SSC JE: Paper – II (Conventional)

Unit I Building Materials

1. Bricks, Stones and Timber
1.1 What are the properties of good building bricks? Name the different
types of stones use in different works.

Solution:

Properties of good building bricks: For construction purpose, good

building bricks should have the following properties:

a) The bricks should be table-moulded and kiln burnt. Moreover they must
be free from cracks and must have regular shape with sharp edges.
b) The bricks must produce a clear ringing sound when struck with each
other.
c) These bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright,
homogeneous and uniform structure free form voids.
d) The bricks should be hard enough so that no impression is left on the
surface when scratched with nail or finger.
e) When immersed in water for 24 hours, the bricks should not absorb
water more than 20% by weight of one meter.
f) The brick should not break into pieces when dropped on a flat hard
ground from height of one meter.
g) The brick should have low thermal conductivity and they should be
sound proof.
h) When soaked in water for 24 hours, the bricks should not show patches
of white salts when dried in shade.
i) In any case, bricks should not have a crushing strength less than 5.5
N/mm2.

Different types of stones used in different works are as follows:

S.No. Stone Classification Uses

1. Basalt Igneous Road Work, random rubble masonry,
foundation work.

2. Kankar Sedimentary Road work, manufacture of hydraulic

lime.
 3. Granite Igneous In sills, steps, façade, ballast,
columns and piers etc.

4. Marble Metamorphic Flooring, façade, columns,

ornamental work etc.

5. Murum Metamorphic Garden walls, paths etc.

6. Sand Sedimentary Flooring, steps, façade, ornamental
stone work etc.
7. Slate Metamorphic Roofing, sills, damp-proof courses
etc.
8. Quartzite Metamorphic Retaining walls, concrete aggregate,
pitching, rubble masonry façade etc.

9. Laterite Metamorphic Road work, rough stone masonry,

building stone etc.

10. Chalk Sedimentary Putty manufacture, colouring

material in PPC etc.

11. Lime Sedimentary Flooring, steps, walls, road work,

stone lime manufacture etc.

1.2 What are different classifications of bricks according to BIS?

Write down the various tests to ensure the quality of bricks.
Solution:
BIS Classification of bricks: As per CI. of IS
1077: 1992, bricks are classified on the basis
of their mean compressive strength. The common
classes of burnt clay bricks are as shown in
Table.
Many times, bricks are also classified as first
class bricks, second class bricks and third
class bricks.
Test for ensuring the quality of bricks:
1. Compressive strength test: This test is
done in a compression testing machine. Bricks
are tested for their compressive strength as
per IS 3495 (Part-I) : 1992. The compressive
strength of any brick must not be less than
the minimum compressive strength as in the
tabl3e above for that particular class of brick.
2. Water absorption: As per IS 3495 (Part-II) : 1992 bricks when immersed
in cold water for 24 hours, water absorption by bricks must not exceed
20% by weight up to class 12.5 brick and 15% by weight for higher
classes of bricks.
 3. Efflorescence: As per IS 3495 (Part-III) : 1992 bricks shall have a
rating of efflorescence as ‘moderate’ up to class 12.5 bricks and
‘slight’ for higher classes of bricks.
4. Hardness: Here a scratch is made on the brick surface with a nail
or some other hard pointed material. If it does not leave any
impression then the brick is of good quality.
5. Soundness test: Two bricks when struck together must produce a clear
ringing sound.
6. Shape, size and color test: In this, 20 bricks are stacked along
length-wise, width-wise and height-wise. Measurement is then made to
test whether the bricks are of required size. Bricks are also closely
examined for their sharp and uniform edges.

1.3 Discuss the operations involved in the manufacture of bricks.

Solution:
Operations involved in the manufacture of bricks:
(a) Preparation of clay: The preparation of clay for bricks involves the
following processes:
(i) Unsoiling: The topmost layer of soil (about 200-300 mm) is
taken out and discarded since top clay layer is full of
impurities.
(ii) Digging: Clay is then dug out from the ground. This clay is
then spread on the ground.
(iii) Cleaning: Clay obtained from the dug hole is cleaned of
stones, pebbles, vegetable matter etc. The lumps of clay are
crushed to powder from.
(iv) Weathering: The clay is then left in the atmosphere for
mellowing. This period of exposure varies from few weeks to full
season.
(v) Blending: After weathering, ingredients are added to clay and
blending brings about a homogeneous mixture.
(vi) Tempering: Here water in required quantity is added to clay
and the resulting mixture is the kneaded. Tempering is done
thoroughly to have a homogenous mass.
(b) Moulding: The clay so obtained in the above process is then
moulded. Moulding can either be done with hands or with machine. Since
bricks shrink during drying and burning and thus moulds are made larger
than the size of fully burnt bricks.
 During moulding, a central depression of about 10 mm – 20 mm is made
which acts as a key for mortar joint and also can be used to embross
the name of the manufacture.
(c) Drying: Damp bricks when burnt show cracking burnt and their shape
gets distorted. Thus bricks are dried before burning.
 While drying, bricks are so dried that there should be free
circulation of air.
 The drying beds for bricks are kept slightly above the finished
ground level.
 Te period of drying varies from 3 to 10 days.
(d) Burning: It imparts strength and hardness to bricks. Bricks should
neither be under brunt nor over burnt. Under burnt bricks are soft while
over burnt bricks are brittle.
  Bricks are burnt at about 11000C. At 6500C, organic matter present
in the brick gets oxidized.
 Beyond 11000C, bricks get converted into fusible glassy mass and
bricks are said to be vitrified.

1.4 Describe the following tests to be performed in case of burnt clay

bricks:
(i) Compressive strength test
(ii) Water absorption test

Solution:
(i) Compressive strength test: The compressive strength test on brick
is assessed by placing it in compression testing machine. Minimum
compressive strength of brick should be 3.5 N/mm2 as per IS 1077.
Bricks with compressive strength more than 14N/mm 2 are classified as
class A bricks.
(ii) Water absorption test: This test is done to assess the water
absorption tendency of bricks. For this, brick is immersed in water
for 16 hours. It is weighed before and after the immersion in water.
The difference in the two weights gives amount of absorbed water. For
a food brick, the percentage water absorption should not exceed 20%.

1.5 Write a brief note on the characteristics of good timber.

Solution:
Characteristics of good timber:
(a) Appearance: Timber should have a shiny and good appearance.
(b) Elasticity: Timber must be elastic enough for the purpose of making
of bows, sports items etc.
(c) Color: Preferably timber should be dark colored as light colored
timber is generally weak.
(d) Defects: Timber must be free from all the defects as far as
possible.
(e) Hardness: Timber must be sufficiently hard to be able to resist the
penetration of any other body into it.
(f) Fire resistance: A good timber must be sufficiently fire resistant.
In general, dense wood offers more fire resistance than light wood.
The conduction of heat through wood depends on its porosity, water
content, ambient temperature, bulk density, fiber orientation etc.
(g) Shape: Timber should be able to retain its shape during the
conversion and seasoning process. It must not wrap or bow during the
conversion process.
(h) Smell: Sweet smell of timber is always desirable since pungent smell
indicates decayed timber.
(i) Durability: Timber should be durable enough to resist the attack of
fungi, insects, chemicals etc.
(j) Sound: A good timber gives clear ringing sound when struck with
another piece of timber. On striking the timber pieces, dull sound
indicated decayed timber.
(k) Toughness: In order to resist shocks and vibrations, timber must be
sufficiently tough.
 (l) Permeability: It is always desirable that timber should not be too
permeable to water as water retention in timber has adverse effects on
its strength.
(m) Weight: A heavy weight (i.e. dense) timber is considered to be
tougher than light weight timber.
(n) Workability: Timber must be workable so that it may not clog the saw
teeth and should be capable of being made smooth.
1.6 Describe briefly the characteristics of good stones.

