

WHY EX H B T I I WO R K S or A RT

II . TH E I I
C H R ST A N AN D I
O R EN TA L, OR T R U E,

I
P H LO S O P H Y OF A RT

111 . IS A RT A S U PER S T T O N , I I OR A WA Y OF I
L FE P 61

I
P O S TS C R PT : IS
'

A RT A I I
S U P ERS T T O N OR A

WA Y or LI F E ? A R EV EW I

IV . W H AT Is TH E U S E or A RT, A NY W A Y P

B EA UT Y AN D T R UT H

TH E N AT U RE or I
M ED E VA L A RT

VI I . TH E I I
T R A D T O NA L C O N C EPT O N I OF I D EA L
P O RT R A I TU R E

V II I . T H E N A T U RE O F F O LK LO R E AND P O P U LA R
$7
A RT

IX . B EA U T Y OF M A T H EM AT C S I A R EV EWI
 A C K NO WLED G M EN T S

Ch a p ter I . WHY EX HIB IT WOR K S

An a ddr es s OF ART ?
de live r ed b e for e th e Am eri c a n o f Mu se u m s Asso cia ti on
at Colu m bu s Oh i o a nd N ewp ort R in Ma y a nd , , , . I .
,

Octo ber 1 94 1 a nd p r inted in th e jou rna l of AEs theti cs

I
, , ,

New Y o r k Fa ll s su e 1 94 1 , , .

Ch a p t e r II THE CHRIS TIAN AN D ORIE NTAL OR TRUE PHILO

del iver ed a t th e Wal ter Vin c ent
.
,

SOP HY O F A RT l e ctu r e . A
S m i th Ar t Ga ller y a nd , a t B o sto n C o ll e ge 1 93 9 a nd , ,

p r in te d a s a john S tevens P a mphlet N ew p o r t 1 93 9

, ,
.

C h a p t er III
IS ART A S UPE R S TITION OR A WA Y OF
. IFE ? L
A v
l e ctu r e gi en a t th e Me tr o p oli ta n Mu s eu m o f Ar t Ne w ,

Y A
p ril 1 93 7 a n d a t ni e r s ity ( S u mrn e r H v U v
'

ork a r a rd

P
, , ,

S ch o o l) J u ly 1 93 7
,
ri nte d in th e A m er i ca n Revi ew
,
.

S um m er u m b er N
1 93 7 a n d as a john S tevens P a mph l et , ,

N ew p or t 1 93 7 .

Po stscript N OTE
,

REVIEW B Y RICHAR D FLORS HEIM

. ON A .

Ar t B u lleti n Vol XX New Yo r k 1 93 7 , .

, ,
.

Ch a p ter I V WHAT IS THE USE OF ART ANY WAY ? Tw o

.
,

br o a dcasts fo r th e Mu seu m of Fin e Ar ts B o s ton J a nu a r y

Printed in th e Am eri ca n Revi ew Fe bru a ry 1 93 7
, , ,

1 93 7 .
, , .

a n d w i th o th e r m a t te r b y A Gr a h a m C a r e y a nd J o h n .

How a rd B ens on a s a john S tevens P a mphlet N ewp ort ,

1 93 7
Ch a p ter V B . E AUTY A ND TRUTH . A rt B u lleti n , XX , New
Yor k 93 8 , 1 .

Ch ap ter VI T . HE NATURE OF ME D I E VAL ART . From Th e

A r ts f
o the M i ddle Ages Mu se u m ,
Of Fi n e Ar ts B o s ton , ,

1 4 0
9 .

C h a p te r VII THE TRA D ITIONAL C ONCE PTION OF I DE AL

P III I V
.

O RTRA ITURE . Twi ce Y ea r New Y o r k 1 93 9

a ,
-
, , ,

pp 2 44 - 2 5 2 jou r na l of th e I ndi a n S oci ety of Or i enta l Art

V II
.
,

C a lcutt a , , 1 93 9 p p 7 4 82 , .
-
.

Ch a p te r VIII . THE NATURE OF FOLKLORE P UA A ND OP L R AR T .

Otly jou r na l f
o the M y thi c S oc i ty
e B gl an a ore , J u ly
L d
.
,

O ct o b e r 1 9 3 6 ; I n di a n A r t a n d L tt e er s , on on , 1
93 7 ;
P i s 93 7
,

a nd (in F r e n ch ) Etu des T r a di ti on e ll es , ar , 1 .

Ch a p te r IX
THE B E AUTY OF MATHE MATI CS A re v i e w ;
III
. .

A r t B u lleti n Vo l XX , .
, New Y or k , 1 94 1 .
 W H Y E XH I B I T W O RK S OF A RT ?

H A T is an Ar t M us um for ? A s
e word
the
Curator impli e s th e firs t a nd mos t e ss e nti a l
,

fu n ctio n of such a M us e um is to ta ke ca re of an ci e nt
or u niqu e works Of a r t which a r e no lo nge r i n th e ir
origi nal place s or no lo n ge r us e d a s w a s origi nally i n
te n d e d a nd a r e t h e r e fore i n d a ng e r o f d e s truc tio n by
,

n e gl e c t or o th e rwis e . This care Of wo r ks O f a r t do e s no t

n e c e ss a rily i nvolve t h e ir e xhibi t io n .

I f w e ask why should th e prote cte d works Of a r t be

,

e xhibi te d a n d mad e acce ssibl e a nd e xpl a i ne d to the

public the a nswe r will be m a d e that this is to be do ne
, ,

wi th a n e duc a tio na l purpos e Bu t b e fore w e procee d

.

to a co n sid e ra t io n of this purpos e b e fore w e ask

, ,

E ducatio n in or for wh a t a d i s t i nc ti o n mus t be mad e

b etwee n th e e xh ibi tio n of th e works of livi n g artis ts
a nd tha t of a n c i e n t o r r e l a t iv e ly a n ci e n t or e xo t ic works

Of a r t . It is u n n e c e ss a r y for M us e ums to e xh i bi t th e
works O f liv i n g a r tis ts which a r e no t i n i mmi ne nt da ng e r
,

O f d e s t ruc t io n or a t l ea s t if such works a r e e xhibi te d

, ,

i t should be cl ea rly u n d e rs tood th a t th e M us e um is

r e al ly a dve rtisi ng th e a rtis t a nd a cti n g o n b e half O f th e
a r t d ea l e r or middl e m a n whos e busi n e ss i t is to fin d

a m a r k e t for t h e ar t is t th e o n ly di ff e r e n c e b e i n g th a t
whil e th e M us e um do e s the s a m e sor t of wo r k a s the
d e a l e r i t m a kes n o profi t O n the o th e r ha nd tha t a
, .
,

l i vi n g a r tis t should W ish to be hu n g or shown

i n a M us e um c a n be o nly du e to his n ee d or his va n ity .

For thi n gs a r e m a d e n orma lly for c e rta i n purpos e s a n d

c er ta i n pl a ce s to wh i ch th e y a re a pprop r iate a nd no t ,

simply for e xhib i tio n a n d b e caus e wh a t e v e r is t hus

7
 WH Y E X H I B IT W O R K S O F ART ?

cus tom— m a d e i e ma de by a n a r tis t for a con sum e r

, . .
, ,

i s co n troll e d by c e rta i n re qu i r e m e nts a nd ke p t i n orde r .

Wh e r ea s a s M r Ste i nfe ls ha s re ce n tly re ma rke d A r t

,
.
,

wh i ch i s o n ly i nte n d e d to be hu n g o n th e wa lls of a
M us e um is o ne k i n d Of ar t tha t ne ed no t co n s i de r its
r e l at i o n sh i p to its ul t i ma te su r r ou nd i ngs Th e a r ti s t .

c a n p a i n t a n y th i n g h e W i sh e s an w a h e w i sh e s and
y y , ,

if th e Cu r a to rs a n d T r us tee s l i ke it we ll e n ough t e
h y “

wi ll l i n e i t up o n th e wa ll wi th a ll th e o th e r curios i ti e s .

W e a r e l e ft w i th th e re a l p r obl e m W hy e xhibi t ? ,

a s i t a ppl i e s to th e r e l a t i v e ly a n c i e n t o r fo re ig n w o r ks o f

a r t wh i c h b e ca us e O f th e i r fr a g i l i ty a n d b e ca us e th ey
,

n o lo n g e r c o r r e spo n d t o a n n e e ds of o u r o w n of wh i ch
y
w e a r e a c t ive ly c o n s c io u s a r e p r e s e rve d i n our M us e ums
wh e r e th ey fo r m th e bulk of th e coll e cti o n s I f w e a r e to
,, ,

e xhib i t th e s e O bj e c t s fo r e duc a t i o n a l r e a so ns a n d no t a s ,

m e r e cu r ios i t is e vide n t t ha t w e a r e prop o si ng to m a ke

,

such u s e o f th e m a s i s poss i bl e wi thou t a n a ctua l h a n dli ng .

It will be i m a g i n a t i ve ly a n d n o t a c tua lly th a t w e mus t

u s e th e m e di mv a l r e l i qu a r y or l ie o n t h e E gyp t i a n be d
, ,

o r m a k e our o ff e r i n g t o s o m e a n ci e n t d e i ty Th e e du ca .
v

ti o na l e n ds th a t a n e xhibi t io n ca n s e rve d e ma nd ,

a cco r di n gly th e s e r v i c e s n o t of a Cu r a to r o n ly who

, ,

p r e p ar e s th e e xhib i ti o n bu t Of a D oce nt W h o e xpl a i ns

,
’ ’
t he or i gi na l p a tro n s n e e ds a n d th e origi n a l a r t i s t s
m e thods fo r i t is b e c a us e of wh a t th e s e p a t ro n s a n d
a r t is t s w e r e th a t t h e wor ks b e for e us a r e wh a t th e y a r e .

If th e e xhib i t io n i s to be a nyth i n g m o r e th a n a S how Of

cur i os i ti e s a nd a n e nte r ta i ni n g S p e c ta cl e it will no t
su ffi c e to be s ati s fi e d wi th our o w n re a cti o ns to th e
obj e cts to k now why th ey a r e wh a t the y a r e w e mus t
know the m e n th a t ma de th e m It will no t be .

e duc a t i o n a l to i nte r p r e t such O bj e c ts by our lik e s or

disl i ke s o r to a ssume th a t th e s e m e n t hough t Of a r t
,

i n o u r fa shio n or th a t th e y h a d ze s the ti c mo tive s or

, ,

we re e xp r e ssi ng th e ms e lve s
‘‘
W e mus t e xami ne their
.

8
 WHY EXH IB IT WO R KS O F ART ?

th e ory Of a r t first of a ll i n ord e r to u nd e rs ta nd th e thi ngs

,

tha t t h e y m a d e by a r t a nd s e co n dly i n ord e r to ask

,

W h e th e r th e ir vi e w O f a r t if i t is fou n d to di ff e r from ours

, ,

may no t h ave b e e n a t rue r o ne .

Le t us assume tha t w e a r e co n sid e ri n g a n e xhibi tio n

O f Gre e k O bj e cts ,
a n d c a ll upo n Pla to to a c t a s our

D oc e nt . H e k nows no thi n g of our dis t i n c tio n Of fine

from a ppli e d arts For him pai nti n g a nd a gricul ture
.
,

music a nd carp e ntry a n d po tte r y a r e a ll e qually ki nds

Of po e t ry or maki ng A nd a s Plo t i nus followi n g Pl a to
.
, ,

te lls us the art s such a s music a nd ca rp e nt ry a r e no t bas e d

,
”
o n huma n wisdom bu t o n th e thi n ki n g t he re .

Whe neve r Plato S p ea ks disp a ragi ngly of the bas e

me cha nical arts a nd of m e re labour as dis ti nguishe d
from th e fine work O f m a ki n g thi ngs i t is wi th re fe r ,

e n c e to ki n ds of m a n ufa c ture t ha t provid e for th e n e e ds

O f th e body a lo n e . Th e ki n d of a r t tha t h e calls whol e

some a nd will admi t to his ide a l s ta te mus t be no t o nly
us e ful bu t also true to righ tly chos e n mode ls a nd th e re fore
b eauti ful a nd this ar t h e s ays will pro vid e a t the sam e
, , ,
”
t im e for the souls a nd bodi e s Of your ci tiz e ns H is .

”
music s ta nds for all th a t w e m ea n by cul ture ,

a nd his gym na s tics for a ll th a t w e m ea n by physic a l

t rai n i n g a nd we ll b e i n g
-
h e i n sis t s th a t th e s e e n ds of
cul ture a nd physique must neve r be s e p a rate ly pu r sue d
th e t e n d e r ar tis t a n d th e bru ta l a thl e te ar e e qually
co nte m p tibl e W e o n th e o the r h a n d a r e accus tom e d
.
,

to thi n k of music a n d cul tur e i n g e ne r a l a s us e l e ss bu t

, , ,

s till va luabl e W e forge t th a t music tr a di tio na lly is

.
, ,

n e ve r som e thi n g o n ly for th e e a r som e thi n g o nly to be

,

h e ard bu t always the accompa nim e n t Of some ki nd of

,

a c t io n O u r o w n co n c e p tio n s of cul ture a re typic a lly

I b e li eve tha t Profe ssor D e we y is righ t in
.

n e g a tive .

calli ng our cul tura l va lue s s n obbish Th e l e sso n s of .

th e M us e um mus t be a ppli e d to our life .

Be caus e w e ar e no t go in g to ha ndl e the e xhibi te d

9
 W HY E X H I B I T W OR KS OF ART ?

O bj e cts w e sh a ll take th e ir a p ti tude for u s e tha t is to s ay

, ,

th e ir e ffi ci e ncy for gr a n te d a n d r a th e r ask i n wh a t s e ns e

, ,

t h e y a re also tru e or sig nifica n t for if th es e O bj e cts ca n

no lo ng e r s e rv e our bodily n ee ds p e rh a ps t h e y ca n s t ill ,

s e rve thos e of o u r soul or if you p r e fer the word our

, ,

r e a so n . W ha t Pla’to mea ns by tr ue i s ico no ‘

g r a ph i ca lly corre ct F o r a ll th e a rt s wi thou t e xc e p t io n

.
, ,

a r e r e pr e s e n ta t io n s o r l i ke ne ss e s O f a mode l ; which
do es no t m ea n tha t th ey a r e such as to tell us wha t th e
mode l looks like which would be impossib l e s e e i ng
,

tha t th e forms O f tr a di t io nal a r t a r e typ i cal ly i m i ta ti v e

of i nvisibl e thi ngs which ha ve no looks bu t th a t th ey
, ,

a r e such ad e qu a t e a n a logi e s as to be a bl e t o r e mi n d us ,

i e pu t us i n mi n d a ga i n of th e ir a rch e typ e s
. .
, ,
Works .

Of a r t a r e r e mi n de rs i n o th e r words support s Of ,

co nte mpl a tio n Now si n ce the co n te mpl a tio n a nd u n de r

.

s ta ndi n g Of th e s e works is to s er ve th e n ee ds Of th e soul ,

’
t ha t is to s a y i n Pla to s O w n words to a ttu n e o u r o w n ,

dis torte d mod e s of though t to cosmic h a rmo ni e s so ,

tha t by a n assimil a t io n of th e k now e r to th e to be k now n - -

,

th e a rch e typ a l n a tur e a n d com i n g to be i n t h a t lik e ne ss

, ,
’
w e m ay a ttai n a t las t t o a p a r t i n t h at life s b es t th a t
h a s b ee n a ppoi nte d by th e Gods to m a n for t h i s t i m e
b e i ng a nd h e re a fte r or s ta te d i n I nd i a n ter ms to effe c t
”
, ,

our o w n me trica l re i nte gra tio n t hrough th e im i tat i o n

O f divi ne forms a nd b e c a us e a s th e U p a n ish a d r e m i n ds
,

us o ne com e s to be O f jus t such s tuff a s th a t o n which

,
”
th e mi n d is s e t ,
it follows tha t it is no t o n ly re quisi te t h a t
th e s ha p e s of a r t S hould be ad e qua te r e mi n d e r s of th e i r
para digms bu t tha t th e na ture of th e s e p a r a d i gms
,

th e ms e lve s mus t be of th e u tmos t impo r ta n c e if w e a re ,

thi n ki ng O f a cul tur a l valu e Of a r t i n a ny s e r i ous s e ns e

“

O f th e word cul ture Th e w ha t Of a r t is far mo r e

.

important th a n the have i t should i nde e d be th e wh a t , ,

tha t d e te rmi ne s th e how a s form d e te rmi n e s sh a p e

,
.

Pl a to has a lways i n Vi e w th e re pre s e nta ti o n of i nvisibl e

IO
 W H Y E X H I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

a nd i ntelligibl e forms Th e imi tatio n of a nythi ng a nd

.

e ve ry thi n g is d e spic a bl e i t is the a c t io n s of Gods a n d

’
H e ro e s no t th e artis t s fe e li ngs or th e na ture s of m e n
,

who a r e a ll to o huma n like hims e lf th a t a r e th e l e gi tima te

I f a po e t canno t imi tate the e te rna l
,

th e m e of a r t .

re ali ti e s bu t o nly th e va ga ri e s Of hum a n ch a ra c te r th e re

, ,

c a n be n o pl a c e for him i n a n id e a l soci e ty howe ve r t ru e

,

or i ntrigui ng his r e pre s e ntat io ns m ay be Th e As s yr io lo

.

gis t A n dr ee is sp ea ki ng i n p e rfe c t accord wi th Plato

wh e n h e says i n co nne ct io n wi th po tte ry tha t It is
, ,

t h e bus i ne ss of a r t to gra sp t h e primordial t ru th to m a k e ,

th e i na udibl e a udibl e to e nu n ciat e th e primordi a l word

to r e r oduc e th e pr i mordi a l im a ge s —o r i t is no t a r t
,

p .

In o th e r words a r ea l a r t is o ne of symbolic a n d sig n ific a n t

,

re pr e s e ntatio n a re pr e s e nta tio n o f thi ngs th a t ca nno t

be s ee n e xc e p t by th e i nte ll e c t In this s e n s e a r t is t he
.

a n ti th e sis of wh a t w e m e a n by V isu a l e duca t io n for this ,

ha s i n vi e w to t e ll us wh a t thi ngs th a t w e do no t s ee ,

bu t migh t s ee look like It is th e na tura l i n s ti n c t O f a

F irs t I t hi nk
.
,

child to wo r k from wi thi n ou twar ds

a n d t h e n I d r a w my thi n k
,
”
Wha t wa s te d eff orts w e
.

ma k e to tea ch the child to s top th i n ki ng a nd o nly to

I ns tea d of tra i ni ng the ch i ld to thi nk a nd how
,

O bs e rve ,

t o thi n k a n d O f wha t w e m a k e him

,
corre c t his dra wi ng
by W ha t h e s ee s It i s cl e ar tha t th e M us e um a t i ts b e s t
.

mus t be th e sworn e ne my of the m e thods O f i ns t ruc tio n

curre ntly prevaili ng i n our Schools Of A r t .

It w a s a ny thi n g bu t th e Gr ee k mira cl e i n a r t th a t
Pl ato a dmir e d wh a t h e pra is e d was th e ca no n ica l a r t
of E gyp t i n which th e s e mod e s ( of re p r e s e ntat io n)
”
th a t a r e by n a tur e corr e c t h a d b ee n h e ld for e ve r s a cr e d .

Th e poi n t O f V i e w is id e nt ic a l wi th th a t O f th e S chol a s tic

philosoph e rs for whom a r t h as fixe d e nds a nd a s ce r
,
”
ta i n e d m e a ns of op e ra t io n Ne w so n gs y e s
.
,
bu t
n eve r n e w ki n ds O f music fo r t h e s e m a d e s tr oy our whol e
, y
civiliza tio n It is th e i r ra ti o na l impuls e s tha t ye a r n fo r
.

II
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS OF ART ?

i nnovatio n O ur s e ntime nta l or w s th e tic Cul tu r e

.

s e nt im e ntal ws th etic a nd ma te ri a lis tic a r e virtua lly

syno nyms — pre fe rs i ns ti nct ive e xpre ssion to the formal
,

b e au ty of ratio na l ar t B u t Plato could no t have s ee n

.

an
y di ffe re n c e b e twe e n t h e ma t h e m a t ici a n t hrill e d by a

b e aut iful e qua tio n a n d the artis t thrill e d by his forma l

visio n For h e a s ke d us to s ta nd up like m e n aga i n s t
.

our i ns ti n c tive re actio ns to what is pl e as a nt or u n pl ea s a nt ,

a nd to admir e i n works of a r t no t the ir ae s th e t ic surfac e s

,

bu t th e logic or r igh t re a so n of th e ir composi t io n A nd

.

so na tu r ally h e poi nts o u t that Th e b eau ty Of the

s traigh t li ne a nd th e circl e a nd the pla ne a nd th e solid
,

figure s fo r m e d from th e s e is n o t like o th e r thi ngs

, ,
”
re lat ive bu t a lways absolu te ly b ea utiful
,
Ta k e n to
.

g e th e r wi th a ll tha t h e h a s to s ay e ls e wh e r e Of the
huma n is tic a r t tha t w as comi ng i nto fa shio n i n his o w n
t im e a n d wi t h wh a t h e h a s to s ay of E gyp tia n a r t this ,

amou nts to a n e n dors e m ent Of Gree k A rcha ic a n d Gree k

G eome tr ic Ar t— th e a rts th a t rea lly corre spo n d to th e
co nte nt O f thos e myths a nd fa iry tal e s that he h e ld i n such
high re sp e c t a nd so O fte n quo te s Tra nslated i nto .

more fam i li a r te rms this m ea ns th a t from this i nte ll e c tual

poi nt of w ow th e a r t O f th e A me rica n I n dia n s a nd
,

p a i nti ng is sup e r i o r i n ki nd to a ny p a 1 nti ng tha t h a s b ee n

do ne i n E urop e o r wh i te A m e r ic a wi thi n th e l a s t s eve ra l
ce ntu r i e s A s th e D ire ctor Of o ne of the fiv e gre ates t
.

mus e um s i n o u r Ea s te rn Sta te s h a s more tha n o nce

r e marke d to m e Fr om th e Sto ne A ge u nt il n o w wh a t
, ,

a d e cli n e H e m e an t of cours e a d e cli ne i n i nte lle c

, ,

tu a li ty no t i n comfor t
, It should be o n e of th e fu n c tio n s
.

of a we ll o r ga n ize d M us e um e xhib i tio n to d e flate th e

illusio n Of progre ss
A t this poi n t I mus t d i g r e ss to c o rre c t a wid e spre a d
.

co nfus i o n Th e re e xis ts a g ene r a l impre ssio n th a t

.

mo de r n a bs t ra c t a r t is in some w ay like a nd re late d to ,

or eve n i nspire d by th e forma li ty Of primi tive ar t

‘
.

1 2
 W H Y E X HI B I T W O R K S OF ART ?

Th e like ne ss is al tog e th e r sup e rfici a l O u r a bs trac tio n

.

is n o thi ng bu t a manne rism Ne oli thic a r t is a bs tra ct

.
,

or ra th e r a lge bra ic b e ca us e i t is o n ly a n a lge bra ical form

,

th a t c a n be th e si ngl e form of ve ry di ffe r e n t t hi ngs .

The forms of e arly Gre e k ar e wh a t th ey a r e b e c a us e

i t is o nly i n such forms th a t th e pol a r b a l a n c e O f physical
a nd m e ta physical ca n be m a i n tai ne d To ha ve for
.

go tte n a s B e r nh e ime r re c e ntly s a id

”
,
this purpos e
,

b e fore the mira ge of absolu te p a tte r n s a nd de sig ns is

p e rhaps th e fu ndame ntal fa llacy of th e a bs trac t move
m e nt i n a r t . Th e mod e r n a bs tra c tio n is t forg e ts tha t
the Ne oli thic formalis t was no t a n i nte rior d e cora tor bu t ,

a m e taphysical m a n who s aw life whol e a nd h a d to

li v e by his w i ts o ne who did no t a s w e s ee k to live by
, , ,

brea d alo ne for a s the a nthropologis ts a ssure us primi tive

, ,

cul ture s provid e d for th e nee ds of the soul a nd the bo dy

at o ne a nd the same t ime Th e M us e um e xhibi tio n
.

shoul d amou nt to a n e xhorta tio n to re tur n to th e s e s a vag e

l e ve ls of culture .

A na tura l eff ec t Of the M us e um ex hibi tio n will be to

l e ad the public to e nquire why it is tha t O bj e c ts of
mus e um quali ty ar e to be fou n d o nly i n M us e ums
a n d a re no t i n d a ily u s e a nd r e adily ob ta i n abl e FOr th e .

M us e um O bj e c ts o n the whol e we re no t origi na lly

, ,

tr e asur e s m a de to be s ee n in gl a ss ca s e s bu t ra th e r ,

commo n O bj e c ts O f th e m a rke t pl a ce th a t could have b e e n

bough t a nd us e d by a nyo ne Wh a t u nd e rli e s th e
.

d ete riora tio n i n th e quali ty O f our enviro nm e nt P W hy

should w e have to d e p e n d a s much a s w e do upo n
“
a ntique s Th e o nly ossibl e a n swe r will agai n
p
re vea l th e e ss e nt ial O ppositi o n Of the M us e um to th e
world For this answe r will be tha t the M us e um O bj e cts
.

we re cus tom ma de a nd made for u s e whil e the thi ngs ,

tha t a r e mad e i n our fa c tori e s ar e m a d e primarily for

s a l e Th e word ma nufa c ture r i ts e lf m ea ni ng o ne
.
,

who make s thi ngs by h a nd h as come to me a n a sal e sman

,

1 3
 WH Y E XH I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

who ge ts thi n gs m a d e for him by machi ne ry Th e .

mus e um obj e c ts wer e huma nly m a d e by re spo n sibl e

m e n fo r whom th e ir m e a n s o f livel i hood w a s a voca t i o n
,

a n d a profe ssio n Th e mus e um O bj e cts we r e m a d e by

.

fr ee m e n H a ve thos e i n our d e p a rtme nt s to r e s b e e n

.

m a de by free m e n ? L e t us no t ta ke th e a nswe r for

gra nte d .

Wh e n Pl a to l ays it down tha t the a r t”s sha ll c a re for

th e bodi e s a n d souls of your ci tiz e ns a n d tha t o n ly ,

thi ngs th a t a r e s a ne a nd fr e e a nd no t a n sh a m e ful

, y
thi n gs u n b e comi ng free m e n a r e to be m a d e i t is a s much
, ,

a s to s a
y t h a t th e a r t is t i n wh a tev e r m a te ri a l mus t be a

free m a n no t m ea n i ng th e re by a n e m a n ci ate d
p
”
a r tis t i n the v u lg a r s e n s e of o ne h avi n g no O bligatio n
or commi tme nt of a ny ki n d bu t a m a n e mancip a te d from
I f th e ar tis t is to
,

th e d e spo t ism of th e s a l e sm a n .

re pre s en t th e e te rnal rea li ti e s h e mus t h ave k nown th e m

,

a s th e y a r e In o th e r words a n a ct O f im a gi na t io n i n
.

which the ide a to be re pres e nte d is first clo the d i n a n

imi ta bl e form mus t h ave p r e c e d e d the op e ra tio n i n
which this form is to be e m bo di e d i n th e a ctua l ma te ri a l .

”
Th e firs t of th e s e a c ts is call e d free th e l a t te r s e rvil e ,
.

B u t i t is o n ly if th e firs t be omi tte d th a t th e wor d s e rvil e

a cquir e s a disho n ourabl e co n no ta tio n It h a rdly n e e ds .

de mo ns tra tio n that our m e thods Of m a nufa cture a r e i n ,

this sh a me ful s e n s e s e rvil e or ca n be d e ni e d tha t th e

, ,

i ndus tri a l syste m for which th e s e me thods a r e i nd is

,

p e ns a bl e is u n fi t for free m e n A sys te m of ma nu

, .

”
facture or rath e r O f quanti ty productio n domi na te d by
,

m Oney va lu e s pre suppos e s t ha t th e re sh a ll be tw o

,

di ffe rent ki nds Of make rs privil ege d artis ts who m ay

,
”
be i nspire d a nd u n d e r privil e g e d laboure r s u nim a gi n
,
-
,

a t iv e by hypo th e sis si n ce the y a r e a ske d o n ly to make

,

wh a t o th e r m e n have imagi ne d A s E ric Gill put it .

‘ ,

O n the o ne ha n d w e h ave th e artis t co nc e r ne d sol e ly

to e xpress hims e lf o n the o th e r is the workman de prive d
I4
 WHY EXHIBIT WO RKS OF ART ?

O f an
y s e lf to e xpr e ss I. t h a s O fte n b e e n cl a im e d th a t

th e produc t io ns of fine a r t a r e us e l e ss ; i t would

s e e m to be a mocke ry to sp e a k of a soci e ty as free wh e re ,

i t is o nly the m a k e rs Of us e l e ss thi n gs a n d no t th e m a k e rs

,

of u tili ti e s th a t ca n be ca ll e d free e xc e p t i n th e s e ns e
, ,

th a t w e are a ll fr ee to work or s tarve .

It is th e n by the no t io n O f a voc a tio na l m a ki ng as

, , ,
’
dis ti ngui s h e d from ea rni ng o ne s livi ng by worki ng a t
a job ,
re gardl e ss Of W h a t i t m ay be th a t the di ff e re nce
,

b etwe e n th e mus e um O bj e ct s a nd thos e i n th e de p a rtm e nt

s tore ca n be b e s t e xpl a i ne d U nd e r th e s e co ndi tio ns
.
,

which h ave b e e n thos e Of a ll no n i ndus tri a l soci e ti e s th a t

-
,

is to s ay wh e n e a ch m a n m a ke s o ne ki n d of thi ng doi ng ,

o nly th at ki n d O f work fo r which he is fi tte d by his o w n

na ture a nd for which h e is th e r e fo r e d e s ti ne d Pla to ,

re mi nds us th a t more will be do ne a nd b e tte r do ne ,

”
th a n i n a ny o th e r w a y U n d e r th e s e co n di tio ns a m a n
.

a t wor k is doi ng wh a t h e like s b e s t a nd the pl e a sure

,

th a t h e t a k e s i n his work p e rfe c ts th e op e ratio n We .

s e e th e e vid e n c e Of this pl e a sure i n th e M us e um O bj e c ts ,

bu t no t i n the produc ts of chai n b e l t op e ra t io n which

-
,

a r e mor e lik e thos e O f th e ch a i n g a n g tha n lik e thos e O f

-

m e n who e njoy th e ir work . O u r h a nke ri ng for a s t ate

of l e isure or l e isure sta te is the proof of the fa ct that most
O f us ar e wor k i n g a t a ta sk to which w e could ne ve r have

b e e n ca ll e d by a nyo ne bu t a s a l e sman ce rta i nly no t by ,

God or by our o w n n ature s Traditio nal craftsm e n

.

whom I have k nown i n the E as t ca nnot be d ra gge d a way

from th e ir work a nd will work ove r time to th e ir o w n
,

p e cu niary loss .

W e h ave go ne so far as to divorce work from culture ,

a n d to thi n k O f cul ture a s som e thi n g to be acquir e d i n

hours of l e isure ; bu t the re ca n be o nly a ho thous e

a n d u nr e al cul ture wh e r e wor k i t s e lf is no t i ts m e a n s

if cul ture do es no t show i ts e lf in a ll w e ma ke w e ar e no t

cul tured W e ours elves h ave l os t thi s vocatio nal way
.

1
5
 WHY EXH I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

of livi ng th e way that Plato ma de his typ e of Jus tice

,

a n d t h e re ca n be n o b e tte r p r oof of th e d e p th of our loss

t h a n th e fa c t th a t w e h a v e d e s t roye d t h e cul ture s O f all

o the r p e opl e s wh o m th e w i th e ri ng touch of our civiliza
t io n h a s r e a ch e d .

In o rd e r t o u n d e rs ta n d th e works o f ar t th a t w e a r e
a sk e d to look a t i t will no t do to e xpl a i n t h e m i n th e te r ms

O f our o w n psychology a n d o u r aes th e t ics to do so

would be a p a th e tic fa ll a cy W e sha ll no t h ave u nd er
.

s tood th e s e a rts u nt i l w e c a n thi n k a bou t th e m a s the ir

a u thors did . Th e D oc e n t will h a ve to i ns tr uc t us i n
th e e l e m e n t s o f wh a t will s e e m a s tr a n g e l a ngu a g e ;
though w e k now i ts te rms i t i s w i th v e ry di ff e r e n t m ean
,
a

i n gs th a t w e no wa days e mploy th e m Th e mea ni ng .

O f such te rms a s a r t n a ture i n s 1 r a t io n form or n a m e n t

, , p , ,

a nd a e s th e t ic will h a v e to be e xpl a i n e d to Ou r public

i n words O f tw o syll a bl e s . For no ne of th e s e te r ms a r e

us e d i n th e t r a di ti o na l philosophy a s w e u s e th e m to day -
.

W e sha ll h ave to b e gi n by disca rdi ng th e te rm estheti c a

a l tog e th e r . F o r th e s e a r t s we r e n o t produc e d for th e

d e l e c ta tio n of th e s e n s e s Th e Gre e k o r 1 gi na l o f this
.

mode r n word me a n s n o thi ng bu t s e n s atio n or r e a c tio n

to e x te r n a l s t i muli th e s e n sibili ty impli e d by th e word
a i s thes i s is pr e s e n t i n pl a n t s a n imals
,
a nd m a n ; ,
i t is
”
wh a t th e biologis t ca lls irri ta bili ty Th e s e s e ns a tio ns
.
,

which a re th e p a s sio n s or e mo tio n s O f th e psychologis t,

a r e th e drivi n g forc e s of i n s t i n c t Pl ato a sks us to s ta nd
.

up like m e n a ga i n s t the pulls of pl ea sure a nd p a i n .

For th e s e a s th e word p a ss i o n impli e s a r e pl e as a nt

, ,

a nd u n pl e a s a n t e xp e ri e n c e s to which w e a r e subj e c te d ;

th e y a r e no t a c t s o n our p a rt bu t thi ngs do ne to us ;

,

o nly the judgme nt a nd a ppre c i a tio n O f a r t is a n act ivi ty .

A e s the tic e xp e r i e nce is o f th e ski n you love to touch ,

or the frui t you love to tas te D isi n te r e s te d ae s th e tic

.

co nte mpl atio n is a Co ntra dic tio n i n te rms a nd a pure

no n s e n s e
-
. Ar t i s a n i nte ll e c tu a l no t a physic a l v irtue
,

1 6
 W H Y E XH I B IT WO R K S O F ART ?

b ea uty ha s to do wi th k nowl e dg e and good ne ss of which ,

i t is pre cis e ly th e a ttra c tive a sp e c t a nd si n c e i t is by

its b e a uty th a t w e a r e a ttra c te d to a work i ts b e a u ty is ,

e vid e n tly a m e a n s to a n e nd a nd no t i t s e lf t he e nd of a r t
,

th e purpos e O f a r t is a lwa ys o ne of e ff e c tiv e c o m m u ni c a

tio n . Th e m a n of a c tio n th e n will no t be co n te nt to , ,

subs ti tute th e k nowl e dg e of wh a t h e like s fo r a n u nd e r

s ta n di ng judgm e n t h e will no t m e re ly e njoy wh a t h e
S hould u s e hos e who m e r e ly e njoy w e c a ll m s th e t e s
( t
righ tly) it is no t the ae s the tic surfa c e s Of wo r ks Of ar t
bu t th e r i gh t re a so n or log i c Of th e composi tio n th a t will
co n c e rn him Now th e comp o s i t i o n O f such works a s
.

w e ar e e xhibi ti ng is no t for ae s th e t ic bu t fo r e xpr e ssiv e

re a so n s Th e fun da m e nta l judgm e nt i s O f th e d e g r e e
.

’
of th e a rtis t s succe ss i n givi ng cl e a r e xpre ssio n to th e
th e m e of h is work In ord e r to a n swe r th e qu e s tio n
.
,

H s a t h e thi n g b e e n W e ll s a id ? i t will e vid e n tly be

n e c e ss a ry for us to k now W h a t i t w a s th a t w a s to be s a id .

It is for this r e a so n th a t i n e v e ry discussio n o f works

of a r t w e mus t b e g i n wi th th e ir subj e c t ma tte r
W e ta ke a ccou n t i n o th e r words O f th e for m O f th e
.

, ,

work . Form i n th e tra di tio na l philosophy do e s no t

m ea n ta ngibl e sh a p e bu t is sy n o nymous wi th id ea a nd
,

e ve n wi th soul th e soul fo r e x a mpl e is ca ll e d th e

I f th e re be a rea l u ni ty of form a nd
, ,

form of th e body .
1

m a tte r such a s w e e xp e c t i n a work O f a r t the sh a p e of its ,

body will e xpre ss its form which is th a t O f the p a tte rn ,

’
i n th e a rtis t s mi n d to which p a tte r n or ima g e h e moulds
,

th e m a te ri a l sh a p e Th e d e gr ee of his succ e ss i n this

.

’
imi ta tive O p e ra tio n is th e m e a sure O f th e work s pe r fe c '

tio n . S O God is s a id to h ave c a ll e d h i s cre a tio n good

b e ca us e it co n form e d to th e i nte lligibl e p a tte r n a ccordi ng
1
g
A cco r d i n ly th e
, f
o ll o w i n s en t e n c eg ( t a k en r o m th e jou r n a l of f
A es theti cs 1 ,, p . h
W a l t e r P a t e r e r e s e em s t o b e i n t h e r i t w e n h e gh h
h h
m ai nta i n s t a t it i s th e s e n s u o u s e l e m e nt O f a r t t a t i s e s s e nt i a lly a r ti s ti c ,

fr om w ic h hf h h
o l l ow s h i s t e s i s t a t m u s i c th e m o s t o r m a l Of t h e a r t s
, f is ,

al s o t h e m e a s u r e O f a ll th e a r t s p p
r o o u nds a s o c k i n h
n on s equ i tu r g
f
a n d c a n o n ly c o n u s e t h e u n a h pp
y s tu de n t .

I
7
 WHY E X H I B IT W O R K S OF ART ?

to which he h a d W orke d it is i n the sam e w ay that th e

“
huma n workma n s till sp ea ks O f tr u e i ng his work .

Th e formali ty of a work is its b e auty its i n form a li ty ,

its ugli ne ss I f it is u ni nforme d it will be sha p e l e ss

. .

Eve rythi ng mus t be i n good form .

In the sam e way a r t is no thi ng ta ngibl e W e c a n no t

.

cal l a p a i nti ng A s th e words a rtifa c t an d

ar tifici a l imply the thi ng mad e is a work of ar t m a de
, ,

by a r t bu t no t i ts e lf art
,
th e a r t re mai ns i n th e a r tis t
a nd is th e kno w le d e by which thi ngs a r e m a d e
, g W h at .

is made accordi ng to the a r t is corre c t wh a t o ne make s

a s o ne lik e s m a
y v e ry we ll be a wkwa rd W e mus t n o t
.

co nfus e tas te wi th judgm e nt or love li ne ss wi th b ea ut y

, ,

for as Augusti ne says som e p eopl e like de formiti e s

, .

Works of ar t a r e gene ra lly or na menta l or i n some way

orna me nte d Th e D oce nt will some time s discuss the
.

history of orname nt In doi ng so he will e xplai n tha t

.

a ll th e words tha t m e a n or na m e nt or d e cora t io n i n th e

four la ngria ges wi th which w e ar e chi e fly co nce r ne d ,

a n d prob a bly i n a ll l a ngu a g e s origi nally m ea nt e quip

,

m ent ; jus t as furnishi ng origi nally m e ant tabl e s a nd

chairs for u s e a nd no t a n i nte rior de coratio n d e sig ne d
to k e e p up wi th th e Jo ne s e s or to display our co nnoiss e ur
ship W e mus t no t thi nk of orname n t a s some thi ng
.

ad de d to a n O bj e c t which migh t h ave b e e n ugly wi thou t

it Th e b e auty of a nythi ng u nadorne d is no t i ncrea s e d
.

by orname nt bu t mad e mor e eff e c tive by it O r nam ent

,
.

is characte ri za tio n or name nts a r e a ttribute s W e ar e .

O fte n told a nd no t qui te

,
i ncorre ctly th a t primi tive
,

orname nt had a ma gical va lue it would be t ru e r to say

a me ta physical va lue si nce i t is g e ne ra lly by m e a ns of
,

what w e no w ca ll its d e coratio n th a t a thi ng is ri tu ally

tra nsform e d a nd mad e to fu n ctio n spiritually as w e ll as
physica lly Th e u s e Of solar symbols i n harne ss for
.
,

e xampl e ,
ma k e s th e s tee d th e Su n i n a like ne ss sol a r
patte rns a r e appropri a te to bu tto ns b e ca us e the Su n
1 8
 WHY EXH IBIT WOR KS OF ART 9

o th e r h a nd w e ig no r e th e ev ide nc e a nd d e cid e th a t the

,

a ppr e ci a t io n of a r t i s m e r e ly a n ae sth e t ic e xp e ri e n c e w e ,

sh a ll evide n tly a rr a ng e o u r e xhibi t io n to a pp ea l to th e

’
p ublic s s e n sibili t i e s. This is to a ss u m e th a t t h e publ i c
mus t be taugh t to fe e l B u t th e vi e w that the public
.

is a h a rd hea rte d a nima l is s tra ng e ly a t variance wi th th e

-

e vid e n c e a fford e d by th e ki n d of ar t t h a t t h e public

choos es for i ts e lf wi thou t th e h e lp of mus e ums For

, .

w e p e rc e ive th a t this public a l r ea dy k nows wh a t i t lik e s .

It lik e s fine colours a n d sou n ds a n d wh a t eve r is sp e c

ta cu la r or p e r s o na l o r a ne cdo tal or th a t H atte rs its fa i th
i n progre ss . This public love s its comfort If w e .

b e li eve th a t th e a ppre ci a tio n of a r t is a n aes th e tic e x per i

e n c e w e sh a ll give th e public wh a t i t w a n t s .

B u t it is n o t th e fu n c tio n of a mus eu m or of a ny
e duca tor to fla tte r a n d a mus e th e public I f the e x
.

h i bitio n of works of a r t lik e th e re a di n g of books is to

, ,

have a cultural value i e if i t is to nourish a nd ma ke

,
. .
,

th e b e s t par t of us g r ow a s pl a nt s ar e nourish e d a nd
,

grow i n suitabl e soils i t is to th e u nd e rs tandi ng a nd no t

,

to fine fee li ngs th a t a n app e al mus t be m a d e In o ne .

re sp e c t the public is righ t it a lways wa nt s to k now

” ”
what a work of ar t is abou t A bou t what as
.
,

Pl a to as ke d ,
do e s th e sophis t m a k e us so e loqu e nt P
L e t us te ll th e m wh a t th e s e works of ar t a r e a bou t a n d
no t m e r e ly t e ll th e m thi n gs a bou t th e s e works of a r t Let .

us tell th e m the pai n ful t ru th th a t mos t of th e s e works

,

of art ar e abou t God whom w e neve r m e nt io n in poli te

,

soci e ty Le t us admi t th a t if w e a r e to off e r a n e ducatio n

.

i n agree m e n t wi th th e i nn e rmos t n a ture a nd e loqu e n ce

of the e xhibi ts th e ms e lve s th a t this will no t be a n e duca
,

t io n i n s e n sibili ty bu t a n e duc a tio n i n philosophy i n

, ,
’ ’
Plato s and A ris to tl e s s e ns e of the word for whom it ,

mean s o ntology a n d th eology a nd th e map of life a n d a ,

wisdom to be a ppli e d to e ve ryd ay ma tte rs L e t us .

rec og nize th a t no thi n g will ha ve b e e n a ccomplish e d

ao
 WHY EXHIBIT WORKS OF ART !

’
u nl e ss m e n s live s a r e affe c te d a nd th e i r va lu e s ch a ng e d
by wh a t w e h ave to show Ta ki ng this poi nt of vi e w
.
,

w e sh a ll br e ak dow n th e soci a l a n d e co nomic d i s ti nc t io n

of fine from a ppli e d ar t ; w e sha ll no lo n ge r divo r ce
a nth r opology fr om a r t ,
bu t r e cog n iz e th a t th e a nthro
o lo i ca l a ppro a ch t o a r t is a much clos e r a ppro a ch th a n
p g ’
th e ae s th e tic i a n s w e sh a ll no lo ng e r p r e te n d tha t th e
co nte nt of the folk ar ts is a nythi n g bu t m eta physical .

W e shall te ach our public to d e ma nd a bove a ll thi n gs

lucidity i n works of a r t .

F or e xa mpl e w e shall place a pai n te d Neoli thic

po t sh e r d or I ndi a n pu nch ma r ke d co i n sid e by s i d e wi th
,
-

a M e di aeva l re p r es e ntatio n of the Seve n gifts of the

S piri t a nd m a ke it cl e a r by me a n s of l a b e ls or D oc e n ts
,

or bo th tha t th e r ea so n of a ll th e s e composi ti o n s is to
“
s ta te the un ive rs a l doc tri ne of th e Seve n Rays of th e
Su n . W e sh a ll pu t tog e th e r a n E gyp ti a n re pre s e nta tio n
of th e Su ndo o r gu a rd e d by th e Su n hims elf a nd th e
figure of th e Pa ntokra tor i n th e oculus of a Byza nti ne
dom e a nd e xpl a i n th a t th e s e door s by which o ne brea ks
,

o u t of th e u n iv e rs e ar e th e sam e a s th e hol e i n th e roof

by which a n A me r ica n I n dian e nte r s or l e a ve s his lz oga n ,

th e s a m e as th e hol e i n th e c e n tr e of a Chi ne s e p i th e ,
’
same a s th e luffe r of th e Sib e ri a n Sh a ma n s y u r t a nd th e
,

s a me a s th e forame n of th e roof a bove th e a l tar of Jupi te r

Te rmi nus e xpl a i ni ng th a t all th e s e co n s truc tio ns a r e
re mi nde rs of th e D oo r god of O ne who could say
‘
-

I a m the door Ou r s tudy of the his tory of a rchi

,
”
.
,

t e ctur e w i ll m a k e it cl e ar th a t h a rmo ny w a s firs t

’ “
of all a ca rp e nte r s word m ea n i ng joi ne r y a n d tha t
i t w as i nevi tabl e e qu a lly i n th e Gr e e k a n d th e I n di a n
,

t ra di tio ns th a t th e F ath e r a nd th e So n should h a ve b e e n

”
ca rp e nters a n d show th a t this mus t h ave b ee n a
,
”
doc tri ne o f Ne oli thic or ra th e r
,
H ylic ,
a n t iqui ty.

W e sh a ll sha rply dis t i n guish th e visua l e duca tio n

tha t o nly te lls us wha t thi ngs look like ( l eavi ng us to
21
 WH Y E X H I B I T W OR K S O F ART ?

r ea ct as w e mus t) from th e ico nograph of thi ngs th a t

ar e th e ms e lve s i nvisibl e
( b u t by which w e c a n be guid e d

how to a rt) .

It may be that th e u nde r s ta ndi n g of th e a n ci e n t wo r ks

of ar t a nd of th e co ndi tio ns u nde r wh i ch th e y we re
produc e d w iu u nd e rmi ne our loyal ty to co nte mporary
ar t a nd co nte mpora ry m e thods of m a n ufa c tu r e . This
will be th e proof of our succe ss a s e duca tors w e mus t
no t shri n k from th e t ru th th a t a ll e duca t i o n impl i e s

revaluatio n Wh a teve r is ma d e o nly to give pl e a sur e

.

is a s Plato put i t a to y for the d e l e c tatio n of tha t p a rt

, , ,

of us that passive ly submi ts to e mo tio na l s torm s

W he re as th e e duc a tio n to be d e rive d from works of a r t
should be a n e ducatio n i n th e love of what is ord e re d
a nd th e dislik e of wha t is disord e re d .W e h ave p r opos e d
to e duca te th e public to ask firs t of all th e s e tw o qu e s tio ns
of a wor k of a r t I s it true or b e au tifu l (which eve r
,

word yo u pr e fer) a nd wha t good u s e do e s it s e rve ?

W e shall hop e to have de mo n s tra te d by our e xhibi tio n
,

th a t th e huma n va lu e of a ny thi n g m a d e is d e te rmi n e d

by the coi n cide nce i n i t of b ea uty a nd u tili ty sig n ifica nc e
,

a n d a ptitud e th a t a r tifa c t s of this sor t ca n o nly be m a d e

by free a nd re spo nsibl e wor k m en fre e to co nsid e r o nly
,

th e good of th e work to be do ne a n d i n dividu a lly r e s po n

sibl e for its quali ty a nd th a t the manufa c tu r e of a r t
i n s tudios coupl e d wi th a n a r tl e ss m a nufa c ture i n
fa c tori e s r e pre s ents a re duc tio n of th e s ta n da rd of li v 1 ng
to subhuma n l eve ls .

Th e s e a r e no t p e rso nal opi nio ns bu t o nly th e logica l

,

de duc t io ns of a life t im e sp e nt in th e h a n dli ng of works

of a r t th e obs e rvat io n of m e n a t work a nd th e s tudy
, ,

of th e u nive rsal philosophy of a r t fr om which philosophy

ou r ow n ae s th e t i c is o nly a te mpo r a lly p r ovi n ci a l
ab e rratio n It is for th e mus e um m i li tant to mai nta i n
.

wi th Plato that w e ca nno t give th e na me of ar t to a ny

thi ng irratio nal .

22
T H E C H RI ST I A N AND O RI EN TA L , OR T RUE ,

P H I LO SO P H Y O F A RT
Cu m f
a r tz ex tu m v i r , Cic e r o ,
Pr o Q ui nti o, XXV 7 8
. .

H AV E c a ll e d his l e c tu re th e
t Christian a nd
”
O ri e n ta l philosophy of a r t b ec a us e w e a r e co n
s ide r i ng a c a tholic or u n iv e rs a l doc tri n e wi th which th e
,

huma nis tic philosophi e s of a r t ca n ne ith e r be compare d

no r r e co ncil e d but o nly co ntras ted
,
a nd Tru e
hilosophy bo t h b e caus e of i ts au thori ty a n d b e caus e
p
of i ts co nsis te ncy It will no t be o u t of pl a c e to s ay tha t
.

I be li eve wha t I have to e xpoun d for the s tudy of

an
y subj e c t c a n liv e o nly to t h e e xte nt tha t th e stu d e n t

hims elf s tands or falls b the life of th e subj ec t s tudi e d

th e i nt e rd e p e n d e nc e of g aith a n d u n d e rs tandi ng applyi ng
1

a s much to th e th e o r y of a r t a s to a n o th e r doc tr i ne In
y
t h e te xt of wha t follows I sh a ll n o t dis ti n guish Chris tia n
.

from Ori e nta l no r cite au thori ti e s by chap te r a nd vers e

I have do ne this els ewh e re a nd a m hardly a fra id that
,

a nyo ne will imagi ne that I a m propou ndi ng a ny vi ews

,

tha t I r e g a rd a s my o w n e xc e pt i n th e s e ns e t h a t I h a ve
mad e th e m my o w n It is n o t th e p e rso na l vi e w of
anyo ne that I sh a ll try to e xplai n bu t tha t doc tr i ne of
.

a r t which is i n t ri nsic to th e Philosophi a Pe r e n n is a n d

c a n be r e cog n i z e d wh e r ev e r it h a s no t b e e n forgo tte n

“
tha t cul ture origi nate s in work a nd no t i n play
I f I u s e the langua ge of Scholas ticism rath er tha n a
.

S a ns k ri t voca bulary it is b e c aus e I am ta lki ng E n glish

, ,

a n d mus t u s e tha t ki n d of E n glish i n which id e as ca n

be cl early e xpre ss e d .

M an s activity co nsists in e i th e r a maki ng or a doi ng

’
.

23
 W H Y E XH I B IT WO R K S O F ART ?

B o th of th s
’

sp e cts of th e a c tive life de pe nd fo r th e ir

e e a

co r re c tio n upo n th e co n te mpl a tive life Th e m a ki n g o f .

thi ngs is gov e r n e d by a r t th e doi ng of thi ngs by pru

,

d ence .
2
A n a bsolu te dis t i n c tio n of a r t from prud e n c e
is mad e for purpos e s of logica l u nd e rs ta ndi ng : bu t 3

whil e w e mak e this dis ti n c ti on w e mus t no t forg et th a t ,

th e m a n is a whol e m a n a n d c a n no t be jus tifi e d a s such

,

m e r e ly by wh a t h e m a k e s th e a r tis t works by ar t
”4
a nd w i lli n l E v e n supposi n g that h e avoids a r tis t ic
gy .

s in,
i t is s till e ss e n ti a l to him as a m a n to h ave h a d a
r igh t will a nd so to h av e a void e d mo r al s i n
,
5
We .

c a nno t a bsolve th e artis t from this mora l re spo nsibili ty

by l ayi n g i t upo n th e p a tron or o nly if the a rtis t be i n ,

som e w ay comp e ll e d fo r th e artis t is normally e i the r

his o w n patro n d e cidi n g wh a t is to be made or formally
, ,

a n d fr e e ly co n s e n t s to th e will of th e p a t ro n which be ,

com e s his o w n a s soo n a s th e commissio n has b e e n

acc e p ted a fte r which th e a rtis t is o nly co nc e rne d wi th
,

th e good of th e work to be do n e if a ny othe r mo tive 6

a ff e c t s him i n his work h e has n o lo n g e r a n prop er

y
plac e i n th e soci a l o r d e r M a nufac ture is for u s e a nd
.

n o t for p r ofi t Th e a r tis t is n o t a sp e ci a l ki n d of m a n
.
,

bu t eve ry m a n who is n o t a n a rtist i n som e fi e ld eve r y ,

m a n wi thou t a voc a t io n i s a n idl e r ,

Th e ki nd of a r tis t .

th a t a m a n should be c a rp e n te r p a i n te r l a wy e r fa rm e r
, , , ,

o r pri e s t ,
is d e te rm i ne d by his o w n na tu r e i n o th e r ,

wo r d s by his n a tivi ty Th e o nly m an who has a righ t

.

to a bstai n from a ll co n s tr uc tive ac tivi ti e s is th e mo n k

who h a s also su r re n d e re d all thos e us e s that d e p e nd o n
thi ngs th a t c a n be m a d e a n d is n o lo ng e r a m e mb e r
of soci e ty No m a n h a s a righ t to a ny soci a l s ta tus
.

who is no t a n ar tis t .

