Deformations

Mechanisms of deformations
Lecture 3 – defects and dislocations

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 Deformations

Type of deformations
• In metals and alloys we can recognize the
following type of deformations:
INITIAL LOAD UNLOAD

• Elastic deformations. Fully recoverable, they

appears immediately with the application of
stress

• Inelastic deformations. Not (all) recoverable,

irreversible. They do not disappear when
the stress is removed.

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 Deformations

Deformation
• The ability to deform depends on material structure

• Deformation can occur along specific crystal planes only

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 Deformations

Deformation and strain

• In a perfect crystal the stress necessary to move
a crystal plane over another can be estimated
from the bond strength:

𝐺
𝜏=
2𝜋

• No real materials exhibit such strength!

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 Deformations

Deformation and strain

• In 1934 Orowan, Polanyi e Taylor, almost at the
same time, understood that the ability of a
material to plastically deform was due to the
presence of defects in the lattice

• Line defects called: dislocations

• Theory of dislocations was firstly proposed by

Vito Volterra in 1907, although the term
dislocation was used by Taylor in 1934.

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 Deformations

Dislocations can move

• Dislocation glide

• Dislocation climb

• Twinning

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 Deformations

Dislocations can move

• Dislocation glide

• Dislocation climb

• Twinning

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 Deformations

Dislocations can move

• Dislocation glide

• Dislocation climb

• Twinning

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 Deformations

Dislocations can move

• Dislocation glide

• Dislocation climb

• Twinning
Twinning results when a portion of a crystal takes up an
orientation that is related to the orientation of the
untwinned lattice in a definite, symmetrical way.

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 Deformations

Dislocations can move

• Edge dislocation forms «surface steps»

• Uniaxial deformation by twinning

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 Deformations

Stress state induced by dislocations

• The region deformed by a dislocation

affect the ability of dislocation to move
and to multiply

• Most of the deformation internal

energy is due to dislocations

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 Deformations

Stress state induced by dislocations

• For same sign dislocations, laying on the

same plane, the action of the
deformation field is repulsive

• The action on opposite sign dislocations is

attractive. When in contact the
restoration of the crystal plane takes
place (annihilation)

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 Deformations

Multiplication of dislocations

• The «Frank-Read source» is the mechanism

that explain the generation of multiple
dislocation on slip planes when deformation
occurs
• Consider the straight dislocation pinned in A
and B. Under shear, the dislocation bends.
When

𝐺
𝜏=
2𝜋

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 Deformations

Multiplication of dislocations

• The «Frank-Read source» is the mechanism

that explain the generation of multiple
dislocation on slip planes when deformation
occurs
• Dislocations have to develop to produce a slip
in a deformed crystal. This implies that during
deformation, dislocations are formed mainly
along that sliding plane.
• Hardening increases the number of
dislocations according to Frank-Read
mechanism
• High dislocation density increases the yield
stress and causes material hardening

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Le dislocazioni nella realtà

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 Deformations

Orowan equation
𝜀 = 𝜌𝑏𝑣
• From theory and experimental evidences
we know that dislocation density is
function of stress and plastic
deformation:
𝜎 2
𝜌=𝛼
𝑏

𝜌 = 𝜌0 + 𝐶𝜀𝑝𝑛

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 Deformations

Orowan equation
𝑚
𝜎
𝑣=𝐴
𝜎0
• During hardening dislocations continue to
move. This cause a «back stress» che that
reduces the effective stress. Assuming
linear hardening we can write
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑎𝑝𝑝 − 𝜃𝜀
𝑚
𝜎𝑎𝑝𝑝 − 𝜃𝜀
𝑣=𝐴
𝜎0

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 Deformations

Orowan equation
𝑚
𝜎 𝜎𝑎𝑝𝑝 − 𝜃𝜀
𝜀 = 𝜀𝑒𝑙 + 𝜀𝑝 = + 𝐴′ 𝜌0 + 𝐶𝜀𝑝𝑛 𝑏
𝐸 𝜎0
1/𝑚
𝜀
For hardening only: 𝜎𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝜃𝜀 + 𝜎0
𝐴′ 𝜌0 + 𝐶𝜀𝑝𝑛 𝑏

1/𝑚
𝜀
At yield: 𝜎𝑈𝑃𝑆 = 𝜎0
𝐴′ 𝜌0 𝑏

This explains the increase of the yield stress with strain rate

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L’equazione di Orowan

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 Deformations

Slip on preferred crystal planes

• Plastic deformation occurs on preferred

crystal planes
• The number of planes depends on the
crystal structure:

• FCC 12 independent slip planes

• BCC 5 independent slip planes

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 Deformations

Temperature effect

• High temperature promotes climbing

• Low temperature limits the capability to

slip particularly in BCC

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Conclusions

• Deformation in metals and alloys is

related to defects (dislocazions)
• Dilocations motion is the basic
mechanisms for plastic deformation to
• Dilocations can move also at very low
stress (elastic at macroscopic scale) –
Peierls stress
• Orowan law allow to predict plastic flow
and strain rate effect on material yield
stress

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 Deformations

Suggested readings
• http://www.mech.utah.edu/~brannon/public/Mohrs_Circle.pdf
• Schaum's Outline of Strength of Materials, Fifth Edition (Schaum's
Outline Series) Fifth (5th) Edition Paperback – September 12, 2010
• Strength of Materials (Dover Books on Physics) Reprinted Edition
by J. P. Den Hartog, ISBN-10: 0486607550

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