Solution:
Characteristics of good stones:
(a) Crushing strength: For a good building stone, crushing strength must
be greater than 100 N/mm2
(b) Durability: A good building stone must be durable. Durability of a
stone is due to its chemical composition and texture.
(c) Appearance: Stones must appear good as far as building work is
concerned. A uniform color in building stones is desirable.
(d) Hardness: The hardness coefficient of a good building stone must be
in between 14-17. Stones with hardness coefficient greater than 17 are
preferred in road work.
(e) Fracture: A good building stone when fractured should show a sharp,
even, bright and clear grains well bonded with each other.
(f) Specific gravity: Specific gravity should preferably be greater than
2.7 for a good building stone. High specific gravity of stones
indicates that they are more compact and less porous. However stones
used for domes, roofs etc. should be lighter.
(g) Texture: A compact, fine crystalline structure free from cavities,
cracks and white soft patches is preferable.
(h) Fire resistance: The minerals present in stone should be such that
they doo not aid fire and also the stone is preserved in case of fire.
Rapid increase in temperature due to fir, sudden cooling, variation in
thermal coefficients of different minerals etc. lead to fracture of
stones.
(i) Toughness: In impact test, a toughness index of more than 19
indicates a tough stone while a value less than 13 indicates weak
stone.

1.7 What do you mean by Seasoning of Timber? Describe the methods of

seasoning timber.

Solution:
Seasoning of timber: The process of drying or reducing the moisture
content of timber is called as its seasoning. Water must be removed from
the timber before it can be put to any engineering use.
Methods of seasoning timber: There are mainly two methods of seasoning
viz. natural seasoning and artificial seasoning.
(i) Natural seasoning: Here the seasoning is carried out in natural air.
The timber is cut and sawn in suitable sections of planks. These
timber pieces are stacked either horizontally or vertically through
which free circulation of air is ensured.
Advantages:
 1. The moisture content of timber can be brought down to 10-20% depending
on the climatic conditions.
2. Natural seasoning does not require skilled supervision.
3. This method is cheap and easy.
Disadvantages:
1. The conditions of natural seasoning are difficult to control.
2. The moisture content of timber cannot be brought down to the desired
level.
3. The space requirement of natural seasoning is quite large.
4. The drying of timber is not uniform.
5. The rate of seasoning is very small i.e. the process of natural
seasoning is very slow.

(ii) Artificial seasoning: In order to overcome the drawbacks of natural

seasoning, artificial seasoning is resorted to. The following are some
of the methods of artificial seasoning:
 Boiling: Here the timber is immersed in water and boiled for about
3-4 hours. It is a quick method but it is costly.
 Chemical seasoning: Here the timber is immersed in a suitable salt
solution and then seasoned in ordinary way. In this method, the
inner surface of timber dries up prior to the outer surface and thus
possibility of external cracks gets reduced.
 Kiln seasoning: In this method, the timber is dried in an air-tight
oven. Saturated air (with moisture) and which is heated to about 35-
380C is then forced inside the oven. Since air is fully saturated
with moisture and thus evaporation from the timber surface is not
there however the heat gradually reaches inside the timber. This
reduces the relative humidity. The temperature is than raised and
maintained till the desired level of seasoning has achieved.
 Electrical seasoning: In this method, high frequency alternating
current is used. Wet timber offers less resistance to the flow of
current but due to the inherent electrical resistance of timber,
heat is generated which dries up the timber faster. As the timber
goes on drying, resistance keeps on increasing thereby increasing
the rate of seasoning process. This method is quite costly.

1.8 Describe the classification of rocks.

Solution:
Rocks are classified as follows:
(i) Igneous rocks: These rocks are formed due to solidification of
molten magma of Earth’s crust. Igneous rocks are further classified as
plutonic rocks and volcanic rocks. Plutonic rocks are formed due to
rising up of hot magma form the Earth’s crust and which gets cooled
and solidified before it reaches the Earth’s surface. Volcanic rock is
formed due to arrival of hot magma (or lava) o the Earth’s surface
before it gets cooled.
(ii) Sedimentary rocks: These are formed due to deposition of material on
the earth’s surface. This deposited material is usually the product of
weathering and erosion. Consolidation of these deposited material
forms sedimentary rocks.
 (iii) Metamorphic rocks: These rocks are formed due to metamorphism i.e.,
the igneous and sedimentary rocks when subjected to high temperatures,
high pressures or chemical action undergo major change in their
mineralogical character. The resulting rock is referred to as
metamorphic rock.
For example: Mica, gneiss, Schist, calcite etc,

1.9 Write a short note on the classification of bricks.

Solution:
Classification of bricks: For construction purpose, bricks are classified
into the following categories.
(a) First class bricks: These are table-moulded, kiln burnt bricks with
sharp edges and standard shape. These are burnt in kilns. These are
used in superior quality permanent type constructions.
(b) Second class bricks: These are ground-moulded, kiln burnt bricks
with slightly irregular shape. These bricks may have hair cracks and
their edges are not so harp. These are used where a coat of plaster is
to be provided.
(c) Third class bricks: These are ground-moulded, clamp burnt bricks.
These are not hard and have rough surfaces with irregular edges. These
are used at places where the rainfall is not heavy and for other
temporary type of constructions.
(d) Fourth class bricks: These are over-burnt bricks with irregular
shape and are dark coloured. These have a compact structure. These are
generally used a aggregates for concrete to be used in foundations,
roads etc.

1.10 What are the constituents of good brick-earth? What constituents render
brick-earth unsuitable for manufacturing bricks?

Solution:
Constituents of good brick earth:
(i) Alumina: It is the principal component of the brick earth and a good
brick earth must contain about 20-30% alumina. Alumina gives
plasticity to the earth thereby making the moulding of brick earth
easier. However excess of alumina leads to shrinkage and warping of
bricks.
(ii) Silica: 50-60% silica in good brick earth is desirable. Silica
exists in clay either free or in combined form. It prevents shrinkage,
warping and cracking of bricks apart from imparting uniform shape to
the bricks. However excess of silica destroys the cohesion between the
particles of the brick earth and the bricks become brittle.
(iii) Iron Oxide: About 5-6% iron oxide is desirable in a god brick earth.
Iron oxide gives red color to bricks. Excess of iron oxide leads to
dark coloration in bricks like dark blue or blackish color. However
less quantity of iron oxide makes the bricks yellowish in color.
(iv) Lime: About less than 5% lime should be present in a good brick
earth. It should be in the very finely divided powder form. It
prevents shrinkage of bricks. Excess of lime causes bricks to melt
thereby losing its shape.
 (v) Magnesia: A very small quantity of magnesia gives yellow color to
bricks. It also decreases shrinkage.