W e a r e thus i ntroduc e d a t the outs et to th e p r obl e m

of the u s e of a r t a nd th e wor th of th e a rtis t to a s er ious
soci ety This u s e is i n g e ne ra l th e good of m a n th e
.
,

good of soc i e ty and in p a rticul a r the occa sio na l good

,

24
C HRISTIAN AN D OR I ENTAL P H ILOSO P HY OF ART

of a n i ndividual re quire m e nt A ll of th e s e goods

.

corr e spo nd to th e d e sire s of m e n so th a t wha t is ac tually

ma d e in a give n soci ety is a key to th e gove rn i n g co n
c e tio n of th e pu r pos e of life i n t ha t soci e ty which ca n
p ,

be j udg ed by i ts works i n tha t s e ns e a n d b e tte r tha n ,

i n a ny o th e r way .Th e re ca n be no doub t a bou t th e

purpos e of ar t in a tra di tio na l soci e ty wh e n i t has b e e n
d e cide d that such a nd such a thi n g should be mad e i t is ,

by a r t that i t c a n be prop e rly m a d e Th e re ca n be no

.

good u s e wi thou t ar t 7
th a t is n o good u s e if th i ngs
,

are n o t prop e r ly mad e . Th e a rtis t is produci n g a

utili ty som ethi n g to be us e d M e re pl e asure is no t a
,
.

u s e from this poi n t of vi e w . A n illus trat io n ca n be

give n i n our ta s te for Sh a ker or o th e r simpl e furn i ture ,

or for Chi ne s e bro nz e s or o th e r abs t rac t a rt s of e xotic

origi n which a r e no t foods bu t sauc e s to our pal a te

,
.

Ou r ms th e tic appr e ci at io n e ss en tia lly s e ntim e nta l

,

b ecaus e i t is jus t what th e wo r d ae sthe tic m ea ns a ,

ki nd of fe e li ng rathe r than a n u nd e rs ta ndi ng has li tt l e ,

or n othi ng to do with th e ir r a i son d étr e I f t he y pl eas e

’ ‘
.

our tast e a nd a r e fashio nabl e this o nly m ea n s that w e

h ave ove r—
,

e a te n of o th e r foods no t t h a t w e a r e such as
,
’
thos e who m a d e th e s e thi ngs a nd mad e good u s e
of th em To enjoy W ha t do e s no t corre spo nd to
.

an
y vi t a l ne e ds of our o w n a n d wha t w e h a v e n o t v e rifi e d

i n our o w n life c a n o nly be d e scrib e d as a n i n dulg e nc e .

It is luxurious to mak e ma n te lpi e c e orn a m e n ts of the

ar te fac ts of what w e te rm u ncivilis e d or sup ers ti tious
p e opl e s whos e cul ture w e thi n k of as much i nfe rior to our
,

o w n a nd which our t ouch has d e s t roy e d

, t h e at t i tud e ,

howeve r ig n orant of thos e who us e d to ca ll th es e thi ngs

,
”
a bomi n at io n s a nd b e a s t ly d evic e s of th e h e ath en ,

was a much h e al thi e r o ne It is th e sam e if w e rea d

.

th e scrip tur e s of a ny t r adi t io n or au thors such as D a nte

,

or As hv a gho s ha who te ll us frankly tha t th ey wro te

wi th o th e r tha n ae s th e tic e nds in vi ew ; or if w e
25
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

’
lis te n to s a crifici a l music for th e ea rs s a k e o n ly W e .

h ave a righ t to be pl ea s e d by th e s e thi ngs o nly th r ough ‘

our u nd e rs tandi ng u s e of th e m W e h ave goods e nough

.

of our o w n p e rc e p tibl e to th e s e n s e s if th e n a tur e

of our civilisatio n be such th a t w e l ack a su ffici e ncy of
“ ”
i nte lligibl e goods w e h a d b e tte r r e ma ke ou r s e lve s
,

th a n dive r t th e i n te lligibl e goods o f o th e rs to th e mul ti

plic a tio n of our o w n ae s th e t i c s a t i sfa c tio ns .

In th e philosophy th a t w e a r e co nsid e ri n g o n ly th e ,

co nte mpl a tive a nd a c ti v e liv e s ar e r e cko ne d huma n Th e .

li fe of pl e asur e o nly o n e of wh i ch th e e nd is pl ea su r e
, ,
“ ”
is subhum a n ; eve r y a n ima l k nows wh a t it l i k e s ,

a n d s e e ks for i t This is no t a n e xclusio n of pl ea su r e

.

from li fe as if pl e asure w e r e wr o ng in i ts e lf i t is a n
e xclusio n of th e pursui t of pl e a sur e though t of a s a
” ”
dive rsio n a nd ap a r t fro m life
,
It is i n life i ts e lf
.
,

in prop e r O p e ra tio n th a t pl ea sur e a ri s e s natura lly

, ,

a n d this v e ry pl e asur e is s a id to p e rfe ct th e Op e ra tio n

i ts e lf
.
8
In th e s a m e w ay i n th e ca s e of th e pl ea su r e s
of u s e or th e u nd er s ta n d i ng of u s e .

W e ne e d h a rdly s ay tha t fr o m th e t radi tio na l poi n t of

vi e w th e re could h a rdly be fou n d a s tro ng e r co n de m na
tio n of th e pr e s e n t soci a l o r d e r th a n i n th e fa c t th a t th e
m a n a t work is n o lo n ge r doi n g wha t h e lik e s b e s t bu t ,

rath e r what h e mus t a nd in th e g e ne ral b e li e f th at a

,

m a n c a n o n ly be r e a lly h a ppy wh e n h e g e ts a w a y
a nd 1 3 a t play . Fo r ev e n i f w e m ea n by h a ppy to
”
e njoy th e high e r thi n gs o f l i fe it is a cru e l e r r or to
,

pre te nd that this ca n be do n e a t l e isur e if i t has no t

“
b e en do ne a t work F o r . th e m a n d e vo te d to his
o w n vocatio n fi n ds p e rfe c t io n Tha t m a n whos e
.

pray e r a nd prais e of God a r e i n th e doi ng of his o w n work

”
p e rfec ts hims e lf . It i s this w ay of life th a t our civilis a
9

t io n d e ni e s to the va st m ajori ty of m e n a n d i n this r e sp e c t ,

tha t i t is no tably i n fe rior to e v e n th e mos t primi tive or

sava ge soci e ti e s wi th which i t ca n be co ntras ted .

26
 W H Y E X H I B IT W OR K S OF A RT ?

of a Succ e ssio n D a nc e as b e i n g a t th e s a m e time p e rfe ct

b e auty a nd p e rfe ct good ne ss a nd of the War D anc e
,
”1 2
as b e i ng p e rfe ct b e auty bu t no t p e rfe c t good ne ss .

It will be obvious that th e r e ca n be no mora l judgme n t

of a r t i ts e lf si nc e i t is n o t a n act bu t a ki n d of k nowl e dge
,

or powe r by which thi ngs ca n be we ll mad e wh e th e r ,

for good or evil u s e th e a r t by which utili ti e s a re pro ,

du ce d ca nn o t be judg e d morally b e caus e i t is no t a ki nd

,

of willi ng bu t a ki n d of k nowi ng .

B eau ty i n this philosophy is th e a ttrac tive powe r o f

p e rfec tio n .
13
Th e r e ar e p e rfe c tio ns or b ea u ti e s of di ff e r
e nt k i n ds of thi n gs or i n di ff e r e n t co n te x t s bu t w e c a nn ot
,

a r ra n g e th e s e b e au ti e s i n a hi e rarchy a s w e c a n th e thi ngs

,

th e ms e lve s w e ca n n o mor e say tha t a c a th e dral a s such

is b e tte r than a barn a s such than w e ca n say tha t a
ros e a s such is b e tte r th a n a sku nk cabb a g e a s such
e ach is b e a u t iful to th e e x te n t t h a t it is wha t i t purpor ts

to be a nd i n th e same propor tio n good

,
14
. To say that a
p e rfe c t c a th e dra l is a grea te r wo r k of a r t than a p e rfe c t
barn is e i th e r to assume tha t th e r e ca n be d e gr e e s of
p e rfec tio n or to a ssum e tha t the artis t who mad e th e
,

b a r n was re ally t ryi n g to m a ke a c ath e dra l W e s ee tha t .

this is absurd a nd
y e t i t is jus t i n this w a
y th a t who e v e r

b e li eve s th a t a r t progre ss e s co ntra s ts th e mos t

primi tive wi th th e mos t a dva nce d ( or d e cade nt) styl e s
of a r t as though th e primi tive had b ee n tryi ng to do
,

what w e try to do a nd ha d drawn like tha t whil e r ea lly

,

t ryi n g to draw a s w e draw a n d th a t is to impu te artis t ic

s i n to th e primi tiv e a n
( y s i n b e i n g d e fi ne d a s a d e par t u re

from the ord e r to th e e nd) So fa r from this th e o nly

.
,

t e s t of e xc e ll e nc e i n a work of a r t is th e m e asure of th e
’
artis t s ac tua l succ e ss in ma ki ng wha t was i nte nde d .

O n e of th e mos t impor ta n t implic a tio ns of this posi tio n

is th a t b eau ty is obj e c tive re sidi n g in th e a rte fac t a nd no t
,
‘

i n th e sp e c ta tor who m ay or m ay n o t be qua lifi e d to

,

r ecog niz e it “ Th e work of a r t is good of i ts ki n d or

.
,

28
C HR I STI AN AN D OR I ENTA L P H ILO S O PHY OF AR T

no t good a t a ll i ts e xce ll e nc e is a s i nd e p e nd ent of our

r ea c tio ns to its ae s th e tic surfa c e s a s it is of our mora l
re actio n to i ts th esis Jus t a s the artis t co n c e ive s th e
.

form of th e thi ng to be m a d e o n ly afte r h e has co ns e nte d

’
to th e p a tro n s will so w e if w e ar e to judg e as th e
, ,

artis t could mus t a lrea dy have co ns e nte d to th e e xis te nc e

,

of th e obj e c t b e for e w e ca n be fre e to comp a re its ac tua l

sha p e wi th its pro to typ e i n th e ar tis t W e must no t
.

co n d e sce n d to primi tive works by s a yi n g That w as

b e fore th ey k ne w a nythi ng about a na tomy or per s pec ,
” ”
t ive ,
or call th e ir w ork u nna tural b e caus e of i ts
forma lity : w e mus t h ave l e arn t tha t th e s e primi tive s
did no t fe e l our ki nd of i nte re s t i n a na tomy no r i nte n d ,

to te ll us wh a t th i n gs a r e lik e w e mus t h a v e l e a r n t
t ha t i t is b e c a us e th ey h a d som e thi n g d e fi n i te to s ay
th a t th e i r a r t is mor e a bstra c t mo r e i nte ll e c tu a l
, a nd ,

l e ss than our o w n a ma tte r of m e re re mi nisc e nc e or

e mo t io n . I f the me di aeva l a rtis t s co ns truc tio ns corre
’

po nd e d to a c e rtai n way of thi nk i ng i t is c e r ta i n th a t w e

,

c a nno t u nde rs tand t h e m e xce p t to th e e xte nt th at w e c a n

ide ntify ours e lve s wi th this w ay of thi nki ng Th e .

gr e ate r the ig noranc e of mod e rn tim e s th e d e e p e r grows

,

t h e d a rk ne ss of th e Mi ddl e Th e M iddl e
A ge s a nd the Ea s t ar e mys te rious to us o nly b e ca us e
w e k now no t wha t to thi nk bu t wh a t w e like to thi n k
, , .

A s huma nis ts a n d i ndividualis ts i t Hatte rs us to thi nk

th a t ar t is a n e xpre ssio n of p e rso na l fe e li ngs a nd s e nti
men ts pre fe re nce a nd fre e choic e u n fe tte r e d by the
, ,

sci e nce s of ma th e ma tics a nd cosmology B u t m e di aeval.

“ ”
a r t w as no t lik e ours fre e to ig nor e tru th For the m .
,
”
Ar : s i ne s ci enti a ni /z zl by sci e nc e w e m ea n of cours e
'

, ,

th e r e fe r e n c e of all par t icul a rs to u nify i n g pri n cipl e s ,

no t th e l aws of s ta tis tic a l pre dic tio n .

The p e rfe ctio n of th e obj e c t is some thi ng of which th e

critic can no t judge i ts b e auty som ethi ng th a t h e cannot
,

fe e l if he h a s no t lik e the origi nal a rtis t ma de hims e lf

,

29
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R K S O F ART ?

such a s th e thi ng i ts e lf should be i t is in this w ay th at

” “
cri ticism is r e p r oduc tio n a nd judgm e nt th e per
,
”
fec tio n of a r t Th e. a ppr e ci a t io n of ar t mus t no t
be co nfus e d wi th a psycho a na lysis of o u r lik e s a n d dis
-

lik e s dig nifi e d by th e nam e of ze s th etic r e a c ti o ns

,
—

ae s the tic pa thology is a n e xcr e sc e n c e upo n a g e n ui ne

i n te re s t in a r t which s ee ms to be p e culi a r to civilis ed

”
p e opl e s Th e s tudy of a r t if i t is to h ave a ny cul tur al
.
1 8
,

va lu e will d e man d tw o fa r mor e di fficul t O p e ra t io ns than

this i n th e firs t pl a c e a n u n d e rs ta ndi n g a n d acc e p ta n c e
,

O f the wh o l e poi nt of V i e w from which th e n e c e ssi ty fo r

th e work a r os e a nd i n th e s e co n d pl a c e a bri n gi ng to l ife

,

i n ours e lve s Of th e form i n which th e a rtis t co n c e ive d th e

work a nd by wh i ch h e j udg e d it Th e s tud e nt of ar t
.
,

if h e is to do more tha n a ccumul a te fa c ts mus t a lso s a cri ,

fice hims e lf the wid e r th e scop e O f his s t u dy i n tim e

a n d spac e th e mor e mus t h e c e a s e to b e a provi n ci a l
, ,

th e mor e h e mus t u n iv e rs a liz e hims e lf wh a t ev e r m ay be ,

his o w n te mp e ram e n t a n d tra i ni ng H e mus t a ssimil a te

.

whol e cul ture s th a t s ee m s tr an g e to him a nd mus t a lso ,

be a bl e to e l e va te his o w n l eve ls O f r e fe r e n c e from thos e

of Obs er va tio n to th a t of the visio n O f ide a l forms H e .

mus t ra th e r love th a n be curious a bout th e subje c t of his

s tudy It is jus t b e ca us e so much is d e mand e d th a t the
.

s tudy of a r t ca n h ave a cultura l va lu e tha t is to s ay , ,

m a y b e com e a m e a n s of g r owth H ow O fte n o u r coll e ge

.

cours e s re quire of th e s tud e nt much l e ss th a n this

A ne e d Or i ndig e nc e a s Pl a to calls i t is thus th e
, ,

firs t c a us e Of th e produc tio n of a work of a r t W e spok e

Of spiri tu a l a n d physic a l n e e ds
.

a n d s a id th a t works O f

I f this is di fficul t
,

a r t could not be cl a ssifi e d accordi n gly .

for us to a dmi t i t is b e caus e w e h ave fo r go tten wh a t w e

,

a r e wh a t
, ma n i n this philosophy d e no te s a spiri tu a l ,

a s w e ll a s a psychophysic a l b e i ng W e ar e th e r e for e
.

we ll co nte n te d wi th a fu n c tio na l ar t good of its ki n d ,

i nsofa r a s good ne ss do e s no t i n te r fe re wi th profi ta bl e

30
C HR I STI AN AN D OR I ENTA L P H ILO SO PHY OF AR T

s a l e ability a nd ca n h a rdly u nd e rs ta n d how thi ngs to be

,

us e d ca n a lso h ave a m e ani ng It is tru e tha t what w e .

have come to u nd e rs tand by m a n vi z th e r e aso n i n g

,
.
,
”1 ”
a n d mor ta l a n im a l c a n live by bre a d a lo ne a nd
°
, ,

tha t bre a d a lo ne mak e no mis tak e a bou t i t is th e r e fore

, ,

a good to fu nc tio n is the ve ry l e as t th a t c a n be e xp e c te d

Of a n
y work Of a r t . B r e a d alo ne is t h e s a m e thi n g

as a me re ly fu nc tio na l a r t Bu t wh e n it is said tha t

.

m a n do e s no t live by bre a d a lo ne bu t by e ve ry word

”2 0
th a t proc e e d e th o u t of th e mou th of God it is the ,

whol e m a n tha t is m e a n t Th e words Of God ar e

.

pre cis e ly thos e id ea s a nd pri ncipl e s th at c a n be e xpre ss e d

wh e th e r ve rb a lly or visua lly by a r t th e words or visua l
forms i n which th e y a r e e xpre ss e d a re no t m e re ly s e n sibl e
bu t a lso sig nifica nt . To s e p a rate as w e do the fu n ctio na l
from the sig nifican t ar t a ppli e d from a s o call e d fine a r t
,
-
,

is to r e quire of the vas t majori ty O f m e n to live by the

“
m e r e ly fu nc tio na l a r t a brea d a lo ne tha t is no thi ng
,
”
but th e husks tha t the swi ne did e a t Th e i nsi nc e ri ty
.

a nd i n co n sis te n cy of th e whol e posi tio n is to be s e e n i n

th e fa c t th a t w e do no t e xp e c t of th e sig n ifica nt ar t
i

that i t be s i gn i fica n t of a ny thi n g n o r from th e , fine

“ ”
art a nythi ng bu t a n aes th e tic pl e asur e if th e ar tis t
him s e lf d e clare s that his work i s charg e d with m e a ni ng
a nd e xis ts for th e s a k e of t his m e a n i ng w e c a ll it a n ,

irre leva nce bu t d e cid e that h e may have b ee n a n a rtis t

,

i n spi te of i t 21
. In o th e r words if th e m e re ly fu n c t io na l
,

arts ar e th e husks th e fine a r ts a r e the ti ns e l of life

, ,

a n d a r t for us has no sig n ifica n c e wh a teve r .

Primi tive m a n d e spi te th e pre ssure of his struggl e for

,

e xis te n c e
,
k ne w no thi ng of such m e r e ly fu nc tio nal arts .

The whol e m a n is na tu r ally a m e taphysicia n a nd o nly ,

l a te r o n a philosoph e r a nd psychologist a sys te ma tis t , .

H is re a so ni ng is by a nalogy or i n oth e r words by m e ans

,
”
of a n a d e quate symbolism A s a p e rso n rathe r th a n
.

a n a i m l e k ows immor t l throu gh mortal thi ngs

n a h n a 2
.
2

31
 WH Y E X H I B IT W O R KS O F ART ?

Th at th e i nvisibl e thi ngs o f God ( that is to s ay th e ,

id e a s o r e te rna l r e a so ns of thi ngs by which w e k now ‘

wha t th e y ough t to be lik e) a r e to be s e e n i n th e thi ngs

”
th a t ar e mad e a ppli e d for him n o t o n ly to th e thi n gs
23

th a t God h a d m a d e bu t to thos e th a t h e m a d e hims e lf .

H e could no t h a ve though t of m ea ni ng a s som e thi n g

th a t migh t or migh t no t be a dd e d to us e ful O bj e c t s
a t will . Primi tive m an mad e no rea l dis ti nc tio n o f
s a cre d from s e cular : his w e a po n s clo thi ng ve hicl e s , ,

a n d hous e w e r e a ll of th e m imi ta t io n s of divi n e pro to t p e s

y ,

a nd w e re to him e ve n mor e wh a t th e y m e a n t tha n wh a t

th ey w e r e i n th e ms e lv e s h e m a d e th e m this mo re
by i ncanta tio n a n d by ri te s 4
Thus h e fough t wi th
.
2

thu n d e rbol ts pu t o n c e l e s t i a l g a rm e n ts rod e i n a char io t

, ,

of fir e s aw i n his roof th e s ta rry sky a nd i n hims e lf

, ,

more th a n this m a n SO a n d s o A ll th e s e thi n gs

- -
.

b e lo n g e d to th e L e ss e r M ys te r i e s of th e crafts a n d
“
,
”
to t h e k n owl e dg e of Compa n i o n s No thi n g o f i t
.

re ma i n s to us bu t th e tr a nsform atio n O f th e b r e a d i n
sacrifici a l r i te s a nd i n th e re fe re n ce to its p r o to typ e of
,

th e ho n our p a id to a n ico n .

Th e I ndia n a c tor p r e p a r e s fo r his p e r fo r m a nc e by

p r aye r Th e I ndian a rchi te c t is ofte n spoke n of a s
.

visi ti ng h e ave n a nd th e re m a ki ng no te s O f th e preva ili n g

forms of archi te c ture which h e i mi tate s h e re b e low
, .

A ll tr a di tio na l a rchi te c ture i n fa c t follows a cosmic

, ,

p a tte rn . Thos e who thi n k of th e ir hous e a s o nly a

25

ma chi ne to live i n should j udg e th e ir poi n t of vi e w

by tha t of N e oli thic m a n who a lso live d in a hous e
‘

, ,

bu t a hous e th a t e mbodi e d a cosmology W e ar e m o re .

th a n su ffici e n tly ro v i de d wi th o v e rh e a ti n g sys te ms

w e should h a ve fg u n d his hous e u n comfo r ta bl e ; bu t
le t us no t forg e t tha t h e id e nt ifi e d th e colum n of smok e
that ros e from his h e a r th to dis a pp ea r from v i e w through a
hol e i n th e roof wi th th e A xis of the U nive r s e s aw i n this
'
,

lu fi e r a n im a g e of th e H eave nly D oor a n d i n his h e a r th ,

32
C HR I STI AN AN D OR I ENTA L PH I LOSO PHY OF ART

the Nave l of the E a rth , formul ae that we at the

pre s e nt
day ar e h a rdly cap a bl e of unde rs ta ndi ng w e fo r whom ,
” 26
such k nowl edge a s is no t e mpirical is m e ani ngl e ss .

M os t of th e thi ngs that Plato call e d ideas a r e o nly

“
“

sup e rs ti tio ns to us .

To have s een i n his a rte facts no thi ng bu t the thi ngs

th e ms e lv e s a nd i n th e my th a m e re a ne cdote would have
,

b e en a mortal s in for this would h ave b ee n the same as

,

to s e e i n o ne s e lf no thi n g but th e r e aso ni ng a nd mortal

to r ecog n i z e o n ly
” ”
a nimal ,
this m a n a nd neve r the
,
”
form of huma nity .It is just i nsofar as w e do no w
s e e o n ly the thi ngs as th ey a r e i n th e ms e lv e s a nd o nl
,

ours e lve s a s w e ar e in ours e lve s tha t w e have k ill e d the

,

m e ta physica l m a n a nd shut ours e lve s up i n th e dismal

ca ve Of fu nctio na l a nd e co nomic d e te rmi nism D O you .

b egi n to s ee no w what I m e ant by s ayi ng that work s O f

ar t co nsiste nt wi th th e Philosophia Pe re nnis ca nno t
be divid e d i nto the ca te gori e s Of th e u tili tari a n a n d th e
S piritual ,
bu t p e rtai n to bo th worlds fu n ctio nal and
,

si gnificant physica l a nd m e taphysical P

,
27

Th e rtis t has now acce pte d his commissio n a nd is

a

e xp e c te d to practis e his ar t I t is by this ar t that he

.

knows both what the thi ng shoul d be li ke a nd how ,

to impr e ss this form upo n th e avai l a b l e mate rial so that ,

it may be i nform e d with what is actual ly alive i n hims e lf .

H is op e ra tio n will be twofold free a nd s er vi le

, ,

th eore tical and Op e rative i nve ntive a nd imitative I t

,
.

IS i n t e rms of th e fr e e ly i nve nte d formal caus e that w e

ca n b e st e xplai n how th e patte rn o f the thi ng to be mad e

or a rrang e d this e ssay or this hous e for e xample is

, ,

known I t is this ca us e by which the actual shap e of the

.

thi ng c a n b e s t be u n d e rs too d b e caus e simili tude is

”3 3
with re s pe ct to the form Of the thi n to be m a de a nd
g ,

33
 W H Y E XHI B IT WO R KS OF ART ?

no t with re sp e c t to the shap e or a pp e aranc e of som e oth e r

a n d alr e a d y e xisti n g thi n g so th a t i n sayi ng imi tative
”
w e a r e by no m ea ns sayi ng n a tur a listic Ar t .

” 29
imi tate s n ature in h er manne r of op e ratio n tha t is to ,

s ay God i n his m a nne r of cr e atio n i n which h e do e s no t

,

r e p ea t hims e lf or e xhibi t d e ce p tive illusio ns i n which the

sp e ci e s Of thi ngs a r e co nfus e d .

H ow is th e form of the thi ng to be ma d e e vok e d ?

This is th e k erne l Of our doc tri ne a nd th e a nswe r ca n ,

be m a d e i n a gre at many di ff e r e n t ways Th e a r t Of .

God is th e So n through whom all thi ngs ar e made ; 3 °

i n th e s a m e w ay th e a r t i n th e human artis t is his child

”

through which som e o ne thi ng is to be made The .

i nt u itio n e xpre ssio n Of a n imi tabl e form is a n i nte ll e ctual

-

’
co nc e p tio n born of th e artis t s wisdom jus t as the e te rn a l ,

re aso ns a e bor of e E ternal Wisdom

r n th "1
Th e image .

aris e s na turally i n his spirit no t by way Of a n aiml e ss

,

i nspiratio n but i n purpos e ful a nd vi ta l Op e ratio n by a

, ,
”3 2
word concei v ed i n i nte ll e ct . It is this filial imag e ,

a n d n o t a r e ti n al r e fl e c t io n or th e m e mory of a r e ti n al

re fl ectio n tha t h e imi ta tes i n th e ma terial just as a t the

, ,

creatio n of th e world God s wil l b e h e ld that b ea uteous

’
” s
world a nd imi tate d it ,
3
that is to say impre ss e d o n
primary m atte r a world pic ture alre ady p a i nte d by
-

”
th e spiri t o n th e ca nvas of th e spiri t 4
A ll thi ngs a r e
.
3

to be s e en in this ete rnal mirror b e tte r than i n a ny o the r

’
way : for th e r e the artis t s mode ls ar e all alive a nd
3 5

more alive th a n thos e that ar e pos e d wh e n w e ar e taugh t

i n s cho o ls of art to draw from life
’
”
.I f sh a p e s of natural
origi n often e nte r i nto the artist s composi tio ns this do e s ,

no t m e an th a t th e y p e r ta i n to his a r t but th e y a r e th e ,

mate rial i n which the form is cloth e d jus t as the po e t

us es sou nds which ar e no t his th e sis but o nly me ans
, , .

’
Th e artist s spirals a r e th e forms of life a nd no t o nly ,

of this or th a t life the form of the croz i e r w as no t

s ug e ste d by that of a fe r n fro n d T h e su e rficia l
g .
p
34
 W H Y E X H I B IT W O R KS OF ART ?

many ways i n which a n I ndus try wi thout ar t is

bruta li ty
’
Th e a r tis t s th e or e tica l or 1 m a g1 na t1 v e a ct is s a id to be
”
fre e b e ca us e it is not a ssum e d or admi tte d tha t h e is
bl i ndly copyi ng a ny mode l e xtr i nsic to hims e lf bu t ,

e xp r e ssi n g hims e lf eve n i n a dh e ri n g to a pr e scrip tio n

,

or r e spo ndi ng to r e quire me nts tha t m ay re m a i n e ss e nti a lly

th e s a m e for mill e n n i a It is t ru e th a t to be pr op e rly
.

e xpr e ss e d a thi ng must proc ee d from wi thi n move d by ,

its fo r m : a nd e t i t is no t tru e that i n pr a c tisi n g a n

42
y
a r t tha t h a s fixe d e n ds a nd a sce r ta i ne d m e a ns of O p e ra
”4 ’
tio n 3
th e a r tis t s fr ee dom is d e n i e d ; i t is o nly th e
aca d e mici a n a nd th e hire li ng whos e work is u nd e r
co ns tra i nt It is true tha t if the artis t has no t co nforme d
hi ms elf to th e p a tter n of th e thi n g to be m a de h e ha s no t
.

rea lly k nown it a nd ca nno t work origi na lly 44

B u t if .

h e h a s thus co n form e d hims e lf h e will be i n fa c t e xpre ssi ng

lz i nzs elf 1 n b r i n gi n g i t for th No t i n d e e d e xpre ssi ng his
.
45

p e r so na li ty hims e lf a s this m a n SO a nd So bu t
,
”
-
,

hims e lf sub sp eci e e ter ni ta ti s a n d a p a rt from i ndividua l

( ,

idiosyn cra cy Th e id e a of the th i ng to be mad e is

.

brough t to life i n him a nd it wil l be from this supra

,

i n dividua l life of th e a rtis t hims e lf that th e vita li ty O f the

fi nish e d work will be d e rived It is no t the to n gu e
.
46
,

but our ve ry life th a t si ngs th e new so ng In thi s .

way to o th e hum an op e ratio n re fl e c ts th e ma nne r Of

op e ratio n i n di v i ni s A ll thi ngs tha t we r e m a de we re
”4
life in H im .
8

Through the mou th of H e rm e s th e d ivi ne E ros

b e ga n to sp ea k ”
W e mus t no t co nclud e from the form
.
49

Of th e words th a t th e a r tis t is a p a ssive i ns trum e nt lik e ,

a ste nograph e r He . is much rath e r a c tively a nd

” “
co nsciously ma ki ng u s e of hims elf a s a n i ns trument .

B ody and mi n d ar e no t the m an bu t o n ly his i ns trum ent ,

a n d v e hicl e . The m an is p a ssive o n ly wh e n h e id e ntifi es

hims e lf with the psychophysical e go l e tti ng it take him
36
C HR I STI AN AN D OR I ENTA L P H IL O S O PHY OF A RT

wh er e it will bu t i n act wh en h e dir e c ts i t I nspira tio n .

a nd a spira t io n ar e no t e xclusive al te r n a t ive s bu t o n e ,

a nd th e s a m e b e caus e th e spiri t to which bo th words

re fe r canno t work in th e m a n e xce p t to th e e x te n t tha t
“ ”
li e is i n th e spiri t It is o n ly wh e n th e fo r m of th e
.

thi n g to be m a d e h a s b e e n k now n t h a t th e a r t i s t r e tur n s

”
to hims e lf p e rformi n g th e s e r vil e O p e ra ti o n w i th
,

good will a will dire c te d sol e ly to th e good of th e thi n g

,

H e is willi n g to ma k e
“
to be m a d e . wha t w a s shown
him upo n th e M ou nt ”
Th e m a n i n c a p a bl e o f co n t e m
.

p la tio n c a nno t be a n a r t i s t b u t o n ly a skilful workm a n

,

i t is d e m a n d e d of th e a r tis t to be bo th a co n te mpl a tive

a n d a good workm a n B e s t of a ll if lik e th e a nge ls h e
.

“
, ,

nee d n o t i n his a c tivi ty los e th e d e ligh ts o f i n wa rd

”
co nte mpl a tio n .

Wha t is i mpli e d by co n te mpl atio n is to r a is e our l eve l

of re fe re n c e fr om th e e mpirica l to th e id ea l from Obs e rva ,

tio n to visi o n fr om a n a udi t ory s e n s a ti o n to a udi tio n

, y
th e im a g e r ( or wo r shipp e r for n o dis ti n c tio n c a n be m a d e
,

h e re ) ta ki n g id e a l form u n d e r th e ac tio n of th e visio n

I
,
’”
whil e re m a i ni n g o n ly po tenti a lly hims e lf am
5 0

o ne
” ’
s ays D a n te a ccou n ti n g for his nalee s ci! na a va r
, , ,

who wh e n L ove i nspir e s m e ta k e no te a n d go s e tti n g ,

”
i t for th i n such wis e a s H e dic ta te s w i thi n m e Lo .
51
,

m a k e a ll thi ngs i n a ccord a n ce wi th th e p a tte rn that w a s

”52
shown th ee o n th e mou nt It is in imi ta tio n of
.

a n g e lic works of ar t th a t a n work of a r t is w r ough t

y
h e re 5 3 th e cra fts such a s buildi n g a nd c a rp e n tr y
ta k e th e ir p r i n cipl e s from t h a t r ea lm a n d fr om th e
” 54
th i n ki n g th e r e It is i n a g r e e m e n t w i th th e s e tra d i
.

t i o n a l dic ta th a t B lak e e quat e d wi th Chris t i a n i ty i t s e lf

“
th e divi n e a r ts Of imagi n at io n a n d a sk e d I s th e Holy
Ghos t a ny o th e r th a n a n i nte ll e c tua l fou n ta i n a n d th a t

E me r so n s a id Th e i n te ll e c t s ea r ch e s o u t th e a bsolut e
,

ord e r of thi ngs as th e y s ta n d i n th e mi n d Of God a n d ,

wi thout t h e colours of aff ec tio n Wh e r e w e s e e

.

37
 W H Y E X H I B I T WO R K S OF ART ?

ge nius as a p e culiarly de ve lop e d p e rso nality to

be e xploite d tra d i tio na l philosophy s e e s the immane nt
,

S piri t b e sid e which th e i n div idual p e rso nali ty is re lative ly

,
”
n il Thou mad e s t as Augus ti ne says
,
tha t i ngeni u m
where by the a r tifice r m ay take his a r t a nd m ay s ee withi n
,
” 55
what he has to do wi thout It is the light of this
.
;

”
S piri t that b e com e s th e light of a m e c h an ical a r t .

What Augus ti ne calls i ngeniu m corre spo n”ds to Philo s ’

H e ge mo n th e S an skri t I nne r Co ntroll e r a nd to what

, ,

is call e d i n m e di aeval th e ology th e Synte re sis th e i m m a n ,

e n t S pirit though t O f e qually as a n ar tis tic moral a nd ,

sp e culative co nsci e nce both as w e u s e th e word a nd i n

A ugus ti ne’
,
”
its old e r s e ns e of co nscious ne ss . s in
g eni nm corr e spo n ds to Gr ee k da i m on bu t no t to wh a t
,
”
w e m e a n to day by -
ge nius NO m a n co nsid e re d a s
.
,

So a n d s o ca n be a g e n ius
- -
, bu t a ll m e n [l a w a g e n ius ,

to be s e rv e d or disob e ye d a t th e ir o w n p e ril Th e re .

c a n be no prop e rty i n i d e as b e caus e th e s e a r e gifts Of

,

th e S piri t a nd no t to be co n fus e d wi th ta l e n t s
,
ide as
“ ”
a r e n e ve r m a d e bu t c a n o n ly be
,
i nvente d that is ,
”
fou nd a nd e nte rtai ne d NO m a tte r how many tim e s
, .

th ey m ay alre a dy have b e e n a ppli e d by o th e rs who ,

e ve r co nforms hims e lf to a n id e a a nd so mak e s i t his o w n ,

will be worki ng origi na lly bu t no t so if he is e xpr essi ng

,

o nly his o w n id e als or O pi n io ns .

To thi nk for o ne s e lf is always to thi n k of o ne s e lf

what is call e d fr e etho u gh t is t he re fore the n atura l
e xpre ssio n of a huma n i s tic philosophy W e a re a t th e
.

m e rcy of our though ts a nd corr e spo ndi ng de sire s Fr ee .

though t is a passio n it is much rath e r th e though ts than

ours e lve s that a r e free W e canno t to o much e mph a si z e
.

tha t co nte mplatio n is no t a passio n bu t a n ac t a n d th a t

“
wh e re mod e rn psychology s e e s in i nspi r a tio n the
uprush of a n i ns ti ncti ve a nd s ubco nscious will th e ,
’
orthodox philosophy s ee s a n e l evatio n Of the artis t s
b e i ng to sup er co nscious a nd sup r a individual l eve ls .

38
CHR STIAN I AN D OR I ENTA L PH I LOSOP HY OF A RT

Wh r e e psychologist i nvo ke s a d e mo n the me ta

th e ,

physician i nvoke s a d a mo n what is for the o ne the

” 5°
libido is for the othe r th e divi ne E ros .

Th ere is also a s ens e i n which the m a n as a n i ndividual

”
e xpre ss e s hims e lf whe the r h e will or no Thi s is
,
.

i ne vitabl e o nly b e ca us e nothi ng ca n be k nown or do ne

,

e xc e pt i n accorda n c e wi th th e mod e O f th e k n owe r So .

th e m a n hims e lf as h e is i n hims e lf a pp e ars i n s tyl e a nd

, ,

h a ndli ng a nd ca n be re cog nize d a ccordi ngly The

,
.

us e s a nd sig nifica nc e of works of a r t m ay re mai n the

sam e fo r mill e nnia and ye t w e ca n ofte n d a te a nd place
,

a work a t firs t glanc e H uma n idiosyncracy is thus the

.

e xpla n a tio n O f s tyl e a nd of stylistic s e qu e n c e s styl e

is th e m a n S tyl e s a r e th e basis Of our his tori e s of art
.
,

which a r e wri tte n like o the r his tori e s to flatte r our human
vani ty Bu t the artis t whom w e have i n vi e w is i nnoc e nt
.

of his to ry a nd u na ware of the e xis tenc e Of stylistic

s e qu e nce s Styl e s ar e th e a ccid e nt a nd by no m e ans
.

th e e ss e nc e o f ar t th e fr e e m a n is no t t ryi n g to e xpr e ss
hims e lf but tha t which w a s to be e xpre ss e d Ou r
, .

co nce p tio n of a r t as e ss e ntially the e xpre ssio n of a per

s o na l i t our whol e vi e w of g e n ius our imp e r t i ne n t
y ,
’
,

curiosi ti e s about th e artis t s private life all th e s e thi ngs ,

ar e th e produc ts of a p e rv e r te d i n dividualism a n d pr e ve nt

our u nd e rs ta ndi ng of the na ture of m e di aeva l a nd ori e ntal

ar t. Th e mod e r n mani a for a ttr ibutio n is the e xpr e ssio n
Of Re n aissa n c e co n c e i t a n d n i n e te e nt h c e n tury human

ism i t h as nothing to do wi th th e n ature of m e di aeval

a r t a n d b e com e s a p a th e tic fa ll a cy wh e n appli e d to i t
,
s7
.

I n all re sp e c ts the tra ditio na l a r tis t d evo te s hims e lf to

th e good of th e wor k to be do n e 57
Th e op e ratio n is a
.
A

rite th e c e l e brant ne i th e r i nte ntio na lly no r eve n co n

,

s c io u s l e xpr e ssi n g hims e lf It is by n accid n t of

y .o e

t im e bu t i n accord a nc e wi th a gove r n i n g co n c e p t of th e
,
’
m e an i ng of life Of which the g oal is impli e d i n St Pa ul s
, .

Vi v a a ntem ja m non ego that wor k s of traditio nal art

, ,

39
 W H Y E X H I B IT W O R K S O F ART ?

wh eth e r Chris tian O ri e nta l or folk a r t a r e h a rdly eve r

, ,

sig n ed th e artis t is ano nymous Or if a name h as sur ,

‘

v iv e d ,
w e k now li ttl e o r n o thi n g of th e m a n This .

is tru e a s much for li te ra ry as for plas tic arte fa cts In .

t ra di tio n al ar ts i t is n e v e r W ho said ? bu t o n ly W hat

was said ? tha t co nce rns us for all th a t is t ru e by ,
”5
w h o m s ove r i t h a s b ee n s a id has i ts origi n i n th e S pir i t - 8
.
,

SO the first s a ne que s tio n s that ca n be aske d a bou t a

work Of a r t ar e What was it for ? a nd Wh a t doe s it
,

m e an W e have s e e n a l r e a dy that whateve r a nd how ,

e ve r humbl e ,
th e fu nc tio na l purpos e Of th e work of a r t
m ay h a ve b ee n i t h a d a lways a spiri tua l m e an i n g, by
,

n o m e a n s a n a rbi tr a ry m e an i ng bu t o n e tha t the fu n c t io n

,

ts e lf e xpr e ss e s a d e quat e ly by a nalogy Fu nctio n a nd .

me ani ng canno t be forc e d a p a rt ; th e m e a ni ng of th e

work of a r t is i ts i ntri nsic form a s much a s th e soul is
th e form of th e body M ea n i ng is eve n his torica lly
.

prior to utili tarian a pplic atio n Forms such a s th a t O f

.

”
th e dom e a rch a nd circl e h a ve no t b ee n
,
e volve d bu t ,

o nly appli e d the circl e c a n no more h ave b ee n sugge s te d

by th e wh ee l than a myth by a mime tic ri te Th e o u .

to lo gy of us e ful i nve n tio n s par a ll e ls th a t of th e world

i n bo th crea tio ns th e Su n is th e si ngl e form of m a ny
di ffe re nt th ings tha t this is a c tua lly so in th e ca s e of
human produc tio n by ar t will be re alis e d by eve ryo ne
who is s u fli c ie ntly fa miliar wi th th e solar sig n ifica nc e
,

of almos t every k nown typ e Of circul a r or a nnular a r te fac t

or p a rt O f a n arte fa c t I will o nly ci te by w ay O f e xa mpl e
.

th e e ye of a n e edl e a nd r e m a rk th a t th e r e is a m e ta physics
‘

of e mbroid e ry a nd we avi ng for a d e ta il e d e xposi tio n

,

Of which a whol e volum e migh t be r e quire d It i s i n .

’
th e sam e w ay by no accid e nt tha t th e Crus a d e r s sword
w a s a lso a cross a t o n c e th e m e a ns of physic a l a n d symbol
,

O f S pi r i tual vic tory Th e re is no tra di tio n al g a m e or a ny

.

form of athl e tics no r a ny ki n d Of fairy ta l e prop er ly to

,
-

be so call e d ( e xce p ti ng that is to say thos e which m e r e ly

, ,

40
CHR STI I AN AND OR IENTA L PH I LO SOPH Y OF ART

re fl e c t the fa nci e s O f i ndividual liter a teu r s a pure ly ,

mod e rn ph e nom e no n) no r a ny sort of t radi tio nal jug gl e ry,

th a t is no t a t th e sam e tim e that i t is a n e n te r tai n m e n t ,

th e e mbodim e n t of a m etaphysical doctri ne Th e .

“ ”
m ea n i ng is li te rally the sp i ri t Of the p e rforma nc e
or th e ane cdo te I co n ogra phy in o th e r words is art
.
, ,

th a t a r t by which th e a c tua l forms of thi n gs a re d e te r

min ed ; a nd the fi na l probl e m of re s e ar ch 1 n th e fi e ld
of ar t is to u n d e rs ta n d th e ico n ogra phic form of wha teve r
compositio n i t m ay be tha t w e ar e studyi ng It is o n ly .

’
wh e n w e have u nd e rs tood th e r a is ons d etr e of ico nogra phy
that w e ca n be said to h av e go n e b a ck to first pri n cipl e s
a nd tha t is wh a t w e m e a n by th e Re duc tio n O f A r t
”5 9
to Th e ology . Th e s tud e n t u n d e rs ta n ds th e logic of
“
th e composi tio n th e illi te ra te o n ly i ts aes th e tic va lu e 0
.

Th e ano nymi ty Of th e ar tis t b e lo ngs to a typ e of cul ture

domi n ate d by th e lo ngi ng to be lib e ra te d from o ne s e lf .

A ll th e fo r c e of this philosophy is dire c te d a g a i n s t the

de lusio n I am th e do e r
“
.
”
I a m no t in fa ct th e doe r ,

bu t th e i ns trum e nt huma n i ndividua li ty is no t a n e nd

bu t o n ly a m e a ns . Th e supre m e a chi e ve m e nt of i n
dividua l co nscious ne ss is to los e or find ( bo th words m e an
th e s a m e) i ts e lf i n wh a t is bo th i ts firs t b e gi nn i n g a n d i ts
las t e n d Who eve r would save his psy cbe le t him ,

los e All th a t is r e quire d of th e i n s trum e n t is

e ffi ci e n cy a n d O b e di e n c e i t is no t for th e subj e c t to
aspi re to th e thro ne th e co n s ti tutio n Of m a n is no t a
d e mocracy bu t th e hi era rchy of body soul a n d S piri t
, ,
.

IS i t for th e Chris ti a n to co n s i d e r a ny work his o w n

whe n e ve n Chr is t h a s s a id tha t I do no thi n g of m y
,
“

s e lf ? or for the H i ndu wh en K rish na h as s a id th a t

62

Th e Compre he nso r ca nno t fo r m th e co n c e p t I a m

,
‘

th e do e r
’” “ 3
or th e B uddhis t for whom i t h a s b een
,

said that TO wish tha t it m ay be ma d e k nown th a t

‘
I w as the a u thor i s the though t of a m a n no t yet
adul t P It h a rdly occurre d to th e i n d i vidua l a r tist to
“

41
 W HY E X H IB IT WO R KS OF ART ?

S ig n his wor k s u nl e ss for pra c tical purpos e s of dis tinc

,

t io n ; a n d w e find th e sam e co ndi tio n s pr evaili ng 1 n th e

sca rc e ly y et d e fu nc t commun i ty of the Sha ke rs who ma de ,

p e rfe c tio n of workmanship a p a r t O f th e ir re ligio n bu t ,

ma de it a rul e that works should no t be sig ne d “

It
'

is u nde r such co ndi tio ns tha t a re a l ly livi ng a r t u nlike

.

w ha t Pl a to calls th e ar ts of fl a tte ry flourish e s a n d wh e re

,

th e a r tis t e xploi ts his o w n p e rso na lity a nd b e com e s a n

e xhibi t io n is t tha t a r t d e cli ne s .

Th e re is a no the r a sp e c t of the qu e s tio n that ha s to do

wi th the p a tro n rath e r th an th e ar tis t ; this too mus t be
und e rs tood if w e ar e no t to mis ta ke th e i ntentio ns Of
,

t ra d i t io n al ar t It will h a v e b e e n O bs e rv e d th a t i n tr a di
.

t io na l ar ts , th e e ffigy Of a n i n dividu a l for whateve r ,

purpos e i t may have b ee n ma de is ve ry ra re ly a lik e ness ,

i n th e s e n s e tha t w e co n c e iv e a like n e ss bu t much ra th e r ,

th e r e pr e s e nta tio n Of a typ e Th e m a n is re pre s e n te d

66
.

by his fu nctio n rath e r tha n by his a pp ea ra nc e th e c fli gy

is of th e ki n g th e soldi e r th e m er chant or the smi th
, , ,

rathe r than of SO a nd S O Th e ul timate rea so ns fo r this

- -
.

have no thi ng to do wi th a ny te ch n ical i na biliti e s or l a ck

of the powe r Of O bs e rvatio n in th e artis t bu t are hard ,

to e xplai n to ours e lve s whos e pr e occupat io ns a r e so -

di ff e r ent a nd whos e fai th i n the e te rnal valu e s of per

s o nalit is S O na iv e hard to e xplai n to ours e lv e s who
y ,

shri nk from th e s ayi ng th a t a m a n mus t hate hims e lf

“
if h e would be M y discipl e ”6
Th e whol e posi tio n
.
7

is bou n d up wi th a t ra di tio nal vi e w that also fi nds e x

pressio n in the doc t ri ne of th e h e re di ta ry t ransmissio n
of characte r a nd fu n c ti o n b e caus e of which th e m a n ca n
,

die i n p e ac e k nowi ng that his work will be carri e d o n

,

by ano the r re pre s enta tive A s So a nd S O th e m a n is

.
- -
,

re born i n his d e sce n dants e a ch of whom occupi e s i n turn

,

what was much ra th er a n O ffi c e than a p e rso n For in .

wha t w e ca ll p er so nali ty tr adi tio n s ee s o nly a t e mporal

,

fun ctio n which you hold 1 n l eas e Th e ve ry p e rso n

‘
.

42
 WH Y E X H I B IT W OR KS OF ART ?

dis ti nguish th e m from th e form of th e divi ni ty to whom

th e S piri t h a d b e e n r etur n e d wh e n th e m a n gave up
th e ghos t almos t in th e s a m e w ay a n a ng elic s e re ni ty
a n d t h e abs e n c e O f huma n imp e r fe c t io n a n d O f th e sig n s
,

Of a e a r e chara c te r is t i c of t h e Ch r is t i a n c fli b e for e
g , gy
th e thi r tee n th c e n tury wh e n th e s tudy of d e a th m a sks
,
-

ca m e b a ck i nto fa shio n a n d mod e rn po r tra itu r e w a s born

i n th e ch a rn e l hous e Th e tra di tio na l im a ge is Of th e
.

m a n a s h e would be a t th e Re surr e c t io n i n a n a g e l e ss
I would
,
“
body of glory no t as h e was accide nta lly
,

go down u nto A nn ihil atio n a nd E ter na l D e ath l e s t th e

L a s t Judgm e nt com e a nd fin d m e U na nn ih ila te a n d I
,

,
’ ’
be s e iz d a n d giv n i n to th e h a n ds of my o w n S e lfhood .

L e t us no t forg e t th a t i t is o n ly th e i n te ll e c tual V irtu e s ,

a n d by n o m e a n s our i ndividual aff e c t io n s tha t a r e though t

,

of as survivi ng d e ath .

Th e s a m e holds go o d for th e h e ro e s of e pic a nd

“
romanc e for mode rn cri ticism th e s e a r e ,
u nr eal
typ e s,
”
a n d th e r e is no psychological a nalysis We .

ough t to h ave rea lis e d that if this is n o t a humanis tic ar t ,

this may have b e e n i ts e ss ential virtue W e ought to .

h ave known that this w as a typ a l a r t by righ t of lo ng

i nh e ri tan c e th e rom a n c e is s t ill e ss e n t ially a n e pic ,

th e e pic e ss e nt i a lly a my th a n d t ha t i t is jus t b e c a us e

th e h e ro e xhibi ts u n iv e rs a l qu a li t i e s w i thou t i n dividu a l

,

p e culiarity or limi ta t io ns that h e ca n be a p a tter n imi ta bl e

,

by eve ry m a n a lik e i n a ccordanc e wi th his o w n possi

bilitie s wh a teve r th e s e m ay be In th e l a s t a n alysis th e
.

h e ro is a lways God whos e o nly idiosyn cracy is b e i ng

, ,

a n d to whom i t would be a bsurd to a tt ribu te i n dividu a l

cha ra c teris tics It is o nly wh e n th e a r t is t wha teve r h i s

.
,

subj e ct m ay be is chi e fly co nc e rn e d to e xhibi t hims e l f

, ,

a nd wh e n w e d e sc e n d to th e l ev e l of th e psychologic a l

n ov e l th a t t h e s tudy an d a n a lysis o f i n dividu a li ty a cquir e s

,

a n impor ta n c e . Th e n o n ly port rai ture i n our s e ns e take s

the plac e of wh a t w a s o n c e a n ico n ogr a phic por t rayal .

44
C HR I STI AN AN D OR I ENTA L PH I LOS O PHY OF ART

A ll th e s e thi ngs a pply o nly S O much th e more if w e a r e

to co nsid e r th e d e lib e rate portrayal O f a divi nity the ,

fu n da me nta l th e sis of a ll tradi tio na l a rts An a de qua te .

k nowl e dg e O f th e ology a nd cosmology is th e n i ndis pe n

sibl e to a n u nd e rs ta nd i n g of th e his tory of a r t i nsofar as ,

th e ac tual S h a p e s a n d s truc tu r e s of works of a r t a r e

d ete rmi ne d by the ir rea l co n te nt Chris ti a n a rt for
.
,

e xa mpl e ,
b egi ns wi th th e r e pres e nta tio n of d e ity by
a bs t r a c t symb o ls which m a y be g e om e t ric a l v e g e ta bl e or
, ,

th e riomorphic a nd ar e d evoid of a ny s e nt im e n tal a pp e a l

,

wha teve r An a nthropomorphic symbol follows bu t

.
,

this is s till a form a nd n o t a figur a t io n no t m a de a s

though to fu n c t io n biologic a lly or a s if to illus tr a te a

te x t book of a n a tomy or of dra matic e xpre ssio n Still .

l a te r th e form is s e ri tim e nta lis e d th e fea ture s O f th e

,

crucifi e d a re ma d e to e xhibi t huma n suffe ri ng th e ty p e is ,

compl e te ly huma nis e d a nd wh e re w e b eg a n wi th th e

,

S ha p e of huma n i ty a s a n a nalogic a l r e pr e s e n ta tio n of th e

’
id ea of God w e e nd wi th th e por tr a i t of th e a rtis t s
,

mis tre ss posi ng a s th e M a do nna a nd the re pre s e ntatio n

of a n a ll to o huma n b a by ; th e Chris t is no lo nge r a
- -

m a n Go d bu t the sor t of m a n th a t w e c a n a pprove O f

'

-
, .