Constituents which make the brick earth unsuitable:

(i) Pebble: Pebbles in brick earth does not allow uniform mixing of clay
thereby leading to weak and porous bricks.
(ii) Iron pyrites: Iron pyrites cause the brick to disintegrate on
burning because of oxidation of iron.
(iii) Alkalies: Alkalies (particularly soda and potash) acts like a flux
in the kiln and they cause bricks to fuse. Also alkalies absorb water
from the brick masonry. This moisture on evaporation leaves behind
white patch (es) on the surface of brick masonry.
(iv) Vegetation: Presence of vegetation and other organic matter in brick
earth aids in burning. However such matter if remains partially burnt
then bricks will become porous due to evolution of gases on burning.
(v) Lime: Excess of lime makes the brick to lose its shape.

1.11 Describe any two tests to be performed in case of burnt clay

bricks.

Solution:
Tests on burnt clay bricks:
(i) Water absorption: Here the water absorbing capacity of a brick is
accessed. For this, a brick is taken and soaked in water for about 16
hours. The brick is weighed before and after soaking and the
difference of dry brick.
(ii) Hardness: Here a scratch mark is made n the brick surface with a
finger nail. If no impression is left on the brick surface then the
brick is treated as hard.

1.12 Determine the number of bags of cement required for a brick

masonary for a wall of thickness 30 cm for a height of 10 m and length
200 m in 1:4 mortar.

Solution:
Cement mortar mix = 1:4
Size of wall = 200 m × 10m × 0.3 m
1
Let thickness of mortar joint = inch = 12.7mm = 1.27 cm
2
Let size of brick = 19 cm × 9cm × 9cm
Length of brick with mortar thickness = 19 + 1.24 = 20.27 cm
Area of one brick including mortar = 20.27 ×9cm2 = 182.43 cm2
∵ Thickness of wall = 300 mm ≃ 1 brick thick wall
Front area of wall = 200 ×10 m2 = 2000 m2

Volume of wall
∴ Bricks required = Volume of one brick with mortar

200×10×0.3m3
= 20.27×10.27×10.27cm3
= 280645 bricks
Mortar volume
 Volume of one brick with mortar
20.27×10.27×10.27cm3=2137.94cm3
Volume of one brick without mortar
∴ Volume of mortar per brick
∴ Mortar volume for 280645 bricks
m 3
=
= 19 × 9 × 9 = 1539 cm3
= 2137.94 – 1539 = 598.94 cm3
= 598.94 × 280645 cm3 = 168.09

Assuming 5% wastage, mortar volume required = 168.09 × 1.05 = 176.5 m3

In 1:4 mortar, cement content = 0.052 m3 per m3 of motar
But volume of one bag of cement = 0.035 m3
∴ Cement required for 176.5 m3 of 1:4 mortar
= 176.5 × 0.052 = 9.178 m3
9.178
∴ No. of bags of cement required = 0.035 = 262.22 ≃ 263 bags
(say)

1.13 What are the characteristics of a good quality timber?

Solution:
Characteristics of Good Quality Timber: The principal characteristics of
timber of concern are strength, durability and finished appearance.
Following are the important characteristics of good timber:
1. Narrow annual rings; closer the rings greater is the strength. Trees
of rapid growth have wide annual rings and produce coarse grained
wood, while those of slower growth produce wood with narrow rings of
fine grain.
2. Compact medullary rays; they greatly influence shrinkage and thereby
influence mechanical properties. Compact medullary rays offer more
resistance to shrinkage.
3. Dark color heartwood is darker than the sapwood and timber from
heartwood is stronger.
4. Uniform texture.
5. Sweel small and a shining fresh cut surface; it is indicative of sound
wood.
6. When struck sonorous sound is produced.
7. Free from the defects in timers; the defects weaken the timber and
affect workability.
8. Heavy weight; it is an indication that the wood is from heartwood.
9. No wooliness at fresh cut surface.

2. Cement & Lime

2.1 List the properties of cement concrete in plastic and hardened

stage.

Solution:
Properties of concrete in plastic state:
1. Mix ability: Fresh concrete show the property of mix ability wherein
all the concrete constituents are so mixed so as to produce a
homogeneous mix.
 2. Segregation: Fresh concrete shows the property of segregation i.e.
individual constituents of the concrete has the tendency to
segregate.
3. Bleeding: In fresh concrete, if water is in excess then this water
comes out to the surface of concrete known as bleeding.
4. Workability: It is the most important property of fresh concrete
which defines the ease with which concrete can be placed and
compacted.
5. Finish ability: Fresh concrete should give a smooth surface finish
without any honeycombing.

Properties of concrete in hardened state:

1. Compressive strength: It is the most important property of hardened
concrete which is assessed either by cube test or cylinder test. The
compressive strength given b different samples of the same concrete
may give different results.
2. Flexural strength: Since it is difficult to carry out direct tensile
strength test on concrete and thus tensile strength of concrete is
estimated though flexural tensile strength. The flexural tensile
strength of concrete at failure is called as modulus of rupture of
concrete.
3. Modulus of elasticity: It is the ratio of direct stress to strain
but for concrete, different moduli of elasticity of concrete are
defined viz. initial tangent modulus, secant modulus, and tangent
modulus.
4. Poisson’s ratio: For concrete, the Poisson’s ratio is defined for
compression as the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal
strain. For concrete, the Poisson’s ratio varies from 0.11 to 0.21.
5. Creep: It is the increases in the strain (of concrete) with time due
to sustained loading Rate of creep decreases with time.

2.2 Discuss the manufacture of cement.

Solution:
Manufacture of cement: The following stages are involved in the
manufacture of cement.
(i) Mixing (ii) Burning (iii) Grinding
(i) Mixing
 In the dry process of mixing (which is mostly adopted how a days),
the calcareous materials (like limestone) and argillaceous materials
(like clay) are crushed and fine grinded separately and then mixed
in definite proportion.
 This mixed material is then preheated and the temperature of the
material is increased in stages from 65 0C to 8500C.
 This preheated material is then fed to the rotary kiln for further
burning.
(ii) Burning:
 The burning is carried out in an inclined rotary kiln of tubular
shape with diameter varying from 2.5 to 3 m and length varying from
90m to 120m.
  The mixed material is fed to the kiln from the top. The hot gases
are forced to eject out from the lower end of the kiln.
 At the upper end of the kiln, water gets evaporated (if any) and
nodules get formed. These nodulus reach the lower end of the kiln
where the temperature is about 1400-15000C.
 In the burning zone of the kiln (at lover end), a calcined product
of hard dark greenish blue color gets formed. This is called as
clinker.
 The size of the clinkers varies from 3 mm to 20mm and they are very
hot as they come out of the burning zone of kiln.
 These clinkers are then allowed to cool down to a temperature of
about 90-950C.
(iii) Grinding
 The clinkers obtained from rotary kiln are ground very fine in ball
and tube mills.
 In the process of grinding, a small amount of gypsum is also added
which acts as a retarder and controls the initial setting time of
cement. Without gypsum, the cement will set as soon as water is
added.
 The finely grounded resulting cement is then stores in silos for
packaging.
 Cement is packed in bags of 50 kg of volume of about 35 liters.

2.3 Explain the manufacturing of cement by wet process.

Solution:
Wet process of cement manufacturing: Wet process was the earlier method
of manufacturing cement. The argillaceous material such as clay is
thoroughly mixed with water in a container called as wash mill. This
washed clay is kept in the basins. Crushed lime stone from silos and
washed clay from basins are allowed to fall in a channel in the required
proportions. The channel carries the material to grinding mills where
they get properly mixed to form slurry. This slurry is then taken to a
correcting basin where it is constantly stirred. Chemical composition is
also adjusted at this stage only. This slurry is stored in storage tanks
and is kept as a charge to be fed to rotary kiln.

Lime stone Clay

(Calcaseous material) (Argillaceous material)

Crushing Washing

Crushed lime stone Washed lime stone

Stored in silos Stored in basins

Carried by channel
 Slurry formation

Correcting basin

Burning: After slurry formation, burning is carried out in a rotary kiln.

The kiln rotates at 1-3 rpm about its longitudinal axis. The rotary kiln
Storage tanks
is slightly inclined at 20-2.50 with the horizontal. The slurry is
injected at the upper end of kiln. The hot gases for drying are injected
through the lower end of kiln. In the kiln, the small lumps formed known
as nodules are converted into dark greenish blue balls known as clinkers.
Grinding: The clinkers obtained from the rotary kiln are ground finely in
ball mills. During this process, 3-4% gypsum (caSO4.2H2O) is also added
which controls the initial setting time of cement. Gypsum acts as a
retarder in cement and prevents immediate setting of cement as soon as
water is added.

2.4 What are the chief chemical ingredients and their percentage used in
the manufacturing of Portland cement? Also briefly explain the Bogue’s
components and their properties in the cement.
Solution:

(i) Lime (CaO) - 63% (ii) Silica (SiO2) - 20%

(iii) Ferrous oxide (Fe2O3) - 3% (iv) Alumina (Al2O3) - 6%
(v) Magnesia (MgO) - 2% (vi) Sulphur trioxide (SO3) - 1.5%
(iv) Soda/potash - 1%

Ingredients in Portland cement: Chief ingredients used in the manufacture

of Portland cement are:

Bogue’s Compounds:
(i) Tri-calcium silicate (C3S): It is responsible for gain of strength
at 28 days.
(ii) Di-calcium silicate (C2S): It imparts strength to cement at later
stage due to hydration of C2S.
(iii) Tri-calcium aulminate (C3A): It is responsible for flash setting of
cement. It is also responsible for the highest amount of heat
evolution.
(iv) Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite (C4AF): It hydrates very rapidly but
its contribution in the overall strength of concrete is very low.

2.5 List the physical tests that are generally used on cement. Describe
any three of them.
Solution:
 Physical tests for cement
1. Fineness test 2. Initial and final setting time test
3. Soundness test 4. Compressive strength test
5. Specific gravity test

Soundness: The undesirable expansion of cement once it is set is called

as unsoundness of cement. Very large change in the volume of cement
results in disintegration and cracking of cement. The unsoundness in
cement is due to the presence of free time and magnesia (MgO). Because
free lime is covered with a thin film of cement and thus free lime
hydrates slowly. Once the cement has been set, moisture penetrates into
the free lime thereby giving rise to cracking. The unsoundness of cement
is measured with Le Chatelier’s apparatus. The expansion in Le
Chatelier’s apparatus should not be more than 10 mm.

Compressive strength: It is the most important property of cement. The

compressive strength is assessed by mortar-cement cube crushing test.
This test is carried out on cube of standard size (generally 150 mm
side). Cement –mortar (1:3) cubes having an area of 5000 mm 2 are prepared
and then tested I a compression testing machine. For OPC, the 3 days and
7 days compressive strength of cement should not be less than 16N/mm 2 and
22N/mm2 respectively.

Specific gravity: For OPC, the specific gravity is about 3.15. However,
specific gravity is not an indication of the quality of cement. It is
required for the computation of mix proportions.

2.6. State the conditions under which you will recommend the following
cements. Also give the reasons.
(i) Rapid hardening cement
(ii) High alumina cement

Solution:
(i) Rapid Hardening Cement: This cement is required where early strength
development of concrete is required. This cement contains high amount
of tricalcium silicate (C3S). It is used under following situations:
 Where early removal of form work is required so as to achieve
economy is construction.
 For rigid pavement constructions where road cannot be closed for a
long period.
 In cold weather concreting, it is highly beneficial as rapid heat
evolution prevents the concrete from freezing.
(ii) High Alumina Cement: High Alumina Cement (HAC) is used under
following conditions:

 HAC is considered to be resistant against chemical attack and is

thus particularly useful for marine constructions.
  HAC is used for construction of sewer pipes since it resists
chemical attack.
 It is also used in refectory concrete where strength at high
temperatures is required.

2.7 Name the four important constituents of cement and state the role
of each in achieving its properties.

Solution:
The four important constituents of cement are:
(i) Lime (CaO) – 60 to 67% (ii) Silica (SiO2) – 17 to 25%
(iii) Alumina (Al2O3) – 3 to 8% (iv) Iron oxide (Fe2O3) – 0.5 to 6%

All these oxides interact with one another in the kiln at high
temperature to form more complex compounds. The relative proportions of
these oxides compositions are responsible for influencing the various
properties of cement in addition to rate of cooling and fineness of
grinding. The complex compounds which are formed due to the combination
of these oxides are called Bogue’s compounds and four of them are usually
regarded as major compounds. They are tricalcium silicate (C3S),
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and tetra calcium aluminoferrite (C 4AF).
The two silicates namely C3S and C2S which together constitute about
70 to 80 per cent of the cement control the most of the strength giving
properties. Upon hydration, both C3S and C2S give the same product called
calcium silicate hydrate (C3S2H3) and calcium hydroxide. C3S giving a
faster rate of reaction accompanied by a greater heat evolution develops
early strength. On the other hand, C 2S liberates nearly three times are
much calcium hydroxide as compared to C 2S. That’s why C2S provides more
resistance to chemical attack.
The compound tricalcium aluminate (C 3A) is characteristically fast
reacting with water and may lead to an immediate stiffening of paste, and
this process is termed as flash set. The role of gypsum added in the
manufacture of cement is to prevent such a fast reaction. The hydrated
aluminates do not contribute anything to the strength of concrete. On the
other hand, their presence is harmful to the durability of concrete
particularly where the concrete is likely to be attacked by suplhates. As
it hydrates fast it may contribute a little to the early strength.
On hydration, C4AF is believed to form a system of the form CaO-Fe2O3-H2O.
A hydrated calcium ferrite of the form C3FH6 is comparatively more stable.
This hydrated product also does not contribute anything to the strength.
The hydrates of C4AF show a comparatively higher resistance to the attack
of sulplhates than the hydrates of calcium aluminates.

3. Concrete Technology
3.1 Explain the steps which can be taken to prevent/reduce the ill-
effects of concreting in hot weather.

Solution:

Concreting in hot weather: Any concreting operation done in temperature

above 400C is called as hot- weather concreting. IS 7861 (Par-I): 1975
 specifies precautions to be taken for concreting above 40 0C temperature.
The following precautions must be taken:

1. In hot weather, the workability of concrete decreases and thus

addition of water without proper adjustments in the concrete mix
proportions mars the quality of concrete. Thus temperature of water
is controlled by using refrigerated water. Precooling of aggregates
and addition of broken pieces of ice can reduce the ill effects of
hot weather concreting.
2. The mix should contain minimum cement content. Low heat cement
should be used.
3. Accelerators must not be used in hot weather conditions. Use of
water reducing admixtures is beneficial.
4. The period between the mixing and placing of concrete must be the
minimum.
5. The work area should be kept wet. Immediately after placing the
concrete, steps should be taken to prevent the loss of water from
concrete. Continuous curing is also very important. Moreover
concreting can be done at night to reduce evaporation losses.