Wi th what e xtra ordi na ry presci e nc e St Thoma s A qui na s.

commen ds the u s e Of th e lowe r ra th e r th a n th e n obl e r

“

forms of e xis tenc e a s divi ne symbols e sp e cially for

,

t hos e who c an thi n k of n othi n g n obl e r t h a n bodi e s l “

The co urs e of art r e fl e cts the cours e of though t Th e .

artis t a ss e r ti ng a sp e cious lib erty e xpre ss e s hims elf ;

, ,

our age comme nds th e m a n who thi nks for hims e lf a n d ,

t h e r e for e of hims e lf W e ca n s e e i n the h e ro o nly a n

.

imp erfe ctly re mem b e re d historica l figure a rou n d which ,

th e re h a ve ga th e r e d mythic a l a n d mir a culous accr e t io n s

’
th e h e ro s m a n hood i n te r e s ts us mor e tha n his divi n ity ,

a nd t his a ppli e s as much to our co n c e p t io n O f Chris t

or K rish na or B uddh a a s it doe s to our co nc e ptio ns O f

Cuchull a i n or Sigurd or Gilgame sh W e treat the .

45
 WHY E XHIB IT WOR KS OF AR T ?

mythical e l e m e nt s Of the s tor y which ar e i ts e s s enc e

, ,

a s i ts a ccid e nt s ,
a nd subs t i tu te a ne cdo te for m ea n i ng .

Th e s e cularis a tio n of a r t a nd th e ra tio n alis a tio n of r e

ligio n ar e i ns e p a ra bly co nn e c te d howeve r u n a wa r e of i t
,

w e m ay be . It follows tha t for a ny m a n who c a n still

b e li eve i n the e te rna l birth Of a ny avata r B efore
A braham w a s I a m ,
th e co nt e n t of wor k s O f ar t c a nn o t
be a ma tte r of i n di ffe re n c e th e ar tistic huma nis a tio n
O f th e So n or of th e M oth e r of God is a s much a d e n i a l

of Chris ti a n t ruth a s a ny form of ve rb a l ra tio na lism or

othe r h e re tical posi tio n Th e vulga ri ty of huma nism
.

app e ars nake dly a nd u na sh a me d i n a ll e uh e m e rism

I t is by no accide nt th at it shoul d have b een discovered
.

o nly comparative ly re ce ntly tha t a r t is e ss entially a n

ae sth e tic activity NO re al disti n c tio n ca n be drawn
.

b e twe e n ae s th etic a nd ma te ri a lis t ic a i stbes i s b e i ng s e nsa

t io n a n d m a tte r wh a t c a n be s e ns e d
,
So w e re ga rd th e
.

l a ck of i nte re s t i n a n atomy as a de fe ct O f ar t th e a bs e n c e
,

of psychological analysis as evid enc e Of u ndeve lop e d

characte r w e d e pr e cate th e r e pr e s e nta tio n Of th e
B a mbi no a s a li ttl e m a n ra th er th a n as a child and thi n k,

of the fro nta lity of th e ima ge ry as du e to a n i n abili ty

to r e alis e th e thr e e dim e nsio nal mass of e xisti n g thi n gs
-

i n pl a c e O f th e abs trac t ligh t that corr e spo n ds to th e

g nomic aoris t s of the l e g en d i ts elf w e de ma n d th e ca s t
shadows tha t b e lo ng to mome nta ry effe c ts W e sp e ak .

of a want of sci e nt ific p e rsp e c tive forge tti ng tha t per

'

s ecti v e i n ar t is a ki n d Of visual syntax a nd o n ly a m e a n s

p
to a n e nd . We forge t that whil e our p e rsp e c tive s e rve s
th e purpos e s Of r e pre s e nta tio n i n which w e ar e primarily
i nte re s te d th e re ar e o th e r p e rsp e c tive s tha t a r e more
,

i ntelligibl e a nd b e tte r a da p te d to th e communicat ive

purpos e s of the t ra di tio na l a r ts .

In d e pre c a ti n g th e s e culari sati o n of ar t w e ar e n o t

co nfusi ng re ligio n wi th ar t bu t s ee ki ng to u nde rs tand
,

th e co nte nt of art at di ff e r e n t t im e s with a Vi e w to u n

46
C HR I STIAN AN D OR I ENTA L P H ILO S O P HY OF ART

biass e d j udgm ent In sp ea ki n g of th e d e cad enc e Of ar t

.
,

it is really th e d e ca de n c e of m a n from i nte ll ectu a l to

’
s e ntim enta l i nte re s ts that w e m ea n For th e a rtis t s
.

s k ill m ay re mai n the s a me throughout h e is a bl e to

do wha t h e i n te nds I t is th e m e ntal ima g e to which he
.

works th at ch ange s th a t a r t has fixe d e nds is no

lo ng e r tru e a s soo n as w e k now what w e lik e i nste a d Of
li k i ng what w e k now Ou r poi nt is tha t wi thou t a n
.

und e rstandi ng Of the chang e th e i nte grity Of e ve n a

,

suppos e dly obj e ctive his toric a l s tudy is d e stroye d w e

judg e th e tra ditio nal works no t by th e ir ac tual acco m
,

li s h m e nt bu t by our o w n i nt e n tio ns a nd so i n evit a bly

p , ,

come to b e li eve i n a progre ss of art as w e do in the pro

,

gre ss of m a n
I gnorant of the traditio nal philosophy and Of its
.

formul ae w e O fte n thi n k of th e a rtist a s h avi ng b ee n t ryi ng

to do just what h e m ay h ave b ee n co nsciously avoidi ng .

F or e xampl e if D a m a sc e ne says that Chris t from th e

,

mom ent Of his co nc e ptio n poss e ss e d a ratio nal a nd

” 71
i ntell e ctual s o u l i f a s S t Thomas A qui nas says his
‘

, .

body w a s p e rfe ctly form e d a nd a ssum e d i n th e first

i f th e B uddha is said to h ave spoke n i n the
”72
i nstant ,

womb a nd to have tak en s eve n stri de s a t birth from o ne

, ,

e nd to the o th e r O f th e u nive rs e could th e artist have

,

i ntende d to re pre s e nt e i th e r of th e newborn children a s

a puli ng i nfa nt ? I f w e ar e dis turb e d by what w e call
the vacan cy Of a B uddha s e xpre ssio n ough t w e no t
’
,

to b e a r i n mi n d t ha t h e is t hought of a s th e E e i n th e
y
Worl d the impassibl e sp e ctator of thi ngs as they re ally
,

ar e, a nd th a t i t would have b ee n imp e rti ne nt to have

g i v e n him fea ture s mould e d by hum a n curiosity or

passion I f it was a n a rtis tic canon that ve i ns and bones
should no t be ma de a ppare nt c a n w e blame the I n d ian
,

artis t as a n a rtist for no t d ispl ayi ng such a knowl e d ge

of a natomy a s mi gh t h ave evok e d our admiratio n ? I f
w e k now from au thorita tive li terary sourc e s th a t th e

47
 WHY EXHIBIT WORKS OF ART ?

lotus o n which th e B uddha si ts or s ta n ds is no t a bo tanical

sp e cim e n bu t th e u nive rs a l groun d of e xis ten c e in flo r e s
,

c e nt i n th e wate rs of i ts i nd e fi n i te possibili ti e s how ,

i nappropri a te it would have b ee n to r e pre s e nt him i n

th e solid fl e sh p r e cariously b a l a n c e d o n th e surfac e of a
r e al a n d fr a gil e flowe r Th e s a m e co nsid e r a t io n s will
a pply to a ll our r ea di n g of my thology a n d fairy ta l e ,

a n d to a ll our judgm e n t s of primi t ive s ava g e or folk

,

ar t th e a n thropologis t whos e i n te r e s t is i n a cul tur e

is a b e tte r his tor i a n of such a rts th a n is th e cri tic whos e
o nly i n te re s t is in th e ae s th e tic surfa ce s of th e arte fa cts
th e ms e lve s .

In th e tra di tio n a l philosophy a s w e ca n n o t to o Of te n

,

r e p eat ar t h a s to do wi th cog ni tio n ; b e a u ty is th e

,
73

a tt rac tiv e powe r of a p e rfe c t e xpr e ssio n This w e ca n

.

o nly judg e a nd o nly rea lly e njoy a s a n i n te lligibl e good ,

” 4
which is th e good of r ea s o n 7
if w e have rea lly k nown
what it w a s th a t w a s to be e xpre ss e d I f sophis try be
.

or name nt more th a n is a ppropri a te to th e th esis of th e

” 5
wo r k , c a n w e judg e of wh a t is or is n o t sophis t ry
7

if w e ours e lve s r e m a i n i ndi ff e re n t to this co n te n t ?

Evid e ntly n o t O n e migh t as we ll atte mp t th e s tudy of
.

Chris ti a n or B uddhis t a r t wi thou t a knowl e dge O f th e

corre spo n di ng philosophi e s a s atte mp t th e s tudy Of a
math e ma tical p a pyrus wi thout th e k nowl e dg e Of
math e matics .

Le t us co n clud e wi th a discussio n Of th e pro b l e ms of

volu ntary pove rty a nd of ico noclasm In cul tur e s .

mould e d by th e t ra di t io na l philosophy w e fin d that tw o

co nt ra s ti ng posi tio ns ar e mai ntai n e d e i the r a t a ny o ne
,

t im e or al te r n a te ly th e work of ar t both as a u tili ty

,

a n d i n i ts sig n ific a n c e is o n th e o n e ha n d a good a nd ,

o n th e o th e r a n e vil .

Th e idea l of volu ntary pove r ty whic h r ej e cts utili ti e s

, ,

48
C HR I STI AN AN D OR I ENTA L P H ILOS O P HY OF ART

ca n be r e a dily u nd e rs tood It is e a sy to s e e that a n

.

i n d e fi n ite mul tiplic a tio n O f u tili ti es the m ea ns of life

, ,

m ay e n d i n a n id e n tificatio n of cul tur e wi th comfor t ,

a n d th e s ubs ti tu t io n O f m e a ns for e n ds to mul tiply

’
wa nts is to mul tiply ma n s s e rvi tud e to his o w n machi ner y .

I do no t say th a t this has no t a lre ady ta k e n pl a c e O n

“
.

th e o th e r ha n d th e m a n is mos t s e lf s u ffi c i e nt a u to
,
-
,
~

ch th o no u s a nd fre e who is l ea s t d e p e n d e nt upo n

poss e ssio ns W e all re cog n iz e to som e e xte nt the
.

va lu e O f livi ng s i mply B u t th e qu e s tio n of poss e ssio ns

.

’
is a matte r re l a t ive to th e i n dividua l s voc a tio n the
workman ne e ds his tools a nd the soldi e r his weapo ns ,

bu t th e co n te mpl a tive is the n e a r e r to his go a l th e fe we r

his ne e ds It w as no t until a fte r th e Fa ll that A da m
.

’
a n d Ev e had occasio n to pra c tis e th e ta ilor s a r t :
th e y h a d no im a g e s of a God wi th whom t h e y d a ily
co nve rs e d Th e a ng e ls a lso
. h ave fe we r id e as a nd
, ,

u s e l e ss m e a n s th a n Poss e ssio n s a r e a n e c e ssity

to th e e xte n t th a t w e ca n u s e th e m i t is alto g e th e r
l e gi timate to e njoy what w e do u s e bu t e qua lly i nordi nate
,

to e njoy wha t w e c a n not u s e or to u s e wh a t ca nno t be

e njoy e d . A ll poss e ssio ns no t a t th e sam e t im e b e autiful
a n d us e ful a r e a n a ff ro nt to huma n dig n i ty O urs is .

p e rhaps the fi r s t soci e ty to fin d i t natur a l tha t some

thi n gs should be b e au t iful a n d o th e rs us e ful TO be .

voluntarily poor is to have rej e c te d what w e canno t bo th

admire a n d u s e this d e fi ni tio n ca n be a ppli e d alike
to th e cas e of th e millio n air e a n d to tha t of th e mo n k .

Th e r e fe re n c e of ico nocl a sm is mor e p a r ticularly to

th e u s e of im a g e s a s suppor ts Of co n te mpla tio n Th e .

sam e rul e will apply Th e re ar e thos e the gre a t

.
,

majority whos e co nte mplatio n re quir e s such suppor ts

, ,

a nd o th e rs th e mi nori ty whos e visio n of God is

, ,

imme diate For the latte r to thi n k of God i n te rms

.

of a ny ve rbal or visual co n ce p t would be the same a s

to forg e t him "
W e cannot make o ne rul e apply to
.

49
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R K S O F ART ?

b o th c a s e s . Th e professio n al ico n ocl a s t 1 3 such e i th e r

b e c a us e h e do e s n o t u nd e rs tan d the n a ture of im a g e s
a n d ri te s o r b e caus e h e do e s n o t t rus t th e u n d e rs ta n di n g
,

of thos e who pra c tic e i co no la to ry or follow ri te s To .

call th e o th e r m a n a n idol a te r or sup e rs ti tious is g e n e rally ,

sp e a ki ng o n ly a m a n ne r of a ss e r ti ng our o w n sup e riority

I dol a try is th e misus e of symbols a de fin i tio n n e e di ng
, .

no fur th e r qualific a tio ns . Th e tra di tio n a l philos ophy

h as n o thi n g to s ay a g a i ns t th e u s e of symbols a n d ri te s
though th e r e is much that th e mos t or thodox c a n h av e
to s ay aga i nst th e ir misus e It m ay be e mph a siz e d
.

th a t th e d a n g e r of tr e a ti n g v e rb a l formul ae a s a bsolu te s
is g e ne ra lly grea te r th a n th a t O f misusi ng pl a s tic im age s .

W e S h a ll co nsid e r o nly th e us e of S ymbols a n d th e ir ,

r ej e c tio n wh en th e ir u tili ty is a t a n e nd A cl ear .

u nd e rs ta nd i ng Of the pri n cipl e s i nvolve d is a bsolu te ly

n e c e ssary if w e a r e n o t to be co n fus e d by th e ico n ocl a s tic
co ntrove rsi e s that pl ay so l a rg e a p a r t i n th e his tor i e s O f
e v e ry ar t. It is i n a smuch a s h e k nows immorta l th i ngs
”
by th e mor ta l th a t th e m a n as a ve ri ta bl e p e rso n is
dis ti nguish e d from th e human a nimal who k nows o nly ,

th e thi ngs as th ey a r e i n t h e ms e lve s a nd is guid e d o n ly

by this e s timative k nowl e dg e Th e u nma nife s te d ca n
.

be k now n by a nalogy H is sil e n ce by H is u tte ra nc e .

That the i nvisibl e thi ngs of H im ca n be s e e n through

th e thi n gs which ar e m a d e will a pply no t o n ly to
’
God s works bu t a lso to thi ngs made by ha nds if th ey ,

have b ee n m a de by such a n ar t as w e have t ri e d to

de scrib e In th e s e ou tli ne s my s o n I h ave drawn a
, ,

like ne ss of God for you a s far a s that is possibl e a nd

,

if you gaz e upo n this lik ene ss wi th the e ye s of your

h e ar t th e sight i ts e lf will guid e y o u o n your
w ay . This poi n t of vi e w Chris ti a n ity i nh e r i te d from
Ne opla to nism : a n d th e re for e a s D a n te says ,
do th ,

th e S crip tur e co n d e sc e n d to your c a p a ci ty assig ni n g ,

foo t a nd ha n d to God wi th o th e r m e a n i n g
,
W e ha ve
.

50
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

th e o ne h a nd a ffirmi ng thi ngs O f God by w ay of prais e ,

a n d o n th e o th e r d e nyi n g ev e ry o ne of t h e s e limi t i n g

de scrip tive a ffi rm a tio n s for though th e worship is

,

disposi tive to imm e di a te visio n God is no t a nd neve r

,
“ ”
c a n be wh a t m e n worship h e re 85
Th e tw o wa ys
.

a r e fa r from mu tually e xclusive ; th ey a r e compl e

m e ntary B e caus e th e y ar e so well k nown to th e
.

s tud en t of Chris ti a n the ology I S h a ll o nly cite from a n

,

U panish a d wh e re i t is a qu e s tio n of th e u s e of c e rta i n

,

typ e s O f co n c e p t s O f d e i ty r e g a rd e d a s suppor ts of
co nte mpl a tio n Which O f the s e is th e b e s t ? Th a t
.

d e p e n ds upo n i n dividual fa cul ti e s B ut i n a ny c as e

.
,

t h e s e a r e pr e —
e mi ne n t asp e cts of th e i n corpor e al d e i ty

Th e s e o ne S hould co nte mpl a te an d prais e but th e n ,

d e ny For with the s e o ne ris e s from high e r to high e r

.

s tate s of b e i ng B u t wh e n all th e s e forms a r e r e solve d

.
,
” 86
th e n h e a ttai n s to the u n ity of th e P e rso n .

To re sum e th e norm a l vi e w of a r t tha t w e have

d e scrib e d above s ta rti n g from th e posi tio n th a t Though
,

h e is a n a rtis t th e a r tis t is ne v e r th e l e ss a m a n
,
is no t ,

th e priv a te prop e rty Of a ny philosoph e r or t im e or , ,

plac e w e ca n o nly say that th e re are c e rtai n time s ,

a nd n otably our o w n a t which i t has b ee n forgo tte n

,
.

W e have e mphasiz e d that ar t is for th e m a n a nd no t ,

th e m a n for a r t tha t wha tev e r is mad e o nly to giv e

pl e asur e is a luxury a nd th a t the love Of ar t u n d e r
th e s e co n di tio n s b e com e s a mor ta l s in ; tha t i n t r a di tio n al
97

a r t fu n c tio n a n d m e a n i ng ar e i ns e p a rabl e goods tha t

it hOlds i n b o th r e sp e c ts that th e r e ca n be n o good u s e
wi thou t a r t a nd th a t all good us e s i nvolve the corre s
po ndi ng pl e asure s W e h ave shown that th e tra di tio n al
.

a rtist is n o t e xpr e ssi n g hims e lf bu t a th e sis

,
t ha t i t is
in this s e n s e th a t bo th huma n a nd divi ne a r t ar e
e xpr e ssio n s ,
bu t o nly to be spok e n of a s s e lf
e xp r e ssio n s if it h a s b e e n cl ea rly u nd e rs tood what
s e lf is m e ant W e ha ve shown that th e trad i tio nal
”
.

52
C HR I STI AN AN D OR I ENTAL P H ILOS O P HY OF ART

ar tist is normally a no nymous th e i ndividual as such ,

”
b e i ng o nly th e i ns trum e nt of th e s e lf th a t fi nds
e xpr e ssio n W e have s hown tha t a r t is e ss e ntially
.

symbolic a nd o nly accid e nta lly illus tra tive or his to r ical
,

a n d fi na lly t ha t a r t ev e n th e high e st is o nly the m e a n s , ,

to a n e n d tha t e ve n th e scrip tu r al a r t is o n ly a m a n ne r
,
”
of s ee i ng through a gl a ss darkly a nd that a lthough , ,

t his is fa r b e tt e r tha n no t to s e e at all th e u tili ty Of ,

ico nography mus t come to a n e nd wh e n visio n is fa ce

”88
to fac e .

N O T E S AN D B I B L I O G RA P H Y
C r ede a t i n telli ga s i n telli ge u t or e da s
1 T ,
. hr ou gh f ith a we u nder
s ta n d ( ja s V Th e n a tu r e o f a i t
. . i n k n ow l e d e f h c ons i st s g
a l on e . h
( S t T o m a s A q u i na s S u m Theo l 1 1 1 1 47 1 3 ad , . .
-
. .

A r s ni hi l qu a d r ecta r a ti o f a cti bi li u m Om n i s appl i cati o r a ti on i s .

r ectae a d a li qu i d f a cti bi l e per ti n et a d a r te m s ed a d

pr u den ti a m n on
i t i i p l i ca ti o r a ti on i s r ecta e a d ca de qu i bu i s es t con s i li u m P ru
p er t ne n s a p .

denti a es t r ecta r a ti o a gi bi li u m ( S t T o m a s A q u i na s S u m Theol M I . . h . . .

57 5 ; 1 1 1 1 47 2
.
-
I V 3 7 a nd 8 . Ar i s t o tl e E th i c V I
. . . . . .

3 Cf . Pl o ti n u s , E nne a ds IV 7 .
3 . .

P er a r tern et ex volu n ta te ( S t T o m a s A q u i n as . h , Sum . Th eol .

,
I .
45 . 6,
cf . I . 1 4 . 8 c) .

“St . T ho m S u m Theol as M I 5 7 5 : 1 1 -1 1 2 1 2 a d 2
A q u ina s , . .
, . . . .

2 ad 4
47 8 . a n d 1 69 . .

Ib 91 3
.
,
I a nd M I 5 7
.
3 ad 2
. I t i s e v i de nt t a t a c r a t s m a n
. . h f
j h h
i s i n c li n e d b y u s ti c e , w i c r ect i fi e s h i s w i ll t o d o h i s w or k a i t u lly , f hf
7
Ib I .
5 7 3 ad 1
-
II . . . .

“l b M I 33
X III
. . .

B h aga va da Gu a, V 4 5 4 6 s e e w e k a r m a ny
-a bh i r a ta
b s a rns i ddh a m
.
-
,

l a bha te n a r a b et c
“
A nd if m a n ta k e s u o n h i m in a ll i t s u ll ne s s t h e
,
. p f
p p ffi
ce o f h i s o w n v oc a ti o n ( cu r a m pr op r i a m d i li gen ti a e s u a e) , i t i s
b bh b
r o er O
r ou gh
t a ou t t a t ot h ’
h
h e a n d th e w o r l d ar e t h e m e a n s o f r i t o r der gh
h
t o o n e a n o t er F o r s i n c e t h e w or l d i s G od s
.

h gh
a n d i w or k
mai nt a i n s a n d e i te ns i t s eau t y b y h i s t end a n c e ( di li gen ti a ) i s c o
p
o er a ti n g h
w i t th e w i ll o f G o d , w en h e b y t h e a id o f h i s o d il y s t r e n t
he who
b h b
,

gh ,

a n d b y h i s w or k a n d h i s a d m i ni s tr a ti on ( op er a ca r aq u e) c o m o se s a n p
fig
y
h
u r e t a t h e f or m s i n a cc o r d a n ce w i t t h e di v i n e i n t e n ti o n ( cu m Speci em h ,

qu a m i l le i nten ti on e f or m a vi t camp an i i ) W a t s a ll b e h i s r ew a r d . h h
h h
t a t w en w e a r e r et i r ed fr om o fi ce ( em er i tas ) f
u s t o t h e n a tu r e o f ou r
I . 1 0 ,
ett er ar t t a t i s d i vi n e
h
( H e’ bg G od w i ll r e s t o r e
r m e t i c a A s cl e i u s ,
fi
I n t i s m a n i c e n t d e n i t i o n o f t h e a r t i s t s u n ct i o n i t m a y
p p ,

fi
h
f
,

h
b e no ted t a t su m pr opr i a corr e s o n d s t o th e s va ka r m a o f th e B h a ga va d p
53
 WH Y E XH I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

Gt td
p
a nd h
t a t d i li gen ti a ( r o m di li go, t o l ov e)
r ec i se ly t h e s a m e w a y t a t r a ta li
eco m e s t e n d a n ce
h
in f
f
b gh b
(” r o m r a m , t o‘ t a k e d e li t i n ) ec o m e s
p h
i nt e nt u o n
g h
or
i s d o i n w a t h e lik e s
d ev o t ed t o
e s t t a t c a n b e c a l l ed c u l tu r e d b
I t i s t h e m a n w h o w il e a t w o r k
h
.

1 ° N ec opor tet s i li ber a tes a r tes s u u t n o bi li or es q u a d m agi s ei s con veu i a t

, ,

r a ti o a r ti s ( S t . h
T o m a s A q u i na s S u m Th eo l M I 5 7 3 a d Th e , . . .

p r o d u c t i o n s o f a ll a rt s a r e ki n d s o f o e t ry a n d t e ir cr a t s m e n a r e a ll p h f
p o et s ( P l a t o S y mpos i u m , 2 0 5 c )
IX
.
,

11
P l a t o Gorgi a s , 5 0 3
, I n R i v eda . g . 1 1 2 th e w o r k o f th e c ar p e n te r,
d oct or fl etc h er a n d s a cr i c i a l
, r i es t fi a re a ll a l i k e tr e a t e d as r i tu a l
p
o era t i o n s ,
”
or r i t es ( a r a ta
1 3
A n a lects , III . 25 .

b
1 'P l a t o , C r a ty l u s , 4 1 6 c D i o ny s iu s A r e op a gi ti c u s D e di v u om
, . . IV 5 .

h
Ulr i c o f S tr a s s u r , D e g pu lch r a L a ukdaa td r a S utr a , II . 1 1 8 -9 , e tc .

1 ‘
Em et bonu m con ver tu u tu r .

“5 W it elo P er’specti va I V B a e u m k e r Wi te lo 6 3 9 , fa il s to p
bj
, , . 1 8
4 9 - .
, , .

t h a t W i t el o s r e co gn i t i o n e ct i v i t y o f ta s te n n o w a y c an o f th e
bj j
‘

s ee su
t r a d i ct s h i s e nu nc i a t i o n o f th e o e ct i v i t y o f bea u ty
o f th e a ff e c ti on s ;
S T m
e a u t y o ne o f
mh
u d m e nt

T
b w ic
Ta s t e i s a m a tt e r
g ,

II II
h h
.

h h
o f art
b b
( t o a s A q u .i n a s S u h eo l ,
-
47 w e r e t er e i s , . . . .

no r o o m f or p f c o m ar a l e t o s c i e nc e i n i t s c e r ta in ty , g p
b
r e er e n c e s a r t ei n ,

a nd d i ff er i n g
fr o m s ci enc e o nl y i n ei n o r d e r ed t o o era t i o n g p .

1 ° H as a k , M K i r chen ba u des M i ttel a lter s p 2 68 ,

2 nd ed .
, L ei p z i g ,
1 9 1 3, . .

S ai d b y th e P a r i s i a n M a t e J e n M i gn o t i n c o nn ec t i n w i t h t h
b g
1 " s r a o e
u il di n o f th e c a t ed r a l o h
a o f M il a n i n I 3 9 8 i n n s w er t o t h e p i n i on ,

s ci en ti a es t u nu m et a r s a l i u d S ci en ti a r eddi t op u s pu l chr u m S t B o na . . .

v entu r a D e redu cti ou e a r ti u m a d theo logi a m 1 3

, N a m qu i ca n i l qu a d no n .

’
s ap i l d ,ifi’m tur bes ti a N ou ver u m f a ci l a r s ca n tar em s ed docu m en tu m , ,

G u id o d Ar e z z o Th e a c t u a l d i s t i n c t i on o f s c i e nc e r o m a r t i s d ra w n
. f
h
b y S t T om a s A q u i na s i n S u m Th eol , 8 a nd M I 5 7 3 a d 3 : I
b g
. 1 4 . . . . . .

othh a v e t o d o w it h
c o n i t i on b u t w er ea s s c i ence h as in v i ew a k no w , h
g
l ed e o nly , a r t i s or d er ed t o a n e x t e r na l o e r a ti o n I t w ill b e s e en t a t p . h
g p
ar t o f m od e r n s c i e nce i s w a t t h e m ed i e v a l il o s o h ph ph
b
th e r e a t er er
w o u ld h
a v e c a ll ed a n a r t th e e n i neer , f o r ex a m l e ei n e s s e nt i a lly
, g p , g
p f h h h g
a n a r ti s t , d es i t e th e
— b u t u e s s w or kg
a ct t a t w i t ou t s c i enc e ar t w o u ld b e n o t i n
Th e a n t it e s i s etw ee n sc i en c e a n d a r t i s a
. a ls e h bb f
o ne , m a i nta i ned o n ly b y th e i ncu r a ly i f e njo y a b ly s e nt i m e nt a l , ,

f
( P r o e s s or Cra n e B r i n ton i n The A m e r i ca n S ch ol a r , 1 9 3 8 , , p .

1 ‘
F i rt h , R .
, A rt a nd lif e i n N ew Gu i nea , 1 9 3 6, p . 9 .

1°
B oeth u s , D e caus a l . I . 6 .
45 .

Ma th I V 4 . . .

21
D a nt e Ep a d C a n Gr a n d
, . . . 1 5, 1 6 : Th e w hol e w o r k w a s u nd er
ta k en no t f or a s e cu l a ti v e b u t a p
r a c t i ca l e nd Th e u r o se o f p . p p
h
t h e w o l e i s t o r e m ov e t o s e w h o a r e li v i n h
i n t i s li e r o m th e s ta t e g h f f
h
o f w r e t c ed n e s s a n d t o l e ad t em t o t h e s t a t e o f
T is oe m ,
le s s e dn e s s
”
As h v a h
ph h p
b p g
.

h
b
gh o s h a , S a u u ddr a n a n da , c ol o
b b
on r e na nt w it th e
ee n co m o s ed b y m e i n t h e o e ti c m a nn er , p
u r d en o f L i era t i o n , h a s
n o t f o r t h e sa k e o f iv in l ea s u r e , b u t f or th e sa k e 0
h
g iv i n
a v e d ea l t in i t w i t
g pea ce ,
h If I h
g p
h bj
g
a n d t o w i n o v er o t er m i nd ed
b
e a r er s -
su ec t s .

h h h ert a in s t o w a t i s h p h p p p
b
o t er t a n t a t o f L i er a t i on , t a t r o er t o o etr y ,
j
t o m a k e i t ta s ty , u s t a s w e n o ney i s mi x e d w i t a s ou r m ed i c i nal er h h h h
t o m a k e it dr i nk a l e S i nce b
e e ld th e w or l d f or t h e m o s t
. ar t i v en I bh p g
54
C H RISTI AN AN D OR I ENTA L P H ILOSO PHY OF ART

o v er
p
to
h
o bj ect s
er e o f th e P r i nc i l e i n t h e of
t o co ns ider L i er a ti o n ,
of
ol d i n
s en s e
t a t L i era ti o n
av e
p
a nd d i s li k i n
g
g
b p h h g mh b b I h
s ok en ar o etr y ,
p
i s th e r i m a r y v a l u e W o ev er u nd er s ta nd s t i s , l et h i r eta i n w a t
. h h
h
i s s e t for t , a nd n o t th e l a y o f a n cy , u s t a s o nl y th e old i s c ar ed f or p f j g
h
w en i t h a s e e n s e ar a t ed b
r o m t h e o r e a n d d r os s p
D a nte a nd f .

M ilt o n c la w ed t o b e d i d a c ti c w e c o n s i d er th e c la i m a c u r i o u s w e a k nes s
h
i n m a s t er s o f s ty l e w o s e t ru e b u t u n co n s c i ou s m i s s i on w as t o r e a l e u s g
w it h
a e s t et i c e m o ti on h
(W a lter S h ew r i ng i n I ntegr a ti on , 2, II .

O ct -Nov , 1 9 3 8 ,
.

’
. p .

’
D a nt e s ra ct i c a l ur ose p p p
i s r e c i s ely w a t G u i d o d Ar e z z o m e an s p h
b y u s u s i n th e li n e s ,
M u s icor um m a gn a e s t d i s ta nc i a
et c a nt oru m
Is t i di cu n t, i ll i s c i u nt q u a e c o m p o n it m u s i c a
N a m q u i c a u i t q u o d no n s a p i t , diffi nitu r e s ti a b .

B e sti a n o n c a nt or q ui n o n c a ui t ar t e , s e d u s u
N on v eru m fa cit ar s ca nt a r e m , s e d d o cu m e n tu m
g
.

th e d ifi er ence is
I B etw e en th e v ir tu os i s i n er s
z
. e . a nd th e
v er y r ea t : gth e or m e r f
m e r e ly v o ca l i e , t h e l a tt e r u nd er s t a n d th e
m u s i c s c o m o s i ti o n p
H e w h o s i n s o f w h a t h e s a v o ur s n o t i s t er m e d g
b
'
.

a ru t e no b m t e i s h e w h o s i n s , no t m er e ly a r t u ll y , b u t u s e u l ly ; g f f
i t i s n ot a r t a l o ne , b u t th e t em e t a t m a k es th e r e a l s i n er h h g
f g
Pr o e ss or L a n , i n h i s M u s i c a nd We s ter n C i vi l i s a ti on, 8 7 , mi s p
b
.

p “
h
e nu lt i m a t e li ne , w hi c
b
u n d er s ta nd s th e h e r e n d er s b y A r ut e b y r o t e
r o d u c e s m e l od y ,
”
p h g
a nd n o t b y a r t
g
ne a t i v e a nd mi s i nt er r e t s u s u , w i c
p fi b ” ’
a v er s i o n t a t i n o r e s t h e d ou l e
i s n ot b y a it p
b ut u s e fu ll y
’
h h
h gh
h b g
or r o ta ly , an fi é ktp w s T h e t ou t i s li k e S t A u u s t i ne s , . n ot .

j h
t o en o y w a t w e s o u l d u se ,
’
h
a n d P l a t o s , f o r w o m t h e M u s e s a re h
g ive n u s h
t a t w e m a y u s e t e m i nt e ll ect u a ll y (y e-nit vo fi) , n ot a s a h
s o u r c e o f i r r a t i o na l lea s u r e
’
p
d Ao y o v) b u t a s a n a i d t o th e
r ev o lu ti o n o f t h e s o u l w i t i n u s , o f w i c ar m o ny h
w a s l os t a t h h h
b
th e
h p
ir th , t o el i n r e s t or i n i t t o o r d e r a n d c o nc ent w i t i t s S el g ( Ti m aeu s h f
4 7 D , c f 9 0 D’ ) Th e w o r d s s ci u nt qu a e compon i t m u si ca a r e r e m i ni s c e nt
. .

Q u inti lli a n s D acti r a ti onem comp onendi i ntel li gu nt, eti a m i n docti
b
of
volup ta tem ( 4 IX
a se d o n a n d a lm o s t a l i te r a l t r a n s l a t i o n o f P l a t o ,
. .

Ti m a eu s 8 0 B S ap i t, a s i n s a pi enti a , s c i e nt i a c u m a m o r e
"
. .

A i ta r ey a Ar a ny a ka , II A i ta r ey a B r dhm a na , V II
b K a tha
23
.
3 . 2 . 1 0 ;
Up a ni s h a d, 1 0 II . .

“3
R om I
S t T o m a s A q u i na s r e ea t e dl y c om a r e s th e um a n h p p h
g
20 . . . .

’
a n d d i v i n e a r c i t e ct s :
’
h
G o d s k n o w l ed e i s t o h i s c r e a t i on a s i s th e
g
ar ti s t s k n ow l ed e o f a r t t o t h e t i n s m a d e b y a r t ( S u m Th eol 1 4 8 h g . . I . .

I 1 7 1 ; 22 2 ; I
45 6 ; M I 1 3 2 ad I
b
. . . . . . . .

’
2“
L e s y m o li s m e d e l e ee i n Etu des Tr a di ti onelles 4 3
Cf . p ,

3“
L eth a b y W R A r chi tectu r e M y s ti ci s m a n d M y th L o ndon 1 8 9 2
b ,
. .
, , , ,
”
my S y m ol i s m o f th e D o m e , I ndi a n H i s tor i ca l Q tly X VI , 1 9 3 8 , .

pp 1 -5 6
. .

3°
K ei t h
A B , A i ta r ey a Ar a ny a ka , Th e ri n c i l e o f p fi p p
b
, .
42 .r st . .

d e m ocr a cy h
i s t a t n o o n e k now s th e n a l tr u t a o u t a n y t i n fi h h g
( W H A u den i n th e N a ti on M ar c 2 5 , 1 9 3 9
. .
, F o r ’ t h er e ,
h , p .

h
i s a r a ncou r t a t i s c o nt e m tu o u s o f i m m o r t a l i ty a n d w i ll n o t l et u s p
g z
r ec o ni e w a t i s d i v i ne i n u s h
( Her m e ti c a A s clepi u s 1 2 )
,

I b
gb
. .
, ,

27
To m ak e th e p r i m or d i a l i nte ll i i l e , t o m a k e t h e u nh ear d
a u di b l e, t o e nu nc i a te t h e p
t ru th
ri m or d i a l w o r d t o r e r e s en t th e a r c e typ e ,
, p h
su c h i s th e t a s k o f ar t , o r i t i s n o t a rt ( Andr a e W , K er a m i k 1 m ,
.

55
 WHY E XH IB IT WO R KS O F ART ?

D i en s te d er W e i s e it h
i n B e r i chte de D eu ts ch en K er a mi s che n Ges el l s ch af t,
X II
V Dec , 1 93 6
,

fi
.b ut
p
,
p
Th e s e n s i l e o r m s , i n w i c t er e
.

ph
b f
ph
h h h
h b
w as at rst a o l ar b a l a n c e o f t h e y s i c a l a nd m et a y sica l, av e ee n
m o r e a nd m o r e v o i d e d o f c on t e nt o n t e i r w a y d o w n t o u s a n d s o w e h ,

say h
T i s i s a n o r n a m e nt ( An d r a e , W , D i e i on i s ch e S a ute B a uf or m .
,

o der S y m bol ? 1 933, p .

23
St T h
A q u i n a s , S u m Th ea l
om as S t B a s il D e S pi r S a n ct I
X III 5 4
. . . . . .
, .

V 45 . p f fi
Th e r s t e r e cti on o f a t i n c o n s i s t s i n i t s v er y o r m ,
. h g f
f r om w h h
i c i t r e cei v e s i t s s e ci e s p
( S t T o m a s A q u i na s , i b 2 9 2 c) . h . III . . .

f h p f
Th e o r m t a t i s t h e er e c t i o n o f t h e t i n ( i ts e x e m l a ry or m ) i s th e h g p f
h h f h g f j g
[

s t a n d a r d b y w ic t h e a ct u a l or m o f th e t in it s el i s u d e d : i n
h h h h h g gh
o t er w o r d s i t i s b y t e ir i d e a s t a t w e k n ow w a t t i n s o u
li k e ( S t A u u s t i n e D e Tr i n ,
.
,

g 6 ,
t to be
a n d n o t b y a ny o s e r v a ti o n . IX
g h g
.
,

h
b p
or r e co ll ec ti o n o f a lr e ad y e x i s t i n t in s O u r a u t o r s c o m m o nl y s e a k .

o f th e a r c h
a s a n i l l u s t r a ti on o f a n ex e m l a r y or m t u s S t A u u s t i ne , p f h . g
i b a n d S t B o n a v e n t ur a , I I S e n t d 1 ,
.
,
. 1 , a 1 ,
q a d 3 4 A ge n s per , . p . .
,

i n telle ctu m p r odu ci t pe r f or m a s , q u a e s u nt a li qu i d r ei , s e d i de a i n m ente

s i eu t a r tif ex pr o du ci t a r ca m .

2°
N a tu r a n a t ur a n s Cr e a tr ix Un i v er s a l i s D e u s , , , f rom w h o m a ll n a tu r e d
h g
t in h
s d er i v e t e i r s e c i c a s ec t p fi p .

3°
Th e p f er e c t W or d , no t w a nt i n g in a ny t hi n g ,
a nd, so to s p ea k ,

of g Tr i n
( S t Au u s t i ne D e
b
th e art G od VI D er s u n i s t e i n
.
, . .

v er s t e nt ni s s e d e s v a t e r s u n d i s t il d n e r ( a r c i t e c t ) a ll er d i n e i n s i ne m h g
v a t er ( E c k ar t P fe i fi e r h T r ou ,
h i m a ll t i n s w e r e , p . h gh h g
m a de ( o n J h I .

Om n es eni m r a ti one s ex e m p l a r es ca n ei ab in
31
pu ntu r aeter no vu l va

pi e n ti ae B o n a v e n t u r a , I n H ex ae m , 0 0 11, 2 0 n 5
b
ae ter n a e s a s eu u ter o , St .
, . .

Th e c o nce p ti on of a n i mi ta le f or m i s a
“
v i ta l o e r a t i o n ,
”
t a t i s t o s ay , p h
a g e n er a t i o n .
32
P er ver bu m in i ntelle ctu ca n ce ptu m , St . Th o m a s A q u i n a s ,
S um .

Th e al , 45 6 c
. I . . .

33
H er m eti ca , L i b 8 6 , c f B o et i u s D e ca n s ol : , . I
H o ld i n t h e
. . h , III g
w o r l d i n H i s m i n d a n d o r mi n i t i nt o H i s i m a e Th e d iv i ne e s s e nc e f g g
h b
, .
,

w er e y t h e d i v i n e i nt e l l e ct u nd e r s t a n d s i s a s u f c i ent li k e n e s s o f a ll , fi
h g h
t in s t at ar e
”
( S t T o m a s A q u i n a s S u m Thea l , 1 4 . Cf h , . . I . . .

my V e di c E x em la r i s m p
i n H a r va r d jour n a l of A s i a ti c S tu di e s I
p
, ,

A r il , 1 9 3 6 .

3‘
Sank a r ac ar y a
S vdtm a n i r up a na 9 5 On th e w o r ld i c t u r e a s a n
, ,
.
-
p
a c t u a l fo r m s e e V i m u k t a t m a n a s Ci te d by D a s Gu t a H i s tory of I n di a n , p ,

p f j g p
P hi l os ophy Th e u d m e nt
b
11 20 3 , er e ct i o n of . i s r e r e s ent e d i n
.

I h h
Ge ne s i s 31 G o d s a w e v e r y t h m g t a t h e h a d m a d e a nd e o ld i t
b
.
, ,

w a s v er y o od g
T i s u d m e n t c a n o nl y . av e e en w i t h j g
r e s e ct t o t h e h h p
i de a l p
a tt er n p r e ex i s t e nt i n t h e d i v i n e i n t e ll e ct
-
n ot w it r e e r e n ce t o , h f
a ny e x t e r n a l s t a n d a r d .

. g
S t A u u s t i n e a s c i t e d b y B o n a v e n tu r a I S en t d 3 5 a u ni c q 1
35
, , . .
, . .
, .

’
fu nd 3 s ee B i s s en L ex emp la r i s m e di vi n s elan S t B on a ventu r a 1 9 2 9 p
,

39
IX
.
, .
, , . .

3"
S t A u u s ti ne D Tr i n
. e g
6 1 1 ,
’
s e e G i l s on I n tr a du cti on d l étu de de . .
, ,

S t A u gu s ti n
. 1 93 1 1 21 ,
p . .

37
W ill i a m B la k e .

33
P l a t o , Repu bli c, 5 0 0 E .

39
G il s o n , l ac ci t 1 21 .
,
p . n o te 2 .

F or S t B o n a v e ntu r a . s ex p r e s s i o ni s m s ee B i s s en l a c . ci t .
,
pp .

56
 CHR ST I I AN AN D OR I ENTA L P H I LO S O PHY OF ART

E v er y mi m eti c r i t e i s b y
11
na t u r e a w o r k o f a r t i n th e tr a di ti o na l
ph ilos o ph ’
y o f a r t th e a r t i s t s o pe r a ti o n is als o a lw ay s a ri te a nd t u s , h
e s s e n ti a ll y a r eli i o u s a c ti v i t y g .

42
M e i s t er E c k h art .

43
St Tho m a s A q u i nas Sum Th ea l II II-
47 4 ad 2

zI
.
.
, . , . . .

‘4
D a nt e Convi to Can one , 5 3 5 4 a n d IV
-
, III . . P l o ti nu s
E n n ea ds , I V 4 2 My n t e ll e c t u a l o e r a t i o n i n
. . . n di an p I a r t, jou r n .

I n di a n S oci ety of Or i en ta l A r t ,
1 93 5 6 no t e 5 ,
III , p . .

45
S i nc e i n t i s h ca s e Diu k uu s t e s i nt m e i s t er i n dem m e i s t er
( E ckh ar t P fe i fi er , , p .

4° St B . on a v ent u r a I S en t d 3 6 a 2 q 1 a d 4 ,
.
, . . ci ti n g St . Au g u s ti n e ,
r es f a cta e in a r tifi ce cr ea to di cu n tu r vi ver e

X I
.

‘7
. g
A u u s t i n e , E n a r r a ti a i n P s X X X I I
St cf i n P s C L V Vi s ergo . . .

ps a ller e ? N on s olu m vox tu a s onet l a u des D ei , s ed oper a tu a concor dent

cu m voce tu a I t i s b y n o m e a n s n e ce s s a r y t o e x cl u d e r o m
. o er a f p
h
h er e w a t e v er i s m a d e per a r tem et ex volu nta te .

“3 J ohn’ I
3 , a s c i t ed b y S t s A u u s t i ne , B on a v entu r a , A q u i na s , e tc
.

’
. g
s e e M d A s b e c k , L a my s ti qu e de R uy s br oeck l A dmi r a ble , 1 9 3 0 ,
. 1 59 p . .

4°
H er m e ti c a A s clepi u s , r ol o u e , p g .

5°
Pl o ti nu s , E nn ea ds IV 4 2

XXIV
. .
, .

“1
P u rga tar i o ,
.I n th e m a k in
2
5 54
-
o f t i n s b y a r t, d o
. g h g
h a m a n w h o h a s t i s G o d f o r h i s l ea d e r a c i e v e s a h h
b b
w e no t k no w t a t
r i lli a n t s u c c e s s w , h er e a s h e o n w o m L o v e h a s l ai d n o h
ol d i s o s c u r e h
( Pl a t o , S y mpos i u m ,
1 9 7 A)
“
M y d o c t r i n e i s n ot m i n e , b u t h i s t a t
. h
s e nt me He h
t a t s e a k et of p
im s el s ee k et h i s ow n h l or y
’
h f h g ,

J oh n VII .

52
E x od u s ,
X XV .
40 .

5”A i ta r e
y a B r d hm a na ,
VI . 2
7 . Cf . S d nkh dy a n a Ar a ny a ka ,
V III .
9 .

Th e r e h
i s t i s c e l es t i al har p t his h uman h ar p is a li k e n e s s o f it

b
.

54
P l o t i nu s E nn ea ds , V 9 . . 1 1 . Th e u i ld er a nd car p e nt e r ar e t hen
g
d o i n th e w i ll o f G od on ea r t h as i t i s d one i n h e av en
”

XI
.

55
Co n 5 f . . .

5°
g
A s r e a r d s th e m o s t l o r d l y a r t o f o u r s ou l , w e m u s t c o n c e i v e o f i t p
h
i n t i s w i s e : w e d ec l a r e t a t G o d h a s i v e n t o e a c o f u s , a s h i s d a e m o n , h g h
h
t a t ki nd o f s ou l w i c i s o u s e d i n th e t op o f o u r
—
h h o dy a n d w i c h
ra i s es b h h
us s e ei n g h
t a t w e a r e n o t a n e ar t ly b u t a e a v e nl y l a n t —u p r o m h h p f
h
e art t ow a r d s o u r ki n dr e d i n e a v en ( P l a t o , Ti m a eu s , 9 0 h .

57
Th e ar t i s t i n V i ki n g t i m es is no t to b e t h o ght u of a s an i n d i v i du a l ,

as b e th e ca s e t o da y
w ou ld It i s a r a v a -
. c e ti e ( S tr z y go w s ki ,

E a r ly Chu r ch A r t i n N or ther n E u r ope 1 9 2 8 pp 5 9

b
1 , ,
. I t i s i n th e
v er y n a tu r e o f M e d i ev a l Ar t t a t v er y f e w n a m e s o f a r t i s t s av e ee n h h
tr a n s m it t e d t o u s Th e e n ti r e m a n i a f o r c o n n e c t i n t h e f e w n a m es g
p m a s t er i e c e s — a l l t i s i s h p h
b y tr a di ti o n w i t w e l l -k n o w n
b
r es er v ed ,

h
c ar a c t er i s t i c o f t h e ni n e t e e n t
’
c e n t ur y s c u l t o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m a s ed h ,

p
u on i d e a l s o f th e R en a i s s a n c e ( H S w a r z e n s ki , i n jou r na l of the Wa l ter s .

A r t Ga l lery , , 1 9 3 8 I p
Th e a c a d e m i c s ty l e s t a t a v e s u c c e ed ed
,
. h h
h h h h
bg z
e ac o t er s i n c e t h e s ev e n t e e n t c e nt u r y a s a co n s e q u e n ce o f t i s ,

c u r i ou s di v or c e o f ea u t y r o m tr u t , ca n f
a r dly b e c l a s s i ed a s C r i s ti a n h h fi h
ar t , h
s i n ce t ey r e co n i e n o i ns ir a ti o n i er t a n t h e u m a n m i nd p h gh h h
( C R M or ey Chr i s ti a n A r t,
. .
,

57
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS O F A RT ?

5 7A
P la t o , R epu bli c, 3 4 2
53
S t A m r o s e o n 1 C0 1
Thea l , M I 1 0 9 1 ad 1
. b . 1 2 .
3, c i t ed by S t . T ho m as A q u i na s , Sum .

. . . .

5°
Th e t i tl e of a w or k b y S t B o n a v e ntu r a
IX
. .

“0
Q u i nti ll i a n 4
X II
, . .

“1 H e nce th e p ea t ed th e U a ni s ad s , p h
Lu ke V 33 q u e s ti o n
b of
, . . re
h h f
B y w i c s el i s th e s u mm u m bo nu m a tt a i n a le P a n d th e t r a d i t i o n a l
h f
K n ow t y s e l .
”

‘3 J h
o n, V III . 28 .

‘3B haga va d Gi td , III . 27 V 8 . . Cf .

ja i m i nty a Upa ni s ha d B r ahma na ,
I .
5 2 ; Uddna 7 0
. .

D h a mm apa da , 7 4 .

“5
E . D . a nd F . A ndr ew s , S ha ker F u r n i tu r e, 1 937, p .
44 .

Z a d ok s A n ces tr a l por tr a i tu r e i n R ome, 1 9 3 2 , 87, 92 f pp

b S ee
b
6°
J i t t a -
, .

To m e ffi gi e s a o u t 1 2 0 0 r e r e s e n t ed t h e d ec e a s ed n o t a s h e a c t u all y p
a ppea r e d a t er d e a t f h
b u t a s h e o ed a n d t r u s t e d t o b e o n t h e D a y o f hp
J g
u d m en t T is is a h pp p h pp p
. ar e n t i n t h e
th e e q u a ll y y ou t u l a nd e q u a lly
u r e a nd
ea u t i u lhfa ces
a
w ic
y ex r e s s i o n o f a ll
a v e l o s t ev er y b f f , h hh
t ra ce o f i n di v i d u a l i t y
bh
B u t t o w ar d s th e e n d o f t h e X III th c e ntu ry
.

n o t h ow t ey er a s a h p h p
e ar o n e d a y b u t h o w t ey h ad a c t u a ll y ppee n h
i n li fe w a s co ns i d er e d i m o rt a nt p
A s t h e l a s t c o n s e q u e nc e o f t i s .

d e m a nd f o r ex a c t li k e n e s s t h e d e a t m a s k ta k e n r o m th e a c t u a l fe a tu r e s h , f ,

m a d e i ts a e ar a n ce pp
r a t i o n a li s m a nd r e a li s m a ear i n a t th e pp g
s a m e t im e
”
Cf m y Tr a n sf or m a ti on of N a tu r e i a
. . rt 9 1 a n d note 6 4 ,
p .
,

a nd Th e t ra d i ti o na l c o nce ti o n o f i de a l o rt r a i t u r e , Tw i ce a Year p p ,

No .
( Au t u m n ,

‘7 L u k e , X IV . 26 .

“9 De s pi r i tu et li tter a , 37 .

‘9 S um . Thea l .
,
I . 1 .
9 .

7°
V J ohn 58 Cf B haga va d III . . . Gi ta IV . 1 , 4, 5 S a ddha r m a
P u ndar tka , X IV 4 4 a nd X V 1 . . .

71
D e fi d ar th od . . III .

73 S um . Thea l .
,
III 3 3 . . I .

73
Ib 5 I 4 ad 1

XV III XI X
. . . .

7‘ Ib M I . .
30 1 0 Cf
. . . W i te l o , Li b . de i n te l li gen ti i s , , .

75
St . Au g u s t i n e D e doc , . ch r i s t . II .
31 .

7°
E ck har t .

h h h
alwa y s
Pl o ti nu s , E nn ea ds IV 4 6
h
a nd t e y d o n o t r e m e m er
a nd t a t a s l o n
Ah n o
a s t ey s e e h
I n ot er w or d s t ey a v e s ee n G od
,

i t i s t a t t h ey s e e G od s t ill a nd
t ey c a n n o t t e ll t e m s elv e s t ey
bg . .

h
,

h
h
,

h h
, ,

h a v e h ad t h e v i s i o n su c r em i n i s c e n c e i s f o r s o u l s t a t a v e lo s t i t h h h .