3.2 Explain the need for curing of concrete. List the different methods
that can be used for wet curing of concrete. For how long should curing
be done?

Solution:
Curing of concrete: The ultimate strength of concrete depends on the
extent of hydration of cement complete hydration of cement requires
adequate availability of water during the hydration reactions But due to
evaporation and other reasons, water from concrete gets lost thereby
making less water available for hydration of cement. The process of
creation of an artificial environment with favorable conditions of
temperature and humidity for setting and hardening of concrete b
hydration of cement is called as curing.
Different methods of curing:
1. Ponding water on concrete surface by constructing small clay bunds.
2. Covering concrete with wet saw dust or damp earth.
3. Covering the surface of concrete with water proof paper.
4. Sprinkling of water at regular intervals.
5. Covering concrete with wet jute bags.
6. Membrane curing of concrete by applying membrane forming compound n
concrete surface.
7. Chemical curing like the use of sodium silicate which forms a thin
varnish like film which also gets filled in the pores and surface
voids.
8. Steam curing.

Curing period: The concrete gains most of its strength in 28 days and
hence concrete should be cured for 28 days beyond which the rate of gain
of strength is so small that it is not economical to further cure the
concrete. IS 456 recommends a minimum of 7 days curing but IS 7861
recommends a minimum of 10 days curing in hot weather conditions.
For highway pavements, curing period varies from 130to 30 days.
3.3 Explain briefly the importance of different concretes in construction.

Solution:
Different concretes in construction:
1. Light weight concrete:
 The self-weight of concrete structure made from ordinary concrete is
very high due to high density of conventional concrete (=24 kN/m 3)
and RCC (=25kN/m3). Moreover the conventional concrete has high
thermal conductivity which aids in the loss of heat (energy) through
them.
 These issues are overcome by the use of light weight concrete
wherein a significant amount of voids filled with air are introduced
by the use of light Weight aggregates.
 This concrete is very useful in the seismic design of structures.
 Because of low thermal conductivity, it has high fire resistance and
is thus beneficial as fire prone locations.
 It can be used as a pre-cast composite wall or floor panels.
2. Ultra-light weight concrete:
 The density of this concrete varies from 600 to 1000 kg/m 3.
 It has high thermal insulation.
 It is used for leveling and screeds.
 It is used for filling of voids.
 It can advantageously be used for architectural finishes.
3. Mass concrete:
 Massive structures like dams, canals, bridge piers and abutments
etc. require huge amount of concrete and the same is called as mass
concrete.
 Because of mass concreting, high heat of hydration of cement is
produced which gives rise to porous structure and thus preferably
low heat cement should be used.
4. Vacuum Concrete:
 It is used for concreting thin sections like slabs and walls.
 It is widely used for manufacture of pre-cast plain and reinforced
concrete units.
 It is used in the construction of horizontal and inclined slabs.
 It is also used for repair and maintenance of pavements.
5. High density concrete:
 The density of this concrete ranges from 33.5KN/m 3 to 38.5 KN/m3.
 It is mainly used in the construction of reactor chambers where
shielding of radiations is highly indispensable.
 It is also used in the construction of offshore structures.
6. Ready mix concrete:
 It is abbreviated as RMC.
 It is mostly preferred over on-site concrete production due to
better control on the concrete mix proportions and better
monitoring.
 It is used where faster construction is needed.
 7. Shrotcrete:
 It is a mortar conveyed through a hose pipe and pneumatically
projected on a surface with a high velocity.
 It is sued for filling the cracks of concrete.
8. Pumped concrete:
 It is used for delivering concrete at inaccessible locations like
top of a bridge pier, in the construction of high rise structures
etc.

3.4. Explain briefly the terms batching, mixing, transporting,

compacting and curing.

Solution:
Batching: Bathing in concrete refers to accurate measurement of material
used in the production of concrete. The constituents of concrete are
measure with the following tolerance limits:
Aggregate, cement, water - +3% of batch quantity
Admixtures - +5% of batch quantity
 Batching may either be manual, semi-automatic or automatic.
 Manual batching is allowed for small and un-important construction
jobs.
 In semi-automatic batching, the aggregate bin gates are opened by
manually operated switches. The gates get closed automatically when
required weight has been delivered.
 In automatic batching, materials are operated electronically by a
single switch.

Mixing: Mixing is done so as to have a uniform mass of concrete and to

coat all the aggregate surfaces with the binder (i.e. cement).
 Concrete mixing is done in a mixer.
 In the mixing process, firstly the cement paste is formed with
simultaneous absorption of water in the aggregates. Subsequently, the
cement paste coats the aggregate particles.
 After the mixing process gets over, it appears to be of uniform color
and grading.

Transporting concrete: Concrete from the mixer is transported to the

place where it is required as soon as possible otherwise segregation or
setting of concrete takes place.
 Specifications pe3rmit a maximum time of two hours between the
addition of water to the cement and aggregates sand the discharge
provided concrete is transported in a truck mixer or in an agitator.
 In the absence of agitator, this time is reduced to one hour only.
 However concrete when poured in the form-work should have a
temperature of not less than 50C and not more than 320C.

Compacting concrete: Air gets entrapped during the mixing and

transportation process. If entrapped air is not removed then segregation
of concrete may take place. The process of removal of entrapped air so as
to have a uniform placement of concrete in a dense homogeneous mass is
called as compaction of concrete.
 Even 5% voids in hardened concrete may reduce the strength of concrete
by about 35%.
 Inadequate compaction leads to honey combing in the surface of
concrete.
 A badly honey-combed concrete does not allow the bond the bond to get
develop between the concrete and the reinforcement thus reducing its
strength.

Curing of concrete: It is the process of creation of an artificial

environment in a relatively short period immediately after the placing
and compaction of concrete which aids in setting and hardening of
concrete.
 The presence of sufficient moisture makes up for the loss of moisture
due to evaporation from the concrete.
 The concrete continues to gain strength is sufficient moisture is
available for the hydration of cement.

3.5 Describe the sequence of concreting operations.

Solution:
Concreting operations: The following operations are involved in the
process of production and placing of concrete.
(a) Batching: It refers to measurement of concrete materials viz.
cement, coarse aggregated, fine aggregates, water and admixture.
Aggregates, cement and water are measured with an accuracy of ±3% and
admixture with an accuracy of ±5%.
(b) Mixing: After batching, mixing of materials is done primarily to
coat the surface of all aggregates with cement to form a uniform and
homogeneous mass. Concrete mixing is done either by manual mixing or
by the use of mechanical mixers. At the end of mixing operation,
concrete appears to be of uniform color.
(c) Transportation: Concrete from the mixer is required to be
transported to a point where it is required to be placed. During
transportation it is ensured that segregation of concrete does not
occur. Where concrete is required to transported, the time lapse
between addition of water to cement and aggregate and placing of
concrete should not exceed two hours. At the time of placing of
concrete, the temperature should not be less than 5 0C and not more than
320C.
(d) Placing, compaction and finishing: While placing the concrete,
homogeneity of concrete must be ensured. The framework for concrete
must be rigid and strong enough to bear the weight of concrete. Before
placing, reinforcement is checked for tightness. Concrete is compacted
to make it water tight. While compacting concrete, care must be tak4en
to avoid segregation. Too much compaction also leads to bleeding.
Compaction removes entrapped air from concrete thereby making the
concrete dense.
(e) Curing: Curing of concrete is essential to bring about the hydration
of cement thereby developing strength in concrete. Curing can be done
by any of the following methods.

3.6 Write short notes on:

(i) Workability of concrete (ii) Slump test

Solution:
(i) Workability of concrete: It defines the ease with which concrete can
be mixed, transported and placed i.e. how easily concrete can be
handled. IS 6461 (Part-VII): 1973 defines the workability of concrete.
Workability of concrete mix varies with the type of work. Many times,
the terms plasticity and consistency are also used for workability.
(ii) Slump Test: Slump test measures the workability of concrete wherein
a concrete cone is allowed to subside under gravity. This test is
carried out in a mould called as slump cone. The slump cone is placed
on a horizontal, non-absorbent surface and concrete is filled in it.
After striking off the top surface, the cone is lifted up without
disturbing the concrete. Due to gravity, the wet concrete subsides.
This subsidence of concrete is measured (in mm) and is reported as
slump of concrete. Concrete with high workability has slump value
varying from 25 mm to 125mm. Zero slump indicated very stiff concrete
mix. However, the slump test is limited to concrete consisting of
aggregates with maximum size 38 mm.

3.7 What do you understand by the term ‘curing’? Why is it essential to

have cured concrete? What are the various methods commonly adopted in
curing?

Solution:
Curing: Concrete surfaces loose water due to evaporation thereby making
the water less available for hydration of cement paste in concrete.
Incomplete hydration of cement in concrete makes the concrete weak. Thus
concrete surfaces are kept wet to make up for the loss of water due to
evaporation thereby making sufficient water available for hydration of
cement.
Cured concrete has the following advantages:
(a) Curing of concrete aids in complete hydration of cement which is
essential for gain of strength of concrete.
(b) Proper curing of concrete ensures good durability and impermeability
of concrete by reducing concrete shrinkage.
(c) The resistances of concrete abrasion get considerably increased due
to curing.

Commonly adopted methods of curing:

(a) Ponding the concrete surface with water.
(b) Covering the concrete with wet jute bags.
(c) Covering the concrete with wet saw dust, wet sand etc.
(d) Covering the concrete with water-proof paper or polythene sheet.
(e) Intermittent spraying of water and continuous sprinkling of water.
(f) By the use of curing compounds.
3.8 Discuss in detail “placing of concrete in cold and hot weather”.

Solution:
Concreting in cold weather: Any concreting operation done below 5 0C is
called as cold weather concreting. Low temperature makes the concrete to
develop its strength very slowly. lee-lenses formed in the plastic stage
of concrete badly damages it.
Following are the affects of cold weather concreting:
(i) Lower temperature leads to delayed setting of concrete. This
increases the time for removal formwork thereby leads to increased
cost of project.
(ii) Plastic concrete when exposed to low temperatures undergoes
permanent damage like reduction in strength etc.

Concreting in hot weather: Concreting operation above 400C is referred to

as hot weather concreting IS 7861 (Part-I): 1975 specifies precautions to
be taken for concreting in hot weather conditions.
Following are some of the effects of hot weather concreting:
(i) High temperature leads to accelerated setting due to rapid hydration
of cement. Workability of concrete decreases. This creates more demand
for water in hot weather conditions.
(ii) Long term strength of hot weather concrete is lesser than normally
produced concrete.
(iii) Hydration of cement takes place due to water present in the
capillary pores which gets evaporated due to hot weather conditions.
Thus more water is needed. Rapid hydration of cement gives rise to
porous concrete thereby leading to lower strength.
(iv) Increased cracking results due to hot weather concreting. These
cracks develop due to plastic shrinkage of concrete.
(v) At high temperatures, it is more difficult to control the air-
content and thus air gets entrained in concrete. This badly affects
the workability of concrete.

3.9 Describe the properties of water which are necessary to be used to

get good concrete. What do you understand by the term ‘water-cement
ratio’?

Solution:
Properties of water for good concrete.
1. The water used for preparation and curing of concrete should be free
from deleterious materials.
2. The presence of suspended particles of clay and silt up to 0.02% by
weight of water is considered safe for concrete. IS 456 permits 2000
mg/l of suspended matter in water.
3. The water must be free from salts. The salts of magnesium (Mg), tin
(sn), lead (Pb) and copper (Cu) cause reduction in the strength of
concrete. AnCl2 retards the initial setting of concrete while Pb(NO3)2
is totally destructive to concrete.
Similarly salts of sodium (Na) like sodium iodate, sodium arsenate and
sodium borate etc. reduce the initial strength of concrete.
 4. Sea water in concrete increases the risk of corrosion of
reinforcement. Moreover chlorides present in sea water leads to
efflorescence.
5. Water must be free from algae as it combines with cement and decreases
the bond strength between the aggregates and cement paste.
6. The amount of sugar present in water must be less than 0.05% by weight
of water. Higher amounts (up to 0.15% by weight) of sugar retard the
setting of cement and reduce the early strength. A further increase in
the sugar content in water increases the setting but reduces the 28
day strength.

Water-cement ratio: Cement with average composition requires about 25%

water by weight for hydration. In addition to that, water is required to
fill in the gel-pores comes out to be about 42% by weight. Thus minimum
water-cement ratio of 0.4 (sometimes taken as 0.36) is required.

3.10 Discuss the significance of cold weather concreting with special

emphasis on problems faced by concrete in freezing conditions.

Solution:
Cold weather concreting: Any concreting operation done below a
temperature of 50C is called as cold weather concreting. Low temperature
leads to slower development of concrete strength. Most of the Codes do
not recommend concreting below 50C. IS 7861 (Part-II): 1981 lays down
measures to be taken in cold weather concreting. The following problems
arise in cold weather concreting:
1. Low temperatures lead to delayed setting of concrete thereby delayed
strength development.
2. Low temperature may cause early hardening of concrete. Any later
thawing operation during the pre-hardening period of concrete may
reduce compressive strength of concrete to about 50%.
3. Large t4emperature differential within the concrete may cause cracking
and reduced the durability of concrete.

3.11 Define workability of concrete and explain briefly the factors

affecting workability.

Solution:
Workability: It defines the ease with which concrete can be mixed,
transported, placed and compacted.
The following factors affect the workability of concrete:
1. Water cement ratio: An increase in the water content results n the
increase in workability of concrete and vice-versa. Too much water
content (i.e. high water-cement ratio) makes the concrete highly
workable but may lead to bleeding and segregation.
2. Shape of the aggregates: For the same volume of aggregate in
concrete, rounded aggregates give higher workability than angular
and flaky aggregates gives rise to higher workability.
3. Properties of cement: The properties of cement affect the
workability of concrete to a great extent. A rapid hardening cement
will reduce the workability as compared to OPC because the former
hydrates more rapidly than the later.
 4. Size of the aggregates: The size of the aggregates determines the
void content in concrete. Aggregates amount to about 70-75% of total
volume of concrete. Smaller the specific surface area of aggregates,
more water is available and thus workability increases.
5. Time: Fresh concrete is more workable and its workability reduces as
time passes due to loss of moisture from the concrete.
6. Environmental conditions: Workability of concrete gets affected by
the environmental conditions. In hot weather conditions, more water
is required to maintain the workability of concrete. The amount of
mixing water to bring about a certain change in the workability
increases with temperature.