N i c o l as o f Cu s a D e vi s D ei Ch X V I , W a t s a t i s e s th e int ell ec t i s .
, . h fi
h
n o t w a t i t u n d er s t a n d s K ena Up a n i s h a d 3 0 Th e t o u t o f G od .
,
h gh ,

i s h i s b y w o m i t i s u n t ou h
t o r if h e t ink s th e t o u t it i s t a t h e h gh h h gh h
do e s n o t u nd e r s t a n d
”
Va i r a cch edi ka S u tr a , 38 V , .T ose
,

f XX I h .
,

f
w h o s e e m e i n a n y or m o r t i nk o f m e i n w o r d s t e ir w ay o f t i nki n , h h h g ,

, h
i s fa l s e t ey d o n o t s ee m e a t a l l Th e B enefi c en t On e s a r e t o b e s ee n r
.

h h h gh
b
in t e L a w t e ir s i s a L a w b o dy : th e B u d d a i s r i
, tl y t o b e u nd er s t oo d a s
e in g
o f t h e n a tu r e o f t h e L a w , h e cann ot b e u nd er s t ood b y an y m ea n s
”

b
.

73
H er m eti ca , L i b I V 1 1 . . .

58
 W H Y E X H I B IT WO R K S OF A RT ?

A s z a ti c A r t, Chi c a o , 1 9 3 8 g .

Th e ar t o f ar t i n n d i a n li e p I f , i n The Cu ltu r a l H er i ta ge o f I nd i a ,
C a l cu tta V ol . III pp , . 8
4 5 51
-
3 .

Th e p 1i 10 s 0 p h y o f M e di e v a l a nd in Z max i s I
§
Ori en ta l A r t , al , ,

XXI
1 93
Or na m ent
i n A r t B u lleti n 1 939 , , .

Coo m ar a s w a my a n d Car ey A G r ah a m P a tr on a n d A r ti s t N o r t o n 1 9 3 6 , .
, , , .

Coo m ar a s w a m y , B e n s o n a n d Ca r ey Wh a t u s e i s a r t a ny w ay 2 N e w or t , p ,

1 937 .

G lei e s Az
D e F on s e k a , L , On the tr u th of decor a ti ve a r t L o n d o n , 1 9 1 3
, .
,
.

’
Ve rs u n e con s ci en ce p l a s ti qu e L a f ar m e et l hi s toi r e P ar i s ,
, .

, ,

1 93 2
H om o cen tr i s me S a l o n s ( I s er e) 1 9 3 7
’
.

, b , .

G h y ka , M C , L e mo n br e d or 2 v o l s , P a r i s 1 9 3 1
. .
, .
, .

G ill , E , B ea u ty l oo ks af ter her s e lf , L o nd o n 1 9 3 3

.
, .

Wor k a nd lei s u r e L o nd o n 1 9 3 4 , , .

A r t L on do n 1 9 3 4
, , .

Wor k a nd cu ltu r e N ew or t , 1 9 3 9 , p .

A u tobi ogr a phy L ond o n 1 9 4 1

G u énon, R
1 935
.
,
,

h
M yt es M y s t er e s e t S ym ol e s i n Etu des Tr a di ti one l tes , 4 0
”
,
, .

b , ,

I
ni t i a ti on a n d th e Cr a fts , jou r n I n di a n S oci ety of Or i en ta l A r t .
,

VI, 1 93 8 .

’
H eal y , E Th , S a i nt B a n a ventu r a s D e r edu cti ane a r ti u m a d thea l ogi a m
. .
,

N ew or k , 1 9 4 0 Y .

g
L a n , P H , M u s i c i n Wes ter n C i vi li z a ti on , N e w
. . or k , 1 9 4 1 Y .

L a M er i , Th e Ge s tu r e L a ngu a ge of the H i n du D an ce, N e w

’ ~
or k , 1 9 4 1 Y .

L eb a s q u ai s E L ar c hi t e ct ur e s a cr ée , i n Etu de s Tr a di ti onelles , 4 1 1 9 3 6
“ ”
.
, , , .

L eth a b y W R , A r chi tectu r e M y s ti ci s m a n d M y th L on d o n , 1 8 9 1

, . .
, , .

g
L o n i nu s On th e S u bli m e , .

L u n d , F M A d Q u a dr a tu m
. a s tu dy of the geometr i ca l bas es of clas s i c
.
,

a n d m edi w va l r eli gi ou s a r ch i tectu r e 2 v ol s L o nd o n 1 9 2 1 , .

, , .

M ari ta i n A , A r t a n d S col a s ti ci s m L ond o n 1 9 3 1

,
.
, , .

’
Ma s s on O u r s el
, L e s th ét i q u e i nd i enn e
”
R ev de M etap hy s i q u e et de
, , . .

M or a le u ly 1 936
'

, J , .

R en z
P l o t i nu s , E n n ea ds
, ,
.

O D i e S y nter es i s n a ch dem bl Th om a s va n A qu i n M u n s te r 1 9 1 1
. .
, , .

h
S c l o s s er J D i e K u n s tli ter a tu r V i e nn a 1 9 2 4
, .
, , , .

S h ew r i ng W II
b b
B o o kl e a r ni n g a n d ed u c a ti o n
,
.
, I n tegr a ti on , pt 2 , , .
,

O c t o er N o v e m er 1 9 3 8
b
-
.
,

p
S i n de n H Pr i m i ti v e Ar t s
, .
”
i n B r ookly n M u s eu m Q tly Oc t o e r 1 9 3 5
, , .
, , .

S tr z y go w s ki J , S pur en i n do ger m a ni s ches Gl a u bens i n der bi ldenden

b
-
, .

K u n s t H e i d e l er g
b
S v o o da K
Takac s , Z
’
,
1 936 ,

L es théti qu e de S t A ugu s ti n B r no 1 9 3 3
The a r t of Gr ea ter A s i a B u d a e s t 1 9 3 3
,

.
.

p
, .

XXX
. .
, ,
’
Te a E , W i t el o
.
, i n L A r te 1 92 7 , , , .

. h
S t T o m as Aq u i n a s , S u m m a Th eo logi ca .

D e p u lchr a ( o n D i on y s i u s D e di v n om IV i n O er a Om ni a p
XX
. . .
, , ,

P ar m a 1 8 6 4 ( a s 0 p v ii c i v , l ect , ( S ee Ar t B ull e ti n , . . . .

1 93 8 7 2)
b
pp 6 6 -
.

o f S tr a s s u D e pu lchr a ( o n D i o ny s i u s D e di v nam g IV 5 )
X II
r , , . .
, .

( s e e A r t B u l leti n V 1 93 5 3 1 , , , pp .

W ar ner , L , On t eac i n th e F i n e Ar t s , i n A mer i ca n Revi ew M arc ,

.
”
h g , h
1 937
Z i m m e r , H , K u n s tf or m a nd Yoga i m i n di s chen K u ltbi ld, B er l i n , 1 9 3 6
. .

60
 IS A RT A S U P E RST I T I O N , OR
A W AY O F L I FE ?

Y a sup e rs ti tio n w e m ea n som e thi ng th a t s tan d s

”
ove r from a form e r tim e a nd which w e no lo ng e r
,

u n d e rs tan d a nd no lo ng e r h ave a ny u s e for By a w ay .

’
of life w e m e a n a h a bi t co n ducive to m a n s good a nd
, ,
’
in p a rticular to th e a ttai n m e n t of m a n s l a s t a n d pre s e n t
e nd of h a ppi n e ss .

It s e e ms to be a m a tte r of g e ne ra l a gre e m e n t a t th e
pre s e n t day tha t A rt is a p a r t of th e high e r thi ngs
of life to be e njoy e d i n hours of l e isure e a rn e d by o th e r
,

hours of i na r tis tic Work ”

. W e fin d a ccordi ngly a s
o n e of th e mos t obvious ch a rac te ris t i cs of our cul tur e

a class divisio n of a r tis ts from work m e n of t hos e for ,

e xampl e who pai n t o n c a nva s from thos e who p a i n t t h e

walls of hous e s a nd of thos e who h a n dl e th e pe n from

,

thos e who h a n dl e th e h a mm e r W e a r e c e rtai nly n o t

.

d e nyi ng h e re tha t th e re is a dis ti n c tio n of the co nte m

p la tiv e from th e ac t iv e life n o r of fr e e from s e r vil e
,

O p e ra tio n bu t m e a n to s ay th a t i n our civiliz a tio n w e

h ave i n th e firs t pl a c e ma d e a n a bsolu te divorc e of the
co nte mplative from th e a ctive life a nd i n th e s e co nd
,

pl a c e substi tute d for the co nte mpl a tive life a n aes th e tic
life 0 r as the te rm impli e s a life of pl ea sur e W e
,
-
,
.

sha ll re turn to this poi nt In a ny c a s e w e have com e

.

to thi n k of a r t a n d work a s i n comp a tibl e or at l e a s t ,

i nd e p e nd e nt ca te gori e s a n d have for th e firs t time i n

,

his to r y cre ate d a n i ndus try wi thou t a r t .

I ndividua lists and huma nis ts a s w e a r e w e a ttach

e rso na l
,

an i nordi na t e va lu e to p e rso n a l opi nio n a n d

p
61
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

e xp e ri e nc e a nd fe e l a n i ns a ti a bl e i nte re s t i n th e p e rso nal

,

e xp e ri e n c e s of o t h e rs th e work of a r t h as com e to be
for us a sort of a u tobiography of the ar tis t A r t h a vi n g .

b e en a bs tra cte d from th e g en e ral a c tivi ty of m a ki ng

t hi n gs for hum a n u s e m a t e rial or spiri tu a l h a s com e to
, ,

m e a n for us th e proj e ctio n i n a visibl e form of the

fe eli ngs or re ac tio ns of th e p e culi a rly e ndowe d p e rs o nality
-

of the a rtis t a nd e sp e ci a lly of thos e mos t p e culi a rly

,

e n dowe d p e rso n ali ti e s which w e thi n k of a s i nspi r e d

or d e scrib e i n te rms of ge n ius B e ca us e the a r tis tic .

g enius is myste rious w e who a cce p t th e humbl e r s ta tus

,

of th e workma n h ave b e e n o n ly to o willi ng to call th e

,
”
artis t a proph e t a nd i n r e turn for his visio n to
,
-

allow him m a ny privil e g e s tha t a commo n m a n migh t

h e si tate to e xe rcis e A bove a ll w e co ngra tulate our
.

s e lve s that th e a r tis t h a s b ee n e ma ncipate d from

what w a s o nc e his positio n a s th e s e rva n t of church or
s tate b e li evi ng tha t his mys te rious ima gi na tio n ca n
,

op e rate b e s t a t r a ndom ; if a n a r tis t lik e B lake s till

re sp e cts a tradi tio nal ico nogra phy w e s ay tha t h e is a n
a r t is t i n spi te of i t a n d if as i n Russia or G e rma ny th e
,

s ta te pre sume s to co nscript th e ar tis t i t is eve n more ,

th e pri n ci pl e i nvolv e d th a n th e n atur e of th e s ta te i ts e lf

th a t dis turbs us . I f w e ours e lve s e xe rcis e a c ensorship
n e c e ssi ta te d by th e mora l i n co nv e n i e n c e of c e r ta i n typ e s

of a r t w e fee l i t ne e dful at l ea s t to m a ke a pologi e s

, .

Wh e re a s it w a s o nc e th e highe s t purpos e of life to

achi eve a free dom fr om o ne s e lf It IS no w our will to ,

s e cu re th e gr e ate s t possibl e m e asure of free dom f or

o n e s e lf no ma tte r from wh a t
,
.

D e spi te th e e vid e n c e of our e nviro n m e n t wi th i ts ,

e x a gg e r a te d s ta n dards of livi n g a n d e qu a lly d e pr e ci a t e d

,

s ta nd a rds of life our co nc e p tion of his tory is o ptim i s ti

,

cally bas ed o n th e id ea of progre ss w e d e sig na t e

cul ture s of the p a st or thos e of o th e r p eopl e s a s re l a tive ly
b arbaric a n d our ow n as re lative ly civilis e d ,

62
 IS ART A S U P E R STITI O N ?

ne ve r re fl e c ti n g tha t such pr ejudgm e nts which a r e ,

re a lly W ish fu lfillm e nts m a y be ve ry far from fac t

-
,
.

Th e s tud e nt of th e his tory of a r t d i scove rs i nd e e d , ,

i n eve ry a r t cycl e a d e cli n e from a primi tive powe r to

a r e fi ne m e n t of s e n tim e n tali ty or cy n icism B u t b e i ng
.

a s e n tim e nta lis t mate ri a lis t cyn ic or mor e bri e fly a

, , ,

hum a nis t hims e lf h e is a bl e to thi nk wh a t h e lik e s

, ,

a n d to a rgu e th a t th e rl m l t C or s a va g e a r tis t dr ew
p
lik e th a t b e ca us e h e k ne w no b e tte r ; b e c a us e h e
( whos e k n owl e dg e of n a tur e was so much gr e a te r a n d
more i ntima te th a n that of th e civili z e d or ci ty
m a n) h a d no t l e a rn t to s e e thi ngs a s th e y a r e was n o t ,

a cquai nte d wi th a n a tomy o r p e rsp e c tiv e a n d th e re for e

,

dre w lik e a child W e a r e i nd e e d c a re ful to e xpl a i n

wh e n w e sp e a k of a n imi ta tio n of na ture or s tudy of
n a tur e w e do no t m e a n a photographic imi ta tio n ,

bu t ra th e r a n imi ta tio n of n a ture a s e xp e ri e n c e d by the

i ndividual a rtis t or fi na lly a r e pre s e ntatio n of th e
,

n a tur e of th e ar tis t a s e xp e ri e n c e d by hims e lf A r t is .

”
th e n s e lf e xpr e s sio n bu t s till a n imi tatio n of n a ture
-
,

as e ff e ct a n d e ss e ntially figur ative ra th e r than formal

, .

O n th e o th e r h a n d w e h av e s a id to ours e lv e s tha t i n
th e gr e a te s t works of a r t th e r e is always a qu a li ty of
abs tra c tio n a nd h ave i nvok e d th e Pla to n ic e ndors e m e n t
,

of a g e om e trical b ea u ty w e h ave s a id Go to le t us , ,

also ma ke u s e of a bs tra c t formula e It w a s ove rlook e d

.

h e re tha t th e abs tr a c t formul a e of a nci e n t a r t w e re its

n a tural v e hicl e a n d no t a p e rso na l or ev e n loc a l i nve n tio n
,

bu t th e commo n l a ngu a g e of th e world Th e r e sult of

.

th e mod e r n i n te r e s t i n abs trac tio n as such a n d apar t ,

from qu e s tio n s of co ntent a n d commu nicability h a s ,

b ee n i nde e d to e limi na te re cog niza bility i n a r t bu t ,

sca rc e ly to modify i ts s till e ss e nti a lly r e pre s e n tative

purpos e . P e rso na l symboli s ms ha ve b ee n evolve d
which a r e no t bas e d o n a ny n a tura l corr e spo nd e n c e s of
thi ngs to pri ncipl e s bu t rath e r o n priva te associatio ns
,

63
 WHY E XH I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

of id e a s Th e co ns e qu en c e is th a t e ve ry a bs tra c t a rtis t
.

”
mus t be i n dividu a lly e xpl a i n e d : th e a r t is n o t
commu nica tive of ide a s bu t like th e r e m a i n d e r of
,

co nte mpora ry ar t o n ly s e rv e s to provok e r ea c ti o ns

,
.

W hat 1 8 th en th e p eculi a r e n dowm e nt of th e a rtis t so ,

much valu e d ? It 1 3 e vide n tly a n d by g e n e ra l co ns e n t

, ,

a sp e cial s e n sibili ty a nd i t is j us t for this r e a so n tha t th e

,

mode rn te rms aes th e tic a nd e mp a thy h ave b e e n

fou nd so a ppropri a te By s en sibili ty w e m e a n of
.

’
cours e a n e mo tio na l s e nsibili ty a i s thes zs i n H e ll e n is tic
us a g e implyi ng physical aff e ct ibility as dis ti nguish e d
from m e ntal op era tio ns W e sp e a k of a work of
.

”
ar t as fel t a nd n eve r of i ts tr u th or o n ly o f i ts ,

t ru t h to na tur e or na tu r a l fee li n g a ppr e cia t io n is

a fee li ng i nto th e work Now a n e mo tio na l r e ac tio n
.

is evok e d by wh a te ve r w e lik e ( or dislike bu t a s w e ,

do no t thi n k of works of ar t a s i nten d e d to provok e

disgus t w e n ee d o nly co nsid e r th e m h e re a s sourc e s of
,

pl ea sure) wh a t w e lik e w e c a ll b ea uti ful a dmi tti n g

, ,

a t th e sam e tim e th a t m a tt e rs of ta s te a r e no t subj e c t

to law . Th e purpos e of a r t is th e n to r e ve a l a b e a u ty
tha t w e lik e or c a n be taugh t to lik e th e purpos e of
ar t is to giv e l e asur e ; th e work of ar t as th e sourc e
p ’
of pl e asure IS i ts o w n e nd ; ar t is for a r t s sak e W e .

valu e th e wo r k for th e pl e a sur e to be d er ive d from the

sigh t sou n d or touch of i ts ms th e tic surfa c e s ; our
, ,

co n c e p tio n of b e a u ty is l i tera lly ski n d ee p que s tio n s

-

of u tili ty a nd i nte lligibili ty rarely aris e a nd if th ey

aris e a r e dismiss e d a s irr e l evant I f w e propos e to
,

diss e ct th e pl ea sure d e rive d from a work of a r t i t

b e come s a m atte r of psycho a na lysi s a nd ul tima te l y
,
-

If w e
,

a sor t of sci e n c e of a ffe c tio n s a n d b e haviours .

n eve r th e l e ss som e t im e s m a k e u s e of such high s o u n di n g -

“ ”
e xpre ssio n s a s sig nifica n t form w e do so ig nori ng
,

tha t no thi ng ca n prop erly be ca ll e d a sig n t hat is

no t si gnific a n t of som e thi ng o th e r tha n i ts e lf a n d for th e ,

64
 IS ART A S U P E R STITI O N ?

sak e of which it e xis ts W e thi nk of composi tio n

.

as a n a rrange m e nt of mass e s d e sig ne d for visual com

for t rath e r than as d e te rmi ne d by the logic of a give n
,

co n te nt O u r the ore tical k nowl e dg e of the ma te rial

.

a n d te ch nic a l b a s e s of a r t a n d of its a c tu a l forms

,
is ,

e n cyclop e dic ; bu t w e a r e e ith e r i n di ffe re nt to i ts

’’
m i s on d étr e a nd fi n a l c a us e or fin d this ul tim a te re aso n
,

a n d j ustificatio n for th e v e r y e xis te n c e of th e work i n

th e pl e a sur e to be d e rive d from i ts b e a u ty by th e p a tro n .

W e s ay th e patro n bu t u n de r pr es e nt co n di tio ns i t ,
’
is ofte ne r fo r his o w n than for the p a tro n s pl e asure
tha t th e ar i ts t works th e p e rfe c t patro n b e i n g nowa
days no t the m a n who knows what h e wa nts but th e
, ,

m a n who is willi n g to commissio n th e ar tis t to do

whateve r h e li ke s a nd thus a s w e e xpre ss i t r e sp e c ts
, ,
”
th e fr ee dom of th e artis t Th e co n sum e r th e m a n
.
, ,

is a t the m ercy of th e ma nufacture r for pl e asure ( the

a rtis t a nd ma nufa c t u r e r for profi t ( th e e xploi te r

a n d t h e s e two ar e mor e n e arly the sam e t h a n w e susp e c t .

To s ay that art is e ss e nti a lly a matte r of fe e li ng is

to say that its su ffi ci ent purpos e is to pl e a s e the wor k
"

of art is th e n a luxury a cce ssory to th e life of pl ea sure

, .

It may be e n quire d Ar e no t pl e asure s l e gitimate ?

,

D o no t th e o ffi c e work e r a nd fac tory ha n d d e s e rve a nd

n ee d mor e pl e asur e s tha n ar e n ormally aff ord e d by the

colourl e ss rou ti ne of wage e arni ng tasks ? Assur e dly -

.

B ut th e re is a profou nd disti nc tio n b e tween the d elib e rate

pursuit of pl e asure a n d th e e njoym e nt of pl ea sure s
prop e r to th e active or co nte mplative life It is o ne .

of th e gr ates t counts a gai ns t our civili z ati o n tha t th e

e asure s a fl o r de d by ar t wh e th e r i n th e maki ng or of
'

p l ,

subs e que nt appre ciatio n ar e no t e njoye d or eve n

,

suppos e d to be e njoye d by th e wor k man at wor k .

It is ta ke n for gra nte d that whil e a t wor k w e ar e doi n g

what w e like l eas t a nd whil e at play what w e should
,

wish to be doi ng all the time And this is a pa rt of .

65
 WH Y E XH I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

wh a t w e m e a nt by sp ea ki ng of our d e pre ci a te d s ta n dards

of life i t is no t so shocki ng tha t the workman should »

be u n d e rp a id as t h a t h e should n o t be a bl e to d e ligh t
,

a s much i n wh a t h e do e s for hi r e a s i n wh a t h e do e s

by fr ee choic e A s M e is te r E ckh a rt says

. th e cr a fts ,
”
m a n lik e s ta lki n g o f his h a n dic r a ft bu t th e fac tory ,

worke r like s talki ng of th e b a ll ga me ! It i s a n i n

e vi ta bl e co n s e qu e n c e of p r oduc t i o n u n d e r such co n di

tio n s th a t qu a lity 1 3 s a crific e d to qu a nti ty : a n i n dus t ry

wi thou t ar t p rovid e s a ne c e ssary a pp a ratus of e xis tenc e ,

hous e s clo thi ng fryi ng p a ns a n d so for th bu t a n

, , , ,

app a ra tus lacki n g th e e ss e nti a l ch a ra c te ris tics of thi ngs

m a d e by a r t th e charac te ris tics viz o f b ea u ty a nd
, ,
.

sig n ifica nc e H e n c e w e s ay tha t th e life tha t w e ca ll

.

civiliz e d is mor e nea rly a n a nima l a nd m e ch a nical life

th a n a huma n life ; a n d that i n a ll th e s e re sp e c ts it
co ntr a s ts u n favoura bly wi th th e life of s a va g e s of
A m e rica n I n di a ns fo r e xa mpl e to Whom i t h a d n ev e r
,

occurre d th a t m a nufa c tu r e th e a c tivi ty of m a ki ng

,

thi n gs for u s e could e v e r be m a d e a n a r tl e ss a c tivity

, .

M os t of us ta k e for gra n te d th e co nc e p tio n of a r t a nd

a r t is ts ou tli n e d a bov e a n d so c o mpl e te ly th a t w e n o t

o nly a cc e p t i ts co ns e qu e n c e s for ours e lve s bu t mis ,

i nte rpre t th e ar t a n d a r tis t s of form e r a ge s a nd o th e r

cul t u re s i n te rms tha t ar e o nly a ppropri a te to our o w n
his torica lly provi n cial poi nt of vi e w U n dis turb e d by .

o u r o w n e n viro n m e n t w e assum e th a t th e a r tist h as

'

a lways b ee n a p e culi a r p e rso n th a t a r t i s t a nd p a tro n

,

h ave always b e e n a t cross purpos e s a n d that wor k h as ,

a lw ays b e e n though t of a s a ne c e ss a ry e vil B u t le t us .

no w co nsid e r wh a t w e h a ve ofte n c a l l e d th e no rm a l
”
V i e w of a r t m ea ni n g by n orm a l a the ory no t m e re ly
’

hi th e rto and e ls ewh e re u n ive rsally acc e p te d as basic

to th e s truc t ur e of soci e ty bu t a lso a co r r e c t or uprigh t
,

doc tri ne of a r t W e shall find th a t this norma l t ra di

.
,

tional, and ortho dox vi ew of art co ntradicts i n almos t

66
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

i nten d e d at l e ast that e ve ry m a n sh a ll be e ngag e d i n

th e us e ful occupatio n for which h e is b e st fi tte d by
‘

na ture a nd i n which th e r e for e h e ca n b es t s e rv e th e

,

soci e ty to which h e b e lo ngs a nd a t th e s a me tim e r e a liz e

his o w n p e rfe ctio n A s eve ryo ne ma ke s u s e of thi ngs
.

that ar e mad e a r tfully a s th e d e sig n a t io n

,
a r te fa c t

impli e s a nd eve ryo ne poss e ss e s a n ar t o f some sor t

,
-
.

wh e th e r of p a i nti ng sculp ture blacksmi thi ng we avi ng

, , , ,

coo ke ry or agricul tur e no n e ce ssi ty is fe l t to e xplai n

,

th e n a tur e of a r t i n g e n e r a l but o nly to commu n ica te

,

a knowl e dge of par ticul a r arts to thos e who a r e to

p r a cti s e the m ; which k nowl e dg e is re gularly p a ss e d
o n from mas te r to a ppr e n t ic e withou t the re b e i ng a ny
,

n e c e ssi ty for schools of a r t A n i n te gra te d soci e ty

.

of this sort ca n fu n c tio n h a rmo niously for mill e nn i a ,

i n th e abs e n c e of e xte r nal i n te rfe re n c e O n the oth e r

.

h a nd the co nte ntm e nt of i nnum e ra bl e p e opl e s c a n be

,

d e s troye d in a g e ne ra tio n by th e wi th e ri ng touch of our

civilizatio n th e local m a rket is floode d by a produc tio n
i n qua nti ty with which the r e spo n sibl e make r by a r t
c a n no t comp e te th e voc a tio nal s truc tur e of soci e ty ,

wi th all its guild organizatio n a nd s tandards of work

manship is u nd e rmi ne d ; the artis t is robb e d o f his
'

,
“
a r t a nd forc e d to find hims e lf a job u ntil fi na lly
th e a n ci e nt soci e ty is i n dustria l i z e d a n d r e duc e d to th e
lev el o f such soci e ti e s a s ours i n which busi n e ss ta ke s
i ,

pre c e d e nce of life Ca n o ne wo n de r that we s te rn

.

n a tio ns a r e fe a r e d a n d h a te d by oth e r p e opl e s n o t a lo n e ,

for obvious poli tical or e co nomic re aso ns bu t eve n mor e ,

rofou n dly a nd i n sti n c t ive ly for spiri tu a l r e aso n s

p
What is ar t or rathe r what was ar t ? In the first
,

place the prop e rty of the ar tis t a kind of k nowl e dge ,

a nd s k ill b y which he k n ows n o t wha t ou h t to be mad e

, g ,

bu t h o w to imagi ne th e form of th e thi n g that is to be

m ad e a nd how to e mbody t his form i n suitabl e mate rial ,

s o th at th e r es u l ti ng arte fact may be us e d

,

Th e ship .

68
 IS A RT A S U P E R STITI O N ?

build e r builds , no t for r e a so n s bu t i n ord e r

w s th e tic ,

t ha t m e n m ay be a bl e
to s a il o n th e w a te r ; it is a
matte r of fa c t that th e we ll built ship will be b e a u tiful
-
,

bu t it is no t for th e sak e of m a ki n g som e thi n g b e au tiful

t ha t th e shipbuild e r go e s to work ; i t is a ma tte r of
fac t tha t a well ma d e ico n will be b eau tiful i n o th e r ,

words th a t it will pl eas e wh e n s ee n by thos e for whos e

u s e i t was m a d e bu t th e im a g e r is ca s ti n g his bro nz e
,

primarily for u s e a nd no t a s a mante lpi e c e or na m e n t o r

for th e mus e um showca s e .

A r t ca n th e n be d e fi n e d a s th e e mbodim e nt i n ma te ri a l
’
of a pr e co nc e ive d form Th e ar tis t s op e ratio n is dua l
.
,
”
i n th e firs t plac e i n te ll e c tua l or fre e a nd i n th e
s e co n d pl a c e manua l a nd s e rvil e To be prop e rly
.

”
e xpr e ss e d,
as E ckhar t s ays a thi n g mus t proc e e d
,

from withi n move d by its form

, I t is j us t a s ne c e ss a ry
.

t ha t th e id e a of th e w ork to be do ne should firs t of a ll

be im a gi ne d i n a n imi tabl e fo rm a s tha t th e workm a n
should comma n d th e te ch n iqu e by which this m e nta l
“
ima ge can be imi tate d i n th e availabl e m a te rial It .

”
is as A ugus ti ne says
, by th e i r id e as th a t w e j udg e
,
”
of wha t thi ngs ough t to be like A priva te prop e r ty
.

i n id e as i n i n co n c e ivabl e si nc e id e as have no e xis te n c e

,

a par t fr om th e i n t e ll e c t t h a t e n te r ta i n s th e m a nd of

which th ey a r e th e forms th e re ca nn o t be a n au thor

ship of id e as but o n ly a n e nte rta i n me nt wh e th e r by
, ,

o n e o r ma ny i n te ll e c ts is imm a te r i a l
~
It is n o t th e n.

i n th e id e as to be e xpre ss e d i n a r t or to sp e a k mor e ,
’
s i mply no t i n th e th e m e s of his work that a n artis t s ,

i nte ll e c tual op e ra tio n is spok e n of as fre e th e

n a tur e of th e id e as to be e xp r e ss e d i n ar t is pr e d e te rmi n e d

by a tra di tio n al doc tri ne ul tima te ly of sup e rhuma n

,

origi n a n d through th e au tho r i ty of which th e ne c e ssi ty

,

of a cl e a r a nd r e p ea te d e xpr e ssio n of such a nd such

id ea s h a s com e to be acc e p te d wi thou t qu e s tio n A s .

A ris to tl e e xpress e s i t the g e ne ral e nd of art is the

,

69
 W H Y E X H I B IT W O R K S O F ART ?

good of m an This is a m a tte r of re ligious a r t o n ly

.

i n this s e ns e th a t i n a tr a di tio n a l soci e ty th e r e is li ttl e

,
‘

or nothi ng th a t ca n prop e r ly be ca ll e d s e cul a r what

e v e r th e ma te ri a l us e s o f a r te fa c ts w e fin d t h a t wha t w e
, ,

( who sc a rc e ly dis t i n guish i n p r i n cipl e a r t from milli n e ry

) ,

d e scrib e as th e ir or n a m e n ta tio n o r d e coratio n h a s ,

a lwa ys a pr e cis e sig n ifica n c e ; no dis ti n c tio n ca n be

drawn b e twe e n th e i d ea s e xpre ss e d i n th e humbl e s t
p ea s a nt a r t of a give n p e r iod a nd thos e e xpr e ss e d in
th e a c tually hi e ra t ic a r t s of th e s a m e p e riod
”
. We
ca nno t to o ofte n re p e a t th a t th e ar t of a t ra di tio n a l
soci e ty e xpre ss e s throughou t i ts ra nge th e gove rn i n g
id e ology of th e group ar t h a s fix e d e n ds a nd a s ce r
ta i ne d m e a n s of O p e r a t i o n a r t is a co n sci e n c e a bou t

form pre cis e ly a s p r ud e n c e is a co nsci e nc e ab ou t

,

co n duc t — a co nsci en c e i n bo th s e ns e s of th e word i e

, ,
. .
,

bo th a s rul e a nd a s awa re n e ss H en c e i t is tha t w e ca n

.

sp e ak of a co nformi ty or no n co n formity i n a r t jus t

-
,

a s w e ca n of r e gul a r a n d i r r e gular ,ord e rly a n d dis

ord e rly i n co n duc t Good ar t is no more a m a tte r of
.

moods th a n good co n duc t a m a tte r of i ncl i n a tio n ;

bo th a r e habi ts i t is th e r e coll e c te d m a n a nd no t th e
,

e xci te d m a n who ca n e i t h e r m a k e or do w e ll
,
.

O n th e o th er h a n d n o thi n g ca n be k nown o r s ta te d
,

e xc e p t i n som e w a th e w ay of th e i n dividu a l k n ow e r
y .

Wha teve r m ay be kn own to you a nd m e i n commo n

ca n o n ly be s ta te d by e i t h e r of us e a ch i n our o w n w ay .

A t a ny give n mom e n t th e s e ways of di ff e r e n t i n dividu a ls

will be a nd ar e so much a like a s to be pl e as i n g a n d
i nte lligibl e to all co n c e rn e d bu t i n p r opor tio n a s th e
psychology a n d soma tology of th e group ch a n g e s wi th
t im e so will th e w a ys of k n owi n g a n d idiom of e xp r e ssio n ;
,

a n ico n og r a phy m a n o t va r y for mill e nn i a a nd et th e

y , y
s tyl e of eve ry c e ntury will be dis ti n c t a n d r e cog niza bl e
a t a gla n c e . It is i n t his r e sp e c t tha t th e i n te ll e ctua l
op e ra tion is ca ll e d free ; th e s tyl e is th e m a n a nd ,

7 0
 IS ART A S U P E R ST IT I O N ?

that in which th e s tyl e of o ne i nd ividual or p erio d

di ffe r s from that of ano th e r is the i nfa llibl e t race of th e
’
a r tis t s p erso na l na ture ; no t a d e lib e rate bu t a n ,

u nco nscious s e lf e xpre ssio n of th e fr ee ma n

-
.

Th e ora tor W hos e s e rmo n is no t th e e xpr e ssio n of a

p r ivate opi nio n or philosophy bu t th e e xposi tio n of a ,

tra di tio nal doc t ri ne is sp e a ki n g wi th p e rfe c t fr e e dom

, ,

a nd origi n ality ; t h e doc tri n e is his no t as h a vi n g ,

’
i nve nte d it bu t by co nforma tio n ( a da egua tzo r ez et
'

i ntellectus). Even i n dir e c t ci tatio n h e is no t a p a rr o t ,

bu t givi ng o u t of h i ms e lf a r e cre ate d th e m e Th e .

a r tis t is th e s e rvan t of th e work to be do ne ; a n d it

is as tru e h e r e a s i n th e re alm of co nduc t that

”
M y
s e rvi c e is p e rfe c t free dom It is o n ly a lip s e r vic e
.
-

th a t ca n be c a ll e d slavish ; o n ly wh e n a n i nh e ri te d
”
formul a h as b e com e a n a r t form or or nam en t , ,

to be im i ta te d a s such wi thou t a ny u n d e rs ta n di n g
of its sig nifica nc e tha t th e a rtist no lo nge r a tradi tio n al
, ,

c r aftsma n bu t a n aca d e mici a n ca n prop e rly be c a ll e d

,

a forg er or pl a gi a ris t O u r re p e ti tio n of cl a ssic forms

.

in mod e r n archi te c tur e is g e n e ra lly a forg e ry i n this

s ens e ; th e m a nufa c tur e r of brumma g e n idols is
bo th a forg e r a n d a pros ti tu te ; bu t th e h e r e di ta ry
craftsma n who may be re p eati ng formul ae i nh e ri te d
,

from th e s to n e a ge r e ma i ns a n origi na l a r tist u ntil

,

h e is forc e d by e co nomic p r e ssur e to a cc e p t th e s ta tus

of a para si te supplyi n g th e d e ma n d of the ig nora nt
touris t i n s e a rch of d r a wi n g room or na m e n t s a n d wha t
-

”
h e ca lls th e mys te rious E a s t .

W h e re a n ide a to be e xpress e d re ma i ns th e s a m e
t hroughou t lo ng s e qu e n c e s of s tylis tic vari a t io n i t is ,

e vid e n t th a t this id ea r e mai n s t h e mo tif or mo t iva t i n g

power b ehi n d th e work th e artis t h a s worke d

throughou t for t h e s a k e of th e id e a to be e xpr e ss e d ,

al though ex pr es s m g this id e a a lways i n his o w n w ay .

Th e p r ima r y n e c e ssi ty is th a t h e should r e a lly have

1
7
 W H Y E X H I B IT WO R K S OF A RT ?

en e t rta i ne d th e id e a a nd always visua li ze d i t in an

imi ta bl e form a nd this implyi ng a n i nte ll e c tual
,

ac tivi ty that mus t be e ve r re ne we d is what w e m ea n ,

by origi na li ty as dis ti nguish e d from nove lty a nd by ,

powe r a s dis ti nguish e d from viol e n c e It will re adily .

be s e e n th e n th a t in co n c e n trati n g our atte ntio n o n

, ,

th e s tyl i stic p e culiari ti e s of wor k s of a r t w e a r e co n ,

/

fi n i ng i t to a co nsid e ratio n of accide nts a nd r ea lly o nly ,

amusi ng ours e lve s wi th a psychological a nalysis of

p e rson ali ti e s no t by a ny m ean s p e ne trati ng to wha t
is co ns ta nt a nd e ss ential i n th e ar t i ts e lf .

Th e m a nual op e ratio n of th e artis t is ca ll e d s e rvil e ,

b e ca us e simili tud e is wi th re sp e c t to the form ; i n

wri ti ng down for e xampl e th e form of a musical
“

, ,

composi tio n th a t has a lre a dy b ee n h ea rd m e ntally or ,

e ve n i n p e rfo r m a n c e a s such th e a r tis t is no lo ng e r

,

fr ee bu t a n imi ta tor of wh a t h e h as hims e lf imagi ne d

, .

In such a s e rv i lity th e r e is c e r ta i nly n o thi n g dis

honoura bl e bu t ra th e r a co n ti nu e d loyalty to th e good of
,

th e wo r k to be do n e th e a r tis t tur n s from i nte ll e c tu a l

t o m a nu a l Op e r a tio n or vic e ve rs a a t will a n d wh e n

th e wo r k has b ee n do n e ,
h e j udg e s i ts t ru th by
m e asur i ng the a ctua l fo r m of th e ar te fac t a gai ns t th e
m enta l ima g e of i t tha t w as his b e fore th e work b e gan
a n d r e m a i n s i n his co n scious n e ss r e gardl e ss of wha t

m ay h a pp e n to th e work i ts e lf W e ca n no w p e rhaps
.

b e gi n to re al iz e jus t what w e have do ne i n s e parati n g

a r t is t from craft sma n a n d fin e fr om appli e d a r t .

W e h ave a ssum e d that t he re is o ne ki n d of m a n th a t

ca n im a gi ne ,
a n d a no t h e r t ha t ca n no t ; or to sp e ak
more ho ne s tly a no th e r ki n d whom w e c a nno t a ff o r d
, ,

wi thout doi ng hurt to busi ne ss to a llow to imagi n e , ,

a n d to whom w e th e r e for e p e rmi t a s e rvil e a n d imi ta tiv e

op e ra tio n only Jus t a s the op e ratio n of the artis t who

.

m e re ly imi tate s nature as clos e ly as possibl e or a s a n ,

archais t m e re ly imi ta te s th e forms a n d formul a of

72
 IS ART A S U P E R STITI O N ?

anci en t art wi thout a tte mp ti n g a ny r e cre a tio n of id e a s

i n te rms of his o w n co n s ti tu t io n is a s e r vil e op e ra tio n
, ,

so is that of th e maso n re quire d to carve wh e th e r by ,

ha nd or ma chi ne ry i nnume rabl e copi e s or,

or na
m e nts for which h e is provid e d wi th r e ady ma de -

d e sig ns for which a no th e r m a n is r e spo nsibl e or which

, ,
” “
may be simpl e sup e rs ti tio ns th a t is to say a r t
,
”
forms of which the id ea l co nte nt is no lo ng e r u nd e r
,

s tood a nd which ar e nothi ng but th e ve s tige s of origi n ally

,

livi ng traditio n s It is pre cis e ly i n our mod e rn worl d

.

”
th a t eve ryo ne is nomi na lly a n d no o n e r e ally ,
fre e .

A r t has also b ee n d e fi n e d a s t h e imi ta tio n of n a tu r e

i n h er manne r of op e ra tio n tha t is to s ay an ,

imitatio n of na tu re no t a s e ff e c t bu t as ca us e Na tur e
, ,
.

”
is h e re of cours e
,
Na tura n a tu r a ns Cre atrix D e us
, , , ,

a nd by no m e a n s our o w n a lr e ady n a tur e d e nviro n m e n t .

A ll tradi tio ns lay a gre at s tre ss o n th e a nalogy of th e

human a nd divi ne a r tificer s both a like b e i ng mak e rs ,
”
by a r t or by a word co n c e ive d i n i nte ll e ct
, A s th e
I ndian boo ks e xpress it W e mus t build as did th e
.

Gods i n th e b e gi nn i ng All this is o n ly to say a gai n

.

in o th e r words that simili tud e is wi th re sp e ct to the

form .
”
I mi tatio n is the e mbodim e nt in matte r of
“

a pr eco nce ive d form a n d that is pr e cis e ly what w e

”
me an by cre atio n Th e a rtis t is th e provid e n c e of
.

th e wor k to be do n e .

All of our mod e rn te achi n g c e ntr e s rou n d th e pos e d

mod e l a nd th e diss e c ti n g room ; our co n c e p tio ns o f
portrai ture a r e a s a matte r of his torical fa c t associ a te d
i n t h e ir origi n s wi th th e ch a rn e l hous e a n d d e ath mask .

O n th e o th e r h a n d w e b e gi n to s e e n o w why primi t ive

,

a n d tra ditio n al a n d what w e hav e d e sc r ib e d as n orm a l

a r t is a bstr a c t i t is a n imi ta tio n n o t of a visibl e ,

”
a n d t ra nsi e nt app e ara n c e or e ff e c t of ligh t bu t of ,
an i ntelligibl e form which n ee d no mor e r e s e mbl e
an n atural obj e c t tha n a ma th e ma t ic a l e quatio n n ee d
y
73
 W H Y E X H I B IT WOR K S OF ART ?

look like i ts locus i n orde r to be tru e . It is o ne thi n g

to dr a w i n li n e ar rhy thms a n d abs t rac t ligh t b e c a us e
o n e mus t ; a n o th e r t hi n g for a n yo n e who is n o t by

n a tur e a n d i n th e philosophic a l s e ns e a r e alis t d e lib e ra te ly

,

to cul t iva te a n abs t ra c te d s tyl e .

Th e pri n cipl e s of tradi t io na l cri ticism follow i m m e di

a te ly from wh a t h a s b e e n s a id above .Th e work of
ar t is t ru e to th e e x te n t th a t i ts ac t ual or accid e n ta l
form refl e c ts th e e ss e n ti a l form co nce ive d i n th e mi n d
of th e artis t ( it is in this s e ns e that th e workma n s till
sp e aks of tru e i ng th e work i n h a nd) a nd a de qua te ,

or a pt if this form h a s b e e n corre c tly co n ce ive d wi th

,

r e sp e c t to th e fi n a l c a us e of th e work which is to be
,

us e d by th e p atr o n This dis ti n c tio n of judgm e n ts

.
,

which normally coi n cid e i n u n a n imous cul ture s is of ,

par ticular va lu e to th e mod e r n s tud en t of a nci en t or

e xo t ic a r ts for which w e h a v e n o lo n g e r a prac tic a l u s e
, .

Th e mod e r n ae s th e tici a n thi n ks th a t h e h a s do n e

e n ough if h e fe els i nto th e work si n c e h e holds tha t
,

th e s e cr e t of a r t r e sid e s i n a p e culi a r s e nsibili ty o u t

w a r dly ma n ife s te d as a n ae s th e tic urg e to e xp r e ss
a n d commu n ic a te a fe e li n g h e do e s n o t r e a liz e t h a t,

a n ci e nt works o f a r t w e r e p r oduc e d devou tly i n d e e d

,

bu t pr i m a rily to s e rve a purpos e a n d to commu n ic a te a

g nosis What w as d e ma nde d of th e tr a di tio na l a rt is t
.

was firs t a nd fo r e mos t to be i n poss essio n of h i s a r t ,

t ha t is to be i n poss e ssio n of a k nowl e dg e r a th e r th a n

,

a s e n t im e n t . W e fo r g e t t ha t s e nsatio n is a n a nim a l
prop e r ty a n d k nowl e dge dis ti n ctly human a n d that
,

ar t, if though t of a s dis ti nc tly hum a n a nd p a rticul ar ly

if w e thi n k of a r t a s a d e p a rtm e nt of th e high e r thi ngs
”
of life mus t lik ewis e have to do much mor e w i t h
,

k nowl e dg e th a n wi th fee l i n g W e ough t n o t th en

.
, ,

a s H e rb e rt S pi n d e n s o cl ev e rly pu ts i t to a cc e p t a
,
,

pl e a sura bl e eff e ct upo n o u r u n i n te llig e nt n e rve e nds as

”
a n i nd e x of u n d e rs t a n di n g.

74
 WH Y E X H I B IT W O R K S OF ART ?

b e autiful x
to th e e te n t t a t h it r ea lly is what i t purpor ts
to be a n d i n d e p e n d e n tly of a ll compariso ns ;
,
or ugly
to the e xte nt tha t i ts o w n form i s no t e xpress e d a n d
r e ali z e d i n its tangibl e ac tuali ty Th e work of a r t .

is b e autiful accordi ngly i n te rms of p e rfe ctio n or

, , ,

t ruth a n d ap ti t ud e a s d e fi n e d a bove ; wha teve r is i n e p t

or vague canno t be co nsid e re d b e aut iful howeve r i t ,
’
m ay be va lu e d by t hos e who know wha t t e lik e
‘‘
.

So fa r from that th e v e ri tabl e co nnoiss e ur

h y
like s wha t “
,
”
h e k nows ; havi n g fix e d upo n t ha t cours e of ar t
which is righ t u s e has mad e i t pl e asant
,
.

W hateve r is we ll a nd truly ma de will be b eautiful ,

i n ki n d b e caus e of i ts p e rfe c t io n Th e r e a r e no d egr ees

.

of p erfe ctio n jus t as w e ca n no t s ay that a frog is

an
y mor e or l e ss b e a u ti ful t h a n a m a n wha tev e r our
,

pre fe r e nc es may be so w e ca nn o t possibly s ay t ha t a

,

te l e pho n e boo th a s su ch is a ny mor e or l e ss b e au tiful

tha n a c ath e dral as such w e o nly thi n k tha t o n e is
‘

mor e b e au tiful than th e o th e r i n ki n d b e ca us e our ,

a c t ual e xp e ri e n c e is of u n love ly boo ths a n d r e ally b e au t ifu l

cath e drals .

It is tak e n for gra nte d t h a t th e a rtis t is always worki n g

for th e good of th e work to be do ne from th e
coi ncid e n c e of b e a u ty wi th p e rfe ctio n it follows i n
e v i ta bl
y t h a t his op e r a t i o n a lwa ys t e n ds to th e produc t io n

of a b e au tiful work B u t this is a ve ry di ffe r en t ma tter

.

from sayi ng th a t th e artis t ha s always i n vi e w to discove r

a nd commu nica te b ea u ty
’
. B e a uty i n th e mas te r
craftsma n s ate li e r is n o t a fi na l caus e of th e work to be
do ne bu t a n i ne vi ta bl e a ccid e nt A nd for this r ea so n
, .
,

t ha t th e work of a r t is always occasio n al it is t h e

na tur e of a ra tio na l b e i n g to work for p a r t icula r e n ds ,

wh e r eas b ea u ty is a n i n d ete rmi nate e nd wh e th er

th e a r t is t is pla n ni n g a pic ture a so n g or a city h e has
, , ,

i n V i e w to mak e that t hi n g a nd n o thi ng e ls e

”
W hat
’
.

th e ar tis t has i n min d is to do th e job right s ecu na um ,

76
 IS ART A S U P E R STITI O N ?

mm
r ec r a ti onem a r ti s is th e
philosoph e r who bri ngs
it
”
i n th e word b e au tiful a nd e xpou nds its co n di tio ns
i n te rms of p e rfe c tio n h a rmo ny a nd cl a ri ty A
, , .

re cog ni tio n of th e fa c t that thi ngs ca n o nly be b e a u tiful

’
i n ki n d a n d no t i n o n e a no th e r s ki n ds a nd th e c o n
, ,

c e ti o n of th e formali ty of b ea uty bri n g us b a ck a g a i n

p ,

to th e fu tility of a n a tur a lis tic a r t ; th e b e a u t i e s of a

livi ng m a n a nd of a s tatu e or s to ne m a n a r e di ff e re nt
i n ki n d a n d n o t i n ter ch a ng e abl e th e mor e w e tr y to
ma ke th e s tatu e look like a m a n th e mor e w e d e natur e ,

th e sto n e a n d c a ric a tur e th e m a n It is th e form of .

a m a n i n a n a tur e of fl e sh tha t co ns ti tu te s th e b e auty

of this m a n the fo r m of a m a n i n a n a ture of s to ne

the b e a uty of th e s ta tu e a nd th e s e tw o b e a u ti e s a r e

i ncomp a tibl e .

B ea u ty is the n p e rfe c tio n a ppre h e n de d as a n

, ,

a ttractiv e pow e r ; th a t asp e c t of th e tru th for e xampl e

which move s th e will to gra ppl e wi th th e th e m e to be
commu n icate d In m e di ae va l phra s e ol ogy
. b e au ty '

a dds to th e good a n ord e ri n g to t h e cog n i t iv e facul ty

”
by which th e good is k now n a s such b e au ty h as
to do wi th cog n i t io n
”
I f w e ours elve s e n deavour
.

to sp e a k w e ll i t is for th e s a k e of cl a ri ty a lo n e a n d w e
, ,

should much ra th e r be call e d i nte re s ti n g tha n m elli

flu e nt To quo te a H a sidic e xampl e if a ny should
.

sa L e t us n o w h ea r you ta lk of your doc tri n e you

y
M ay I be s truck dumb e r e I
, ,
’
sp ea k so b e a u tifully ,

sp ea k b e au tifully B u t if b e au ty is no t syno nymous

wi th tru th ne i th e r ca n i t be isol a te d from th e t ruth
,

th e dis ti n c tio n is logic a l bu t t h e r e is coi n cid e n c e i n r e

, .

B e au ty is a t o n c e a symptom a n d a n i nvi tatio n ; a s

t ru th is a ppr e h e n d e d by th e i n te ll e c t so b e au ty move s ,

th e will ; b ea uty is always ord e re d to re produc tio n ,

wh e th e r a physical g e ne ra tio n or spiri tua l re g e ne ratio n .

To thi n k of b eau ty as a thi ng to be e njoye d apar t from u s e

is to be a naturalis t a fe tishis t a nd a n i do l ate r
, , .

77
 WH Y E X H I B I T W O R K S O F ART ?

No thi ng more en a r ge s the e xhibi tio nis t of mod e rn

a r t t h a n to be ask e d ,
W ha t is i t about ? or What is it
for ? H e will e xcl a im Yo u m i gh t a s we ll a s k wh a t i t
,

looks like In fa c t howe ve r th e qu e s tio n a n d a n swe r

, ,

a re o n a l t og e th e r di ffe re nt pl a ne s of re fe re n c e w e
h ave a gr e e d th a t th e work of ar t by no me a n s n ee ds to
look like a ny thi ng o n e a rth a n d 1 s p e rh a ps th e wors e
,

th e mor e i t te n ds to c r e a t e a n illusio n It is a no th e r
.

matte r if w e d e ma n d a n i nte lligibili ty a nd fun ctio na l

e ff i c a cy i n th e wo r k . For wh a t a r e w e to do wi th i t ,

i n te ll e c tua lly or physica lly if i t has no m ea n i ng a nd is

,

n o t a dap te d to be us e d A ll that w e ca n do i n this ca s e

is to like it or dislike i t much a s bulls a r e s a id to love
,

gree n a nd hate r e d .

Th e i nte lligibili ty of tra di tio n al ar t do e s no t d e p e n d

o n r e cog n i tio n s bu t , like tha t of scrip t o n l e gibili ty, .

Th e chara c te rs i n which this a r t is wri tte n a r e prop e rly

c a ll e d symbols whe n m e an i n g h a s b e e n forgo tte n or
ig nore d a nd a r t e xis ts o nly fo r the comfort of the eye ,

th e s e b e c o m e ar t fo r ms a n d a r e spok e n of as orna
m e n ts w e sp e a k of d e cora tive va lu e s Symbols .

i n combi n a ti o n fo r m a n ico n ography or my th Symbols .

ar e th e u n iv e rs a l la n gu a g e of a r t an i nter na tio nal

l a ngua ge wi th m e re ly di a l e ct ic variatio ns curr e n t o n ce ,

i n a ll mili e us a n d a lways i n tri n sic a lly i nte lligibl e t hough ,

n o w n o lo n g e r u n d e rs tood by e duc a te d m e n a nd o n l
y ,

to be s e e n or h e a r d i n th e a r t of p ea s a n t s Th e co nte nt
.

of symbols is m e taphysica l Whateve r work of t ra di

t1 o na l ar t w e co nsid e r wh e th e r a crucifix I o n ic colum n
.

, , ,

p ea s a nt e mbroid e ry or trappi n gs of a hors e or nurs e ry

, ,

ta l e h as s till or had a m ea n i n g ove r a n d above wh a t

, , ,

m ay be c a ll e d th e imm e di a te valu e of th e obj e c t to us

as a sourc e of pl e asur e or n e c e ssi ty of life This impli e s
.

for us tha t w e c a nno t pre ten d to h ave a ccou nte d for th e

,

g e ne sis of a ny such work of a r t u ntil w e ha ve u n de rs tood

wh a t i t w as for a n d wh a t i t w a s i ntend e d to m ean .