3.12 Discuss the relation between water-cement ration and strength.

Solution:
In concrete, about 25% water by weight is required for complete hydration
of cement. In addition to that, water is required by concrete to fill the
gel pores. The total amount required for cement hydration and to fill the
gel pores is about 42% by weight. It is a general fact that completes
hydration of cement never takes place in concrete. With increase in
water-cement ration, strength of concrete decreases.

3.13 Describe the various defects in concrete along with precautions that
should be exercises to prevent them.

Solution:
Various defects in concrete: The various defects in concrete along with
precautions to prevent them are enumerated below:
(i) Crazing: It is a network of very small surface cracks spreading out
on a large area of concrete. This occurs due to finishing the concrete
surface with bleed water at the top of concrete surface. Finishing
work forces the bleed water to go into the concrete which increases
the water-cement ratio thereby creating a weak layer of concrete
surface. Thus bleeding of concrete should always be avoided.
(ii) Spalling: It is the breaking loose of large chunks of concrete just
like scaling. It indicates weakness in the concrete at that location
from where spalling is occurring. Alternate thawing and wetting cycle
increase spalling of concrete.
(iii) Efflorescence: When inner water of concrete comes to the surface, it
gets evaporated leaving behind some white spots or patches. This is
because concrete contains some soluble salts and as water evaporates,
the salts get deposited on the surface of concrete thereby creating
spots or patches on concrete surface.
(iv) Blister: Blister is caused due to finishing of concrete surface
while water and air still are on their way up through the mix to the
concrete surface.
(v) Scaling: Thin flakes of concrete usually get peeled off from the
surface. This occurs due to alternate freezing and thawing cycle.

3.14 Describe briefly creep and shrinkage.

Solution:
 Creep: It is the deformation produced in a body due to sustained loading.
In other words, it is the time dependent deformation at constant stress.
It is particularly important for those materials that are supposed to
work at high temperatures.
 In concrete, creep depends on the age of concrete, mix proportions and
the aggregates.
 In cement concrete, principally it is the cement paste that undergoes
creep while aggregates restrain this creep effect.
 A poor mix proportion leads to higher amount of creep and thus creep
increases with increase in water cement ration.
 The age at which concrete is subjected to loading affects very much
the creep in concrete. Over a period of time, sufficient hydration of
cement paste takes place which improves the quality of cement gel, In
good gel structure of cement, creep is less.
 Creep in concrete increases deflection of structural members.
 In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases buckling of columns
thereby leading to higher column sizes with more reinforcement.

Shrinkage: It is the change (especially reduction) in volume due to

temperature changes or change in moisture. In concrete, shrinkage is
highly objectionable as it leads to the development of cracks in
concrete. Shrinkage of concrete in foundations may even lead to complete
collapse of the structure.
 The shrinkage of concrete increases with increase in water cement
ration. Larger the amount of water, more will the moisture change on
drying and thus more will be the shrinkage.
 Presence of large amount of lines in concrete leads to more
requirement of water thereby leading to more amount of shrinkage.

3.15 What is workability of concrete? Explain slump test and compacting

factor test. Discuss the factors affecting workability.

Solution:
 Workability of concrete: In fresh concrete- in the plastic state,
which can b3e moulded info desired shape-the theoretical w/c ratio to
meet the requirements of water for chemical combination with cement,
and to occupy the gel-space is about 0.4 for maximum strength. The w/c
ratio used at site may very because of:
 (a) The presence of free surface moisture in the aggregates, and
 (b) The absorption of moisture by the dry or porous aggregates.
Because of the above limitations another characteristic workability,
which is again a reflection of w/c ratio, becomes important.
 The theoretical w/c ratio used will not give the maximum strength
because of the reasons stated above. 100 per cent compaction of
concrete will give maximum strength and this can be obtained by
increasing the w/c ratio. The water lubricates the concrete which can
be compacted at site with the specified efforts. The lubrication
 required for handling concrete without segregation, for placing
without loss of homogeneity, for compacting with specified effort and
for easy finish are indications of workable concrete.
As per Road Research Laboratory U.K. workability is defined as the
property of concrete which determines the amount of useful internal
work necessary to produce full compaction. It can also be defined as
the ease with which concrete can be compacted 100 percent with regard
to mode of compaction and place of deposition.
Workability is different than consistency. The latter indicates degree
of fluidity of mobility. A concrete with high consistency need not be
workable for a particular job. For example a concrete workable for
foundation may not be workable for slab. Even for slab different
workabilities will be require for compaction by hand than that by
vibration. It is because to requirement of workability is less.
 Factor affecting workability: A workable concrete exhibits very little
internal friction between the particles forming the concrete and
overcomes the frictional resistance offered by the internal surface of
formwork as well as that by the reinforcement contained in the
concrete with just the amount of compacting efforts forthcoming. The
factors helping concrete to achieve these are as follows:
 Water content: The fluidity concrete increases with water content.
At site the normal precise is to increase the water content to make
the concrete workable which lowers strength. In controlled concrete
this cannot be resorted and even in uncontrolled concrete this should
be the last choice. However, in case, if more water is added due to
any reason the cement content should be proportionally increased.
Mix proportions: Aggregate cement ration influences the workability ot
a large extent. The higher the ratio leaner will be the concrete. In a
lean concrete, paste available for lubrication of per unit surface
area of aggregates will be less and hence the workability is reduced.
Aggregate size: For big size aggregate the total surface area to be
wetted is less, also less paste is required for lubricating the
surface to reduce internal friction. For given water content big size
aggregate give high workability.
Shape of aggregates: For given water content, round and cubical shape
aggregates are more workable than rough, angular or flaky aggregates,
because the former type of aggregates requires less cement paste for
lubrication as these have less surface area and lesser voids. In case
of round aggregates frictional resistance is also small so less
lubrication is required. For this season river sand and gravel provide
greater workability than crushed sand and aggregates.
Surface texture: A rough surface aggregate will have more surface area
than a smooth round textured aggregate. Hence, latter will be more
workable for the reasons discussed above.
Grading of aggregates: Properly graded aggregates are more workable.
It is so because such a mix will have least voids and thus excess
cement paste will be available as lubricant. This also prevents
segregation.
Admixtures: Air entrained concrete is more workable. It is so because
air forms bubble, on which the aggregates slide past each other
increasing the workability. Another factor is that air entraining
 agents are surface active and they reduce the internal friction
between the aggregates.
Slamp test: This method of test
specifies the procedure to be
adopted, either in the laboratory
or during the progress of work in
the field, for determining the
consistency of concrete where the
nominal maximum size of the
aggregate does not exceed 38 mm.
The test was developed in USA.
The test primarily measures the
consistency of plastic concrete
and despite of any significant
relationship between slump and
workability, it is suitable for
detecting changes in workability.
The sensitivity and reliability
to consistency. The test is not
suitable for very dry or wet
mixes. For very dry mixes, with zero and non-zero slump, moderate
variations in workability do not result in measurable changes in
slump. For wet mixes, complete collapse of the concrete produces
unreliable values of slump.
The mould used for the test specimen is shown in figure. The internal
dimensions of the mould are bottom diameter =200mm, top diameter =
100mm, and height = 300mm.
The mould is filled in with fresh concrete is four layers, each
approximately one-quarter of the height and tamped rod. The strokes
are distributed in a uniform manner over the cross-section and for the
second and subsequent layers should penetrate into the underlying
layer. The bottom layer is tamped throughout its depth. After the top
layer has been rodded, the concrete is struck off level with a trowel
or the tampering rod, so that the mould is exactly filled. The mould
is removed immediately by raising it slowly and carefully in a
vertical direction. This allows the concrete to subside and the slump
is measured immediately by determining the difference between the
height of the mould and that of the highest point of the specimen
being tested shown n figure. The slump measured is recorded in terms
of millimeters of subsidence of the specimen.
Note:
(i) Some indication of the cohesiveness of workability of the mix can be
obtained, if after the slump measurement has been completed, the side
of the concrete is tapped gently with the tamping rod; a well-
proportioned concrete of an appreciable slump will gradually slump
further, but if the mix has been badly proportioned, it is likely to
fall apart.
(ii) The test is performed with maximum size of aggregate as 38mm only.
However, if the aggregate size is larger the concrete is wet sieved
through 38mm screen to exclude aggregate particles bigger than 38mm.
(iii) Although not recommended for design mix concretes the slump test is
conducted as a preliminary test for checking the workability of the
 concrete mix planned for the first trial and also to compare the
consistency of the batches of concrete at the site.
(iv) Concrete of true slump type, as shown in figure, should only be
used. A shear slump type or collapse slump type concrete indicates
non-cohesiveness and will segregate while transporting, placing and
compacting. Cons3equently such concretes will result in porosity and
durability problems.