78
 IS ART A S U P E R S TITI O N ?

Th e symbolic forms which w e ca ll or na m e nts b e caus e

,

th ey a r e o n ly sup e rs ti tio ns for us a r e n o n e th e l e ss

,

th e subs ta n c e of th e a r t b e for e us i t is n o t e nough

to be abl e to u s e th e te rms of ico nogra phy fr e e ly a n d
to be abl e to l a b e l our mus e um sp e cim e n s corr e c tly
to h a ve u n d e rs tood th e m w e mus t u n d e rs ta n d th e
,
’
ul tima te m i s on d étr e of th e ico nography jus t why i t is
‘

a s i t is a n d n o t o th e rwis e .

I mplici t i n this symbolism li e s wh a t w as e qua lly for

a r tis t a nd p a t ro n th e ultimate ly spiri tua l sig nificanc e
of the whol e u nd e rta k i n g Th e re fe re nc e s of th e
.

symbolic forms ar e as pr e cis e as thos e of m a th e m a tics .

Th e ad e quacy of the symbols b e i n g i ntri n sic a nd no t ,

a ma tte r of co nv e n tio n t h e symbols corr e c t ly e mploy e d

,

t r a n smi t from g e n e ra tio n to g e ne r a tio n a k n owl e dg e of

cosmic a nalogi e s as above so b e low Som e of us ,
.

s till re p e at the praye r Thy will be do ne o n e arth a s it is

,

i n h e ave n . Th e artist is co ns ta ntly r e pre s e n te d a s

imi ta ti ng h e ave nly forms ,th e cr a fts such a s buildi n g
a n d c a rp e nt ry which giv e us ma tt e r i n wrough t forms

tak e th e i r pri n cipl e s t h e n c e a n d from t h e thi n ki n g

th e re ( E nn e a ds
,
V . T h e a rch e typal hous e for ,

e xa mpl e ,
r e p e ats the archite c tur e of th e u nive rs e ; a
grou n d b e low a spac e b etwee n a va ult a bove i n which
, , ,

th e r e is a n op e n i n g corr e spo n di n g to th e sol a r g a te w a y

by which o ne e sca p e s al tog e th e r o u t of tim e a nd
sp a c e i nto a n u nco n fi ne d a nd tim e l e ss e mpyre a n .

Fu nc tio na l a nd symbolic valu e s coi n cid e if th e re

ri s e s a colum n of smok e to th e luff e r above this is no t ,

m e re ly a co nve ni e nc e bu t a lso a re pr e s e nta tio n of th e

,

axis of th e u n ive rs e tha t pill a rs a p a rt h e a ve n a n d e ar th

-
,

e ss e n c e a nd n a tur e,
a nd is i ts e lf a l though wi thou t
dim e nsio ns or co nsis te ncy th e ada ma nti ne pri ncipl e a nd
e x e mplary form of t e mporal a n d spa tial e x te n sio n a n d

of a ll thi ngs si tua te d i n tim e or sp a c e This was .

doub tl e ss alre ady appare n t to pre historic m a n though ,

79
 WH Y E XH I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

we c a nno t trace i t far th e r bac k i n li te ratu re than p e rhaps

a mill e nn ium a n d a h a lf B c Ve s tig e s of th e primi tive
. .

luff e r survive i n th e eye s of dom e s a nd of its sig nificanc e ,

i n th e fa c t th a t e ve n to day w e sp e ak of Sa nta Claus

-
,

a doubl e t of th e r e surr e c te d S u n a s e n te ri n g i n with ,

his gifts no t by th e huma n door bu t by th e chim ney

, , .

Th e world wid e d e sig na tio n of s to n e we a po n s as

-

thu n d e r bol ts
-
is a m e mory survivi ng fro m th e
S to n e A ge wh e n a lr ea dy primitive m a n id e n tifi e d his
,

s triki ng we a po ns with th e shaft of ligh tni ng with which

t h e sol a r D e ity smo te th e D rago n or if you pre fe r , ,

St M icha e l Sata n i n th e b e gi nn i n g ; a n iro n age

.
,

i n he ri ts old e r tra di tio ns a nd li te ra ry evid en c e s fo r an

,

ide ntific atio n of w ea po ns wi th l igh tni ng go b a ck a t

l ea s t a s far a s the s e co n d mill e nn ium B C A ll tradi tio ns . .

a gr e e i n s e e i n g i n th e w a rp of tissu e s mad e by ha nd

an ima g e of the fo ntal rayi ng of the da wn ligh t of

- -

cr ea tio n a nd i n th e ir woof the re pr e s e ntatio n of plane s

,

of b e i ng or l eve ls of re fe re nc e mor e or l e ss re move d

from bu t sti ll de p e nd e nt o n th e ir commo n c e ntr e
I ns tanc es could be multi pli ed
,

a n d ul tim a te suppor t .
,

but i t will su ffice to s ay tha t the ar ts have b e en u nive rs a lly

re fe rre d to a divi ne sourc e tha t th e pra ctis e of a n ar t
,

w a s a t l e a s t a s much a ri te as a tr a d e t h a t t h e craftsm a n ,

h a d a lways to be i n i ti a te d i nto th e L e ss e r M ys te ri e s
of his p a rticul a r cra ft a n d th a t th e arte fa c t its elf had
,

always a doubl e va lue th a t of tool o n th e o ne han d

,

a nd t ha t of sym b ol o n th e o th e r Th e s e co nditio ns .

surv ive d i n m e di aeva l E urop e a n d still sur vive pre ,

c a r io u s l i n th e E as t to th e e x te n t that normal typ e s

y ,

of humanity have b e e n a bl e to r e sis t the subversive

i n flu e nc e s of civili z e d busi ne ss .

W e a r e thus i n a posi tio n to u n d e rs ta n d i n par t

how bo th th e maki ng of thi ngs by a r t a nd the u s e of ,
’
thi n gs m a d e by art subs e rve d no t o n ly m a n s imm e diat e
conveni e nc e bu t a lso his spi ri tual life ; s e rved in
,

80
 IS ART A S U P E R ST I T I O N ?

o the r words the whol e or holy m a n a nd no t m e re ly ,

the ou te r m a n who fe e ds o n bre a d a lo ne Th e .

transubs tanti a tio n of the arte fa c t had i ts i nevi tabl e

corollary i n a tra nsforma tio n of th e m a n hims e lf the
Te mpl a r for e xa mpl e whos e sword was also a cross
, , ,

ha d b ee n i n i tiate d a s a nd s trove to b e com e more t han a

m a n a nd as n e arly a s possibl e a n hypos ta sis of th e Su n .

”
Th e sword as Rumi s ays is th e sam e sword bu t
, , ,

th e m a n is n o t th e sam e m a n v .

Now that th e gre ate r part of life ha s b ee n s e c u l a riz e d ,

th e s e tr a n sform a tiv e v a lu e s of art ca n be e nvisag e d

o nly i n ico nol a t ry wh e re th e ico n m a d e by hands a nd
,

subs e qu ently co ns e crate d s e rve s a s a suppor t of co nt e m

la ti o n te n di n g towa rds a t ra n sform a tio n of th e wor
p
shipp e r i nto th e like ne ss of th e a rch e typ a l form to
which a nd no t to the colours or the a r t as St B asil
, .

s ays th e ho nour is paid Th e coll e ctor who own s a

,
.

crucifix of the fi ne st p e riod a nd workman ship a nd ,

”
me re ly e njoys i ts b e au ty is i n a ve ry diffe re nt positio n
,

from that of th e e qually s ensi tive worshipp e r who also ,

fee ls its powe r a nd is actually move d to ta ke up his o w n

,

cross o nly the latt e r ca n be said to have u nd e rs tood

th e wor k i n its e ntire ty o n ly th e form e r ca n be call e d
,

a fetishis t In the s a m e way a nd as w e have said

.
,

e ls e wh e r e th e m a n who m a hav e b ee n a barbaria n

, y
but could loo k upwa rd to th e roof tre e of his hous e a nd
say Th e re h a ngs the L igh t of L ights or down to ,

his h ea rth a nd say Th e re is the Ce ntre of th e World ”

,

was more compl e te ly a M a n tha n o ne whos e hous e ,

howeve r we ll suppli e d with l a bour savi ng a nd sanitary -

”
appara tus is m e re ly a ma chi ne to live in
,

I t re mai ns for us to co nside r the probl e ms of artis t

.

a nd pa t ro n produc e r a nd co n sum e r from th e s t a n dpoi nt

, ,

of e thics to e xplai n th e traditio nal posi tio n which ,

ass e rts that th e re c a n be no good us e wi thou t a r t

th a t is to say no e ffi ci e n t goo d ne ss bu t o nly good ,

81
 W H Y E X H I B IT W O R K S O F ART ?

i nte ntio ns i n cas e th e m e a ns provide d a r e d e fe ctive .

S uppos e for e xa mpl e tha t th e a r t is t is a pri n te r

, to th e
e x te n t tha t h e d e sig n s a n ill e gibl e t p e th e book how
y ”
, ,

e v e r supre m e ly va luabl e its te xt will be no good , .

O f a workma n who bu n gl e s w e say i n th e s a m e way

”
tha t h e is no good or good for nothi ng or i n th e ,

te ch n ic a l la n guag e of t ra di t io na l e thics that h e is a ,

“ “ “
si nne r s in b e i n g de fi ne d as a ny d e p a rture
”
from th e ord e r to th e e nd wha teve r the na ture of th e e n d
, .

Be fore the a rtis t ca n eve n imagi n e a form the re mus t

have b e en a dire c tio n of th e will towa rds a sp e cific
i d ea si nc e o ne canno t ima gi n e form i n th e
a bs trac t , bu t o n ly this or th a t form In I ndi a n te r ms .
,
” “
a n imag e ca n o n ly spri n g from a seed Or as .

B o nave ntura e xpre ss e s it Eve ry a g ent ac ti ng ra tio n

,

ally no t a t ra ndom no r u nd e r compulsio n fore k nows

, , ,

th e thi n g b e for e i t is viz in a lik ene ss by which

, .
, ,
’
like ne ss which 1 s th e id ea of the thi ng ( i n a n imi ta bl e
,
‘

form) the thi ng is bo th k nown a n d brough t i nto

,
’
b ei ng . Th e artis t s will has a ccordi ngly co n s e n te d
b e fore ha nd to th e e nd i n vi ew ; wh e th e r a good e n d
or ba d e n d is no lo ng e r his a ff air as a n a r tis t i t is to o
late no w for qualms a nd th e artis t as such h a s no lo nge r
,

an
y du ty bu t to d e vo te hims e lf to th e good of th e work

to be do ne . A s St Thomas e xp r e ss e s i t A r t do e s no t
.
,

r e quire of th e a rtis t tha t his act be a good a ct bu t that ,

his w ork be good Ar t do e s n o t pr e suppos e

re c titud e of the app eti te —bu t o nly to s e rv e th e
.

app e ti te wh e th e r for good or evil It is for th e m a n to

,
.

d e cid e wha t if a ny prop a gand a are de sirabl e ; for

, ,

m a n as ar tis t o n ly to m a k e th e prop a g a tio n eff e c tive .

Th e artis t m ay ne ve r th e l e ss com e short a n d i n this .

cas e h e is s a id to s i n as a n a r ti s t if for e x ampl e , ,

he u n d e r take s a nd propos e s to m a nufa c tur e a n e ffici e n t

poiso n gas a nd a ctua lly produc e s som e thi ng qui te
,

i nno cuous , or i nte nds to fa shio n a M ad o nna, a nd o nly

82
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R K S O F ART ?

W e say the n th a t if th e ar tis t a s such is mora lly

irre spo nsibl e he is a lso a morally r e spo nsibl e ma n
, .

In th e n orm a l a n d lo n g e n duri n g typ e s of civili za tio n

-

t h a t w e have b e e n co n sid e ri n g — I n dia n E gypti a n

, , ,

e a rly Gr e e k me di ae va l Chris ti a n Chi ne s e M a ori o r

A me rica n I ndi a n for e xampl e — i t h a s b e e n m a n a s
, , , ,

p a tro n ra th e r than m a n as artist wi th whom the de cisio n

h a s r e s te d as to w iza t shall be mad e : th e fr ee dom of
th e a r tis t i nvolvi n g a n a u to nomy o n ly wi thi n his o w n
sph e re of op e ratio n a nd no t i n cludi ng a fre e choic e of
,

th e m e s That choic e re m a i ne d wi th th e M a n a n d
.
,

a mou n t e d to a n e ff e c tive c e n sorship t hough n o t a,

c e nsorshi p i n our s e ns e bu t 1 n th e l a s t a na lysis a s elf

,

co ntrol s i nc e th e a rtist a nd th e m a n we re s till of o n e

,

mi nd a nd all m e n i n som e s e ns e a rtis ts No thi n g i n

,
.

fac t was mad e tha t did no t an swe r to a g e ne ra lly re cog

n iz e d n e c e ssi ty .

’
A ll this a ccords with A ris to tl e s dic tum that th e ,
”
g e n e ra l e nd of a r t is th e good of m a n G e ne ra l e nds
.

take pr e c e d e nc e of priva te e nds i t is no t th e priva te

goo d of this or th a t m a n a n d s ti ll l e ss of this or that
,

bu t M a n s co nc e p tio n of th e good th a t has

’
a rtist
, ,

d e te rmi ne d what w a s m a d e by a r t In p r i ncipl e .

,

a ccordi n gly a c e n sorship c a n be a pp r ov e d of as a l tog e th e r

,

prop e r to th e dig n i ty of M a n This n ee d no t be a .

l e gally formul a te d c e nsorship so lo n g as th e r e spo nsibl e

artis t is a ls o a r e spo nsibl e m e mb e r of soci e ty Bu t a s .

soo n as th e a r tis t ass e rts a n absolu te i nd e p end e nc e th e re

a ris e s th e occasio n for a formul a te d c e n sorship lib e r ty
b e comi ng lic ens e forg e s i ts o w n cha i ns
,
.

W e mus t no t howeve r ov e rlook a fa c tor e ss e ntial to

th e curr e n t probl e m Who is qua lifi e d to be a c en sor
.

S ure ly it is n o t e nough to r e cog n iz e a wro n g or what ,

w e thi n k a wro n g a n d to rush i n to ac tio n guid e d o n ly

,

by a private or li ttl e group opi nio n how eve r firmly ,

I t is c e rta i nly no t in a d emocra cy no r in

, ,

e nte r tai ne d
.
,

a soci e ty tryi ng to find a m e a ns of su r vival by tri a l a nd

84
 IS A RT A S U P E R ST IT I ON ?

e rror tha t a c e nsorship ca n be jus tly e xe rcis e d Ou r

,
.

c e nsorships r e fl e c t a t th e b e s t a va ri a bl e c a no n of e xp e d i
e n cy o ne tha t vari e s for e xa mpl e from s ta te to s tate
, ,

a n d d e cad e to d e cad e To jus tify th e e xe rcis e o f a

.

c e nsorship w e mus t know wh a t is righ t or wro n g a nd

, ,

why w e mus t h ave r ea d E te r na l L a w b e fore w e c a n

impos e a huma n cod e This m e a n s th a t i t is o nly
.

wi thi n a r e l a tive ly u na nimous commu n i ty ack n ow ,

l e dgi ng a n a sc e r ta i ne d tru th that a c e nsorship c a n

,

prop e rly be e xe rcis e d a n d o nly by a n éli te whos e voca

, ,

t io n i t is p r e cis e ly to k n ow m e taphysic a l tru th ( wh e n c e ,

o nly ca n th e r e be d e duc e d a n d asc e rta i ne d th e gove r ni n g

.

p r i n cipl e s of doi ng a nd m a ki ng) tha t l a ws of co n duc t

bi n di ng o n th e ar ti s t as a m a n ca n prop e rly be pro
m u lga te d . W e c a nno t th e r e fore e xp e c t from a ny
l e gisl a tive c e n sorship a n a dj us tm e n t of th e s tra i ne d
r e l a tio ns b e twee n th e a rtis t a n d th e p a tro n produc e r ,

a nd co n sume r ; th e for m e r is to o much co nc e r n e d

’
wi th hims elf th e l a tte r to o u na wa re of m a n s r e al n ee ds
, ,

wh e th er physical or spiri tu a l — to o much a love r of ,

qua nti ty a nd by far to o li ttl e i nsis te nt upo n th e qua li ty

of life Th e sourc e of a ll o u r di ffi cul ti e s wh e th e r
.
,

e co n omic ,or psychic li e s b eyo n d th e p o wer of l e gisl a

,

tio n or ph i la n th r o phy wh a t w e r e quir e is a r ec ti fic a

t io n of huma n i ty i ts e lf a n d a co n s e qu e n t a w a r e n e ss of
th e priori ty of co n te mplatio n to a c tio n W e are .

al toge th e r to o b usy a nd have ma d e a vic e of i n dus try

, .

U n d e r pr e s e n t circums ta n c e s th e n ar t is by a n d la r g e
, ,

a luxury a luxu r y t h a t fe w c a n a fford a n d o n e t h a t ,

n e e d no t be ov e r mu ch l a m e n te d by thos e who ca nn o t

aff ord to buy This s a m e a r t w as o n c e th e p r i n cipl e

.

of k nowl e dg e by which th e m e an s of li fe w e r e p r oduc e d ,

a n d th e physic a l a nd spiri tu a l n ee ds of m a n w e r e ro
p
v i de d for Th e whol e m a n mad e by co nte mplatio n
.
,

a nd i n m a ki n g did no t d e p a r t from hims e lf To .

r e sum e all th a t h as b ee n said i n a s i n gl e s ta te m e n t ,

A r t i s a sup e r s ti tio n a rt w a s a w a
y o f li fe .

85
 P O ST S C RI PT
N O TE ON REVI EW BY RI C H A R D F LO R S H EI M
f O

IS A RT A S U P E RS T I T I O N OR A W AY
”

OF L I FE

N r evi ewi ng my I s Ar t a Su p e r s t1 t1 o n or a W ay
of L ife ? M r F lorsh e im a ssum e s my advocacy
”
.
“

of a re turn to a mor e o r l e ss fe udal ord e r an

”
e arli e r bu t d e a d ord e r of t hi n gs
, ,
In much th e sam e
.

way a r evi ewe r Of Patro n a nd A r tist ( cf i n Ap oll o ,

Fe b r uar y 1 9 3 8 p 1 0 0 ) a dmi ts th a t wh a t I s a y i s all

.

“
.
, ,

ve ry tru e bu t a ssum e s tha t th e r e m e dy w e M e d i as

,
”

v a li s ts m n g such as Gill Gl e i z e s C a r e y a nd m e )
( a i
’

e n , ,

sugg e s t is to som e how ge t b a ck to a n e a rli e r socia l

orga ni za tio n .
”

Th e s e fa ls e fa cil e assump t io n s e nabl e th e cri tic to

,

e vad e th e ch a ll e n g e of our cri ticism which h a s tw o ,

mai n po i nts ( I ) th a t th e curre nt appre cia tio n of

a nci e n t or e xo tic arts i n te rms O f our o w n ve ry sp e cial
a n d his toric a lly provi n ci a l vi e w O f a r t a mou nt s to a

sor t of hocus pocus a nd ( 2 ) tha t u nd e r th e co ndi tio n s

,

of manufac tur e ta k e n for gra nte d i n cu r r e nt a rtis tic

doctri ne m a n is giv e n s to n e s for b r e ad Th e s e pro .

pos 1 ti o n s ar e e i th e r tru e or no t a n d ca nno t ho n e s tly

,

b e twis te d to m e a n th a t w e wa n t to pu t b a ck th e h a n ds
of th e clock .

N e i th e r is i t tru e th a t w e do no t pr e te n d to Offe r
much i n th e way of pra ctical r e m e dy o n th e c o n

tr ar y w e o ff e r e ve ry thi n g
, th a t is to ,s ome how g e t
”
back to firs t pri ncipl e s Tra nsla te d from m eta
.

“
physical i nto r e ligious te rms this m e a n s S e e k first
86
 IS ART A S U P E R STITI O N
th e ki n gdom of God a n d H is Righ te ous n e ss a n d all ,

th e s e thi ngs sh a ll be a dd e d u nto you ”

Wha t this .

c a n hav e to do wi th a sociological a rchaism or e cl e c ticism

I fa il to s e e .

A r e turn to firs t pri n cipl e s would no t r e cr e ate th e

outwa rd a sp e c ts of th e M iddl e A g e s though it migh t
I have
,

e n a bl e us to b e tt e r u n d e rs ta n d t h e s e asp e c ts

nowh e r e s a id th a t I wish e d to
.

r eturn to th e M iddl e
In th e p a mphl e t r e vi e w e d I s a id th a t a ca th e dral
”
A ge s .

was n o more b e aut iful i n ki nd th a n a te l e pho ne boo th

i n ki n d a n d e xpr e ssly e xclud e d qu e s tio n s of pr e fe r e nc e
What I u nd e rs ta n d by
, ,

i e
. Of
.
, wishful thi n ki ng .

wishful thi n ki ng is that ki n d of fai th i n progr e ss

wh i ch l e a ds M r F lor s h e im to id e ntify e a rl i e r wi th
.

”
d e a d a typ e of thi nki n g th a t ig nor e s a ll dis t i nc tio n
,

of e ss e n c e fr om a ccid e nt a nd s e e ms to sugg e s t a M a rxis t

or a t a ny ra te a d e fi n i te ly a nti tr a di tio nal bi a s -
.

Thi ngs th a t w e r e tru e i n th e M iddle A g e s a r e s till

tru e a par t from a ny qu e stio n s Of s tyl e s ;
,
suppos e i t
e te r n ally tru e for e xa mpl e th a t b e a u ty has to do
, ,
”
with cog n i tio n D Oe s i t follow fr om this th a t i n
.

ord e r to be co nsis te n t I mus t d e cora te my hous e wi th

crock e s or a m I forbidd e n to a dmir e a n a e ropla ne ?
t ?

D r Wa cke r na g e l r e vi e w e d i n Tne Ar t B ull eti n X X

.
, , ,

p 1 23
. wa r n s a ga i ns t th e l a ck of purpos e i n mos t
,
”
of our mod e rn a r t N ee d this imply a n os ta lgi a
.

for th e M iddl e A g e s o n h i s p a rt ? I f I ass e rt th a t a

ma nufa c tur e by a r t is huma n e ly sp ea ki ng sup e rior to
an i ndus try wi thou t ar t it do e s no t follow th at I ”

k nigh ts i n a r mou r I f I s ee that ma nu

,

e nvis a g e .

fa c tur e fo r u s e is b ette r for th e co n sum e r ( a nd w e ar e

a ll co nsum e rs ) tha n a ma nufa c ture for profi t this
do e s no t m ea n tha t w e a r e to ma nufa c tur e a ntiqu e s I f
,

I a cc e p t tha t voca tio n i s th e na tura l b a sis of i n dividua l

.

progre ss ( th e word h a s a r e al m e a ni ng i n a n i ndividua l

applicatio n th e m e a ni n g na m e ly Of w er den w a s da f is t)
, ,

87
 WH Y E X H I B I T W O R K S O F ART ?

I a m no t n e e c ss a rily wro ng m e r e ly b eca use this posi tio n

w as e a rli e r ma i n ta i ne d by Pl a to a nd i n th e B h agava d
Gi ta I do no t i n fact pr ete n d to for e s ee th e s ty l e
.

of a fu tur e U topia howeve r li ttl e m ay be th e va lu e

I a tta ch to mode rn civi lisatio n ” howeve r much
,

high e r m ay h ave b e e n th e preval e nt valu e s of th e

m e di ae val or a ny o th e r e arly or s till e xis ti ng social
ord e r I do no t thi nk Of a ny Of th e s e a s providi ng a
r e a dy ma d e blu e pri nt for futur e imi ta tio n I h av e no
,
’

-
.

u s e for ps e udo Go thic i n a ny s e n s e of th e word

-
Th e
soo n e r my cri tics r e a lis e this a nd th a t I a m n o t out to
.

,
”
e xpr e ss a ny vi e ws O pi n io n s or philosophy O f my
, ow n ,

th e soo ne r will th ey o u t wha t ta lki n g abou t .

88
 W HAT IS T HE U SE O F A RT A N YW A Y

E are familiar wi th two co nte mporar y schools of

t hough t abou t ar t W e have o n the o ne han d
.

“
a ve ry sma ll s elf s tyl e d éli te which d isti nguishe s fine
-

ar t fr om a r t a s skill e d m a n ufa c tur e a n d valu e s t his ,

fin e ar t v ery highly as a s e lf re ve la t io n or s e lf e xpr e ssio n

- -

of th e ar tis t this elite accordi ngly bas e s i ts te achi ng

, ,

of ae s th e tic upo n s tyl e a nd ma ke s th e s o call e d a ppr ecia

,
-

t io n of ar t a matte r of the manne r rath e r than of th e

co ntent or t ru e i ntentio n of th e work Th e s e a r e our .

Profe ssors of fEs the ti cs a n d of th e H istory of Ar t ,

who rejoic e i n th e u ni ntelligibili ty of a r t a t the sam e

t im e tha t th e y e xplai n i t psychologically subs t i t uti n g ,
’
th e s tudy of th e m a n hims e lf for th e s tudy of the ma n s
art a nd the s e l e ad e rs Of the bli n d a r e gladly followe d
by a majori ty Of mode rn ar tis t s who a r e natura lly ,

flatte re d by the importan ce att a ch e d to p e rso n al ge n ius .

O n th e o th e r ha n d w e have th e gr e at body of plai n

m e n who ar e no t r e ally i nte re s te d i n artis t ic p e rso n ali t i e s ,

a n d for whom a r t as d e fi n e d a bov e is a p e culiari ty rat h e r

tha n n e c e ssi ty of life a n d hav e i n fact no u s e for a r t

,
.

An d over agai nst th e s e tw o class e s w e hav e a n ormal

but forgotten vi e w of ar t which a fli r m s that a r t is th e
,

m a k i ng w ell or prop e rly arra n gi ng of a nythi n g wha teve r

, ,

t ha t n ee ds to be mad e or a rra n g e d wh e th e r a s ta tu e tt e
, ,

or automobil e or garde n In the We s te rn world

, .
,

t his is sp e cifically t h e Ca tholic doctri ne of a r t ; from

which doctri ne the natural co n clusio n follows i n th e ,

words of St Thomas that Th e re ca n be no good u s e

.
,

g
Or i i n a ll y t w o B r oa dca s t s .

89
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS OF ART ?

wi thou t a r t . It is r a th e r obvious t ha t if thi n gs r e qu i r e d

for u s e wh e th e r a n i ntell e c t ua l o r a physical u s e or
,
.
,

u n d e r normal co n di tio ns bo th a r e no t p rop e rly m a d e , ,

t h ey ca n n o t be e njoy e d m e a n i n g by ,
e njoy e d som e
thi n g mor e tha n m e r e ly lik e d Ba dly pre p a r e d food
“
.

for e xa mpl e will disagre e wi th us a n d i n the s a m e

,

w ay au tobiogra phic a l o r o th e r s e n t im e nta l e xhibi ts

ne c e ssarily w e a k e n th e moral e of thos e who fee d upo n
th e m . Th e h ea l thy pa tro n is no mor e i nte re s te d i n th e
’ ’
a r t is t s p e rso n ali ty t ha n h e is i n his t ailor s priva t e life

all tha t h e n ee ds of e i th er is th a t th e y be i n poss e ssio n

of th e i r a r t .

Th e pr e s e n t s e ri e s of ta lks a bou t a r t is addre ss e d to _

th e s e co n d ki n d of m a n a bov e d e fi n e d viz t o th e plai n , .

,

a nd prac t ically mi n d e d m a n who h as n o u s e fo r a r t

-
,

a s a r t is e xpou n d e d by th e psychologis t s a n d pr a c t i s e d

by mos t co nte mporar y art is ts e sp e cially pai n te rs Th e , .

plai n m a n ha s no u s e for a r t u nl e ss h e k n ows wha t i t is

a bou t or wha t i t is for
,
A n d so fa r is p e rfe c t ly righ t
.
,

if it i s n o t a bou t some th i n g a n d no t for a nythi ng i t, ,

ha s n o u s e . A n d fu r th e rmore u n l e ss i t is abou t som e

,

thi n g W or tlz w lz i le — mor e wor th whil e for e xampl e

tha n th e a r t is t s pr e cious p e rso na li ty —a n d for som e
, , ,
’
,

thi n g wor t h whil e t o th e pa t ro n a n d co nsum e r as w e ll

a s to th e a r t is t a n d mak e r i t h as no r ea l u s e
,
bu t is o n ly ,

a luxury produc t or m e r e o r n a m e n t
,
O n th e s e grou n ds
.

art m a b e dismiss e d by a r e ligious m a n a s m e r e v a n i t

y y ,

by th e pra ctica l m a n a s a n e xp en sive s u per flu ity a n d ,

by th e class thi nk e r a s p a r t a n d parce l of th e whol e

bou r g e oisi e fantasy Th e re a r e thus t wo opposit e poi n t s
.

of vi e w of which o ne a ss e rt s th a t t he re ca n be no good
,

u s e wi t hou t a r t th e o th e r t h a t a r t is a s u e r fl u i t Ob
, p y .

s e rve howeve r th a t t h e s e co ntr a r y s ta te me nts a r e

, ,

a fli r m e d wi t h r e sp e c t to tw o v e ry d i ff e r e n t t hi n gs which ,

a r e n o t th e s a m e m e r e ly b e caus e bo th h a v e b e e n c a ll e d
”
ar t
. L e t us no w tak e fo r gra n te d th e his torically
0
9
 WHY E X H I B I T W O R KS OF ART ?

th e purpos e b e i n g a n e c e ss a ry o ne w e mus t be a bl e to ,

aff ord to pay for th e a r t or e ls e a r e li vi ng b e low a norma l

,

huma n s tandard a s mos t m e n a r e no w livi ng eve n ,

th e rich if w e co nsid e r quality ra th e r tha n qua n t i ty

,
.

Ne e d le ss to add tha t th e workma n is also vic t imis e d by a

ma nufa cture for profi t so that i t h as b e com e a mock e ry
to say to him t ha t hours of wor k should be mor e e njoyabl e
tha n hours of l e isur e tha t wh e n a t work h e should
be doi n g wh a t h e lik e s a n d o n ly wh e n a t l e isur e doi n g
,

what h e ough t— workmanship b e i ng co n ditio n e d by a r t ,

a n d co n duc t by e thics

I ndus try wi thout art is bru tali ty Ar t is sp e cifically

.

human No ne of thos e primitive p eopl e s pas t or pres ent

.
, ,

whos e cul tu r e w e aff e c t to d e spis e a nd propos e to a m e n d ,

ha s disp e n s e d wi th a r t from the s to ne a ge o nwa rds ,

e ve rythi n g mad e by m a n u n d e r whate ve r co n di tio n s

,

of hardship or pove rty ha s b ee n ma d e by a r t to s e rv e

,

a doubl e urpos a t o n c e u tili taria n a n d id e ological

p e ,
.

It is w e who coll e c t ive ly sp e a ki n g a t l e as t comma n d

, ,

amply su ffi ci e nt re source s a nd who do no t shri n k from

,

was ti ng th e s e r e source s who have first propos e d to

,

ma ke a divisio n Of a r t o ne so r t to be b a r e ly utili ta ri a n
, ,

th e o th e r luxurious a n d al tog e th e r omitti ng wha t w as

,

o n c e th e high e s t fu nc ti o n of ar t to e xpre ss a n d to com

,

m u ni ca te id e as .It is lo n g si n c e sculp ture w a s though t

’ ”
of as the poor ma n s book O u r ve ry word
.

”
a s th e ti cs ,
fr om aes th e sis feeli ng
,
procl a ims ,

our dismissal of th e i ntell e c tual va lu e s of ar t .

Two oth e r poi nts ca n o nly be touch e d upo n i n th e

tim e ava il a bl e In th e firs t pl a c e if w e call e d the plai n
.
,

m a n righ t i n wa n ti n g to k n ow wha t a work is a bou t ,

a n d i n d e ma ndi n g i n te lligibili ty i n works O f ar t h e is

'

n o l e ss c e r ta i nly wro n g i n d e m a n di n g lik e n e ss a n d a l to

g e th e r wro ng i n j udgi ng works of a n ci e n t a r t from a ny

such poi nt of vi e w a s is impli e d i n th e commo n e xpre s
sio ns , Tha t was b e fo r e th ey k ne w anyt hi ng abou t
92
W H AT IS TH E US E OF AR T , ANYWAY ?

a na t omy or Th a t w a s b efore p e rsp e c tive h a d b ee n

,
”
discove re d . Ar t is co n c e r ne d wi th the n a ture O f thi ngs ,

a nd o nly i n cid e n t a lly if a t all with th e ir app e a ra nc e

, ,

by which a pp e a ra nc e the n ature of thi ngs is far more

’
obscure d than r eve a l e d It is n o t the a rtis t s busi ness
.

to be fo n d Of na tur e a s e ff e c t bu t to ta k e a ccou n t of
,

n a tur e as th e caus e of e ff e c ts A r t i n o th e r words

.
, ,

is far mor e ne a rly r e l a te d to a lg e bra th a n to ari thme tic

a nd jus t as c e r ta i n qualific a t io n s ar e n ee d e d if w e a r e

to u n d e rs ta n d a nd e njoy a ma th e ma tic a l formul a so th e ,

sp e c ta tor mus t have b e e n e ducate d as h e ought if h e is

to u n d e rs ta n d a n d e njoy th e forms of commu n ic a tive
a rt. This is mos t of all th e cas e if th e sp e c tator is to
u n d e rs ta n d a n d e njoy wo r ks of a r t which a r e wri tte n ,

so to sp ea k in a for e ig n or forgo tte n l a ngu a ge which

,

a ppli e s to a m ajori ty of obj e c ts e xhibi te d i n our mus e ums .

This pro b l e m pre s e nts i ts e lf b e ca us e i t is no t th e

busi ne ss of a mus e um to e xhibi t co nte mporary works .

’
Th e mod e r n a rtist s a mbi tio n to be r e pr e s e n te d i n a
mus e um is his va n i ty a n d b e trays a compl e te m i s u nder
'

s tan di ng O f the fu n ctio n of a r t for if a work h a s b e e n

mad e to m e et a give n a nd sp e cific n ee d i t ca n o n ly be ,

e ff e c tiv e i n th e e nviro n m e n t for which i t w a s d e sig n e d ,

’
tha t is to say i n som e such vi ta l co n te xt a s a m a n s hous e
i n which h e live s or i n a s tre e t or i n a church a n d n o t
, , ,

i n a ny plac e th e primary fu nc t io n O f which is to co n tai n

all sorts of a r t .

Th e fu n ctio n of a n a r t mus e um is to pr e s e rve from

d es truc tio n a nd to give a cc e ss to such a n ci e nt works of
a r t a s ar e still co n sid e r e d by e xp e rt s r e spo nsibl e for
,

th e ir s e l e ctio n to be v e ry good Of th e ir ki n d
, Ca n t h e s e
.

works of art which we r e no t mad e to m ee t his particul a r

,

n e e ds , be of a ny u s e to th e plai n m a n ? Probably
no t of much u s e at firs t sight a n d wi thou t guida n c e ,

n o r u ntil h e k n ows wha t th e y ar e a bou t a nd w ha t th e y

w e re for W e coul d rath e r wish al though in vai n that

.
, ,

93
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R K S O F ART ?

th e m a n i n th e s tr e e t had a cc e ss to such m a rk e ts as thos e

i n which th e mus e um O bj e cts w e re O r igi na lly bough t a n d
sold a t rea so na bl e price s i n th e e ve ry day cours e of life-
.

O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e mus e um obj e c ts we re m a d e to
m e e t s p e cific huma n n e e ds if no t pre cis e ly our curr e nt
,

n e e ds a n d i t is mos t d e sira bl e to r e a liz e t h a t th e r e

h a ve b een huma n ne e ds o th e r tha n a n d p e rha ps more

,

sig nifica n t th a n our o w n Th e mus e um obj e c ts c a nnot

,
.

i n d ee d be though t of as sh a p e s to be imi tate d jus t ,

b e caus e th ey we re no t m a d e to sui t our sp e ci a l ne e ds

bu t i n sofa r as th ey a r e good of t h e ir ki n d a s is pr e ,

suppos e d by th e e xp e r t s e l e c tio n th e r e ca n be d e duc ed

,

from th e m wh e n co nsid e re d i n r e l a tio n to th e ir origi na l

,

use th e g e ne ra l pri n cipl e s of a r t accordi n g to which

thi rigs ca n be w e ll mad e fo r wh a te v e r purpos e th e y m ay
,

be r e quir e d A n d th a t 1 3 broadly sp ea ki n g th e majo r

.
,

va lu e of our mus e ums .

Som e h av e a nswe r e d th e que s tio n

’
W h a t is th e u s e
of ar t by sayi ng tha t ar t is fo r art s s a ke a n d i t is
ra th e r odd th a t thos e who thus m a i nta i n tha t a r t h as n o
hum a n u s e should a t th e s a m e time have e mpha size d
th e va lu e of a r t W e shall try to a nalys e th e fa llaci e s
.

i nvolve d .

W e re fe rre d a bove to th e cl a ss thi nk e r who h a s n o

u s e for a r t a n d is r e a dy to disp e n s e wi th i t a s b e i n g

p a rt a n d parc e l of th e whol e bourge oisi e fa n tasy I f

,

w e could discov e r such a thi n k e r w e should i n d ee d be

,

gl a d to a gree wi th him that th e whol e doc tri ne of a r t

’
‘

for ar t s s a ke a nd th e whol e busi ne ss of coll e c ti ng

,
“
a nd t h e lov e of a r t a r e no mor e th a n a s e ntim e nta l
a b e rr a t io n a n d m ea n s of e scap e from th e s e rious busi n e ss

o f life .W e should be ve ry re ady to a gre e th a t m e r e ly

to cul tiva te th e high e r thi n gs Of life if a r t be such i n
, ,

hours of l e isure to be Ob ta i ne d by a furth e r subs ti tu tio n

O f m e cha n ical for ma n u a l m e a ns of produc tio n is a s
,
’
much a va ni ty as th e cultiva tio n of re ligio n for r e l i gio n s
94
W H AT IS TH E US E OF ART , AN YWAY ?

s a ke o n Su nd ays o nly could e ve r be ; a nd that th e

pre te nsio n s of the mod e rn a rtis t ar e fu nd a me nta lly
wishful a nd e go tis tic .

U n fortu na te ly wh e n w e com e down to th e fac ts w e

, ,

find th a t th e soci a l r e form e r is no t r e a lly sup e rior to th e

curr e n t d e lusio n of cul ture bu t o n ly a n g e re d by a n
,

e co n omic si tu a t io n which s e e ms to d e prive him of thos e

high e r thi ngs of life which th e wea l thy c a n mo r e e a sily

a ff ord . Th e workm a n e nvi e s fa r mor e tha n h e s e e s ,
“
through th e coll e c tor a n d
,
love r of a r t Th e wa g e .

’
sl ave s no tio n of ar t is no more r ea lis tic or p r a c tic a l
’
tha n a millio na i r e s j us t as his no tio n of vir tu e is no
mor e r ea lis tic th a n tha t of th e prea ch e r of good ne ss for
’
good n e ss s a ke H e do e s no t s ee th a t if w e n e e d a r t
.

o nly if a nd b e caus e w e li ke a r t a n d ough t to be good o n ly

,

if a nd b e c a us e w e li ke to be good a r t a nd e thics ar e mad e ,

o u t to be m e r e m a tte rs of ta s te a n d no O bj e c t io n c a n be
,

rais e d if w e say th a t w e hav e no u s e for a r t b e ca us e w e

do no t lik e i t or no re aso n to be good b e c a us e w e pre fe r
, ,

to be ba d .

’
Th e subj e ct of a r t for a r t s s a ke w as ta ke n up th e
o th e r day by a n E di tor of the N a ti on, who quot e d wi th
a pprov a l a pro n ou n c e m e n t by P a ul Va l e ry to th e e ff e c t

th a t th e mos t e ss e n ti a l ch a ra c te ris tic Of a r t is u s el es s ness ,

a nd proc ee d e d to say th a t No o n e is shocke d by th e
s ta te m e nt th a t Vir tu e is i ts o w n re ward which
is o n ly ano th e r w ay of s ayi ng tha t virtue like a r t is a n , ,
”
e nd i n its e lf a fi n a l good
,
Th e wri te r a lso poi nte d
.

o u t th a t U s e l e ss n e ss a nd va lu e l e ss ne ss a r e no t th e s a m e
thi n gs by which of cours e h e m e ant a r e no t th e
, , ,

s a m e thi ng . H e s a id fur th e r tha t th e re a r e o n ly thre e

mo t ive s by which a n a rtis t is imp e ll e d to work viz ,
.
,
’
e i th e r for mo ney fam e or ar t, , .

W e nee d no t look far th e r for a p e rfe c t e xa mpl e of th e

class thi n ke r s tu pe fie d by wh a t w e h ave call e d the whol e
b ourge oisi e fa nta sy To b e gi n wi th it is ve ry fa r from
.
,

95
 WH Y E XH I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

true th a t no o ne is shock e d by the s ta te m e nt that Virtu e

is its o w n r ewa rd ”
I f tha t we re tr u e th e n virtu e
.
,

would be no more th a n th e s e lf righteous ne ss of th e -

u ned ni d Tha t Virtu e is i ts o w n r e wa rd is ac t u ally

g .

i n dire c t opposi tio n to a ll or thodox te achi ng wh e r e i t is ,

co ns ta ntly a n d e xplici tly a ffi rm e d th a t virtu e is a mea ns

’
to a n e n d a n d no t i ts e lf a n e n d ; a m e a n s to m a n s
,

l a s t e nd Of happi ness a nd no t a par t of that e nd A n d

,
.

i n just th e sam e w ay i n a ll n ormal a n d hum a ne civilisa tio n s

th e doc tri n e a bou t a r t h a s b e e n th a t a r t is i n th e s a m e
way a m e ans a nd no t a fi na l e nd
,
.

F or e xa mpl e th e A ris to te li a n doc tri n e tha t

, th
“

g e ne ra l e nd of a r t is m a n w a s firmly e n dors e d by t he
m e di ae va l Chris ti a n e n cy clo pw dis ts a nd w e m a
y say
that a ll thos e philosophical a nd re ligious sys te ms of
t hough t from which th e class t hi n k e r would mos t lik e
t o be e m a n cip a te d ar e a gr e e d t ha t bo th e thics a n d ar t
ar e m e a n s to h a ppi n e ss a n d n e ith e r a fi n a l e n d
,
Th e .

bourg eoisi e poi nt of vi e w to which th e soci a l r e form er in

poi nt of fact a ss e nts is s e nti me nta l a n d id ea lis tic whil e
th e r e ligious doc tri ne which h e r e pudi a te s is u tili ta ri a n
a n d practical 1 In a ny c a s e th e fac t t h a t a m a n ta k e s
,

pl ea sure or may take pl ea sure i n doi n g we ll or i n m a ki ng

, ,

we ll do e s no t su ffi c e to mak e of this pl ea sure the purpos e

,

of his work e xc e p t i n the c a s e of th e m a n who is s e lf

,
?

righte ous or th a t of th e m a n who is m e r e ly a s e lf

e xpr e ssio n is t just as th e pl easur e of e ati ng cannot be
ca ll e d th e fi na l e nd of e ati ng e xc e p t i n th e ca s e of th e
,

glu tto n who live s to e at

I f u s e a nd valu e ar e no t in fa c t syno nymous it is o nly
.

b e caus e u s e impli e s e ffi cacy a nd va lue may be a ttach e d

,

to som e thi n g i ne ffi ci e n t Augus ti ne for e xa mpl e poi nts

.
, ,

out that b ea u ty is no t j ust wh at w e lik e b e caus e som e ,

p e opl e like d e formi ti es or i n o th e r words value what is ,

r e ally i nva lid U s e a n d valu e a r e n o t id entical i n logic

.
,

but in th e cas e of a p e rfe ctly h e althy subj e c t coi ncid e ,

96
W H AT IS TH E US E OF A RT, ANYWAY ?

in e xp e ri e nc e a nd this is a dmirably illus trate d by th e

e tymologic a l e quival e n c e of G e rm a n br a i n/z en to u s e
”
f
a n d L a ti n r ni to e njoy .

Nor ca n mo ne y fa m e or a r t be call e d e xpl a na tio ns

, ,

Of ar t . No t mo ney b e caus e a sid e from th e cas e of

,

manufa ctu r e for profi t i nste ad of for u s e th e ar tis t by ,

n a tur e whos e e nd i n V i e w is th e good of th e work to

,

be do n e is n o t worki n g i n ord e r to e a r n but e arn i n g

, ,

i n ord e r to be abl e to go o n b e i ng hims e lf viz to be ,

.
,

a b l e to go o n worki n g as th a t which h e is by n atur e

jus t a s h e e ats to be abl e to go o n livi n g rath e r tha n live s,

to be a bl e to go o n e a ti n g A s to fa me i t nee d o nly
.
,

be poi nte d o u t tha t th e gre a te r p a r t O f th e gre ate st ar t

of the world has b ee n produc e d a no nymously a nd th a t ,

if a ny work ma n has o nly fa m e i n V i ew an

y prop er
,

m a n ought to be ash a m e d for good p e opl e to k now this

”
of him . A n d as to a r t to s ay tha t th e a rtis t wor k s for
,

a r t is a n a b us e of l a n gu a g e Ar t is tha t
. which a
m a n works suppo si n g that h e is i n poss e ssio n Of his
,

a rt a n d has th e habi t of his a r t jus t a s prud en c e or

co nsci en c e is th a t by which h e acts we ll A rt is no mor e .

th e e nd of his work th a n prud e n c e th e e n d of his co n duc t .

I t is o nly b e caus e u nder the co ndi tio ns e s tablish e d

i n a sys te m Of pro d uc tio n for profi t ra th e r tha n for u s e
”
w e h a ve forgo tte n th e m e a ni n g of th e word voca tio n ,
“
a n d thi n k o n ly i n te rms of jobs th a t such co nfusio ns
,
“
a s t h e s e a r e possibl e . Th e m a n who has a job is
worki ng for ul te rior mo tive s a n d may be qui te i ndi ffe re nt
,

to th e quality of the product for which h e is n o t r e s po n

,

si b l e ; all tha t h e wants i n this cas e is to s e cure a n

a d e quate shar e of th e e xp e c te d profits B u t o ne whos e
.

vocatio n is sp e cific th a t is to say who is na t u rally a nd

,

co ns ti tu tio nally a dapte d to a nd tra i ne d in some o ne or

a noth e r ki nd of mak i n g eve n though h e e arns his livi ng
,

by this mak i ng is r eally doi ng what he li ke s most a nd

,

if h e is forc e d by circumsta nc e s to do some oth e r ki n d

97
 WH Y E XH I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

of work eve n though mor e highly p a id is a ctua lly u n

, ,

h a ppy Th e voca tio n wh eth e r it be th a t of th e fa rm e r

.
,

o r th e a rchi te c t is a fu n c t io n
,
th e e x e rcis e Of this fu n c t io n
a s r e g a rds th e m a n hims e lf is th e mos t i n disp e n s a bl e

m e ans of spi r i tu a l d eve lopm e nt a nd a s r e g a rds his r e

,

l a tio n to soci e ty th e m ea su r e of his wo r th It is pre cis ely .

i n this w a y t ha t as Pl a to s ays mor e will be do ne , a nd

,

b e tte r do ne a nd wi th mo r e e a s e wh e n e ve ryo n e do e s
, ,

bu t o n e thi n g a cco r di n g to his g e n ius ; a n d this is

,
”
j us tic e to e a ch m a n i n hims e lf It is th e tra g e dy Of a
.

soci e ty i n dus tri a lly orga nis e d for profi t th a t this jus tic e
to e a ch m a n i n hims e lf is d e n i e d him a nd a n
y such
soci ety li te ra lly a nd i ne vi ta bly pl a ys th e D evil wi th th e '

r e s t of the world .

Th e b a sic e rror i n wh a t w e h a ve c a ll e d th e illusio n

of cul tur e is the a ssum pti o n th a t a r t is some thi ng to be
do ne by a sp e ci a l ki n d of m a n a nd p a rticul ar ly th a t ki n d
,

o f m a n Whom w e c a ll a g e n ius In dire c t opposi tio n

.

to this is th e n orm a l a n d hum a ne vi e w th a t ar t is s i mply

th e righ t w ay of m a ki ng thi n gs wh e th e r sympho n i e s
,

or a e r opl a n e s . Th e n o r m a l vi e w a ssum e s i n o th e r ,

words no t tha t th e a r tis t is a sp e ci a l ki n d of m a n bu t

, ,

th a t e v e ry m a n who is n o t a m e r e idl e r a n d pa r a si te i s
n e c e ss a rily som e sp e ci a l ki n d O f a r tis t sk i ll e d a n d we ll ,

co nte n te d i n th e ma ki ng or a rra ngi ng of som e o ne thi ng

or a no th e r a ccordi ng to his co n s ti tu tio n a n d trai n i ng .

Wo r ks of g e nius a r e of ve ry li ttl e u s e to huma ni ty ,

which i nva ri a bly a n d i nevi ta bly misu nd e rs ta nds dis to r ts , ,

and ca ric a t u re s th e ir ma nn e risms a n d ig n ore s th e i r

e ss e nc e . It is n o t th e g e n ius bu t th e m a n who ca n
,

produc e a m a s te r pi e ce that m a tte rs Fo r wh a t is a

,
.

m a s te rpi e c e N o t as commo nly suppos e d a n i n dividu a l

fligh t of th e ima gi na tio n b e yo nd th e commo n r e ach
,

i n i ts o w n tim e a n d plac e a nd r a th e r for pos te r i ty t ha n

for ou r s elve s bu t by d e fi n i tio n a pi e c e of work do ne ,

by an a pprentic e at the clos e Of his a pp re ntic e sh i p a nd

98
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

W e do no t d e ny tha t th e cl a ss thi nke r may be p e rfe c tly

jus tifi e d i n his re s en tm e nt of e co nomic e xploi tatio n ;
as to this i t will su ffi c e to poi nt o u t o n ce a nd for all th a t
th e l a bour e r is wor thy of his hi r e
”
B ut what the .

cl a ss th i n k e r as a m a n a n d n o t m e r e ly in his obvious
, ,

r 61e of e xploi t e e o ugh t t o d e m a n d bu t h a r dly e v e r dar e s

,

to d e ma n d is a huma n r e spo n sibili ty fo r wh a tev e r h e

mak e s Wh a t th e tr a de u nio n should re quire of i ts
.

m e mb e rs is a m a s ter s a ccomplishm ent Wh a t th e

’
.

class thi n k e r who is no t m e re ly a n u nd e r dog bu t a lso ,

a man ,
h a s a r igh t to d e m a n d is n e i th e r to hav e l e ss
,

work to do no r to be e n gag e d i n a di ffe re nt ki n d o f

,
-

work no r to h ave a l a rge r sh a re in th e cul tura l crumbs

,
’
th a t fa ll fr om th e r ich m a n s ta bl e bu t th e oppor t un ity
'

to ta k e a s gr e a t a pl ea su r e i n doi n g wh a te ve r h e do e s
for hire a s h e tak e s i n his o w n gar d e n or fa mily life
,

wh a t h e should d e ma nd i n o th e r words is th e o ppo r

, ,

tu n ity to be a n a r tis t N o civilis a tio n c a n be a cc e p te d

.

th a t d e n i e s him this .

Wi th or wi thout machi ne s i t is c e rta i n that work ,

will a lways h ave to be do ne W e have tri e d to show .

th a t whil e work is a n e c e ssity i t is by no m ea n s a n e c e ss a ry

,

e vil
,
bu t i n c a s e th e workm a n is a re spo n sibl e a r tis t ,

a n e c e ss a r y good W e h ave spoke n so far from th e

.

’
wo r kma n s poi n t of vi ew bu t it ne e d h a rdly be a dd e d tha t
,

as much d e pe n ds o n th e p a tro n a s upo n the artis t .

Th e wo r km a n b e com e s a pa tr o n a s soo n as h e proc e e ds

to buy fo r his o w n u s e A n d to him a s co n sum e r w e
.

sugg e s t th a t th e m a n who wh e n h e nee ds a sui t do es

, ,

no t buy tw o r e a dy m a d e sui ts of shoddy m a te ri a l bu t ,

commissio ns a skill e d ta ilor to m a ke o ne sui t of fin e

mate ri a l is a fa r b e tte r pa tro n of a r t a nd b e tte r phil a n
,

th r o pis t tha n th e m a n who m e r e ly acquir e s a n Old mas te r

a n d give s i t to th e n a tio n c
Th e m e ta physici an a nd
.

philosoph e r ar e a lso i nvolve d i t should be a primary

fu nc tio n of th e Profe sso r of ZEs the tics to bre ak down
1 00
WH AT IS TH E US E OF A R T, AN Y WAY ?

th e sup e rs ti tio n of A r t a n d that of th e A r tis t as a

,

privil e ge d p e rso n of a no th e r sor t tha n ordi na ry m e n

, .

Wha t th e e xploi tee should re s e nt is no t m ere ly th e

fa c t O f soci a l i ns e curi ty bu t th e posi tio n of huma n
,

irre spo n sibili ty th a t is forc e d upo n him u n d e r co n di tio ns

Of m a n ufac tur e fo r profi t H e h a s to re a lis e th a t th e
.

que s tio n O f th e own er ship of th e m ea ns of produc tio n

is prima rily of spiri tua l sig nifica n ce a nd o nly s e co n darily
,

a m a tte r Of e co nomic j ustic e or i njus tic e In so far .

as the cl a ss thi n k e r propos e s to live by brea d alo ne or ,

e v e n wi th c a k e,
h e is ne i th e r b e tte r n o r wis e r tha n th e
bourg eoisi e c a pi ta lis t whom h e a ff e c t s to d e spis e no r
would h e be a ny happi e r a t work by a n e xch a ng e of
many mas te rs for few It m a ke s bu t li ttl e di ff e r e n ce
.

wh e th e r h e propos e s to do wi thou t ar t or to ge t his sh a r e

,

of i t so lo n g a s h e co ns e nts to th e i n hum a n de ifica tio n

” “ ’
of Ar t impli e d i n th e e xp r e ssio n A r t fo r a r t s
’
sak e . It is n o mor e co n ducive to m a n s l a s t a n d ,

pre s e nt en d of h a ppi ne ss that h e should s a crific e hims e lf

,
”
o n t h e al ta r of Ar t
,
tha n for him to s a crific e hims e lf
o n th e al ta rs of a p e rso n ifi e d S ci e n c e S ta te or Na t io n
, , .

’
O n b e h a lf of e ve ry m a n w e d e ny t ha t ar t is for ar t s
s a k e O n th e co ntra ry
. I n dus try wi thou t a r t is
,

bru tality a n d to b e com e a bru te is to di e a s a m a n .

It is a ma tte r Of ca nno n fodd e r i n e i th e r cas e i t mak e s

bu t li ttl e di ff e r e n c e wh e th e r o n e di e s i n th e t r e n ch es
sudde nly or in a fa c tory day by day .

101
 C H A PT E R V

B E A U TY AND T RU T H
Ex di vi na p a l e/z r i tu di ne es s e omni u m der i v a tur
‘

a s A qui na s , D e Pnl elz to

( S t Thom .
)
T is a ffi r m e d th a t b ea u ty r e l a te s to th e cog ni tive
fa cul ty ( St Thomas A qui na s S u m l eol I
.
, 4 . .
, ,

ad . I
) b e i n g th e c a us e of k n owl e dg e for si n c e k now, ,

l e dg e is by a ssim i l a tio n a n d simili tud e i s wi th re sp e c t

,

to form ,
b e auty p r op e rly b e lo n gs to th e n a ture of a
forma l c aus e A g a i n St Thom a s e n do r s e s th e
d e fi n i tio n of b ea uty a s a ca us e i n S u m Theal III 8 8 3
.
,

. .
, , , , ,

h e says th at God is th e c a us e of a ll thi ngs by h i s k now

l e dge a nd this a ga i n e mph a s i z e s th e co nn e c tio n o f
“
b ea u wi th wisdom . It i s k nowl e dg e th a t m a k e s
th e work b e au tiful
”
( S t B o n a v e nt u ra
. D e r educti one ,
’
a r ti u m a o tlz eol o i a m I It is O f cours e by i ts quali ty
g , ,

of lucidi ty or i llumi na tio n ( cla r i ta s ) which U lrich of ,

S tr a ssburg e xpl a i n s a s th e shi n i ng of th e fo r m a l l igh t

upo n wh a t is fo r m e d o r proportio n e d tha t b eauty i s ,

id e n tifi e d wi th i n te lligib i li ty : b r i llianc e of e xpre ssio n

b e i ng u nthi nka bl e a p a rt fr om p e r spica ci ty Va gu e ne ss .

of a ny so r t a s b e i n g a p r iva tio n Of du e fo r m is n e c e ss a rily

,

a d efe c t of b e a u ty H e n c e it is th a t i n m e d i e va l rh e to r i c
.

so much s tre ss is l a id o n th e commu n i ca tive n a tur e O f

art ,
which mus t be a lways e xpl i ci t .

It is p r e cis e ly this commu n ica tiv e ch a ra c te r t h a t

dis ti nguish e d Chris ti a n from l a te cl a ssica l a r t i n which ,

s tyl e is pu r su e d fo r i ts o w n sake a n d co nte n t va lu e d o nly

,

as a poi n t o f d e p a r tur e a n d i n th e s a m e w a fr om th e
y ,

g r ea te r p a r t of mod e r n a r t which e nd eavo urs to e limi na te

,

1 02
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

e xhibi tio nism i n which th e ar tis t rath e r e xploi ts h 1 m s elf

tha n d e mo n s tra te s a tru th a n d mod e r n i n dividualism,

frankly jus tifi e s this s e lf e xpr e ssio nism th e m e di ae val

-
,

a rtis t is ch a ra c te ris tica lly a no nymous a nd of un

”
ob trusive d e m ea nour a nd it is no t who s pe aks bu t
, ,

wh a t is s a id th a t m a tte rs .

NO dis ti n c tio n ca n be dra wn b e t w ee n th e pr 1 nc1 ples

of m e di wv al pl a s tic a nd figura tive a r t a nd symbolic
“ ” “
o r nam en t a n d thos e of co nte mpora ry s e rmo ns
a nd trac ts of which a n i ndica tio n may be ci te d i n th e
,

d e sig na tio n B i bli a pau pe r u m as a ppli e d to a pictori a l

re l a tio n of scrip tura l th e me s A s Profe ssor M orey .

re ma rks Th e ca the dra l

,
“
is as much a n e xposi tio n
of m e di aeva l Chris ti a ni ty as th e S umma of Thomas
a n d B aldwi n
”
A qu i na s ( Ckr i s ti a n Ar t 1 9 3 5 p , ,
.
,

Th e cath e dr a ls s till e xh i bi t 1 n scul ptur e a n d glass wh a t

c a m e i n words from th e ir pulpi ts Su ch pr e achi n g . .

shows the s a m e pr e occup a tio ns as th e symbolic wi n dows

of th e cath e dr a ls th e ir ca rve d ca pi ta ls a bove all th e
, ,

thro n g e d but h a rmo n iz e d groups of th e ir gr e a t porch e s

( M edi a v a l Rketor i c a nd P oeti c pp 2 3 9 It ,is .

,

th e r e for e e n tir e ly p e r ti n e n t to no te th a t acco rdi n g to

A ugus ti ne who m ay be s a id to h ave d e fi n e d o n c e for all
,

th e pri n cipl e s of Chris t i a n a r t (D e doctr i na clzr is ti a na

bo ok I V a t rea tis e tha t h as historical sig n i fica n c e
,

o u t of all propor t io n to i ts siz e

”
B aldwi n op cit p , ,
. .
,
.

th e busi n e ss of Chris ti a n e loqu e n c e is to te ach in ,

ord e r to i ns truc t to pl ea s e i n ord e r to hold a n d a lso

ass ur e dly to move i n ord e r to co nvi nc e ( I V 1 2 1 3 )
, ,
-
, , ,

th e formul a cl ocer e del ecta r e fl ecter e or a l te rn a tive ly

, , ,

r oka r e del ecta r e mo ver e d e rivi n g from Cic e ro oba r e

p p
‘
, , , r

m ea ns th e d e mo ns tra tio n of quad es t p r oba ndum th e ,

th e m e o r burd en of th e work 1
Th e m e a ni ng of .

pl e a sur e ( delecta ti o) is e xpl a i ne d by St Augus ti ne .

wh e n h e s ays o n e is pl e asi ng (gr a nt s) wh e n h e cl ears

up m a tte r s th a t nee d to be mad e u nd ers tood ( I V ,

1 04
 B EA UTY A N D TR UTH
Bu t i n th e pre s e nt co nte x t A ugus ti ne is thi nki ng ra th er
of p l e asure give n by charm of dic tio n ( s u a vi ta s

di cti oni s) by m e a n s of which th e t ru th to be commu nicate d

is at it were mad e p a latabl e by th e a ddi tio n of a s ea so n
i ng which for th e s a k e of we a k mi n ds ough t no t to
, ,

be n e gl e c te d bu t is n o t e ss e nt ial if w e a r e co n sid e ri ng
o nly thos e who a r e so e ag e r for th e tru th th a t th ey care
no t how i ne l e ga ntly ( i ncul te i t may have b ee n e xpr e ss e d
“
) ,

si nc e it is th e fine ch a rac te ris t ic of gr e a t mi n ds

( k onor u m i n eni or u m
g ) t h a t th e y lov e th e t ru th that is i n

th e words rath e r th a n th e words th e ms e lv e s

, I( V 1 ,

And wi th r e fe r e n c e to wh a t w e should ca ll p e rhaps , ,

’
th e s e ve ri ty of primitive art Augus ti ne s words
,

a r e v e ry p e rti ne n t O e loqu e n c e so much th e mor e

,

te rribl e as it is so u na dor n e d a n d as it is so g e nui ne ,

so much th e mor e powe rful O truly a n a x e h e wi ng

I( V
,

th e rock ,

P e rspicacity is th e firs t co n sid e ra tio n such la ngu a g e

mus t th e refor e b e us e d a s will be i nte lligibl e to thos e
who ar e addre ss e d I f n e c e ssa r y e ve n corr e c tne ss
.
,

( g
i e r i ta s
) of e xpr e ssio n m a be s a c r ific e d if th e m a tte r
2
n t
y ,

i t s e lf ca n be taught a nd u n d e rs tood corr e c tly (i ntegr e)

th e r e by ( I V ,
In o th e r words th e sy n tax a n d ,

vocabulary a r e for the s a k e of th e d e mo ns tra tio n

’
( ev i denti a
'
os tend er e i ntendi t d h m
g u oa
) a n ,
n o t t h e t e e
for th e s a ke Of the s tyl e ( a s mod e r n aesth e tici a ns app ea r
to b e li eve) Th e a rgum e n t is dire c te d a gai ns t a
.

m e cha n ical adh e sio n to a p e da ntic or acad e mic

accuracy a n d a ris e s i n co n n e c tio n wi th th e probl e m
,

of addre ssi ng a som ewh a t u ncul tiva te d audi e nc e It .

a mou n t s to this th a t i n ac t ua l te a chi n g

, o n e s h ould ,

e mploy th e v e r nacul a r of t hos e who a r e taugh t provid e d

,

th a t this is for th e good Of th e thi n g to be taugh t or as

II I I 4 express es it the
,
’
th e L a ri kav a tar a S ii tr a
'

, , , ,

doc tri ne is commu nicate d o nly i n dire c tly by m e a ns of

th e pic tur e a n d wh a te v e r is no t a d a p te d to such a n d

1 0 5
 WHY E X H I B IT W OR K S OF ART ?

such p e rso ns a s ar e to be
ugh t ca nno t be c a ll e d tea ch
ta ,

i ng . Th e e n d 1 s no t to be co nfu se d wi th th e m e a ns ,

n o r a r e t hos e good m e a n s which may s e e m to be g o od

i n th e ms e lv e s bu t thos e which a r e good i n th e give n

,

a ppl i c a t io n . It is of th e gr e a te s t i n te r e s t t o O bs e rv e
th a t th e s e pri n cipl e s a mou n t to a r e cog n i tio n a n d s a n c t i o n
of such d i s tortio ns or d e p a r ture s from a ca d e mic
p e rfe c tio n as ar e r e pr e s e n te d by wh a t a r e ca ll e d
”
a rchi te c tura l r e fi n e m e n ts In th e c a s e of e nta s i s
.
,

for e xa mpl e th e e n d i n vi e w is prob a bly th a t th e colum n

,

may be u n d e rs tood to be p e rp e n dicul a r a n d s tr a i gh t

sid e d th e d e sire d r e sul t b e i ng ob tai ne d by a n a c tua l
,

diver g e n c e from s tra igh t sid e d ne ss A t th e sam e ti me

-
.
,

th e a ccommod a tio n is n o t m a d e for aes th e tic bu t fo r

i n te ll e c tual r e a so ns i t is in this w ay th a t th e id ea
of p e rp e ndicul a r i ty is b e s t commu n i ca te d a nd if th e ,

r e sul ti ng e ff e c t i s a lso visu a lly s a tisfyi ng th i s is ra th e r ,

a ma tter of g r a c e th a n th e imm e d i a te pu r pos e o f th e mod i

‘

fica tio n . In th e s a m e w a y wi t h th e c o mposi tio n o f a ny

work this composi tio n is d e te rmi n e d by th e log i c of
,

th e th e m e to b e commu n ic a te d a n d n o t fo r th e comfor t
,

of th e eye a nd if th e eye is s a tisfi e d i t is b e caus e a

, ,

physica l ord e r i n th e org a n of p e r c e p tio n co r re spo nds

to th e ra tio n a l ord e r pr e s e n t i n wha te v e r is i n te lligibl e ,

a n d n o t b e caus e th e wo r k of a r t w a s for th e s a k e o f th e
”
e ye or e a r a lo n e A no th e r w ay i n which corr e c tne ss
.
,
”
i n this c a s e a rch ae ologic a l a ccu r a cy ca n p r op e rly be
,

sacrific e d to th e h i gh e r e n d O f i nte lligibili ty ca n be ci te d

i n the cus tom a ry m e di ae va l tre a t m e nt o f B iblic a l th e m e s
a s if th e y h a d b e e n e na c te d i n t h e a c tu a l e n viro n m e n t

of thos e who d e pic te d th e m a n d wi th co ns e qu e nt ,

a nachro n ism It ha rdly n ee ds to be po i nte d o u t t ha t a

.

t r ea tm e n t which r e pr e s e n t s a mys tic a l e v e n t a s if a curr e n t

ev e n t commu n ica te s i ts th e m e n o t l e ss bu t mor e vivi dly ,
”
a n d i n this s e n s e mor e corr e c tly th a n o n e which ,

by a p e da ntic re g a r d fo r a r c h wo lo gica l p re cisio n r a th e r

1 0 6
 WH Y E X H I B IT WOR K S OF ART ?

bishop of Ru r em o nde who s tates that afte r givi ng th e

clos e s t atten tio n h e had b e e n u nabl e to dis ti nguish o ne
word su ng by th e choir ( Z K Pyne Pa l es tr i na lz is . .
, ,

L ife a nd Ti mes L o n do n 1 9 2 2 pp 3 1 a n d
, , , It .

was o nly wh e n th e pop e s a n d the Cou n cil of Tre n t h a d

b ee n co n vi nc e d by th e work of P a l e s tri na tha t th e n e w
a nd mor e i n tric a te musica l forms w e re no t ac t ua lly
i n compa tibl e with luci d i ty tha t th e posi tio n of th e
,

figure d music was ma d e s e cure .

B ear i ng in mi nd what h as already b e en s a id o n th e

i nvari a bly occasio nal chara c te r of a r t tog e th e r wi th wh a t ,

h a s b e e n ci te d as to i n t e lligibili ty i t i s su ffi ci e n tly e vid e n t

,

t ha t from a Chris t i a n poi n t of vi e w the work of a r t is ,

a lwa ys a m ea n s a n d n e v e r a n e n d i n i t s e lf
,
B e i ng a .

m ea n s i t is o r d e r e d to a give n e nd wi thou t which i t

, ,
’
h a s n o r a i s on d etr e a n d c a n o nly be t re a te d as bric a bra c
‘
- -
.
,

Th e curr e nt a pp r oach may be comp a r e d to tha t of a

t rave ll e r w ho ,
wh e n h e fi n ds a sig n pos t proc e e ds to ,

admire i ts e l e ga n c e to ask who ma d e it a nd fi nally cu ts

, ,

i t dow n a n d d e cid e s to u s e i t as a ma nte lpi e c e ornam e nt .

That m ay be all ve ry we ll bu t ca n hardly be ca ll e d a n

,

u n de rs ta ndi ng Of th e work ; fo r u nl e ss th e e n d be
a ppar e n t to ours e lve s as i t was to th e a r tis t how ca n w e
, ,

pre te n d to have u n d e rs tood or how ca n w e judg e his ,

O p e r a t io n

I f i nd ee d w e divert the work of a r t to some o th er tha n

it s origi nal u s e th e n i n th e firs t plac e i ts b e au ty will
, , ,

be corr e spo n di ngly dimi n ish e d for a s St Thomas s a ys , , .

a bov e , if th ey a r e a ppli e d to a no th e r u s e or e nd th e ir ,

harmo ny a n d th e re fore th e ir b e auty is no lo ng e r m a i n

”
tai n e d a n d i n t h e s e co n d plac e e v e n though w e m a
, , , y
d e r ive a c e rtai n pl ea sure fr om th e work tha t h a s b e e n
tor n o u t of i ts co n tex t to r e s t i n this pl e a sur e will be a
,
’
s i n i n te rms of A ugus ti n e s d e fi n i t io n s to e nj oy wha t
”
e T
w e should u s e ( D r i ni ta te X or a ,
mad n e ss
, ,

as h e e ls e wh e re calls th e vi e w tha t a r t has no o th e r

1 08
 B E A UTY A N D TR UTH
fu nctio n th a n to pl eas e ( D e doc clzr i s t I V Th e . .
, ,

s i n i nsofar as i t h a s to do wi t h co n duc t a nd ig nor e s th e

,

ul tim a te fu nctio n of th e work which is to co nvi nc e a nd ,

i n stiga te ( mov er e) is o ne of luxury bu t si n c e w e ar e ,

h e re co nc e rne d ra th e r wi th e s th e tic tha n wi t h mora l

d e fa ul t le t us say i n ord e r to avoid th e e xclusive ly
,

moralis tic implicatio ns no w almost i ns e para bl e from th e

id ea of s in that to be co nte nt o nly wi th the pl e a sure th a t
,

c a n be d e riv e d from a work O f ar t wi t hou t r e sp e ct to i ts

co nte x t or sig nifican c e will be a n e s th e tic sol e cism a nd ,

th a t i t is thus th a t th e e s th e te a nd th e ar t de pa rt
fr om th e ord e r to th e e nd ”
Wh e re as if the S p e c ta tor .
,

could e nte r i nto th e s e ima g e s a ppro a chi ng th e m o n the ,

fi e ry ch a rio t ( Skr jy oti r a tka ) of co nte mplative though t .

( Sk r d/z dna
y .dlti
) t h e n woul d h e a ris e fr om th e
,

gra ve th e n would he m e et th e L ord i n th e a ir a nd th e n

, ,

h e would be happy ( B l a ke
) which is mor e tha n to be ,

m e r e ly pl e as e d .

N OTE S
1
S t B o n a v e ntu ra D e redu cti on e a r ti u m a d th ea logi a m
.
(1 7 ad , ,

expr i m endu m , a d er u di en du m a t a d m oven dem , t o e x r e ss i n s tr u ct p ,

and er su a d ep viz , p
t o ex r e s s b y m e a n s o f a 11 k e ne s s t o i n s tr u c t b y a ,

gh
er s u ad e b y m e a n s o f p I t m a y b e n o t ed t a t p h
c l e ar li t a nd t o
gh
,
o w er .

i s lu me n a rgu en s a n d t a t o u r w o r d a r u m ent is h g
cl ea r li t
g
e t y m ol o i c all y a nd o r i i na ll y c l a r i ca t i on g or m a ki n ri
,

t fi g b gh .

3
. g ’ ’
S t A u u s t i ne s l ocu ti om s i n tegr i ta s c o rr e s o n d s t o Ci ce r o s s er m om s p ’ '

i n tegr i tas (B r u t 3 5 1 3 2 ) a nd m e a n s . . c o r r e c t ne s s o f e x r e s s i o n
"
Si m i p .

l ar l y i n S t T o m a s , S u m Theo ! h I
3 9 8 i ntegr i ta s s i ve perf e cti on a s a
b
. . .
. ,

n e ce s s a r y c o nd i ti o n o f ea u t y i ntegr i ta s i s a cc u r a cy
, r a t er t an h h
g ”
g i n mi nd t a t a ll e x r e s s i o n g h p
bh
i nt e r i t y i nt e r a ti o n B e ar i n
"
or .

i s b y m e a n s o f s o m e li k ene s s , w a t t i s m ea n s i s h h
ad e q u a t e s y m o li s m
"
,

i e
. c orr e c t ne s s o f t h e i c o n o r a
.
, y g ph
W e t oo Oft e n ov er l oo k t a t i n
.

p
s e ec hj
u st a s muc h
a s i n t h e v i s u a l a r t s , ex r es s i on i s b y m ea ns o f i m ages p .

10 9
 C H A PT E R V I

T H E N A T U RE O F M ED IZEVAL A RT

Ar t i s th e i mi ta ti on of Na tur e i n h er m a nner of op e r a ti on
f
Ar t i s the p r i ncip l e of ma nu a ctur e — ST T H O M A S A Q U I N A S
. .

H E mod e rn mi n d is as fa rmove d from th e ways

re

of thi n ki ng tha t fin d e xpre ss i o n i n M e di e va l a r t

a s i t is from t hos e e xp r e ss e d i n O ri e nta l a r t W e look .

a t th e s e a r ts fr om tw o p o i n t s of vi e w n e i th e r of t h e m
,

va lid e i th e r th e popul a r vi e w th a t b e li eves i n a pro

gr e ss or evolutio n of a r t a n d ca n o nly s ay of a
p r imi tive th a t Th a t w a s b e fore th ey k ne w a nythi n g
a bou t a na tomy or of s a va g e a r t that it is u ntr u e
to n a tur e o r th e sophis tic a te d V i e w which fi n ds i n

th e e s th e tic surfa c e s a n d th e r e l a tio n s of par ts th e whol e

m e a ni ng a nd purpos e of th e wor k a n d is i nter e s te d o n ly
,

i n o u r e mo tio na l r ea c tio n s to th e s e surfa c e s .

A s to th e firs t w e ne e d o n ly s ay th a t th e r ea lism of l a ter

,

Re naiss a n c e a n d a c a d e mic a r t is j us t wh a t th e M e di e va l
philosoph e r h a d i n mi nd wh e n h e spoke of thos e who
c a n thi n k of n o thi n g nobl e r th a n bodi e s i e ,
who . .
,

k now n o thi ng bu t a natomy A s to th e sophis tic a te d

.

vi e w which very r igh tly r ej e cts th e cri te rio n of lik e ne ss

, ,

a n d r a te s th e primi tive s ve r y highly w e ove rlook ,

“
tha t i t a lso ta k e s for gr a n te d a co n c e p tio n of
‘
ar t

a s th e e xpr e ssio n of e mo t io n a n d a t e rm
, e s t h e t ics

( li te r a lly
,
t h e o r y of s e n s e p e rc e p tio n a n d e mo t io n a l
-

r ea c tio n s a co n c e p tio n a n d a te r m th a t h a v e com e i n to

u s e o nly wi thi n th e l a s t tw o hu n dr e d y e ars of huma nism .

W e do no t r ea lis e tha t i n co n sid e ri ng M e di e val ( o r

A nci e nt or O r i e n tal) a r t fr om th e s e a ngl e s w e ar e a ttr i,

bu ti ng our o w n fe e li ngs to m e n whos e vi e w of ar t w as

1 1 0
 W H Y E X H I B IT WO R K S O F ART ?

in th e oth e r O u r u s e of th e word
. d e corative
would h ave b e e n abusive as if w e spoke of a m e re
,

milli ne ry or uphols te ry for all th e words purpor ti ng

d e coratio n i n m a ny l a nguag es M e di e va l La ti n i nclud e d
, ,

r e fe rre d origi na lly no t to anythi ng tha t could be a d de d

to a n a lr e a dy fi n ish e d a n d e ff e c t iv e produc t m e r e ly to
pl eas e th e ey e or e ar bu t to the compl e tio n of a nythi ng
,

wi th wha teve r might be ne ce ssary to i ts fu n c tio ni ng ,

wh e th e r wi th re sp e c t to th e mi nd or th e body : a
sword for e xampl e would orna m e nt a k nigh t as
, , ,

virtu e ornam e nts the soul or k nowl e dg e th e mi nd .

Pe rfe ctio n ra th e r than b e au ty w a s th e e nd i n vi ew

, , .

Th e re w as no e sth e tic no psycholo gy , of ar t,

bu t o nly a rh e toric or th e ory of b e a u ty which b e au ty
, ,

w a s r e g a r d e d as th e a ttra ctive powe r of p e rfe c tio n i n

ki n d a nd as d e p e n di ng upo n propri e ty upo n th e ord e r ,

or harmo ny of th e par ts ( som e would s ay tha t this

impli e d de p e nd e nt upo n c e r tai n id e al math e matic a l
,

r elatio ns of par ts) a nd upo n cl a ri ty or illumi natio n

th e t ra c e of wh a t St B o n av e ntur a calls
. th e ligh t of
a m e ch a nical a r t . No thi ng u ni nte lligibl e could h av e
b ee n though t of as b eau tiful U gli n e ss was the u n .

attrac tive ne ss o f i nform a lity a nd disord e r .

Th e a r tis t w a s no t a sp e cial ki n d of ma n bu t eve ry ,

m a n a sp e ci a l ki n d Of ar tis t It was no t for him to s a y

.

wha t should be mad e e xc e p t i n th e sp e cial cas e in

,

which h e is his o w n p a tro n m a ki n g le t us say a n ico n , ,

or a hous e for hims e lf It w a s for the patron to say

.

wha t should be m a d e ; for th e a rtist th e make r ,

by a r t to k now how to mak e The artist did n o t

, .

thi n k of his ar t as a s e lf expre ssio n no r w a s the

-
,

patro n i nte re s te d in his p e rso na li ty or biography The .

ar tist was usua lly a nd u nl e ss by acci de nt a no nymous

, , ,

sig ni ng his work i f a t all o nly by way of guarantee

, ,

i t was no t w ho bu t wh a t was said tha t ma tte r e d

, ,
A .

copyright could no t h ave b ee n co n c e ive d wh e re it w a s

1 1 2
 TH E N ATU R E O F ME D IE VA L ART

w ell u n d e rs tood th a t th e r e c a n be no prop e r ty i n id e a s ,

which a r e his who e nte r tai ns the m who eve r thus

m a k e s a n id ea his o w n is worki ng origi na lly bri ngi ng ,

forth from a n imm e dia te sourc e wi thi n hims e lf r e gard ,

l e ss Of how m a ny tim e s th e s a m e id ea m ay h ave b e e n

e xpr e s s e d by o th e rs b e for e or a rou n d him .

Nor w a s th e p a tro n a sp e ci a l ki n d of m a n bu t simply ,

”
our co n sum e r . This p a tro n w a s th e judg e of
a rt n o t a cri tic or co nnoiss e ur i n our a c a d e mic

s e ns e but o ne who k ne w his ne e ds a s a carp e nte r k nows

, ,

wha t tools h e mus t h ave from th e smi th a n d who could ,

dis ti nguish a d e qu ate from i n a d e qua te workm a nship ,

a s th e mod e r n co n sum e r c a n n o t H e e xp e c te d a pro

.

’
duc t th a t would work a nd no t som e priva te jen d esp r i t
,
’
o n th e a r t is t s par t O u r co nnoiss e urs whos e i n te r e s t
.

’
is prim a rily i n th e a rtis t s p e rso na li ty a s e xpr e ss e d i n
s tyl e — the a ccid e nt a nd no t th e e ss e n c e of ar t— pr e te n d
to th e judgm e n t of M e di e va l ar t wi thou t co n sid e ra tio n
of i ts re a so ns a n d ig nore th e ico nogra phy i n which
,

t h e s e r e aso n s a r e cl ea rly r e fl e c te d B u t who ca n judg e

.

wh eth e r a nythi n g h a s b e e n w ell s a id or ma d e a nd so ,

dis ti nguish good from bad a s judg e d by a r t u nl e ss h e ,

be fully a ware O f w ha t w a s to be s a id or do n e
Th e Chris tia n s ymbolism of which E mil e M al e
spo k e as a c a lculus was no t th e private l a nguag e Of
an
y i ndividu a l ,
c e n tury or,
n a t io n b ut a u n iv e rs a l
,

la nguag e u nive rsally i nte lligibl e It was no t e ve n .

private ly Chris ti a n or E urop ea n I f art h a s b ee n

,

prop e rly ca ll e d a u n ive rs a l langua ge it is no t such ,

’
b e caus e all me n s s e nsi tive fa cul ti e s e na bl e th e m to
r e cog ni ze wh a t th ey s ee so tha t th ey c a n s ay
, This ,
”
re pr e s e nts a m a n r e gardl e ss of wh eth e r th e work
,
“

ha s b ee n do ne by a S co tchm a n or a Chi na ma n bu t ,

b e caus e of th e u nive rs a li ty O f th e a d e qua te symbolism

i n which i ts m e a ni n gs have b e e n e xpr e ss e d B u t th a t .

th e r e is a u n ive r s a lly i nt e lligibl e l a ngu a e of a r t no mor e

g
1 1 3
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

m e ans th a t w e c a n a ll r e a d i t th a n th e fa c t th a t La ti n
w as spok e n i n th e M i ddl e A g e s through o u t E urop e
m ea n s that E urop e a n s c a n sp e a k i t to day Th e -
.

langua g e of ar t is o ne t ha t w e mus t re l e a rn if w e wish

,

to u n d e rs ta n d M e di e va l a r t a n d n o t m e r e ly to r e cord
-

our r ea c tio ns to i t A n d this is our l a s t word th a t

.

to u n d e r s ta n d M e di e va l a r t n e e ds mor e th a n a mod e r n
cour s e in th e a ppre ci a ti o n of a r t i t de m a n dS a n ”

u nd e rs ta ndi ng of th e sp i ri t of th e M iddl e A g e s th e ,

spiri t of Chris ti a nity i ts e lf a nd i n th e l a s t a na lys i s

,

th e spiri t of wh a t h a s b e e n we ll n a m e d th e Phil o sophi a

”
Pe re nnis or U n ive rs a l a nd U na nimous Tra di tio n ,

of which St A ugus ti ne spoke a s a Wisd o m th a t was

.
,

n o t m a d e bu t is n o w wh a t i t always w a s a n d e v e r sh all
,

be som e touch of which will O p e n doors to th e

u nd e rs ta nd i ng of a nd a d e ligh t i n a ny tr a di tio na l a r t ,

wh e th e r it be th a t of the M i d dl e A g e s th a t Of th e E a s t
, ,

th a t of th e folk in a ny p a rt Of th e world .

1 1 4
 Tw o p o r tr a i t s of t he Ma o r i C hi eft pa K p
a in , Tu u a

b by an g h
E n li s a rti s t below by hi m elf s

b
a ov e , ,
.

f
A t er F r o e niu s , The Chi ld hood of M n 90 9 p 3 5
a ,
1 , . .
 T HE T RA D I T I O N A L C O N C E PT I ON OF
I D E A L P O RT R A I T U RE
HE I n d ia n Sukr a ni tisa r a
‘

prais e s th e
maki ng O f divi ne imag e s i n accordanc e wi th
ca no n ical pr e scriptio n a nd co nd e m n s th e portrayal of
,
”
huma n lik e ne ss e s as no t h e aven wa rd l e adi ng -
Th e .

we ll known Cam b odia n a nd Javane s e practis e of e re cti ng

statu e s of d e ifi e d an c e s tors in th e like ne ss of divi ne
imag e s is i n p e rfe ct agr e e m e nt with this pro nou nc e me nt .

It ca n r e adily be i nfe rr e d from th e te xt of th e Pr a ti

mdna ta ka wh e r e B h a rata visi ti ng a n a nc e s tral
,

chap e l is u nabl e to r e co gniz e th e e fli gie s of his o w n

,

pare nts a t th e sam e tim e that h e e xcl a ims a t th e p e rfe ctio n

,

O f th e workm a nship a n d fe e ls th e movi ng pow e r of th e

figure s that h e r e too in I n dia prop e r it mus t hav e bee n

,

rath e r th e d e ifi e d m a n than th e m a n as h e had b e e n o n

e ar th tha t w a s r e pr e s e n te d i n th e e ffi gi e s Th e r e a r e1
.

s till e xtant mor eov e r num e rous l a te r I n dian votive

, ,

bro nz e s tatu e tte s which a r e sp e cifica lly portrai ts of

,

such a n d such a do nor a nd ye t ca nn o t be dis ti nguish e d

, ,

or scarc e ly dis ti nguish e d from divi n e ima g e s as we ll

,

as o th e rs in which th e i nte ntio n to r e pr e s e nt a huma n

b e i ng is evid e nt bu t th e fa ci a l e xpr e ssio n is al tog eth e r
,

t ha t of a typ e wi thou t i n dividu a l p e culiar i t i e s

, O n th e .

Oth e r ha n d i n th e d ramatic li te ratur e th e r e is a n abu n

, ,

da nc e O f d etail e d r e fe re nc e s to a s e cul a r a r t o f portrai ture

i n which a r e al lik e ne ss to th e livi n g subj e c t w a s e ss e nti a l
to th e social a n d l a rg e ly e ro t ic purpos e of th e wo r k
, ,

I t is qui te evi de nt th e n tha t i n I n dia w e have to ta k e

.

, ,

accou nt of tw o qui te di ff e r e nt ki nds of po r trai ture ,

1 1 7
 WH Y E X HI B IT WO R K S O F A RT ?

r e sp e ctiv e ly pos thumous h i e ra tic a n d i d e a l o n th e o n e

, ,

han d a n d ta ke n from l i fe pro fa n e a nd s e nti m e nta l o n

, , ,

t h e o th e r . W e S h a ll find tha t th e r e e x i s te d i n E u r op e
a lso a co r r e spo n di n g t ra di t io n of i d e a l portr a i ture of ,

wh i ch full a ccou nt mus t be ta k e n if w e a r e to u nd e rs ta n d

th e u nd e r lyi ng sig nifica n c e of fa cial e xp r e ss i o n i n
m e di e va l Chris t i a n a r t B e fore goi n g o n to th e
.

E urop e a n sourc e s howe v e r w e S h a ll r e fe r to tw o o th e r

I ndia n te xts i n which a dis ti n ctio n is dr a wn b e twe e n th e
, ,

app e a ra n c e of th e m a n o n t h e o n e h a nd a nd o n th e o th e r ,

th e i nte r ior ima g e of th e v e ry m a n i nvisibl e to th e phys i c a l

e e bu t a cc e ssibl e to th e e e of co nt e mpl a t i o n
y y T h e .

r e l a tio n b e twe e n th e ou twa rd a pp e a r a nc e a nd th e i nte r i or

imag e is a nalogous to tha t b e twe e n th e e s th e tic surfa c e s
of a n a c tua l p a i nti ng a nd th e p i ctur e tha t is no t in
colours ( La nkd va tar a S i ttr a
'

f
1 2 1 ,
-

A d i s ti nct io n b e twe e n th e looki ng gl a ss ima g e a nd -

th e v e ri ta bl e S pir i tu a l e ss e n c e of t h e m a n is sharply
”

d r awn in th e Chdndogy a Up a nisa d V III 8 5 wh e r e th e . .

,

qu e s tio n is pos e d of th e natur e of th e spiri tua l e ss e nc e -

,

o r v e ry S e lf dtma n
( ) i n a di a logu e b e tw e e n th e Prog e n i t or

A n g e l I ndra a n d th e Ti ta n Vir o ca na
, ,

th e Th e .

P r o g e n i tor a sks th e tw o l a tte r to a do r n th e ms e lve s a s

b e s t th e y ca n a nd to co nsid e r th e i r r e fl e c tio n i n a bowl
,

of wa te r . Wha t do you s e e W e s e e ours e lv e s

”
j us t a s w e ar e wi th all our a dor n m e nts th ey r e ply
, , .

Tha t is th e sp i r i tua l e ss e n c e ( dtma n) th a t is th e

-
,
”
immortal th a t i s God h e te lls th e m m e a n i n g that wha t
, , ,

th y e
e i
s e is a form i n t h e im a g e a n d l i k e ne ss of d i
e ty 2

I ndra a nd Viro cana howeve r u nde rsta nd tha t th e

.

, ,

outward asp e c t a nd th e S piri tua l e ss e n c e of th e m a n a r e -

o n e a n d th e sam e t hi ng a nd th e y go a wa y s a t isfi e d
"

wi t h this no thi ng mor e ish ( nds ti ka ) co nclusio n

- -
Th e .
3

Prog e n i to r wa tch e s the m as th e y go a nd r e m a r ks ,

Th ey have go n e a way wi thou t u n d e rs ta nd i n g wi thou t ,

h avi ng k nown th e v e ry Se lf Who e ve r ha s su ch a n .

1 1 8
 WHY EXHIB IT WO R KS OF A RT ?

89 .
( S uppos )
e th e n a mighty ki n g would bid to t h e m

O u th i s ( clo th) y e a ll mus t dra w my por trai t,

A n d ha n d th e clo th to th e m wi th this com
ma ndme nt .

A n d ( th e p a i nte rs) havi ng h e a rd ( his word) ,

Would s ta rt th e ir work of pai nti ng .

uppos a gai n O f t h e s e p a i nt e rs e n g a g e d i n t h e
9 0 .
( S e
) ,

wor
O n e should go a bro a d a n d owi n g to his a bs e n c e , ,

Th e ir numb e r b e i n g i n compl e te th e po r tra i t ,

Could no t be a ccomplish e d i n all its p a rts .

9 1 . T h e p a i nt e rs who a r e m e a n t h e r e

A r e Cha r i ty M o r a ls Pa ti e n c e a n d th e re s t
, , , ,

A n d that wh i ch is th e high e s t poi n t of e xc e ll e n c e

Th e e ss e n c e of all r e l a tive e ntiti e s—this is th e
,

pictur e .

”
Th e pic tur e ,
viz . th a t is no t i n th e colours
, to ,

r e p e at our c i tatio n from th e L a fzkav a tar a S d tr a ' '

W e ar e no w i n a posi tio n to co n sid e r the Europ e a n

p a ra ll e ls Th e fu n d a me n ta l dis ti n c ti o n b e twee n th e
.

outwa r d a pp e a ranc e a nd i nwa r d re a li ty of th e e nligh te ne d ,

a n d i n t his c a s e sp e cifically i n i ti a te d H e rm e s ( who is

r e ally n o mor e tha n th e B uddh a or Chris t i n th e las t
a na lysis m e r e ly this or tha t m a n bu t th e U niv e r s a l M a n
a n d for ma hu ma ni ta ti s i s m a d e i n th e Cor us Her met i cu m
) p
l i b X III ( Sco tt Her meti ca
,

.
, ,
i n a di a logu e
b etwe e n H e rm e s a nd his s o n Ascl e pius who is hims e lf ,
“”
about to be bu t h a s no t y e t b e e n bo r n a ga i n H e rm e s
, , ,

d e ni e s t hat A scl e pius who i s a c tu a lly looki ng a t his

,

fath e r ca n r e a lly s ee him H e says

,
.

I s e e th at by God s m e rcy th e r e ha s com e to be in

’

m e a form which is no t fa shio n e d o u t of m a tte r

I a m no t no w th e m a n I w a s I have b ee n born a gai n
'

i n M i n d ( w as Skr ma na s ) a n d th e bodily shap e

.
,

which w as mi n e b e fo r e ha s b ee n pu t away from m e .

1 20
TRADITI ONA L C ON C E PTI ON OF ID EAL P ORTRA ITURE
I am no lo ng e r a n O bj e c t colour e d a nd ta ngibl e a
thi n g of sp a t i a l dim e n sio n s I a m no w a li e n to all th i s ,

a n d to all th a t you p e rc e iv e wh e n o u g a z e w i th bodily

y
e y e sigh t. To such ey e s as yours my s o n I a m , ,
”4
no t no w visibl e .

Th e whol e poi nt of vi e w is simil a r to tha t of th e

Chando gya U p a n isa d ci t e d a bov e whe r e i n th e s a m e ,

w ay a sh a rp dis t i n c tio n is m a d e b e twe e n th e S piri t ua lly

e ss e n t i a l p er s on a n d th e e mpiric a l ego a n d it is S i g n ific a n t

t ha t th e as y e t u nr e g e n e ra te d A scl e pius ( lik e B h a ra ta

in th e Pr a ti mdnata ka ) fa i ls to r e cog n iz e his o w n fath e r
' '

i n this S piri tua l imag e of which h e sp e aks .

Po r phyry te lls us that Plo ti nus r e fus e d to allow his

portrai t to be m a d e obj e c ti ng ,
I s it no t e nough to
carry a bout this im a ge i n which na tur e h as e nclos e d us
D O you r e a lly thi nk I mus t a lso co ns e nt to l e ave as a ,
”5
d e sirabl e S p e cta cl e to pos te ri ty a n i ma g e of th e ima g e
,

Wh e n no w in Joh n X I V 9 Chris” t s ays H e that .

,

hath s e e n M e ha th s e e n th e Fath e r it is v e ry e vid e nt

, ,

t ha t i n th e s a m e way M e do e s no t m e a n th e ou tw a rd
“ ”

a n d physically visibl e a n d ta n gibl e m a n J e sus whom all

m e n could s e e wi th t h e i r bodily e y e s bu t ra th e r th a t ,

S piri tu a l e ss e n c e of which h e S p e a ks wh e n h e a lso says

I a nd my Fa th e r a r e o ne
,
”
.

W e com e n e xt to a lo n g bu t ve ry S ig n i fica nt p a ss a g e
i n th e A pocrypha l Acts of yohn 2 6 2 9 ( M R J a m e s ,
-
. .
,

The Ap ocryp ha l N ew Tes ta ment e d 1 9 2 6 pp 2 3 2 — , . 2 ,

.

H e r e Lycom e d e s who ha s jus t b e e n ra i s e d fr om the d e ad

,

by th e m e diat io n of Joh n summo n s his fr i e nd a skilful

, ,
”
p a i nte r tha t h e may poss e ss him ( Joh n) i n a portra i t
, .

U nknown to Joh n th e p a i nte r ma ke s a n ou tli n e a n d o n

, ,

th e n e xt day filli n g i t i n w i th colou r s pr e s e nts th e port rai t ,

to Lycom e d e s who ,
s e t i t up i n h is o w n b e dch a mb e r

a n d hu ng i t wi th g a rla n ds a n d sp e nt much t im e wi t h
,

it. Joh n no w who h a s n ev e r s e e n hims e lf in a mi r ror

, ,

go e s i nto th e cha mb e r a nd s e e s th e r e th e po r tr a i t Of a n
1 21
 WHY EXHIB IT WORKS OF A RT ?

Old m an c r own e d w i th ga rl a n ds a nd la mps a nd a l ta rs ,

”
s e t b e fo r e i t H e a sks wh a t a ll this m e ans Ca n i t
b e o n e of th y gods tha t i s p a i nt e d h e r e ? fo r I s e e th a t
.

thou a r t s t i ll l i vi n g i n h e a th e n fashio n Lycom e d e s .

a n sw e rs ,
M y o nly God i s h e who r a is e d m e up from
d e a th w i th my wife bu t i f n e xt to th a t God i t is r i gh t , ,

t h a t m e n who h a v e b e n e fi te d us should be c a ll e d god s

it is t hou fa th e r whom I h av e h a d pa i nte d i n th a t
’

portra i t whom I crown a n d lov e a nd r e ve re n c e as ha vi ng

, ,

b e com e my go od guid e Th e n Lycom e d e s bri ngs

.

h i m a mirro r
A n d wh e n h e had s e e n hims e lf i n th e mi r ro r a nd
look e d e arn e s tly a t th e portr a i t h e s a i d A s th e L or d ,

J e sus Chris t live th th e portra i t is lik e m e y et no t,

lik e m e child bu t lik e my fl e s hly ima g e for if this

, ,

p a i nte r who ha th imi tate d th i s my fac e d e sir e th to

, ,

dra w ( th e ve ry) me in a portr a i t h e will be a t a loss ,

n e e di ng mor e th a n) t h e colours th a t a r e n o w giv e n

(
to t h e e a n d bo a r ds a n d pl a s te r ( P
, ) a n d glu e a nd

th e posi tio n of my sh a p e a n d old a ge a nd you t h a n d ,

a ll thi n gs t h a t a r e s e e n wi th th e e e
y .

B u t do thou b e com e fo r m e a good pa1 nte r ,

Lyco m e d e s Thou h a s t colours which h e give th th e e

.

through m e who pa i nte th a ll of us for hims e lf e v e n

, ,

J e sus who k nowe th th e sha p e s a nd a pp e a ra nc e s a nd

,

pos ture s a n d d i sp o s i ti o n s a n d typ e s of our souls A n d

t h e colours wh e r e wi th I b i d th e e pai n t a r e t h e s e
.

fa i th in God k nowl e dg e godly fe ar fr i e ndship

, , , ,

co mmu n io n m e e k ne ss ki n d n e ss bro th e rly lov e

‘

, , , ,

pu r i ty simplici ty tra n quill i ty fe a r l e ss n e ss gr i e fl e s s

, , , ,

n e ss, sobr i e ty and th e wh o l e b a nd of colours that

,

a i n te th th e lik e n e ss of th soul a n d e ve n n o w ra is e t h
p y ,

up thy m e mb e rs tha t w e r e c a s t down a n d lev e lle th ,

’
th e m t h a t w e r e lifte d up a n d t e n d e th thy br u i s e s , ,

a n d h e a l e th t h wou n ds a nd ord e r e th thi n e h a ir th a t

y ,

w as d i sa r r a n g e d a n d w a s h e th th y fa c e a nd ch a s te ne th
, ,

1 22
 W H Y E X H I B IT W OR K S O F ART ?

is nobl e r th a n th e high e s t of the ang e ls i n hims e lf

( i h A n d fi n a lly Cr e a tu r e s all com e i nto my

mi n d a nd a r e rati o na l i n m e I alo n e pre par e a ll cr eatu re s

.
,

I alo ne take a ll cre ature s ou t of th eir

.

to r etur n to God
s e ns e a nd mak e th e m o ne i n m e ( i h tha t is .
-

to s a y i n tha t huma n na tur e that has no thi n g to do wi th

t1 m e
I
.

’
ll e c t s subs ta nc e is e ss e nc e no t a ccid e nt ( i h
nte ,
.

1 7
) w i ll e njoys thi n gs a s th e y a r e i n t h e ms e lve s ,

wh e re as i nte ll ec t e njoys th e m a s th e y a r e in i t ( i h 3 9 4 ) .

”
th e i nte ll e c t is high e r t h a n th e will ( i h I n .

th e fac e of this t ra di tio n of a n id ea l por tra ya l ( id e al of ,

cours e i n th e philosophica l s e ns e that of Augus ti ne

, ,

wh e n h e s ays th a t it is by th e ir id eas tha t w e judg e of

what thi n gs ough t to be like) ca n w e wo n d e r a t th e
i nte ll ectu a l a nd imp e rso na l chara cte r Of O ri e nta l a nd
m e di e va l Christi a n art in which th e form is a ll impo r ta nt
I f Jitta Z adoks says of th e
, ,

a nd th e figur a t io n irr e l ev a n t -

tomb e fli gi e s Of th e tw e lfth c e ntu r y th a t Th e s e s ta tu e s

firs t re pr e s e nte d th e d e c ea s e d no t a s h e ac tually app ea re d
a t d e a th
( no r w e may add,
as h e a c tu a lly a pp e a r e d i n
,

life) bu t a s h e hop e d a nd trus te d to be o n th e day of

Judgm e n t Th i s
.
9
is appare nt i n th e pu r e a nd h a ppy
e xpr e ssio n of a ll th e e qu a lly you thful fa c e s which h a v e

los t ev e ry tra c e of i ndiv i du a li ty (Ances tr a l P or tr a i tur e

i n Rome 1 9 3 2 p 9 2 ), if th e C r ucifixio n a pp ea ri ng i n
,
.
,

Chris ti a n a r t soo n a fte r th e four th c e ntu r y h a d b e e n a t ,

first a nd throughout th e a ge s of fa i th a n e m i nent symbol

of th e triumph ove r d e a th i n wh i ch les yeux so nt ,
’
ouve rts e t l a ttitu de n e trahi t a ucu ne e xpr e ssio n de
doul e ur a nd th e figure is r e ally that of a crowne d K i n g
”
,
’
ga rd a nt sur l i ns tr u m e nt de s o n supplic e toute la
’ ’
maj e s t é d u n D i e u ( Br é hi e r L Ar t Chr eti en 1 9 2 8
,
'

, ,

pp 8 1 3 3 5) a nd if o n the o th e r hand from th e thir

.
‘

te e n th c e nt u ry o nwards i t was l e ss a nd l e ss how the

d e ad wo uld p e rha ps a pp e a r o ne day bu t how th ey had
1 24
TRA DITI ONA L CON C E PTI ON OF IDEA L PORTRA ITURE
a c tua lly a pp e a re d i n life ( tha t) w a s co nsid e re d important .

M ore or l e ss like ne ss w a s no w wa nte d (a nd) as th e

l a s t co ns e qu enc e of this d e ma nd for exa ct lik e n e ss th e
d eath ma sk ta k en from th e a ctual feature s ma d e its
, ,

a pp e a ra nc e
( J i t ta Z a doks
-
l oc
, ci t pp .
9 2 f.
) .if
D es la fin du X III si ecl e
.

’
"
l a rt ch e rche moi n s a
’ ’
i ns truire q u a mouvoir pa r le dev e lo ppe m e nt qu il do nne
’
a u x e pisod e s le s plus doulour e ux de la Passio n le
’
Chris t n o u v r e plus le s ye ux il e s t mort sur la croix
’
s o n corps d éch a r n é do nt o n a pe r co it les os n e s t plus
, ,

r e te nu q u e par le s d e ux bras la tete tomb e tris te m e n t

sur la poi tr i n e C e s t au débu t du X III S i ecl e q u e c e tte
’
.
‘

visio n t ragiqu e a ppar a it s u r de s p e i ntur e s i tali e nne s e t ,

’
bi en q u e l a nci e nn e figure du Chris t vivant sur la cr oix
s e soi t co n s e rvé e e n cor e qu e lqu e te mps e ll e a fin i ar
, p
céd e r le pas a la nouvell e cré a tio n O u voi t qu e ll e
.

dis tanc e sépare c c Chris t humanisé de s figur e s nobl e s e t

’
se re i ne s q u av a ie nt co n cu es le s ar ti s te s fra n ca is du
X III si ecl e ( B r é hi e r l ac ci t pp 6 ) if
"
,
. 10.
3 3 .
3 2 8 , ,

th e sam e thi n g ca n be r e cog n i z e d in th e co n te mporary

co nve rsio n of e pic to roma nc e a nd g e n e ra lly i n a r eve rsal
,

of th e doctri ne of th e sup e rio r i ty of co nte mpl a tio n to

a c t io n a nd i n a tur n i n g away from e xp e ri e n c e to e x e r i
, p
m e ntatio n if the form is no w co n qu er e d by th e figur e ,

th e i nte ll e c t subord i na t e d to th e will if th e lik e n e ss of th e

,

d e ad now take s th e pl a c e of th e imag e of th e livi ng

pri ncipl e this e xtrove rsio n a nd d e cl e n sio n of th e
,

Europ e a n co n scious n e ss ( for which no p a ra ll e l c a n be

adduc e d i n A si a b e fore th e ni ne tee nth c e ntury) impli e s
th e triumph of a no th e r ki n d O f m a n who could no t i n ,

fa c t to quo te th e pre sci e nt a nd bi tte r words of St Thomas

,
.
,

thi n k of a nythi ng nobl e r th a n bodi e s ( S um T h eo!

I 1 —our ki nd Of m a n Wh e r e as it h a d b e en t e
. .

. . .

“
gard e d as th e S pl e ndour of truth that it e xt e nd e d eve n
to th e su n d e ri ng of soul from spiri t ( H e b I V a n d . .

th e prop e r m a n h a d b e e n r e quir e d to hat e his o w n soul

1 25
 WHY EXHIBIT WOR KS OF ART ?

( L uk e X I
,
V . an
“
d ta ugh t
h m a n s p e r fe ctio n de
t at
”
’

p e nd e d upo n a l a st d e ath of th e soul ( E ckha rt ,

Ruysbro e ck) m a n h a d now e mb a rk e d upo n th e w ay tha t

,

w a s to l e a d him to — psychology a n d s p1 r i tu a li s m a n d th e ,
”
fe tishis tic worship of a e s th e tic su r fa c e s .

It is n o t our p r e s e nt i n te ntio n to sp e a k of th e Tru th

our cu r r e nt discipli ne s a r e i nte r e s te d l e ss i n Tru th tha n
i n wh a t O pi nio n s m e n h ave e nt e r ta i n e d a t various t i m e s ,

l e ss i nte r e s te d i n th e Philosophia P e re nnis tha n i n th e

his to r y of philosophy W e sha ll o n ly r e m a rk th a t
.
”

th e commo n e xp r e ss i o n a ccordi n g to which it is s a id th a t

wi th th e Re naiss a nc e i nte r e s t shifte d from th e future to a ”

pre s e nt life is a misl e a di ng ha lf tru th

1 0
th e l a rg e r
-

tru th is th a t i nte r e s t shifte d from a n i nn e r pr e s e n c e

'

to a n ou te r pr e s e n t from th e S pi r i tu a l e ss e n c e of th e
,

ve ry M a n to th e a ccid e nts of his s e nsi tive ou te r e go ,

a nd th a t wh e r e a s i t h a d b e e n h e ld th a t th e v e r y M a n

was li te ra lly ca p a bl e of a ll thi ngs th e s ta tu r e of this

,
1 1
i

m a n w a s n o w to be re duc e d to th a t of a r e fi n e d a n d s e n si
t ive a n imal ,
whos e b e h aviourism should d e p e nd like ,

that of a ny o th e r a nim a l o n a m e r e ly e s tima tive k now

,

l e dg e Ir is th e form e r M a n th e God that w a s to be

.
, ,

r e pr e s e nte d in th e id e al portrai t e nvis a g e d by tr a di tio n

th e la tte r a n d a n imal m a n th a t is r e p r e s e n te d i n our ar t
-
.

Th e imp e rso na li ty a nd s e r e n i ty of m e di e va l Chris ti a n

a n d A si a tic a r t ,
its fa ci e s so to sp e a k a r e pr e cis e ly
, ,

wha t such te xts a s w e h ave ci te d m i gh t h ave le d us to

e xp e c t . W e ca nno t preten d r ea lly to have u n d e rs tood
such arts a s th e s e m e r e ly fr om th e p r ovi n ci a l s ta ndpoi nt
,

of our o w n hum a nism Th e m e di e va l a nd A si a tic

.

a r t is t s did no t obs e rv e th e y we r e r e quir e d to be wha t

th e y would r e pr e s e nt wh e th e r i n mo tio n or a t r e s t
,
H ow .

c a n w e propos e to ours e lv e s to judg e th e s e a r t s from a

poi nt of vi e w co nn e cte d h is torica lly w i th th e u s e of d ea th

masks a n d nowa da ys wi th th e pos e d mod e l a n d th e s tudy
of na tur e as s till life na tur e mo r te It would be
1 26
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R K S O F ART ?

N OTE S
1
Dr Q u ar i tch W al e s t at o b
t h e s ta tu es o f t h e B a n k ok s e r v es h g
ki n s [i 8 th —
.

g r oth c e nt u r y ) a r e t ru e or tr a i t s t a tu es : b u t t i s is a n p h
i nno v a t i o n o f t h e B a n k o k g p
e r i o d , i n d e e d , t h e fir s t t h r e e ki n s n ev er g
h
a ll ow e d t e m s e l v e s t o b e wit p
th e s e e d o f e d u ca t i o n h p
bp b
or t r a y e d a ls o

th e s u s t i t u t i o n, g
r a d u a l b u t i n e v i t a l e , o f r e s ect f or th e M a n i n p
p la c e o f r e s e c t f o r D i v i n e Ki n s i : t h e a tti tu d e o f m i nd i n w hi c g hp h
p f
r e s ec t i s o f er e d t o t h e m e m o r y o f d e a d k i n s w i ll t e n d t o a r ox im at e g pp
m o r e a nd m o r e t o t a t o f o t er a dv a nc e d n a t i o ns h h
( S i a mes e S ta te Cer e
m oni e s , 1 93 1 , p .

H er e , her e
i n th e w o r d s e d u ca t i o n
b li es i r o ny
a nd a dv a nc ed t an
of w hi ch t h e a u t or s e e m s t o av eh h e e n u nc o n s c i o u s

Th e P r o ge ni t o r s a n s w er m a y b e c o m p ar e d t o th e B u d d ha s w hen h e
3 ’ ’

say s H e w h o s e es th e W or d s ee s M e ( S a m N i kdy a , a nd . III .

Chr i s t s w hen h e s a y s t h a t H e w h o s e e s M e , s e e s t h e F a th e r ( J o hn
’

X IV w h er e i t i s n ot m e a nt i n e i t h e r c a s e t h a t w h a t i s a ct u a ll y a nd
.

phy s i c a ll y he ar d o r s e en i s th e Me or th e F at her i nt e nde d .

3
Th e s ame ima g
i n B r h a ddr a ny a ka Upa n is a d,
e r e cu r s 2 8 -9 th e II . .

g
i n o ra nt D o ct o r G ar gy a w o r s i s t h e er s o n r e fl e ct e d i n t h e w at e r or i n hp p
a m i rr or , i e , h i s o w n er s o n , a n d i s c orr e ct e d b y th e
. . p
n os t i c A ata sa tr u g j
h hp
w h o s a y s t a t h e w o r s i s t h e P e r s o n i n a l i k e n es s a n d a s th e R e u l e nt , f g
h p
w h o i s t h e a r c et y e o f th e i m a e , n ot a s s e e n i n g
y s i c a l w a t er s o r m i rr o r s , ph
h
b u t i n th e eart F o r n as ti ka s e e I V 1 4 9 t , s v n a tth i ka
. . . . . .

Th e h g
no t i n m or is t s are t o s e w h o t i n k t a t n ot in
‘

-
i s ex c e t h h h h g p
h h g pfi
w at t ey c a n rm ly w i t t e ir a nd s (Pl a t o , The atetu s 1 5 5 E ) h h h
X
r as
g h h
a s a a i ns t t o s e w h o o l d w i t h Rgveda , 3 1 8 , n a i tci va d en d, p a r o a ny a d . .
‘

a s ti ,h t e r e i s n o t m e r e l y t i s , b u t a t r a n s c e n d e nt o t e r h h .

I n th e s a m e w a y , n ei t h er
m e n n or o d s c a n s e e th e B u dd a a s h e g h
r e a ll y i s ( S a m y u tta N i hay a , 23) t os e w h o s ee or ea r h im I
y s i c a ll y h h ph
XX I
.

d o no t r e a ll y s e e o r e a r h i m a t a ll ( Vajr a cch edi ka S u tr a , h V ) .

I
l i v e , y et n o t (P a u l), b u t C r i s t i n m e (G a l I20 ) H e h as h . II .

f
d i e d t o s e l , a n d c o m e t o li e t r o u th e L or d e nc e t h e m y s te r i e s o f
“

f h gh h
G o d a r e o n h i s li s ( R um i , M a thn a w i , p III .

Cf E nn ea ds , V I 2 2 1
5 . a n d P la t o s e x r e s s i o n , c o i es o f c o i e s
. .
’
p p p
( R epu bli c, F r o m th e s a m e o i nt o f v i e w A u s t e r i u s , B is o of p h p
Am a s e a , ca A D 3 4 0 , P a i nt n o t C r i s t : f o r t h e o n e
. . . u mil i ty o f h i s h h
i n ca r n a t i on s u ffi c es h i m , w i c f o r o u r s a k e h e v o lu nta r il y a cce t e d h h p
g
( M i ne , P a t Gr , XI
b gg
. . .

Th e e di t o r a dd s w it in h r a c k et s : u ns m o o t he d . Th e m e ani n
may be t ha t g port b e , l i ke th e p i c tu r e , s o m et i n h
b
t h e l iv i n r a it w ill n ot
t h at h as ee n fl a tt e n e d o ut , a s it w er e .

Cf P l a t o , A lci bi a des ,
’
7
. 1 30 E , o n l wp é s 7 6 a dv wp da am o v di ke mo ds I .

7 61» Az\ m fiui $q v, a n d R um i , M a th na w l , 1 1 0 2 0 1 , Th e i ct u r e o n t h e .

-
p
w a ll i s a li k e n es s o f A d a m , i n de e d b u t s e e w a t i n t a t lori o u s s a e h h g h p
i s l a ck i n , -th e S i r i t g p
T i s m a n , S o a n d s o ( y oy a m dy as m d e va mnam o
. h - -

eva m gotto, S III

) i s n o t th e M a n , h i m S el f -

bh
. .

Th e o dy , l i k e a m o t er , s h i b i g w i t h t h e p i r i t c hi l d d t h i s th
b m p d li k e n e m br y o
3
s -
ea e
p g h I ( m y S elf ) a m
b
a n s a nd t r o e s o f i rt . cr a e a
i n th e w o m Ih b e ni n e m nt h thi s m i gr a ti o n h
b e c o m e u r e nt
av e c o m e t o
g
( R um i , M a thn a w i , I .
ld
3 51 4,
o s
III
o
.
as

1 28
TRADITI ONAL C ON C E PTION OF ID EAL PORTRA ITURE
g
W he r e a s
i t ca n b e s a i d o f R e n a i s s a n ce t o m e ffi gie s t a t
h
i m a e s d o n o t l i e , a s t e y w e r e w o nt , s e e mi n t o r a y t o H e a v e n
bp
P r in c e s
g
-
h ’

h h h p h
w e r e w o l ly
h f
h bf
t e y a r e n o t ca r v e d w i t t e i r e y es u o n th e s t a r s , b u t a s t e ir m i n ds
p f
e n t u o n t h e w o r ld , th e s e l s a m e w a y t e y s e e m t o t u r n h
t e i r a ce s ( r o m The D u ches s of M a lfi)
b
.

h
It i s n o t w i t ou t i nt e r e s t t o o se r v e a r e fl ec t i o n o f t i s o i nt o f v i e w
1 °
h p
g h
i n o u r w i lli n ne s s t o e x a u s t a nd d e s t r o y t h e m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s o f t h e
eart h g h
f or t h e s a k e o f pr es ent a dv a nt a e a n d w i t o u t r e a r d t o t h e n e e d s o f g
h g ha l l
Not i n p b
b e i m o s s i le t o y o u (Ma t h XV II h
b T i nk
11 s . . 20 )
ha t f o r y o u , to o , n o thi n g
i s i m o s s i lep ( H e r m e s Tr i s m e g is tu s , Li b ,
XI
t .

2 20 B )

b
. . .

d oe s no t , o f c o u r s e h g
b
m e a ni n
12
R e du c e d ear er e i t s v e r na c u l a r

h g
d i mi n i s e d , b u t t h e e t y m o lo i ca l a n d t e c n i c a l h
of
a s o ne l e a ds
f
b f
b
a c k t o o r r e e r s t o i t s s o u r ce w a t h a d
h h
r o m t a t i n w i c h i t s u s i s t s m o r e e m i ne ntly
h b
v a lu e o f

e en
led
e d u c ed from
a ck
it,
as .

1 29
 T H E N A T U R E O F F O L K L O RE
A ND P O P UL A R A RT

S H ARP d i s ti nc tio n is commo n ly dra wn b etw ee n

“ ”
l e ar n i ng a n d folklor e high a r t a nd popul a r
,

art a n d i t is qui te t ru e t h a t u n d e r p r e s e n t co n di t io n s

th e dis t i n c tio n i s va lid a n d profou n d Fa c tu a l sci e n c e

.

a n d p e rso n a l or a cad e mic a r t o n t h e o n e h a n d a nd ,

“
s u e r s ti titio n
p a nd p ea s a nt ar t on t h e o t h er

a r e i n d ee d of di ff e r e n t ord e rs a n d p e r ta i n to di ff e r e n t
,

l eve ls of r e fe r e n c e .

W e Se e m to fin d t ha t a corr e spo n di ng dis ti n c tio n

has b e e n d r a wn i n I n di a b e twee n th e co n s ti tute d
s a ms krth a n d provi n ci a l
’
( ) ( d esi
) l a n guag e s a n d l i te r a t u r e s ,

a n d b e tw e e n a highwa y ( mdr a a n d a loc a l o r byw a y

g )
sa m
’
es i ) a r t ; a nd wh a t is a n d mar a b eing
( d
’
s kr ta
g
a lwa ys sup e rior to wh a t is des i a n a pp a r e n t p a r a ll e l is
,

off e re d to th e mod e rn va lu a tio n of l ea rn i n g a nd a ca d e m i c

a r t a n d r e l a tiv e disp a r a g e m e n t of sup e rs t i tio n a n d folk

art W he n for e xa mpl e w e fin d i n S a mgi ta da rp a na

I 4 6 Th e e ns e mbl e of music (s a mg’i ta m) is of tw o
.
, , ,
'

.
,

ki nds highway ( ma rga ) a nd local ( des i ) that which

‘

w a s follow e d a fte r by Siva ( dr uhi nena ) a n d pr a c tis e d 1

r ay u kta m by B h a ra t a is c a ll e d a n d b e s tows
(p ) highway
lib e ra t io n ( vi mukti da m) ; bu t th a t which s e rve s fo r
f -

worl ly e nte r ta i n m e nt ( lokdnur a nja ka m) i n a ccordan c e '

wi th cus tom ( des a s thay d—

’ ’
’

)
r i ty a is c a ll e d loc al a nd wh e n
‘

s i mil a rly th e D a s a r i tp a I 1 5 dis ti nguish e s mdrga

,
‘ ' '

.
, ,
’
fr om des i d a n ci n g th e firs t b e i n g th a t which disp lays
,
”
th e m e a n i ngs of words by m e a n s of g e s tur e s i t is
,
2

ge ne ra lly a ssum e d tha t th e mod e r n dis ti nctio n of

1 30
 W H Y E X H I B IT WO R K S O F ART ?

dha rvas i nvi te h e r atte ntio n by s ayi ng W e ve rily

,
”
know w e know , ,
wha t is off er e d by th e gods is to
give you pl ea sure ( rva p r a moday i sy dma ) A n d so
‘

.
,

as th e te x t e xpre ss e s i t Vac i n dee d i n cli ne d to the gods

, ,
“ ”
bu t s h e did so vai nly ( mogha m) i na smuch as s h e ,

t u r ne d a w a y from thos e who we r e occupi e d wi th c e l e b r a

tio n a n d l a ud a tio n to th e d a n ci n g a n d si n gi n g of th e
,
“
A nd This is why wom e n e ve n h e re and no w
a r e addic te d to va n i ty
( g o ha m —sa m
m h i td h) fo r ,

Vac i n cli ne d th e re to a n d o th e r wom e n do a s s h e did

, .

A nd so i t is th a t th e y ta ke a liki n g mos t r e a dily to o ne

w h o si n gs a n d da nc e s ( a ti
) I is qui
‘

5
nr t
y g a a tz
y ,
t . t e

cl e ar th a t mogha m he re corre spo nds to urtha in t he

'

7 a i mi ni a te x t
y a n,
d t ha t i n bo t h c a s e s t h e worldly a n d
fe mi ni ne a rts of m e re amus e me nt a r e co ntra s te d wi th
th e s a cr e d li turgic a l a r t s It is also p e rfe c tly cl e ar t h a t
.

th e wo r ldly a r ts of m e re a mus e m e nt a re r e g a rd e d
li te rally a s d e adly — it mus t no t be forgo tte n tha t
all th at is u nde r th e s u n is u nde r th e swa y of d ea th
( y
m r t u n dp ta m
-
,
S a ta
p a th a B r X .
5
,
I .
4)
— .a n
. d t h a t
s uch disp a ra g e m e n t of th e ar t s a s c a n be r e cog n iz e d i n

I ndi a n though t ( e sp e ci a lly B uddhis t) from firs t to l a s t

is a disp a ra ge me nt no t of th e arts a s such bu t of th e ,

s e cul a r a r ts of me re a mus e me nt a s dis ti nguish e d from

the i n te ll e c tu a l a r ts th a t ar e a ve ry m e a n s of e n ligh te n
m e nt 6
.

B e fore goi ng furthe r it will be d e sirabl e to e xami ne

more clos e ly som e of the te rms that ha ve b ee n ci te d .

In co nn e c tio n wi th th e p a ss a g e quo te d a bove D r Ba k e ,

.

has r e marke d tha t Th e r e ligious valu e of a r t music

— ma rga — is cl ea rly a ppare nt from this quo ta ti o n
"

a n d a c tua lly t his music as co n c e iv e d by th e high e s t

,

God a n d h a n d e d down through a succe ssio n of tea ch e rs ,

is fe l t a s a mea ns of brea ki ng th e cycl e of bir th A p a rt

”
from th e qu e s tio nabl e re nde ri ng of ma rga by a r t
'

this is absolu te ly tru e Th e doc tri ne tha t huma n

.

1 32
 NATURE OF FO L K LORE AND PO P ULAR AR T
’

’
wo r ks of a r t ( lp dni) a re imi ta tio ns of h e ave nly forms
si
,

a n d th a t by m e a n s of t h e ir rhy thm th e r e c a n b e e ff e c te d

a m e trica l r e co ns ti tu tio n (s a ms ka r a na ) of th e limi te d

hum a n p e rso na li ty d a te s a t l ea s t from t h e B rahm a n a
p e r iod ( Ai ta r ey a B r dhma na V I 2 7
,

,
a nd is impli e d
.
,
” “
i n th e Rgv e da . S a n sk r i t i ts e lf is co n s truc te d
s ams krta m n jus t this s e ns e ; i t is som e thi ng mor e
( ) i
“
th a n m e r e ly huma n S p e e ch a nd wh e n th e corr e s ,

po n di ng scri p t i s c a ll e d de va naga r i this u ndoub te dly

'

impli e s th a t th e hum a n scrip t is a n imi ta tio n of m e a ns

”
o f commu n ic a tio n i n t h e ci ty of th e gods .

S i n c e th e Rgv e da h a s to do o n ly wi th wha t is i n c e ss a n t
is vid ha a ll i ts e rms a r e symbols
( y )
n i t a m ,
i t e e n t t t t
r a th e r t h a n sig n s a n d mus t be u n d e rs tood i n th e ir
,

tr a ns figu r e d s e n s e s Now th e word mci rga r e nd e re d

'

.
,
”
a bov e by highway d e rive s from mg to chas e or
, ,

hu n t e sp e ci a lly by tra cki ng ’ In th e Rgv e da i t is

.
,

fa m i l i a r tha t what o ne hu nts a nd tra cks by i ts spoor

is a lwa ys th e d e i ty th e hidd e n ligh t th e occul te d Su n
, ,

o r Ag n i who mus t be fou n d a n d is som e tim e s r e fe r r e d

, ,

to a s lurki n g i n his lair This is so we ll k nown th a t

In RV V III 2 6
.

a v e ry fe w ci ta tio n s will su ffi c e . .

m e n a r e s a id to pursu e ( mrgay a nte) I n dra a s o n e

. .

pu r sue s a wild b ea s t ( mrga m na ) wi th offe r i ngs of ,

milk a n d ki ne ( which m ay be compare d to bai t) i n

Rv V II 8 7 6 Va runa is comp a r e d to a
. . .
,
fi er ce b e as t
n RV 2 th e B h r u s e a ge r
( g
m r a s tu vi s mdn
‘
) i X 4 6. .
g .
,

s e e ke rs a fte r A g ni tra ck him by his spoor (p a da i h)

,
’
M a rga is th e n
’
l ike som e los t b e a s t (p a s u n na na sta m) .

’ ”
th e c r e a tur e s ru nwa y th e tr a ck to be followe d
,

(p a df
y )
a ui a by t h e v es ti i u m
g p e d i s O n e s ee s t hus .

cl e a rly wh a t va lue s a r e i mpli e d i n th e e xpre ss i o n ma rga

'

W a y a n d how i ne vi ta bly tha t which is ma rga is

” '

like wis e vi mukti da si nc e i t is pre cis e ly by th e fi ndi ng

‘ -
,

o f th e H idd e n L igh t tha t lib e r a tio n is e ff e c te d

8
.

’
D eg , on th e o th e r ha nd d e rivi ng from dis to , .

I 33
 WHY EXH I B IT WO R KS OF ART ?

i n dic a te a nd h e n c e di s re gio n o r ,
qu a rte r ,
“
is loc a l cf des a m ni v is to s ettl e in a give n
.
'
‘
,
’ ”
loca li ty des a vy a v a har a or deéa cdr a loc a l cus tom ‘
'

‘
, , ,
” ’ ” “
w ay of th e wo r ld a n d desy a ,
n a t ive B u t th e s e
, .

a re n o t m e r e ly te r ms t h a t could be d e r og a t iv e ly e mpl o y e d

by ci ty p e opl e o r courti e rs to cou ntrym e n i n g e n e r a l ,

bu t tha t could be e mploy e d by dw e ll e rs i n th e ci ty of

God o r i n a ny H oly La n d wi th r e fe r e n c e to thos e b e yo nd
th e p a l e H e a ve n li e s b e yo n d t h e fa lco n th e wo r lds
.
,
”
ar e u nd e r th e s u n a n d i n th e power of d e a th
,
‘‘

l oka world
‘
is e tymol o gica lly La ti n locus a pl a c e
d e fi ne d by give n co ndi ti o ns a nd la u kika rriu n da ne
, ,
‘‘ "

,
“ ”
is li te ra lly loc a l ; i t is pre c i s e ly h er e ( i ha ) i n th e
” “ “ ”
worlds th a t th e ki n dr e ds a r e s e ttl e d loc a liz e d , ,

a nd n a t iv e Fr om th e c e l e s ti a l o r s o l a r poi nt of
.

vi e w des i is thus mu n d a n e hum a n a nd d evious a s

,
‘

, ,

dis ti n ct fr om sup e r mu n da ne divi ne a n d di r e c t ; a n d

-
,
’
t his dis ti nc tio n O f mdrga fr om des i a s s a cre d
fr om p r ofa ne i s i n full a gre e m e nt wi th th e s e n s e of th e
e xpr e ssio n s r a n a ka ( pl e a si n g i m a ssio n i n g a ff e c t i n g e tc
)
'

y
'

p , , .
,

a n d urth a
f
( w a n to n r a n dom a s you lik e
, ,
e tc by ,
.

’
which th e va lu e of des i h a s b e e n e xpl a i ne d a bove
I f w e now co nside r th e te r r e s tri a l a’na logy th en
.

, ,

looki ng a t th e m a tte r fr om th e B ra hma n s po i nt of vi e w

( w h o are gods o n e a r th wh a te ve r i s g e ogra phic a lly

a n d— o r qu a li ta t iv e ly r e mov e d from a n o r t hodox c e n tr e ,

from a H oly La nd ( such a s A r yav a r ta) wh er e th e h eave n ly

p atte r n i s a ccurate ly imi ta te d will be a t the s a me tim e ,

g eogra phic a lly a nd spiri tu a lly provi n ci a l “

thos e a r e
r e— e mi n e n tly des i who a r e ou te r b a rb a ri a n s b e yo n d th e
'

p ’
p a l e a nd i n this s e ns e des i is th e e quiva l e n t of
h e a th e n or p a ga n i n th e p r im a ry s e n s e of
” “
p e r ta i n i ng to th e h e aths or was te s a s we ll a s p a ga n ,

i n th e s e co n d a ry s e ns e of wo r ldly or s e ntim e n ta l
( m a te r i a lis tic
) .

H ighway a nd loc a l o r bywa y cul ture s c a n be pu r su e d

1 34
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R K S O F ART ?

a dis ti n ctio n of a ris tocra tic a nd cul tiva te d fr om folk

a n d p r imi t iv e a r t , bu t o n e of s a c r e d a n d t radi tio na l
(

from profa ne a nd s e nt i me ntal a r t .

W e may th e n ve ry we ll ask wh a t is th e true n ature

O f folk a n d p e a s a n t ar t a n d wh e th e r such a n a r t di ff e rs
,

m tha t of th e ka ui a n d a ca ry a i n a ny o th e r w ay tha n
f

i n d e gr ee of r e fi n e m e n t In t radi t io na l a n d u n a n imous
.

soci e ti e s w e obs e rve th a t no hard a nd fa s t l in e c a n be

dra wn b e twee n the a rt s th a t a pp e al to the p e a sa nt a n d
thos e th a t a pp e al to th e lord ; both live i n what is
e ss e n t ially th e s a m e w a
y b u t o n a di ff e r e n t sc a l e
,
Th e .

dis ti nc tio n s a r e of r e fi ne m e n t a nd luxury bu t no t of ,

co nte nt or s tyl e ; i n o th e r words th e di ff e re nce s a r e ,

mea sura bl e i n te rms of ma te rial valu e bu t a r e n e i th e r ,

spiri tual no r psychologica l Th e atte mp t to dis ti nguish

.

a ris tocr a t ic from popul a r mo tifs i n t ra di t io na l li te ra t u r e

is fa llacious ; all tra di tio na l ar t is a folk a r t i n th e

s e n s e th a t i t is th e a r t of a u na n imous p e opl e ( ja na ) .

A s Pro fe ssor Child h as r e m a r ke d i n co nne c tio n wi th th e

his tory of b a ll a ds ,
Th e co n di tio n of soci e ty i n wh i ch
a t ruly na t io nal a n d popul a r po e try a pp e a rs
( is
n which th e p e o pl e a r e no t divid e d by poli tical
o ne
) i
orga n iz a tio ns a nd book—cul ture i nto mark e d d is ti nc t
class e s 9
i n which co n s e qu e n tly th e r e is such com
, ,

mu n i ty of id e as a nd fe eli ngs tha t th e whol e p e opl e

form o n e i n dividu a l .

It is o nly b e c a us e w e r e g a rd th e s e probl e ms from

th e na rrow s ta n dpoi n t o f pr e s e n t circums ta n c e s th a t
w e fail to grasp this co n di t io n In a d e moc r a t ic soci e ty
.
,

wh e re all m e n ar e th e ore tica lly e qua l wh a t e xists i n ,

fa ct is a dis ti n c tio n b e twe e n a bourg e ois i e cul tu r e o n th e

o n e h a n d a n d th e ig n ora n c e of th e u n cul tur e d m a ss e s

o n th e o th e r ,
no twi ths ta n di n g th a t bo th class e s m a
y b e

l i te ra te H e re th e r e is no such thi n g a s a folk

. .

”
(j ) a na,
for th e pro le ta ri a t is no t a folk b u t com,

p a ra bl e ra th e r to th e ou tca s te ( ca nda la ) th a n to a fourth

'

1 36
 NATURE OF FO L K L O RE AN D PO P ULAR ART
’

s tate (seam ) th e s a ce rdota l ( hr a hma na ) a nd chiva lrous

'

( k s a tr iy a
) cl a ss e s are vir tu a lly lacki ng
( m e n a r e so much
alik e th a t th e s e fu nc tio ns ca n be e xe r cis e d by a ny one
—th e n ewsboy for e xampl e b e comi ng a Pre side nt)
, ,

a n d th e bourg e oisi e
( v a i sy a
) is a ss i mil a te d to th e p r ol e

tari a n ( ca nddl a ) m a ss e s ,
to form wha t is i n e ffe c t a n
u nan imously profa ne h e rd (p ) a Su whos e co n duc t
is gove rn e d o n ly by lik e s a nd dislike s a nd no t by a ny ,
“
high e r pri n cipl e s .
0
H e re the dis ti n c tio n of e duca te d
from u ne ducate d is m e re ly te ch nica l it is no
lo ng e r o ne of d egre e s of co nscious ne ss bu t of more or ,

l e ss i nfo r ma tio n Und e r th e s e co n di tio n s th e dis ti nc tio n

.

of li te ra cy from illi te ra cy has a va lu e a l tog e th e r di ff e re nt

from i ts valu e i n tra d i tio na l soci e ti e s i n which th e whol e
folk a t th e s a m e tim e th a t i t is cul t u ra lly u na nimous
, ,

is fu n c tio na lly d i ffe re n ti a te d li te ra cy i n th e l a tte r ,

ca s e b e i ng qui te u nn e c e ss a ry to some fu n c tio ns wh e re

, , ,

mo r e ove r its a bs e nc e do e s no t co ns ti tu te a priva tio n

, ,

si nc e o th e r m ea ns th a n books e xis t for th e co m m u nica

t i o n a nd tr a ns m is s io n of spi r i tu a l va lu e s
_
a n d fur th e r , ,

u nd e r th e s e ci r cums ta n c e s th e fu nc tio n i ts e lf (s v a
,
“ ”
dha r ma ) ,
h o we v e r menial or comm e r ci a l is ,

s tr i c tly sp e a ki ng a w ay so th a t it is no t by
e n g a g i n g i n o th e r wo r k to which a high e r or lowe r

soci a l pr e s tig e m ay a tta ch bu t to th e e xte nt tha t a

,

m a n a ppro a ch e s p e rfe c ti o n i n his o w n wo r k a n d u n d e r

s ta n ds its spiri tua l s i g nific a n c e th a t h e ca n r i s e a bov e
hi ms elf —a n a mbi tio n to r i s e a bov e hi s fellow s h a vi n g
t h e n n o lo n g e r a n r ea l m e a n i n g
y .

In d e m o cra tic soci e ti e s th e n wh e r e p r ol e ta ri a n a nd

, ,

p r ofa n e ig n o r a nt) va lu e s p r e va i l th e r e aris e s a

,
”
“
r ea l dis ti n ctio n of wh a t is op timis tica lly c a ll e d l ea r ni ng
or sci e nc e o n th e p a rt of th e e duc a te d cl a ss e s fr om
th e ig no r a n c e of th e m a ss e s a n d this dis ti n c t io n is

m e a sure d by s tand a rds no t of p r ofu ndi ty bu t o f

, ,

li te ra cy i n th e simpl e s e n s e bf a b i lity to r ea d th e pri nte d

,

I S7
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS O F ART ?

word In ca s e th e re survive s a ny r e sidu e of a tru e

.

p e asa ntry ( a s is s till th e c a s e i n E urop e bu t sca rc e ly i n ,

‘‘
A me rica) or whe n it is a qu e s tio n of th e pri m i tive
, _

cul ture of o th e r r a ce s or eve n Of tradi ti o nal scrip ture s

,

a n d m e ta physic a l t r a di tio n s th a t a r e o f a ny th i n g bu t

popula r origi n th e sup e rs ti tio ns i nvolve d ( w e sh a ll

,

i
pre s e ntly s ee wha t is re a lly impl e d by this ve ry a pt
te r m ) a r e co n fou n d e d wi th th e i g no r a n c e of th e ‘

ma ss e s a n d s tudi e d o n ly wi th a cond e sc e n di ng l a ck of
,

u n d e rs ta ndi ng H ow p e rve rs e a s i tu a ti o n is thus

.

c r e ate d ca n be s e e n wh e n w e re a lize th a t wh e re th e
thr e a d o f symbolic a n d i n i ti a tory te achi n g h a s b ee n
broke n a t high e r soci a l l eve ls ( a nd mod e rn e duc a t io n
wh e th e r i n I ndi a o r e ls e wh e re h as pr e cis ely a nd ve r y
,

o fte n i nte ntio na lly this d e s truc tive eff e c t) i t is j us t th e

, ,

sup e rs ti tio n s of th e peo ple a nd wha t is a pp a re ntl y

l

irra tio nal i n re ligious doc tr i ne th a t has pre s e r ve d wha t

would o th e rwis e ha ve b ee n los t Wh e n th e bou r g e oisi e .

cul ture of th e u n ive rsi ti e s has thus d e cli ne d to l e ve ls

of pur ely e mpir i ca l a nd fa c tu a l i nform a ti o n the n it is ,

pr e cis e ly a nd o nly i n th e sup e rs ti tio ns o f th e p e a s a ntry ,

wh e r eve r th e s e h ave b e en s tro n g e nough to re s i s t th e

subve rsive eff o r ts of th e e duca to r s tha t t he re survive s a ,

g e nui n e ly human a nd often i n dee d a sup e rhuma n , ,

wisdom howeve r u nco nscious a nd howeve r fra gm e ntar y

, ,

a n d na ive m a be th e form i n which i t i s e xpre ss e d

y .

Th e re is for e xa mpl e a wisdom i n tra di tio na l fairy

, ,

ta l e s ( no t Of cou r s e i n thos e which h a ve b e e n wri tte n

, ,
“
by li te rar y m e n for childre n th a t is al tog e th e r
d i ff e r e nt i n ki n d from such psychologica l s e ns e or no n
s e n s e a s m ay be e mbodi e d i n a mod e r n n ove l .

’
A s h a s b e e n j us tly r e m a rke d by lVI Re ne G u eno n .
,
’
The ve ry co n c e p tio n of folklore a s commo nly ‘

u nde rs tood re s ts o n a fu nd a m e n ta lly fa ls e hy po th e sis

, ,

th e supposi tio n viz th a t th e r e r e a lly a r e such thi ngs

popular cr ea tio ris or spo nta neous i nve ntio ns of
.
, ,
’
as

1 38
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R KS O F AR T ?

b ee n t ra nsm i tte d by p e a s a n t s for whom i t forms a p a r t

of th e ir live s a nourishm e n t of th eir ve ry co ns ti tu ti o n
, ,

bu t who c a nno t e xplai n it is n o t a t a ll shocki ng th a t

th e folk m a te ri a l c a n be d e scrib e d a s a body of sup e r
s ti t i o n ,
si n c e i t is r e a lly a body of c us tom a nd b e li e f
th a t s ta nds ove r ( s up ers ta t) from a ti me wh e n its
m e a ni ngs we r e u n d e rs tood H a d th e folk b e li e fs no t
.

i n d e e d b ee n o n c e u nd e rstood w e could no t no w S p ea k
,

of th e m a s m e ta physica lly i n te lligibl e or e xpl a i n th e

,

a ccur a cy of t h e i r formul a tio n .Th e p e a sa nt may be

u n co n scious a nd u na wa r e bu t th a t of which h e is
,

u n co n scious a nd u na wa r e is i n i ts e lf fa r sup e r io r to t h e
e mpiric a l sci e n c e a n d r e a lis t ic a r t of th e e duca te d

m a n whos e r e a l ig n ora n c e is d e mo n s tra te d by th e fa c t

,

t h a t h e s tudi e s a n d comp a r e s th e da ta of folklo r e a n d

mythology w i thou t susp e c ti n g th e ir r e a l sig n ific a n c e
an
y mor e th a n th e mos t ig n ora n t p e a s a n t .
12

A ll tha t h a s b e e n s a id a bov e a ppli e s of cours e w i th

, ,
’
e v e n gr e a t e r forc e to th e s r u ti l i t e ra t u r e a n d abov e a ll
, ,

th e R gv e da which so fa r fr om r e pr e s e n ti n g a n i n t e l
,

l e c tu a lly b a rba rous a ge ( a s som e pr e te n d) h a s r e fe r e n c e s

s o far a bs tr a c t a n d r e mo t e fr om his toric a l a n d e mpi r i c a l

l e ve ls a s to have b e com e almost u n i nte ll i gibl e to thos e

whos e i nte ll e c tua l cap a ci ti e s h a ve b e e n i nhibi te d by
wh a t is n owa d ays ca ll e d a u n i ve rsi ty e duca tio n .

It i s a m a tte r a t th e s a m e tim e of fa i th a n d u n d e rs ta nd i n g
th e i nju n c tio n s Cr ede u t i ntelliga s a n d J ntellige u t cr e de s
B e li eve tha t you m ay u nd e rs ta n d a nd U n d e r
, ,
”

s ta nd i n o rd e r to b e li e v e a r e va lid in bo th cas e s
,

wh e th e r w e ar e co n c e r n e d wi th th e i nte rpre ta tio n of

folklor e or wi th th a t of th e tr a n sm i tte d te xts .

1 40
 NATURE OF FO L K L ORE AN D P O P ULAR A RT
’

N OTE S
1
B ra hm a m
b e m ea nt b u t t h e w o r d s u
ay e s ts r a t e r Si v a
, B ot o f gg h h
h
t es e a s e c p ts
o f d e i ty a r e t r a d i t i o n a ll y a u t or s Of t h e r i n c i l es o f h p p
g f
m u si c a nd d a nc i n ; th e o r m e r i n t h e N aty a S as tr a t h e l a t t e r i n t h e ,

A bhi n ay a D a r pa na .

3
Th e A bh i n ay a D a r p a na d i s t i n u i s e s u rly a o r m i m e s i s
s i m i l a r ly g h ,

viz , t h a t fo r m o f th e d a n ce
w ic h a s fl a v o u r m o o d an d i m li ed s i gni fi h h p
bh dva vy a iija n a )— r o m u r i ta o r d e c or a ti v e d a n c i n
.
, ,

ca n ce ( r a s a , , d ev oidf , g ,

o f fl a v o u r a n d m o od .

h p h fi
b o i n t e d o u t t a t t h e V e d i c sa cr i c e
bg
3
I t n e ed a r d ly b e c o n s ta n tl y ,

d es cr i ed a s a mi m es i s o f w a t w a s d o n e i n th e e i nn i n h
i s i n a ll g ,

f
i t s fo r m s a n d i n t h e u ll e s t s e n s e o f th e w o r d s a w o r k o f a r t a n d a s y n t es i s , h
g
o f ar t s li tu r i c a l a n d a r c i t e c tu r a l h
u s t a s t h e s a m e c a n b e s a id o f t h e , j
h h h
C r i s t i a n M a s s ( w i c i s a l s o a m i m e t i c s a c r i c e ) i n w hi c t h e d r a m a t i c fi h
h
a n d a r c i t e c t u r a l e l e m e n t s a r e i n s e a r a l y c o n n ec t ed p b ,

I t Sh pp h h h h
’
4 ou ld n o t be su o s ed t at it i s
D e a t s S i d e t a t t er e o n ly on

is s in gi n g
t o th e ar h p
e n a c t m e n t ( n et) , a n d a d oi n ( k! ) th e o int i s , g p
h h
t a t a l l o f t es e a c t s a r e d o n e b y h i m vr thd w a nt o n l y
”
f o r m er e l e a s u r e , , p ,

a n d no t i n d u e or m f
A S a l r e a d y r e m a r k e d t h e s a cr i c e i s m i m e t i c b y
.
, fi
fi
n a t ur e a n d d e ni ti o n , a n d i t i s f o r t i s r e a s o n t a t w e r e n d er n r ty a te b y h h
h h h gh h
e n a ct e d
b Ih
r a t er t an b y d a n c ed f or t ou t er e c a n b e n o
p
d ou t t a t t h e r i t u a l , o r o r t i o n s o f i t w e r e i n a c e r ta i n s e n s e d a n c ed ,
”
,

( as n dr a d a n ce d h i s er o i c d e e d s , h
RV V 3 3 t is e x r e s s i on . . . h p
w o u ld h
ar dl y c o nv ey t o a m o d er n r e a d e r t h e S i n i ca n ce o f t h e r oo t g fi
ar t a s e m l o y e d p h
e r e a s w e ll a s i n l a t e r s t a e d i r e ct i o n s , w e r e w a t g h h
g fi
i s i n t e n de d i s a s i ni c a t i o n b y m e a n s o f or m a l a n d r y t m i c e s t u r e s f h h g
b
.

h h
T a t t h e r i t u a l m u s t a v e e e n , a s w e s a i d , a t l e a s t i n a r t s , a ki n d o f p
d a n c e , i s e v i d e nt r om th e f
a ct t a t t h e f
od s t e m s e lv e s , h
en a e d g h g g
i n t h e w o r k o f c r e a ti o n ar e c o m a r ed t o d a n c e r s ( n r ty a td m i v a R V p
X .
72 a nd t a t in K B
. h V
,

8 t h e s a cr i c i n . X II
r i e s t s ar e s o k e n o f
. fi gp p
,

as d a ncin g
( ni n a r ty a n ti ) K e i t u s t l y c o m m ent i n h j
t a t t i s i m li es g h h p
—h
,

a u ni o n o f s o n
g g h
b
r e c i ta t i o n a n d d a n c i n
, t a t i s t o s a y w a t i s l a te r
, ,

c a ll ed t h e e n s e m l e o f m u s i c s a m gi ta I t m a y b e a dd ed t a t r i t u a l d a n ci n
, . h g
s u rv i v e d i n t h e C ri s t i a n s a cri h
c e a t l e a s t a s l a t e a s th e e i fi t e en t gh h
c e nt u ry i n S a i n p .

Th e c o n t e s t s o f P r a a a t i w i t D ea t j p h
a r a l l el s t a t o f A o l l o w i t hp h p h
h h
M ar s y a s , a s t o w i c P la t o s a y s t a t t h e m a n o f s o u n d m i n d w i l l h r e er p f
p
A o l l o a n d h i s i n s tr u m e n t s t o M ar s y a s a n d h i s (R epu bli c 3 9 9 E )
b
.

Si m i lar l y b u t m o r e r i e fl y i n t h e Ta i tti r i y a S a mh i td V I V I 1 6 5 6
5
, . . . . .
,

h h
w e r e a l s o t h e G a n d a rv a s w h o u tt e r i n c a n t a t i o n s a r e c o n tr a s t ed w i t h
t h e ( m u n d a n e ) d e i ti e s w h o m e r e ly si n a nd Vi c o l lo w s t h e l a tt er g ,
f ,

f
b u t i s r e s t o r e d t o t h e o r m e r a s t h e ri c e o f S o m a Th e m u n d a n e d e i t i es p .

a r e o f c o u r s e th e i m m a n en t B r e a t s h p
h
,

h
th e o w e r s o f t h e s ou l ; i t i s o nl y
w e n t e y r e s t o r e t h e V o i c e t o t h e S a cer d o t i u m t a t t ey a r e e n a l e d
p ar t a k e o f t h e W a t e r o f L i e f
,

X
h h
h
b
a s in R V 1 0 9 5 7 w er e t h e ( m u n
b
to . . .
-
,

, g f
d a n e ) d e i t i e s r e s t o r i n h i s wi e ( i e V ac ) t o B rh a s p a t i O t a i n t h e S o m a . .

h g f h g
,

i n e x c a n e a n d a r e m a d e r e e o f t e ir o r i i n a l s i n
, .

Th e m od e r n i c o n o c l a s t i c g
g
d a n ci n , a c c o r d i n to w ic g
t o w ar d s th e a r t s o f i m a e r y a n d
h h
a t t e m t s a r e m a d e t o a ol i s
a n d t h e s e r v i c e o f D e v a d as i s i n t e m l e s
a tt i tu de
i d o l a tr y p
p f
b h
h h
i s o f a d e o r m a t i v e r a t er t an ,

f
a r e o r m a t i v e n a tu r e Th e i n t e ll e c t u a l li m i ta ti o n s o f t h e i co n o c l a s t ar e
.

suc h h p
t a t h e i n t e r r e t s i n a w or l dl y a n d m o r a li s t i c s e n s e w a t a r e in h
1 41
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R K S O F A RT ?

t h e m s el v e s
b y no m ea n s v a i n a n d d e a d l y b u t t ru ly m arge; a n d s va rgy a
ar t s p
co nt e m o r a r y m e nt a li t y r ed u c e s a ll t i n s t o i t s o w n dei z l e v e l h g .

M rga i s d e er b u t i n th e O ld E n li s s e ns e o f g h f f g
a me
g
7
o o t ed
—
, ou r -
,

h
w i t o u t n e ce s s a r y r e er e n c e t o t h e Ce r v i d ae f
a u sa e t a t s u r v i v es i n h
t h e e x r e s s i on p
s m a ll de er Th e r ela ti o n o f m yga a ni m a l t o m g , t o .
, ,

h u nt m a y b e c o m a r ed t o t a t o f o u r
, ow l to p
o w li n h f f g .

I t m a y b e n ot e d t a t p a d a a s a h ph
b hg
9
w or d or ra se i s a n a tu ra ll y
d ev el o ed m e a ni n p all o r m a l l a n gu a e gei n
,
f
a t r a ce o f t h e u ns
’
o k en g p
W or d th e l ov el y t o k e n s ( l a ks m i b) ar e i n e r e n t i n th e s e e r s s eec ,
”
p h
RV .
71 X
2 I n c a s u a l co n v er s a ti o n , w or l d l y s e ec
. . . o n th e o t e r p h . h
h h
a n d , t er e i s n o t i n h g h
m o r e t a n a li t er a l i n d i ca t i o n o f er c e ti o n s a n d p p ,

g h
b
o nl y t h e e s t i m a t i v e u n d er s t a n di n T i s d i s t i nc ti o n i n th e
i s i nv o lv e d .

fi p h f g f
b b
v er a l e ld c o rr e s o n d s t o t a t o f m dr ga r o m deé i d a n c i n t h e or m e r ,

h av i n g
a n i n t e lli gi l e t e m e a n d e m o d y i n h
m or e t a n l i t er a l m ea ni n s g h g ,

p
a s i s i m li e d b y t h e w o r d vy a fija n a Th e o n e ki nd o f co m m u ni c a ti o n i s .

f f
or m a l ( i d e a l l y i n o r m e d ) a n d i nt e ll e ct u a l , th e o t e r i n o r m a l a n d s e n s i ti v e : h f
III 2 4 .
I
W e r e i t n o t f o r n te ll ec t , t h e W o r d w o u l d a l e i n co e r e n tl y
f h p
I t i s r o m t i s oi nt o f v i e w , a n d o nl y a cc i d e nta ll y geo gr a
(S B b bb h .

p h i c a l ly t a t S a n s k ri t i s d i s t i n gui s ed r o m th e v er n a c u l a r s ( e m bhdsd)
. .

h h f
o f w ic h h
,

o ne m a y s a y t a t A p a b h r a ri i sa i s m o s t o f a ll a h y w ay or b ‘
,

dev i ou s and n o n - s i gni fic a n t ( ( wy a kta ) m a nn er o f c o m m u ni c a ti on ,

a nd t a t s u c h a s B ra h
B asa o r Ta m il a re de é i i n t h e eo r a j h i c al s en s e g g ph
o nl y I n th e s a m e w a y o n e m a y s a y t a t a ll s a cr ed l a n u a e s e m l o y ed
. h g g p
i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t r a d i ti o n a l d o ctr i n e s a r e hi w ay a nd t at gh h ,

g g g p p p p p p
l a n u a e s d e s i n ed or e m l oy e d f o r
w o u ld b e a o od e x a m le ) a r e
f
g
u r e ly

y w ay
r a ct i ca l
ton u e s p b
ur o s e s (E s er a n t o
P a l i , N e v e r t el e s s ,
b y i t s c o n u s i o n o f c e r t a i n w o r d s (e g di p a z di p a o r dvi p a ) i s n o t a s w e ll
g . h
. .

fi tt e d a s S a n s k r i t f o r p
r e c i s e c o m m u ni c a t i o ns o f i d e a s .

h p
y b e o i n te d o u t t a t a c a s t e o r e ud a l o r a n i z a ti o n o f h f g
It
z
n eed a r dl
s oc i e t y i s n o m o r e a di v i s i o n i n t i s s e n s e t a n i s th e c o m l ex or a ni a ti o n h h p g
o f th e ph b
y s i c a l od y t h e m a r k o f a di si n t e r a t ed e r s o n a l i ty g p .

t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a n b e i m a i n e d t a t i s s u er i o r to g h p
b
1°
A c o nd i t i o n of
c a ste ; a n a s o l u t e p r a m dna , f o r e x a m l e , i s r ed i c a t e d o f d e ity , for p p
h
w o m no f
u n c t i o n ( d h a r m a ) i s t oo i o r t o o l ow Th e r o l e ta r i a n h gh . p
c o n di t i o n o n t h e o t e r , h h
a n d i s n o t o f t i s n a tu r e b u t i nf er i or t o c a s t e ,
, h ,

f
r o m a s ir i t u a l a n d r o m a n e c o n o m i cp f p
b
a li ke o i nt o f v i e w f or a s P l a t o
h as e x r e s s e d i t , p
m o r e wi ll b e d o n e , a n d e tt e r d o n e , a nd w i t m o r e h
h
e as e , w en e v e r y o n e d oe s b u t o n e t i n , a c c o r d i n to h is e ni u s ; and h g g g
h j
t i s is u s t i ce t o e a c m a n a s h e i s i n i m s e l
, h h f .

’
11
L u c B e n o i s t L a Cu i s i n e des A nges 1 9 3 2 ,
Cf .
-
, 74 7 5 L i n t ér é t ,
pp .
-
,

p fr o o nd d e t ou t e s l e s t r a d i ti o n s d i t e s o u l a i r es r és i d e s u r t o u t d a n s l e p p
f ait
’
q u e ll e s n e s o nt p a s
’
o u l a i r e s d o r i gi ne p p
Ar i s t o t e y v o y a i t .

’
ph ph f
l

a v ec r a i s o n l e s r e s t e s d e l a n c i e n n e ilo s o ie I l a u d ra i t d ir e l e s
f i e —i a ph ph
’
or m e s a n c i e nn e s d e l ét er n e ll e il o s o o f th e ph i lo s op h i c : .

per enni s A u u s t i n e s
’
,
g
W i s do m u n cr e a t e t h e sa m e n o w a s i t e v e r w a s ,

a n d th e s a m e t o b e f o r e v er m or e o i n t e d o u t b y M i c e l et V E p h
As
b
-

—
. .
.
, ,

h
i t i s i n t i s s e ns e v i z , i na s m u c as l es M ai t r es d u Ve r e
. h
r o ett ent p j
l e u r s i nv en ti o n s d a n s l a m é m o i r e o u la ir e q u i e s t n u r ec e p ta c l e m e r p p ,

v e i ll e u x d e s c o nc e ts m e r v e ill e ux p
( L e S ecr et de l a Ch eva ler i e 1 9 3 0 1 9) p
—
.
, ,

a n d n o t i n a ny d e m ocr a ti c s e n se t a t i t ca n r o e r ly b e sa i d h , _
p p ,

Vox p op u l i vox D e
Th e ea s t b ,

f
a l e s o f t h e P a fi ca ta ntr a , i n w i cb a m o r e t a n m e re l y
b
w o r l dl y w i s d o m i s e m od i e d , is u n q u es t io n a ly o f a r is t o cra t i c a nd n o t
h h
bh h
of p p
o u l a r or i i n ; g
m o s t o f th e s t o r i e s i n i t a v e , a s E d er t o n s a y s , g
1 42
 B E A U TY OF M AT H E M A T I C S A RE V I EW
ONE k nows that m a th e ma tici a ns s o m e
ti m e s sp e a k of p e rfe ctly fo rmul a te d e qu a tio n s
”
as b e a u tiful a nd a r e e xci te d by th e m a s th e co n f

n o is s e u r i s e xci te d by works o f a r t Th e p r e s e nt .

volum e will be of th e gr ea te s t i nte r e s t a n d va lu e to

aes t h e t ic i a n s si n c e i t i s h e re fo r th e firs t tim e tha t
th e b e a u ty of m a th e ma tics h a s b e e n discuss e d by
’
a ma th e ma ticia n Profe ssor H a rdy s a na lysis of th i s
.

b e a uty is p e n e tr a ti ng a n d illumi na ti ng a n d i n W e lcom e

1
,

co n tra s t to th e va gu e ne ss tha t is so chara c te ris tic o f

mos t mod e rn wri ti ngs o n th e c r i te ria of b ea u ty in
o th e r ki nds of a r t .

“
A ma th e ma ticia n lik e a p a i n te r or a po e t is a
, ,
’
m a k e r o f p a tte r n s Th e m a th e ma tici a n s p a tte r n s
”

.
,
’ ’
lik e th e p a i nte r s o r th e po e t s mus t be bea utiful ,

th e id e a s lik e th e colours or th e wo rds mus t fit tog e th e r

,

i n a h a rmo n i ous w a y . B e a u ty is th e firs t te s t th e re

i s no p e rm a n e nt pl a c e i n th e world for ugly m a th e ma tics
( pp . 2 4 ,
2 T h e b e s t m a th e m a t ics is s e r i ou s a s
w e ll a s b e a utiful . Th e b e a u ty of a m a th e ma tica l
t h e or e m dep ends a gr e a t d e a l o n i ts s e rious n e ss .

A s e rious th e ore m i s a th e or e m tha t co n ta i n s s ign i

fic a n t id e a s ( for which ) . Th e r e a r e t w o

t hi n s a t a ny r a te th a t s e e m e ss e n ti a l a c e r ta i n gener a li ty
g ,

a n d a c e r ta i n de t/z
p ( pp .2 9 B y g e n e r a li ty i t is
m e a nt Th a t th e r e l a tio n s r eve al e d by th e proof
should be such a s to co nn e c t ma ny di ff e r e nt m a th e m a
t ic a l id e a s ( no t o n e of) th e isol a te d curiosi ti e s i n

wh i ch a r i thme tic a bou n ds ( p . D e p t h h as

som e thi ng to do w i th difli culty ; th e d e e p e r id e a s ar e

usually th e h a rd e r to gra sp ( p . In such b e au tiful
1 44
 B E A UTY O F M A TH E MAT I C S
t h e or e ms as thos e propou n de d by E uclid a nd Pytha gora s
th e r e is a ve r y high d e gr ee of u nexp ectednes s ,
com
bi n e d wi th i nev i ta bi li ty a nd e conomy th e w e apo ns
us e d s ee m so childishly simpl e comp a r e d wi th th e
fa r r e a chi n g r e sul ts
-
bu t th e r e is no e sca p e from th e
co n clusio n s ( p . A nd thus Profe ssor H a rdy i s
“
i nte r e s te d i n ma th e ma tics o nly a s a cr e ativ e ar t
( p 5 5)
H avi n g so we ll d e fi ne d wh a t a r e i n fa c t th e e ss e n ti a ls
i n a ny a r t th e a u thor who s ee ms to be a cqua i n te d
, ,

o nly wi th mod e rn aes th e t ic co n c e p tio ns of a r t ,

n a tur a lly ra te s th e b e au ty of ma th e m a tics a bov e t h a t of

” ’
art H e quo tes wi thou t pro te s t H o u s m a n s Po e try
i s no t th e thi ng said bu t a way of s ayi n g i t — a pro
.

no u n c e m e n t fit to m a k e D a n te or Asva h o sa tur n i n
g
t h e i r gra v e s H e ta k e s a n e xa mpl e from Sh a k e sp e a re
.

No t a ll th e wa te r i n th e rough rud e s e a
Ca n wash th e b a lm from a n a n oi nte d K i n g
a nd a sks Could li n e s be b e tte r a n d could id e a s be
,

a t o n c e mor e t ri te a n d more fa ls e ? Th e pov e r ty of

th e id e a s s e e ms h a r dly to a ff e c t th e b e a u ty of th e v e rb a l
p a tt e rn ”
. What th e e xa mpl e r e a lly prov e s is no t tha t
,

b e a u ty ca n be i nd e p e n d e nt of va lidi ty bu t th a t b e a u ty
,

a n d va lidi ty a r e r e l a t iv e . Th e r e i s no thi n g ma d e tha t

c a n be e i th e r b e a u tiful or a t i n a ll co n te x t s N o t hi ng
p .

i s b e au tiful for a ny o th e r purpos e tha n th a t for which

”
t h a t t hi n g is adap te d ocr a t e s i n X e n opho n M em iv
( S ,
. .

6 , Th e e xa mpl e a lso shows tha t no pro nou n c e m e nt

ca n b e t ru e e xc e p t for t hos e to whom i t s t ru th is a pp a r e n t .

To a ny Pl ato nis t or o th e r tr a di tio na lis t a n d to th e

,
’
re vi e we r Sha k e sp e a re s words a r e b e a u tiful a nd tru e
, ,

bu t th e y a r e no t t ru e for Profe ssor H a rdy or i n a ny

d e mocra tic co nte xt A n d wh e r e th e y a r e no t t ru e th e
.
,

m e r e fa c t that the sou n ds of th e words is lik e d do e s

no t m a k e t h e m b e a u tiful i n th e s e n s e of th e t ra di tio n
t h a t m a i ntai n s th a t B e a uty p e rta i ns to cog nitio n
1 45
 WH Y E X H I B IT WO R K S O F ART ?

bu t o n ly b e a u tiful ( or r a th e r love ly to thos e ,

“ ”
whom Pl a to ca lls lov e rs of fine colours a nd sou n ds .

Pr ofe sso r H a rdy is n o t o ne of th e s e ; h e co nfe ss e s

i g nora n c e of ae s th e tics bu t all h e n e e ds to do i s to ,

a pply h i s o w n m a th e m a tical s ta n d a rds of i n t e lligibili ty

a n d e co n omy to o th e r works of a r t a n d le t th e H o u s m a n s ,

sa
y wha t t h e y will I d e a s do m a tte r to th e p att e r n
.

p ’
As A pology
an Profe ssor H ardy s book i s a ,

d e fe nc e of r e a l or high e r m a th e ma tics a gai n st thos e

who r a is e obj e c tio n to th e i r us e l e ss n e ss ( i n th e crud e
s e ns e of th e word) A ll h e n e e d h av e s a id is th a t .

math e m a tics a s a whol e s e rv e s n e e ds bo th of th e s o ul

a n d of th e body lik e th e a r ts of primi t iv e m a n a nd
,

t hos e which Pla to would h a v e a dmi tte d to his Re publ i c .

Th a t th e high e r ma th e ma tics h av e s e rv e d his o w n soul

w e ll i s shown by his co n cludi n g s ta te m e nt th a t if h e ,

had a s tatu e o n a co lum n i n Lo ndon a nd w e r e a bl e ,

to choos e wh e th e r th e colum n should b e so h i gh th a t

t h e fe a tu r e s of th e s ta tu e would b e i nvisibl e or so low ,

th a t th e y could be cl e a rly s e e n h e would choos e th e ,

’
firs t a l te rna t ive ( p a n d si n c e i t is m a n s . firs t
du ty to work o u t h i s o w n sa lva tio n ( fr om hims e l f) n o ,

fu rth e r d e fe nc e is n e e d e d H e ma k e s it p e rfe c tly .

cl e a r th a t h e could no t hav e do ne b e tte r in a ny o th e r

fi e ld ; m a th e m a tics w a s his voc a tio n H e w a s righ t .
‘

t o be a m a th e m a t icia n no t b e c a us e h e succ e e d e d ( p
'

.
,

bu t ra th e r h e succ e e d e d b e ca us e h e did
,
wh a t it w a s
’ ”
his to do by na tur e which is Pl a to s typ e of jus t ic e
, ,

a n d i n th e B h a a v a d Gi ta th e w a
g y t ha t l e ads to p e r fe c t io n
'

NOTE S
1

Pr es s
G . H . H ar dy , A M a them a ti ci a n
'
s A po logy , Ca m b r id ge Uni v er s i ty
1 941 Pp 93
b
, . . .

g h po n
th e n o ti o n o f ar t as th e r ec or d o f a n i m
p
Th e
r es s i o n
h
e ar i n

b
o r e ffec t i s o v i o u s
of t is
b u
A n ar t o r m c a n o n ly b e c a l l ed
.

g
s e ri ou s f
h
W en i t s u s u m es m any s i n l e i ns t a nce s Th e Tru n dh o lm su n -w eel .

f p
i s s eri o u s , b u t a s ti l l li e o f a a r ti c u l ar w a o n w e e l i n a ar t i c u l ar li t g h p gh
i s tr i v i a l Th e
. a a nes e J p
ar e u s ti e d i n no t t a k i n t e ir j fi
u ki y oy e g h
s er i o u s l y .

1 46
 Phi los o phy Re li gi o n ,

l m h h m
G IDEU TO P H I L O S O P HY C E M
,

p d
l oad
d h ugh A .m d
g
o ern c as s i c w i c . l
D f
e a i nes
. an h h
c r cia
. rox m m h y u l p b
pl
ud iv li m
e s w ic an has
n e rs e ? How do we
on ere

li m
now a nd akt ro

h v
a te our lid
the a e s :
now e
l
oes

le?
g y
kc o l dg S u h pp d l u
re e Wl l | e s t ? Is t e re
os e
l
s o ti ons a s s
a n i n the

gi ect e
l
m
ubj
v lu d
iv
i ea s

Wh h d
a nd rea s
a nd the contr ibu
,

t o ns of thei
c a nc e a nd te eo o

h g ,
ta lis
vu
reat ph l los op h e rs ro
a nd
the
o ca
f
re e s to
m
mx o e rns G
pos rtrvrs m, a re e a ate
i e
h kp
sse ,
b m
l m
d l
fi k Ru ll
du i B O STON TRAN S CR IPT I d x
d t
m bib l g ph y xP p b u d
“
ite ea , a n o e r s , a re cons n h
de r ed i n t e conte t of eac ro e Th e nes t i ntro .

"
ct on, n e Clas s e d io ra 5 92pp
. 8 . . . .

T29 7 a er o n

H I STORY OF uANCv yI ENT PGH I L Ok S O P HYR wm Wphil l phy D u One of the c ea res t, , l
inde band
os t a c c rate co
.

ph ml .

phy u g m
l
era c
ll t s
u l l if m G
p re he ns we s r e s of

th
e
e El e a
'
ucs ,
ree a nd o an

HS li u D m i u ( Empp gd ) l A (x g p g ) A l ( Py ph gg )
inte ect a
e oc es ,
os o
ree c e i n the 7 th a nd 6th c e ntun es
i s c s s es a ncre nt
C,
na a o ras , Leuc rp pus , th e
a es , B Th l A x m d A x m
i os o
na i an er,
t a orea ns , th e
ln

o
e nera ,
na i e nes ,
is ts , S ph
.

S
ocra tes ,
toi cs ,
t ra ns ate
Epi u
e ocr t s

l d by H E Cu hm xv
c rea ns ,
20
S p
a es , Plato
ce ti cs , Neo- a tonis ts ,
s an . 3 9 3 pp
.
pl
50 a es ,
r s t an
8 .
Ch x i
ris tot e
i
70
o o is ts , etc Ap2nd l g
a es , the Pe ri pa tetl cs ,
e r a n edl tron
T3 5 7 a er o n .
G
Pp b u d .
m .

I LL U S TRAT I ON S OF THE H I S TORY OF M E D I EVA L THOUGHT AN D L EARN I NG R L P B

h uughy— l v O kh m Wl y diliff g M f m oole ;
’

, . . as i c

P du m y h g
a nalys rs the t o of t a nd i es of the ea n ph l los op hers th e a nd e cc les ras tl cs ro

hip l ki l l gi u d m phyh Wl
s th to the 1 4 th c e nt r
t n e rs who a rn e
e t h
Aba l la rd , c a ,
e torc o f t
e e rn c
s
c
t
e,
ulL gu
a rs rgll o of
re a nd lea rnl ng t ro the
d
“

dar
reat
es
”

k h ugh h l
D k Ag
a a , a nd an ot er

8
bx I du i
o it ca , re i o s , a nd
th e es t ntro ct ons to
.
eta
e e a t o m di v l h ugh
s i ca vrews on a s ta n a r
t f or be g l nne rs n e 10 e n ces I d x App di
wor f or s c o a rs a nd o ne of
Xl l i
T67 4 a e r o n
3 27 pp
.

Pp b u d
. . .
_
.
_

P H I L O S O P HY AN D C I V I L I Z AT I ON I N THE M I DDL E AGE S M W f Th m p pu l uvy

v p v m fdiudv lil mi ll Cu lh lifl mu h de i s s e i o ol ar s r e
-
, . .

c o e rs

m i
e tc
as
It a ls o co e rs e
e c ts
a s
of e e a nte

pi U b idg d B ib l i g ph y I d x vs
ect a
.
e s
a t o i c is ,
c
mri s e
as
d d
re l l g l on, ph l los ophy , s ci enc e , the a rts ,
of th e unwe rs u
x tl es , e n i ca nt or ers ,

Pp b ud
.

onas t c ce nters , and s umrlar to cs . na r e . o ra n e v ni . 3 20 pp 8 . . .

T28 4 a e r o n

AN I NTROMD UCT I ONAN TOD NES CHO L AST I C P H I L O S O P HY P f M

W h v lum x m
de ul or e r e ntit e W f F m ly
di
ro
i l d S CHO
f m
Su z
, . . .

A lm Alb u M g u Th mm di Aqu
LASTIC IS
ns e
OLD
ert s a n s,
, t us
o as
o
i nas , to
v l phil
a re up
e e a i ne s the ce ntra l s c ho la s tl c t ra t on

phy
i n the 1 7 th cent r
ro St
Th e re ation of u y l
ly
.
.

fL luvl d p dl p b km d m d h m
,

s cho las tic rs m to a nc re nt a nd e e a os o a nd s c re nce i n ge ne ra l IS c lear a nd eas i

l
m U b dg d
o owe Th e s eco n art of the oo co ns i e rs the o e rn revrva l of s c o as ti c i s , the

ClP p hbb uu dd
.

o a i n os iti on, re ations Wl th Kanti a nl s a nd Pos i tl vis na ri e xvi 27 1 pp 5 x 8 . % . . .

T29 6 ot o n
T28 3 a e r o n

A H I STORY OFph lM O Dphy ERNf P HmI L O S O PRHY H e ce tiona x p l ly l u y dM j l d vmi g

c ear a nd etai e
, . Hiiff ding An
co era e .

of wes te rn
m
a
en s c
eo,
u
as
a con,
h
i os o ro

es ca rte s , o es ,
oe m B hm
the e na i s s ance to th e e nd of th e l gth ce nt r

GE l i l mu B D V l Hi bb D id S pi zR u u L W lffi g LK k HN d FiB h k l y Humm

m
Po ponaz z i , Bod , e , Te le s us ,
no a , LEIa Z , o
r no ,
, oc e,
i
ewton
Bu C p i u
a or a nd
o e rn c s , da Vl fl Ci ,
er e e ,
e
nor
er ,
e,
K pl
.

Hdi g ul Sd h p hm u Ch m y Mk l l l dg m S p mH l gmy Lp y gh l gy mI d yx hv l um
ras
e e ,
s, M
ontes q ul e u,
c o e n a er ,
o ta re ,
o te ,
e rot,
u , Da rw ,
o s s ea ,
e nce r,
es s n ,
a rt ann,
ant, er er,
a n e , and
c te , S c he ll g,
an ot e rs , a re
sc sse
total of 1 1 5 9 pp 8 x
i n te r s of t e or of now e e , Iogl c , cos o o , a nd s c o o
. .
n e
TI 1 7 Vol 1 , a e r o n
2 o es ,
Pp bu d
Pp bu d T1 1 8 Vol 2,
.

.
.

a er o n
.

ARh Iugh
STOT L E A E T yl A
,
i by f l gim fi P l phi il phy vm
. b r ul l i.a nt sae a rc i
or n . no n he g
-t c n ca
i a cco nt of h l
r s tot e a nd h is
k u A iA i l l
l f
f m u m i i
,

t o t wr tte n a os t aton s t It co e rs the

ore e a nd wor s of M r s tot e ; c as s i ica
y
pi B ib l i g ph y I d x mp l d hi
.

ti on of the s c l e nc es ; o c ; rs t os o ; atte r a nd o r ; ca s es ; ot on a nd ete rn t ;

d
God; phys rcs ;
e itio n 1 28 pp
.
m
8 x
etaphys ucs ; a nd s n
.
mrla r to cs
.
o ra New n e co i e
T28 0 a e r o n
f or t s .

Pp b u d
.

THE SY STE M OFL uvTHOm MgASv i M W u l f L di g

AOUINAS ,
l d de . Th
i mi . f
ea u
n d m Neo -
o s t, o ne of o n ers of
Unive rs rty

I llu
d
s t ra te ro th e
of

d fx m Sy m Th m Aqui
towa r dete rml nl ng h is v
o
lu a
m ,

d i

s te
phil
es
a e phy
conc s e
to
of
l igi F m ly M d v l P h l ph y
o ern
e xpos rti on to

T by E M gP p Ib u dud i
o as
os o
nas
m

.
centra

"
, re
rans
on
.
o ctr nes
. or
.
er
of Aq u
“

es s e n e r
e
as ,
ie
.
a
as

ntro
a
i os o
ea ns

ct on .

1 5 1 pp . 8 . T5 68 a er o n

L E IB N I Z H w C M midd l l v l v g phil ph l h ugh

Ndi puu
of LB IDIIIZ '
as
,

E ily.

u d
G B y l MM l b d l hgy N
n e rs too
. d arr .

dis cus s ro n, a na s is of
’
l
os t s ti mula tl ng
y
a o r wor s :
“
m j
eo c ,
”
k Thg di
e- e e

h y co e ra e

p d
of ba s rc os o
“
i ca t o
Pr inc i ple s
t
of

m h ugh d y i h
”
; Le l bmz s m m
“
a t re and
"
rac e , o na o o f lue nce ; te l lectua l rowt ; c orre s on enc e ;
s

226pp
tes wnth
ta ti on
.
m mx d
8
a e, a e ra nc e ,
o ern te rml no logy
.
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t to a , w t re l nte rpre
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T624 a er o n
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ANb idgE SSdAY pCONCERN i i g I NG HU M AN UN D ER S TAN D I NG J h L k Ed d by A C F
d fi i iv di i ly mpl di i E y p i M g l , o n oc e . i te . . ras er . Un

ly hi lmi l pv l yg p m g phI d hux d d f x u h i iv p g bi g phi l

”
a r e re r nt n of e nt e e t on; on co e te e t on of s sa in r nt . ar i na
a na s es of a os t e er ara ra ; n re s of ootnote s , a t or ta t e 1 40 -
a e o ra ca ,

(B k ) P p b u d
c ri t i ca l, s tor ca ro e o e na . n e es . 1 1 7 0 pp . 8 .

(B k ) P p b u d
T53 0 Vo l . 1 oo s 1, 2 a er o n

v l um T5 3 1 Vol . 2 oo s 3, 4
2
a er o n
o e s et

THEhi hP H I LvO S Ol P HYH gOFl H I STORY G W F hH hi y gh l

of wes te rn t o t
l p
h ugh e ge l One of the reat c as s i cs

li z i l i l ubS pij i iv F ul du m R g fm md b i lu l yul uh i W h ubj piv u h l ugh

.
, . . .

s to r a nc e but a rati ona roc es s , the

'
w c re ea s e e s baS l C pr i nC i pl e : t a t is not c
rea at on of the r t of ree o a n es ro the or e nta c t res of s e ct e t o t

ul il d T l i i du i by J S b I du i by C H g l
.

to the c a s s ca s ec t e c t res , to th e o e rn a s o te s nt es s e re s i ri t a a nd

Sp l
s ec a r
ec ia
m
du i
a y b e re conc e
i ntro ct on f or t s e it on hi d i by P f F i d h m
ra ns a t on a nd ntro
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Ca rl r e ri c
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xxx
ntro .

4 4 7 pp
ct on

T1 1 2 a e r o n
8
e e .

Pp b u d
x .
.

.
.

.
.

THE n
P H I L O S O P HY OF HEGE L W T S
ES gli h x mihi H gp l i dllyb v lu Gbl kSi id l m y H g l u yk h p p di
s t s is es ec a
fi d i l d ly
,

a
.

a
H .g l
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so
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an of
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'
a na s i s
e e s wor s a re
of
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Dr
e e
out
'
s t o
.

’
ful d ip ly i H g l fi g i di l i
, .

ta ce e a nes e e s e t to ree ea i s ts a nd th e 1 8th c e nt r a nd t en roc ee s to a

mH g h li d y l mgi x phi l phy x u ti on a nd

pi I d x Sp i l xof
h rs t p ri nCi pIe s , cate a e ct c
'
ca re es c r a na s s e e s o r es , reas o n

Pp b u d
,

et o , h i s o c, os o of nat re a nd s rit, etc n e . . ec a 14 20 c a rt of

e e a n s s te . 5 26pp . 8 . T254 a er o n

THE WTHEI LL WTOI LL B E L I EVE diHU MuAN I MM ORTA L I TYl Wi J m b li f m b l kl b u md and , . a es . Two co plete oo s o n as

h phil phid mi Hi mg l f SWpill d mmi i i mHU fM AN I MM ORTAfL I TY plux mili m qum i i m

o ne .

c a nc e vs . e te r
TO BELIEVE
ns , ree
s c s s es
vs
the i nte rre
e ter ns .
at ons
, ree
of
WI| |
e
vs
e
.
,
Wi ll, a nd i nte e ct i n
a te , ra s vs on s
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p f Idx
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.
d a h n e
d
e s of
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l
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x
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of
p 4 29 pp
fu l gum
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imm
e nc er, a nd

Pp bu d
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li y
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8
n s
.
a
.

a nd owe r ar
e a
ent f or
T291
nes th e
orta t
a er o n
es t o n
Two .

THE W ORp LD AN D uTHE I N DhiI V IgD UA L Jy mh R i y mp O ly hm j iv ffm by R Am ,

y i f ph
mu
os i a
l
l ph o ce . n a or e ort an e r ca n
’
i os o er

v
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to i nte r

lv d lu P
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te
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i l C
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of

i igi
t
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B i g
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in s
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.

so t
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m fi g
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e .

p lace ofa nd ip dividu

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bl m li y
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N
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m a t
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a rt Two , d
at re ,
.
e n ,
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a nd the Moral
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S mi h Y l iv I d x x Pp bu d
of rs t pr i nC i p Ies to ro e s c onc e rn n re on, eVi I, ora or er ntro ct on . .

Pp bu d
.

t , a e Un n e . 1 07 0 pp 8 . T5 6 1 Vol 1 a er o n .

v lum T5 62 Vo l 2 a er o n
Two o e s et
.

THE P H I L O S O P H I CA L W R I T I NG S OF P E I RCE d d b y J
P H I L O S O P HY P E I RCE) fully i g d m
, e i te . Bu h l
f P i c Thbmpl k ( f ym ml y THEm
er .

’
is oo or er

pp gmd i m l pi i m fl gym h
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OF
ect km lSymb
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gid phil ph mx d im Thi ly i

xp P pv b umpil i
.

ra at s e s te o o c a nc e , cos o o , et cs , a nd an ot e r to cs a re treate

d
, ,

o ne of th e re ate s t os o e rs of o e rn t es . s is the on ne e ns i e c o a t on
of hi s key ea s . xvi -
l 3 8 6pp . 8 . T21 7 a er o n

El P ERu I ENCEhi hANDD NATURE

X
y d liv J dh D y
v l gd
An en ar e , re s e
y e ti on of the, Paul
o n ar s ewe . vi d fdi mul i p C bl um
k l ldgi Whipi h x l ld mi dh y k m l d a t on of the
d ili g
'
e ct re s w c ewe e e re i n 1 925 It co e rs Dewe s baS i c o r ro e

W i h h ugh x mi
.

of now e e, t a f ull di s cus s w n of ot e r s s te s , a nd a e ta n of h i s own c once pts

S
i lyz xpphili phi l m h d xmpimi i l ui li ml
of th e re a t o ns
t on of the os o
of e te rna
ca
wo r ,
et o , e a
n , a nd
nes the
now e ge
nte rre a t ons
ta rts t a t oro
of e
e a na
er e nce a nd nat re ; i hipf mu l xpi i
.

l u
l gu g i l f k l dg D y m p b l m
a na es e e r e nc e on baS i s of e r ca nat ra s , the or at o n of law, ro e of
’
phil phy p f u d x m l y y f ll
an a e a nd s oc a
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a ctors i n
but e tre e
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e ; e tc ewe s trea t e nt of ce ntra l
to o ow i x 4 4 8 pp 8
ro e s

T4 7 I a e r o n
in .

. x Pp bud . .

THE
phil P H I L O S O P H I CA L W OR K S OF D E S CARTE S
phi l k l R d f i ni ti e n is e ti on of a l l the a or . The e v E glv luh i di y i gh f mm j
f m u f u Cfulgi p h ph d m il d u u iv
os o
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ca
o
wor s a nd etters of
to e rgo s um to h i s
e né Des ca rte s
e ta e
All of h i s re o t ona r
acco nt of conte ora r
ns i ts , ro hi s
s c e nce a nd h i s a s toni s
.

mp y
( x p mi d )
i uld du d h
lH bb l A byu l d G di m h m i
i ngly r it
c ear a ws
conc e t t at a ll
the us e of a t e a t cs x ll
e no e na of the n e rs e e ce t
An e c e ent s o rce f o r th e t o
’
n co be re ce to
t of men e u mp i Th ughl d by E likS
H ld G R I du y I d x x
.

o es , rna , as s e n etc , who were Des a rte s c onte

c ora r es ra ns a te .

Pp b u d
, . .

a a ne a nd os s ntro cto r notes n e

. Tota l of 8 4 2pp
. 8

Pp b u d
. . . .

T7 I Vol 1 , a e r o n .

T7 2 Vo l 2, a e r o n .

THE CH ISEFp WzOR KSmOF S PIimpNO Z A u k b idg d p

An na r e re ri nt of the a o s o n e ti on conta i n n . f m Pu li Bi h l Tdi i ig
P li i l T i I mp v m U d di g E h Sl dL
ll f i os t I: The Theo logi co o t ca
'
a o no a s orta nt wor s : Vo l rea t s e a nd the -

P fu d du i g id u iv p h i m m hi h i ligiflu d G h
.

o t ca rea t s e Vo l II On The ro e e nt Of n e rs ta n n , Th e t i cs , e ecte ette rs

dH mg l S yh ll g miC dl dgm i W hi f h dd m m y hu
. .

ro o n a nd e n r n eas on God , the n e rs e , a nt e s s o ety , re on, the s ta te ,

I du i v lum
,

e oc rac the n , e ot ons , ree o a nd th e na t re of ma n, w c n e nc e oe t e ,

x I Pp bu d
,

e e , c e in , o eri e, te ea , a nd an ot ers ntro ct on 2 o es 8 26pp

Pp b u d
. . . .

8 . T24 9 Vo l , a er o n .

T250 Vo l II, a e r o n .
 THE ANA LY S I S OF M ATTER B
u d ly i di phyg i l i b phy i m d u phy d Ru l , A l
i
e rtran
l h hi y h humsse i dp l .

pimpi Lg l
c as s i c w c has reta ne i ts orta nce In
n e rs ta n n

v
a na s s of
i
the re a t o n e twee n

phy i
s cs , p rere la ti Vi ty
l i
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p
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i
s cs , ca s a t , s c i e nt
t eor

p i
c n ere nce ,
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o i ca

mu
s t eor , t e ns ors , i
h f m W yl h y
d W i h Ru l l
a nd , .

uU Mu l bM illi h ughM lympi

in a r a nt a nd t t t t d
hi ki
t
gt t
i i g NAT I ON AN D ATHENAE
'
s s ca n e r re a o n s er o c a n c ore i s re a e ss e s

j
, ,

ub THE NAT I ON I du i I d x figu

“ "
s a r a nce a s te r ec e of c l ear t n n a nd c lea r wr t n ,

x Pp b u d
.

v
”
. os t t oro treat e nt o f t h e s e c t, ntro ct o n n e 8 res . . . .

iii 4 0 8 pp 8 823 1 a er o n

CONCEpPTUA L THhi I NhK Il NGgu( Ag L OG I CAb L dI N U I RY) Sl hK h y hi d u igiphil phi l qu

. .

Q , . orner . Ds c s s es or n, us e of ge nera l
conce
t ons i Rp g bl um ly x mi fi ld diff b p x ll gi d l m hh ym i lil k d i ifi
oro s
. e a
ts
i nes how
on w c an
ere nt co nc e ts a re re a te ; how t e
ba S i c a e
a re
os o
n e
ca is es
to e xpe ri
as e , a nd the ig t t e s e on

e nce ;
pm y
ro e s i n th e
co nc e ts , a nd th e
e
ipp x h
of c onta ct
ne a ctne s s of e er a
e twee n e act
e e r e nc e
o ca ,
st e v yddi yi xpl p i bl m ( udi phid l phy
a t e at ca , a nd s c e nt
at en t s wor e a
c
l —g h )p Thim l gyk v l l ub .

hphil i phi m l phygumi

o rates
t eor es ,
an new a
eta
roac es to th e tra t o na
s cs , a e s t et cs , ora t hP hil i phim l li yu R l y igi li y d b i gd di i igI du x
ro
a re or
e s of
na t
os o e i s te o o
r n s a ne w r o r i nto
, a e
.

x Q a rter New correcte

Pp b u d
"
os o ca ar ent, os o ca s eco n e t on n e Vi i . . .

3 0 1 pp 8 TS 1 6 a e r o n

I NTRO D UCT I ON TO S Y M B O L I C L OG I C S L p l k l dg m h qui d

.

p b blyi
ro a l
phi l ph
the b k
c ea res t v i W i h Simpl ymb l
oo ymb
e er li
wr tte n on l gi u bl , .

dv
anger
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k
. No
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B l Sh d Ru l l W hi h d y m F m l gi l u u l
s c i ent s t, a nd os o er You s ta rt t e s o s a nd a a nce to a now e e of

l ulu l gi yll gi m v d
.

th e oo e- c roe e r a nd sse - te ea s s te s or s , o ca s tr ct re , c as s es , the

m l
.

Simp l i du M ATHE M AT I C S GAZ ETT S d l g d di i

“
ca c s of propos o ns , o c of the s o s , e tc .
, a re a l l co e re One of th e c ea res t .

x Pp bu d
m
”
a nd es t ntro ctions , E . e c on e n a r e , r eVi s e d e t on 3 68 ) . .

8 $ 1 64 a e r o n

LANGUAGE TRUTH AN D L OG I C A J Ay A fu l b d
.

l y
L gi l P i ivi m B u di g k S hli k Ru ll C p Vi Sh l
, , . . er . c lea r, ca re a na s is the of as i c i ea s of

M Ay d v l p d il d xp i i u phil phy i m phy i

o ca os t s d n on the wor of c c ,
sse , a rna , a nd the e nne s e c oo

S lf W ld l gi mm h phil phi p
.

r er e e o s a eta e e os t on of the na t re of os o ,
s c e nce , a nd e ta s cs ,

lI i duy i h ugh fi full l g h d v l pm L gi l P i ivi m E gli h

.

the e a nd th e or ; o c a nd c o on s e ns e , a nd ot e r os o c c onc e ts . An a id to

by B d Ru ll I d x x Pp b u d
.

c ar t of t o t as We ll as th e rs t -
en t e e o e nt of o ca os t s in n s .

ntro ct on e rtra n sse n e 1 60 pp 8 T1 0 a er o n

Ejudgm
SS AY S I N E P ER I M ENTA L L OG I C J D y B d up h y h k l dg impli
. . . .

e nt w c
l hii
i n t rnh hip uX
es a n i a impli
h ugh
i ry , t e s e a ers c ons
ub j
t at now e e
er the n r h
m p
es a
s ta e i n te r s p , .

d id ewe

h i .

qui
ugh y g
d
as e

m m on the t eo r

g
f l yp
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of : th e re a t ons
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ne e rtxra mi
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ect
’
s t o
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t, w Ru ll
a tter, a ntece ents of t o
e 2 ot ers sc ss
t,
h ugh
a ta a nd

l gi v l u I d x V I I
ra at s
ea n
a nd a hil h di u p gm i m
x
Pp b u d
.

ina e s s a res e nts a new t eor of the o c of a es n e I 4 4 4 pp 8 . . . .

T7 3 a e r o n

TRAG
m k I C S EN S E OF L I FE M
B
U m d ,

p .

i de k l idg
na uno The a c now
‘

d
vi mbl d p .

h Sp i e e a s te r i ec e of one of a ns
'

dl i Thi dym mihi g ppb i l U mmu ffi i dh h

os t i nflue nt i a l th i nkers etwe e n the es a r at the
vi g hi m lfi ud b h
m ne ta e ea t of a n a nd a ll hi s
'

“ ”
wor s a nd the e s re f or s o et n ette r, na no n s t at sa n nc e rt t e t at

l l d m p by ENCYC LO PAE D I A B R I TANN I CA xxx x i n God a nd i n has

'
a lone ca n cons o e us s . na c a ra s a of an s a t i se e en

Pp b u d
“
ca e a as te r i e ce th e . 3 3 2pp 8 . .

T25 7 a e r o n

HChuI STORY
rc
OF
h hi i D OG M A A H k Ad lph H k
s tor a n of a ll t e im l h hi l p i h gm ki g hi y d hiv hl pm v b u hu pi iv d
In t s e oc a n
, . i n 1 9 3 0 , wa s
s tor , w
arnac
c has ne er
.
e r a s the
. di d
rea tes t
ee n s r a s s e
o a rna cp-
h p , who g e

ChR f i mi i d i ludil yg m f mb i f fiu v y y lli z l i d v l pm hu yughd hl f ughllibi l i y

i n comp re h e ns w e nes s a nd wea t
r s t an octr na s s te ro
of
its
e a rn n , h e t ra c es the
rs t cr s ta
e e o
a t on i n th e 4 th c e nt r
e nt of the a t or ta t e
own t ro the

d di u u h piv l
e or at on i nc
ecree of 1 8 7 0
n a ls o a, r e s r e
He re ea s the e no r o s n e nce of
.
of th e ater

Ap ml u
e e o

gi
ree t o i f lu
e nts t ro

g
th e n a
t on the ea r G u
t
at e rs , k il h ugh
M ih im
ly hi F h l
p l mi Augu
a nd
os
s c s s es s c
on of i
to cs a s the

Lu h d i W i h m d
s t ne , th e e e a o m di
o o s ts , the
os t on to v nl pp i
re a t c o nc s ,
i an c ae s
e nces , th e r s e of i
,

dulg
the
rote s ta nt s
s tor ica
th e
h ugh i mu P
h m i m M u
k m v lu bl hi y d gm lumi u ly i p b
,

re at ons o f t o ctr nes

' “
er s t o e rn te nde nC i es of t o t, a nd c ore on

l mu d bd u d hi ugg i imu lu gl d by d i
.

me nta l wor ; s ti ll the os t a a e s to r of o a no s a na s s of the ro

e s a o n s in s

L i u T l d by N il B u h
to n e rs t a n th e s tor of t o y
es t o n a nd s t
t in t s h ugh
s a nd ca n be ne
os t orta nt hie
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m
D
I d x
t er s
c
’
imp
no o ne who

b
e s res

idg
e to Hi s tori fi dld p u
i h Guid
v lum
B gi i g G i M i u y u yF h
,

ca l terat re ra ns a te e . c a na n n e Una r e re r nt i n 4 o es Vo l I . .

V u y C u l R i P d
.

e nn n s to the nos t cs a nd a r0 on Vo l II Il l : 2nd c ent r to th e 4 th c ent r at ers

C l ug y ( Rf m i f x
. .

Vol IV : 4 th ce nt r o nc i s to the Ca r lovmgi a n e na s s a nce Vo l VI VII: e ri o of

Pp bu d
.

n c 1 000 to the ) e or at o n, a nd a te r Tota l of c u z 4 o7 p p 8

I
. .

Pp b u d
. .

T9 0 4 Vo l a er o n
T9 05 Vol II
T9 0 6 Vo l IV
T9 0 7 Vol VI ! VII
III a er o n
a er o n
a er o n
V PP pp bb uu dd
Th e s e t

THE GU I D E FOR THE P ER P L E E D M m d

im Ch i i i y M l mv y di i i M imd id d phi g
l phy
phi l ph l
Ag k X
i ca wor s of a ll , ai oni es . One of th e reat os o
t e a nd a ne ce s s t f or e e r one nte res te

T
J eWi s h ,
m A
r s t a n, a nd
i os e
li h ugh
tra t ons
hi h
a
p v v
d l
d
on es p m mm
di v m M

l ld
e e o s a co gon
d
i ddle es i n the
eeti n - po mt f or th e
i n th e os o of th e

mp blh dm p dphil uphyh h l i i Aquiligi S u h ligh i

.

Old es ta e nt a nd the r s tote a n t o t w c er a e the e e a wor Hi s i eas a nd

di i C mpl u b dg d
.

et o s re a te s c s c o as t cs as na s a nd c ot s a nd t row t on th e e nt re

Fmpi dl d umm l y i GUpI DgE Ii d xdu i

i
ro e
r e
of

orta nt s
os o
an er tra ns a t o n
ar
or s c e nc e VS

of the
55 a e ntro
n e
re

Ii x
on

x
4 1 4 pp
l if p i d
2nd reVi s ed e t on
ct on to Ma i moni de s s
8
’.

Pp b u d
e, W
o
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B ibli g phy x x Pp b u d
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we nt t ro , e 68 c onte orar i s trat ons , 3 9 new
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AUAmD UiB ON AN D lyJOURNA LS hJ ugh J A Audub

d A ll y
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co ecti o n of fI lud g M i u u Riv Eu J pu l
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c a ters ro the o rigi na l ette r r es s e t o n of th e rn t o o ca t es o tte in a ll
l
a dv u x p g b g ph y by Audub g dd ugh
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70
.

-
a e
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on s
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s ts ,
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te r . illu
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38 I d x T
o e rs of

Pp b u d
eri ca na a nd
s tra ti ons . n e ota l . of

Pp b u d
1 1 0 6pp . 8 . TB7 S Vol I a er o n
T67 6 Vol II a er o n
The s et

TRAVE
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Am i g
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Pp b u d
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T1 3 a e r o n

GARRETf S ANi D PhiRETENy D ER S AmA Hi I STORYB hOFmiB OHEi mM I ANf ImSM I N A M ERKI CA u A PThi
: co or l fu l
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Chi h B i ugh P u d l l d mum y hd hi y dh p by B u hik by xH llT M ub i g

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.

. .

N Y Tm x S
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.

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THE
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u l k C lxp l d Vi l l yh v l b p i d Thi l ly yu u vI l udi l M j flP i ll

ta tes
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a nd s ub qu xp di i
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a p 4 0 0 pp
. x
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T94
es ate r re ect ons

Pp bu d
a er o n
. .
.

THE JOURNA L OF HENRY D THOREAU E d B df d T y

Thh ugh u v lumi ly u j u l f m m hiimph b fi ku m g Am by ra or orre and.

i
ranci s F li l en Hue nrA l H y
, dite
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t o
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a nd a
s e t, w c hi h W ifi h i ux d p i f u v lumy hi hi Th f uu d lyi j u ly l W f m
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i u Thg u m m F uu b idgv lumd W i h i u d i duv ilum by WF Hd byd Hg Sy S d yl

1 8 3 7 to 1 8 62,
re s s i n
t the e ce t on of the l os t ea rs w c were o n on
i t, co pl ete and na r e , t a ne w ntro ct on a lte r
rece nt
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.

C by
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orea S o ety
Tota l of 1 8 88 pp
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o rtee n o
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T3 1 2-3 Two o
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GAlMl E S i S ONG Sg OFm A MWERi hI CAN gCH I LDh REN mpl l y dm byy W ll hmmW l l N f l l A m k hb l
AND , co e cte i ia e s ewe re a r a e .

Simil i i
c o ect on of 1 90
a r t es ,
e s s i o ns
diff a es
e re nc es a on
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m
t
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bi d d b immy lh l gyh i g gf lklm bi g phi l k h lll h p i g

.

ca te o r es f or rea co arat e s t : o e a es , s to r es , a in at wor , an e,

-

a nd ea s t, t o o , gue s s mg a es , etc New i ntroducti on covers re a ti ons of s on s

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d f A g d u h p l gi p i
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l
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xn I 242pp
-
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ar
T3 5 4 a e r o n Pp bu d
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of Art Ant i q ue s , ,

Gra ph i c Arts Ha ndc r afts ,

ART S TUillu D ENT S ANATO M Y E J F Ou di g my h u hi fly I ivi g b j

ph u d p d m hild mp i d by
'
, . . arr i s . ts ta n n a rt ana to t at s es c e n o e cts

fulb l yy ll b dml d mk hi gmuk ul h y illum ki f i k l l y m i ulph i h m mv vm m

f o r its
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s tra tions
atc
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n
71
s etc es to
otos of n ra e en, c me n wo
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of
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illu
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f e re nces , th e a na to
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,
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8
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os s a r . 1 58 re s , 7 i n co or 1 59 pp . T7 4 4 a . er o n

AN AT LAbyS OF ANATOi lMluY FORi ART I SThS Fd S chider

m A l udi by Cl qu
new 3 rd e ti on of t is s tan a r
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te t eh . h d
xp d iv x l if
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e cca e a cc rac
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29
dy b
s tra t o ns of
y
a n s , a nato ica

mp blhi l u fullyp g plp l mh ly p l g v khuml muW i hul l u up p f ml

Ba rc s ay 1 8 9 c lea r ,
.
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Vi Wi h u y
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ortant

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a e ates prow de
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s of
59 a
an or s , e e
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reas ts , a nd i ndi cate the
.reat a rt s ts of the as t
.

'

Mi h l g l L d Vi G y h Thi l f im f k
t e a n a na to e re ro c e s e tc es a nd
. ns e wor s c a rt s ts as

w c hi h W illl A M ER I CAN L I B RARY

c e an e o eona r o da
be one of th e
nc i ,
os t m AimpSS OC I AT I ONb k Ex ll iA M ERlibI CAN yART I ST Thi dd d l fg d
o a , a nd 1 5 ot e rs
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s is a
’
ra r
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Th e s tan a r re e r
.

di i pl llu i xxv
.

x C l hb u d
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e t on 1 8 9 . a tes , 64 7 i s trat o ns i 1 92pp 1 0 5/e T24 1

. ot o n . .

ANl g AT LASi hOF AN I M A L ANATOmyM Y FOR ART I SvT Sil bWl E l l E gli gh H d B il md H Dmi l pl , . enbe r er , . au , . ittrich . Th e

u h
ar es t, r c es t a ni ma l a na to

g h m kki y pih u h muS u ful u f u d

of s c
oa t,
a ni ma ls a s the
on e ,
h
f or a rtis ts a a a e i n n s
ors e , do g, cat,
a re , a nd ba t r a ce
ion, l
e e r , s ea l ,
eat re s a re c ea r .
d 99
a n a roo ,
n ca te , w
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k
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l b ly i di u ud Rhil p g v
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flyi g qu l
.

xhibi
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s c a t re , te n o ns , a nd
k l l u u
one s tr ct re es t and a cti on a re
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-

giv h d imp f u m l h p iv p fi
.

e te In te r s of s c a t re a nd s e e ta s tr ct re and eta e c ros s -s ect ons a re

f pmilii H ghlh y mm
a
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orta nt eat re s
of t e s e a na to es mi vW il yl p vidb kk l dg ubj hu d d hy bl i gd
Th e a ni a s c os e n a re re res e nta t e of s e ci c
ro e now e e of
.

n re s of re ate

uARTdI ST S du h vii div guid D E S I GN Giv k l dg A M ER I CAN

“
s ec e s . i re co en e as one of the er f ew oo s on the s e ct wo rt of e n

l g d di i h p f m Cuv S ubb
”
se a s an a t o t
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es a f unda e nta l no w e e, m
l
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i llu i
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1 5 3 pp . 9 x e t on wi t
.
new ates
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t
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s , etc
o n
28 8
C l hb u d .

THE HU M AN f FmI GURE u h I N M OT I ON

gh p d i ph
Eadweard Muybridge The a r es t s e e ct on i n ,

hum figu l g
ri nt of
m i l i .

ph p g ph
illuu g yidigf v i u i bj Si i gm l yi ghildd — ml imbily gu d h p d—g hi g lki g
Muybridge 's a o s i -s e e a ct on
s tra te 1 62 f ere nt a ct ons : me n, wo e n, c
otos of the
re n
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a re s ow n wa
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s .

f mih Allg v h h m i h S m i i ip h h
r nni n , ca rr n
or n
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o er 1 50 ot er a ct ons
tt n n own, c
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,

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ta e n a t s
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.

tter s ee s of a s
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i as 1 / 6 0 0 0 th of a s eco n l
mu l
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o

Si os e
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s ots , b ut
h hump d h
f
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as t e no ugh p p mu k E li A mum ll di i i ARTh FOCU
ot o n
to ca t re
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a e r e t o ns of t e s e
.
t a t ons t a t th e
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a n e ye i s not
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i i A M ER I CAN ART I S T fu l l p g pl Wi h ph g ph
“
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k R i f d bi d g W i h h db d
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P d h vy gl y x
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of act on f or a ll a rt s ts , 3 90 a e a te s , t 4 78 9 oto ra s .
-
.

ri nte on ea os s s toc e n orce n in t ea .a n s xxi

T204
3 90 pp
ot o n Cl hb u d . .

AN otos
I M A LS I N M OT I ON
phli g u p i d mdiff k y imgl l h muhl x g h m l i pig i gu h
in r nt . 34
M, Eadweard
e re nt a n
Thi uybr idge
a s ( ors e s
l g .

,
ll s
e s , o e n,
is the m l
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co e ction of
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a a ction
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l p d hup m h
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a one is s own i n
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e e r, on e s , The ors e

m
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p k h d m v
.

m li
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to 1 / 60 0 0 th of a s econ The s e cre ts of le g
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ot on, s p i na l a tte rns ,
You Wi ll s e e e act
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l ik hum
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k g l g mid l p i h h d b b d il
.

a nd how t e if e r;
'
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’ ’
fligh bi d
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—
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oto ra

rt s ts ,
e ro
ifi l h
A imi l bi lm i i d A ll m v l ui Wi i l l fi dpl hi b NATURE
s e mi pos ed a rt c ia
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s ots nor s to rte
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m
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.

mp g p pl ul ly P i d by h vy g l y p p L I FElux bi diph Wg i hph h db d The dry

“ '
an a s in ot on rea y a r e o s s e r e s of
. ates , ( on o n ate s .

os t s e ctac ar ear us e wa s Ea dweard Muybri dge , 3 91 9 oto ra s ; 3 8 0 f ul l .

a es
x
of ate s 4 4 opp r nte on
. ea os s a er
. De e n ng t ea an s
Cl hb u d .

T203 ot o n
.
 C A T A L O G U E O F D O V E R B O O KS

ART ANATOi M Y W l l m R mm
u i k
i ia i ,er, te n ca e one of Of gh l l dM h Am l i d f i mg by buu h
e ri ca s MD
ore os t co ntri
. ti ons
.
'

iI mp b ly umi d di g
to a rt ns tr ct on, a wor of a rt i n its own ri t
f rs t-rate anato s t a nd
ore t a n 7 0 0
s s ec to r a s we l l a s a rt s t,
mu t
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a no n tec n ca
l k l i
the a t or,

l u u
a na to ca te tWi h
u f
.

hf i u l hmi l p x -

m l i ul i f m l p hild l y du l m i g d pfl d byh phy i l f ly fu m uSiuz l l yi g i d

.

ecca acc rate rawi n s of s c es , s e eta s tr ct re , s r ac e eat res , ot er as ects

of a es a nd e a es , c re n, a ts a nd a e e rs ons s ow not on or , e, ns e rt on

in m dg d I dumi i l by kR b
a nd a rt c at on but
o e rn a nato ca
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wor s
a nd e ot o n a s re ecte
Comp le te na r e re ro
Hu hi
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T4 7 5 ot o n
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f di m l yp f hu d d ll fl u i h Th hi d
.

to t o ra has o e r 4 0 0 0 s e c i e ns : 60 0 e re nt o a n, ot c , a rn Old Engli s h

l g d by ddi i l pl i i g A m k bl
, ,

a c es ; 63 0 orna e nta t e a c e s ; 1 1 1 5 i ni ti a ls , n re s of s cro s , o r s es , e tc is t r

ll i P R I TER S A i h ibu i hi y Am i d ig GRA P H I S

.

a ll new m te ri
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xx ClCl hbhb uu dd
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c o ect on, N r c c o ntr t on to the . s tor of er ca n es n, .

o e I, cto r a O e r 20 0 0 s trat o ns
. xi v 24 2p p 9 12 TI ZZ ot o n . . .

o e II, o ra ca O er 4 0 0 0 s e c e ns vi i
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S HA K ER FURN I TURE E D A F A m llum i g udy h m y

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r n t re e e r
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h mp dupbby dd i l h d mmb x yd k b d iqu d ll

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The 4 8 a n c e nt
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ne oo a n , es 3 o ra n e . . . .

1 92pp . T67 9 a e r o n

JA PANE SJ Ep HO M E Sh ANm D THE f mI R S URROUN D I NG S E S M

g l m j u Ev
u l y f p u pu m ly l di
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.
, .

t i ona l a a nes e o e, ro e nera pla n a nd a o r s tr c t ra e at res to cere oni a a nd

tra t ona a o i nt e nts ta ta ac , s o , to ono a , e tc The os t e a s t e di s .

hi u Fi publi h d b f mi i J p di i
,

cus s mn i n n s , t s oo is e a ono re f or i ts s tr n o ern co nc e t o n of

p v W u h l di f u il l u i by
a rc tect re rs t
re s e r es the a t e nt c
s e i n 1 88 6 ,
. e ore th e conta nat o n of the
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u u
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h
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dily
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5 543 x es tern wor 3 07 s trat o ns th e a t or n e . os s a r
T7 4 6 a e r oun
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CO LONd I A Ly LhI GHT I NGf mA u h ligh H H hy ld d

Th e a r e s t s el ect on of a nt
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l mp XXX I x Pp b u d
.

llu i
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t on a e s ar s e e nt o o
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notes 1 6 9 i . s trat o ns , 64 7 a s 3 1 2pp T9 7 5 a er o n . .

CH I NE S E HOU S EHO LD FURN I TURE G g N K

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nto s ca nt ne s e s tor ca s o rces and s r n e c e s i n r ate co ec ti ons a nd se s

d ig f m illu i ph g ph B ibli g phy X I I IP p b u d

.

re ea a new e ns i on of e, ea t wo r to a ll nter or ec o ra tors , rn t re

es ne rs , c ra ts e n . 1 23 s trat o ns ; 1 12 oto ra s . o ra . 20 5 pp .

x T9 58 a er o n

ARTos t
AN D THE S OC I A L OR D ER P f
m k p uf uu ud l m id i i flug i lf mudi l i hl i i V i
ro o n a nd os t n e nt a st
Gots ha lk, D W
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.

i nteres t n , the s o n es t a nd os t e ne tra t n wo r i n rece nt ea rs , cas s e , rown .

Pp bu d
n ers t New re a ce . ro e s s or Gots ha lk XVI 24 8 pp . .

T294 a er o n

FOUNi D AT I ONl S i OF hipM O D ERN ART f

An i
m A O z f
hum
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ivi y
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,

f. g
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i g i i i g
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re ligm d F h ivp i p i g
the nter re a t ons of a ll or s of
ion The crea t e roces s i s e ore
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a eo t c ca e a i nti n

u l i igh ph i m mp i d by fully l d i llu

.

to o e rn re nc a nt n a nd a rc t ect re , a nd the reat n e rs a s of a rt a re s o ate

hi b k l lu i lfi mb dim x p iv p E l g dP byp b u d h p

.

m
Expres s g i ts co nt es s ns ts i n a or s s acco an e ca re s e ecte s trations ,
t s oo is ts e an e o e nt i n ros e of the creat e roc es s n ar e 4 new c a .

ters 226 i s trat ons 3 68 pp

. . T21 5 a er o n.

V I TRUVld I U S mTEN Bi OOfluK S ON:

i l ARCH k I TECTURE B k b y
hi u xi u y R m .

hu d d hi oo
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T64 5 a er o n
f . % x
l ,
S d d E gli h
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.

THE B ROM umf W N D ECA D E S L

d u ord M mf
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Ri h d H m R E kiR bli g Ryd

a cco nts of th e
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l d p d vvi l pmd l g dM dih i OlmB ibli dg phy Eli l lu g i ph

of
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n e XIV -l . 266 pp 5 8 . T2OO a er o n .

 C A TA L O G U E O F D O V E R B O O K S

Hi s to ry Po li t i ca l S c i e nce ,

THEu P O L I T IxpCA L i THOUGHT i OF P L ATO AN D AR I S TOT L E E B k

pu G k p l i i l h ugh Thi
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a cc ra te e
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h i y i m d fid i hi G yk id W by hi h k ugh f I md Aqui
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a nd t cs , a nd re e c e , contr t ons of ot e r ree

x Ch l gi l T bl Ev
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t e or s ts , and o i ca t o ns o f ree e as t n e rs ro na s t o e e st rea n

% x Pp b u d
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2 App dix
f or a n one nte res te i n the
en es xxw 5 60 pp 5 .
s tor
8
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.
rono o ca
T5 21
a e of
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e nts . . .

THE
p glyz I D EA OF P ROGRE SS J B B y P
Siv l u b m h ugh G , . l ly u k
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du%i xg f l l g
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8
and
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th e l 6th cent r ntro
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os o ,

a r es
i n s tr , a rt, a nd
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4
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3 5 7 pp . . .

THEi ANCfi IldENT GREE l

K H I S TOR I AN S J B B y Th
l hi i f m
ur is we ll nown, eas i
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H
.

d u ly d k v
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Thu yd d ph
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e nt re e of c as s i ca
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orn or , etc
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f
CD u hf d A Gu dT ll y Hiu b l mi l h d by Bpib ldi g yphy OuI l d kx
as the Oxy rh i nc h us
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x % x Pp bu d
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The es t ac co nt in Engli s h , tc er, i e to . o ra , n e .

-
l 28 1 pp . 5 8 . T3 9 7 a er o n

HByI Sz TORY OF h THEl LATER ROimM ANd EuM PI RE J l B B R m Th wor th e ea in , dl y dB yz ki by mpi l fd mg

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mil y p u i C mp p y dd um d h
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ro

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.

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Lib Ge nea logi ca l ta es 5
. a s o ra n e . 2 o es tota of 9 65 p p
. 8 . . . .

T3 98 , 3 99 Two o e s et, a er o n

Ag HgI STORY ph OF
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,

u . .

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iv
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g d d hi x Py h Hipp hu A mid u M i u Ty
,

wo s tan a lone a s e a st e ono ra s nc es nor . eo ra ers , e n not s a

U i f mpm g gl Lu du l luf m Pmilimp yy C mp ig u h P u i W W H ib i l dup i g by

re ar e
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W H S h l B kl y C l l g B ib l i g ph y I d x m p l hb u %d x v lum
Alps , ca a i ns of c s, o e , aes a r s wa rs , the Traja n ar New ntro . ct on
. ta , . roo n o e e o ra n e 20 a s 1 426 pp 5 . 8 . . . . .

T5 7 0 - 1 , c ot o n , 2- o e s et

P O L I T I CA L P ART I E S R M C l l f p l
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I du i
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nteres ts ,
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T569
.

a er o n
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A H I STORYh lOF H IuSTOR I CA Lhi W R I T I NGl Hi i gy E m SiB gl v Vilumu llyS u v y dl y v dl pmqu uf v my

, a rr l er arnes . rt a the on a e a te s r e
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hb kgugh u d Cm l dk W l C v divmduj l h ibui i d v illu Sh

the e nni n s of is torio ra phi
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.
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P r i ce s s u bje c t to ch a n g e w i th ou t n o ti c e .

D ov er p u bli s h e s b o o k s on a r t, m u s i c , p h i l o s o p h y , li t e r a tu r e , l a n g u a g e s , h i s t or y , s o c i a l
s c i en c e s , p s y c h o l o g y , h a n d c r a f t s , o r i e n t a l i a , p u z z l e s a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n ts , c h e s s , p e t s
a n d g a r de n s , b o o k s e x p l a i n i n g s c i e n c e , i n t e r m e d i a te a n d h i g h e r m a t h e m a t i c s , m a t h
e m a ti c a l p h y s i cs . en g in eer i n g , bi o l o g i ca l s c i en c e s , ea r th s ci e n c e s , cl a s s i c s o f s c i e n ce , e tc .

Wr i te t o:
D e p t ca tr r. .

D ov e r P u bl i c a ti on s , I n c
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1 8 0 Va r i c k S tr e e t, N Y 1 4 , N Y . . . .
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