Following useful information are indicated by the test:

1. If grading of aggregates is indicated by the test.
2. If amount of after added to the mix is accurate and surface moisture
of aggregates is constant then it will indicate variations in
grading of aggregates or in batching of cement.
3. If the cohesiveness of the mix for a particular workability is not
adequate it will result in shear type slump or collapse type slump.

 Compacting factor test: This test is more precise and

Sensitive than the slump test the and was
developed in UK. The test office a direct
and reasonably reliable assessment of
workability of concrete since it measures
the degree of compaction imparted to
concrete for a standard amount of work. It
is particularly useful for concrete mixes
of medium and low workabilities as are
normally used when concrete is to be
compacted by vibration; such dry concretes
are insensitive to slump test. For concrete
of very low workability of the order of 0.7
for below and for very high workability of
0.98 or above. The test is not suitable,
because this concrete cannot be fully
compacted for comparison in the manner
described in the test. A diagram of the
apparatus used in compacting factor test is
shown in figure.

The sample of concrete to be tested is

placed gently in the upper hopper. The
 hopper is filled level with its brim and the trap-door is opened to
allow the concrete to fall into the flower hopper. Certain mixes have
tendency to stick is one or both of the hoppers.
If this occurs, the concrete may be helped through by pushing the rod
gently into the concrete from the top. During this process, the
cylinder should be covered by the trowels. Immediately after the
concrete has come to rest, the cylinder is uncovered, the trap-door of
the lower hopper is opened, and the concrete is allowed to fall into
the cylinder. The excess of concrete remaining above the level of the
top of the cylinder is then cutoff-. The weight of the concrete in the
cylinder is then determined to the nearest 10g as the weight or
partially compacted concrete. The cylinder is refilled with concrete
from the same sample is layers of approximately 50 mm, the layers
being heavily rammed or preferably vibrated so as to obtain full
compaction. The top surface of the fully compacted concrete is
carefully struck off level with the top of the cylinder. Compacting
factors is defined as the ratio of the weight of partially compacted
concrete to the weight of fully compacted concrete. It is normally
stated to the nearest second decimal place.
Note: The test is sufficiently sensitive to enable differences in
workability arising from the initial process in the hydration of the
cement. Each test, therefore, is carried out at a constant time
interval after the mixing is completed if strictly comparable results
are to be obtained,. A convenient time for releasing the concrete from
the upper hopper has been found to be 2 minutes after the completion
of mixing.
Some of the basic assumptions of the test are not correct. The work
done to overcome surface friction of the measuring cylinder probably
varies with the characteristics of the mix. For concretes with very
low workability, the actual work require to obtain full compacting
depends on the richness of a mix while the compacting factor remains
sensibly unaffected. Thus it follows that the generally held belief
that concretes with same compacting factor require the same amount of
work for full compaction cannot always be justified. Further, the
procedure for placing concrete in the messaging cylinder bears no
resemblance to methods commonly employed in the field.

4. Paints and Miscellaneous

4.1 Write about different types of paints and polish used in modern
buildings.

Solution:
Different types of paints used in buildings:
(a) Cement paint: It consists of white cement along with pigment and an
accelerator. It is available in dry power from. Generally it is used
for decorative purpose. This pint has poor adhesion power with smooth
surface and is thus always advantageous to apply on rough surface.
 (b) Anti-corrosive pint: It consists of oil and a strong drier. Pigments
like chromium oxide (Cr2O3) or lead (Pb) is mixed with very fine sand
and is then added to paint. It protects the metal from corrosion
especially when the metal is exposed to corrosive environment.
(c) Bituminous paint: It is prepared by adding asphalt in any oil or
petroleum. It is used for painting under-water steel works.
(d) Aluminum paint: In this paint, finely grounded aluminum is suspended
in quick drying spirit varnish or slow drying oil varnish as per the
requirement. The evaporation of spirit or oil levels a thin metallic
film of aluminum on the surface being painted. This paint is visible
in the dark also and protest steel better than any other paint. It has
a high electrical resistance.
(e) Cellulose paint: It is prepared from cotton, celluloid sheets,
photographic films etc. It hardens by evaporation of thinning agent.
It gives flexible, hard and a smooth surface but is bit costlier than
ordinary paint. Cellulose painted surfaces can withstand high heat and
cold.

4.2 Differentiate between the following materials, giving specific uses in

the industry:
(a) Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
(b) Bitumen, coal tar and asphalt.
(c) Common burnt clay bricks, fire bricks and flyash brick.
(d) Paints and varnish.
Solution:
(a) Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock

S.No Igneous rock Sedimentary rock Metamorphic rock

.
1. Formed by cooling Formed by deposition Formed by change in
of magma of products of the character of pre-
weathering of existing rock.
earlier rocks.
2. e.g. Pumice, e.g. limestone, e.g. Slate, marble,
gabbro, basalt, shale, dolomite, quartzite, gneiss,
granite etc. sandstone etc. serpentine etc.

(b) Bitumen, coal tar and asphalt

S.No. Item Bitumen Coal Tar Asphalt

1. Definition It is the It is obtained It is the
heavy residue from mixture of
from destructive bitumen and
fractional distillation of inorganic
distillation coal. material like
of crude oil. sand, stone
etc.
2. Solubility It is soluble In is insoluble It is soluble
in nonpolar in nonpolar in non polar
solvents solvents solvents.
3. Physical It is a It is liquid or It is either in
 appearance thick, semi-solid. solid or semi-
viscous solid form.
liquid.
4. Use Mainly for It is used as a It is primarily
preparation protection for used for
of asphalt. wood, in the construction of
manufacture of bituminous
roofing felts pavements.
etc.

(c) Common brunt clay bricks, fire bricks and fly ash bricks

S.No. Item Common burnt Fire brick Fly ash

clay brick brick
1. Characteristics Its color is It is It has a
usually red but usually uniform
varies as per white or greenish
the color of yellowish blue (cement
soil. white in like) color.
color.
2. Porosity More porous Less porous Less porous
3. Weight Heavy Heavy Light
4. Compressive ~ 3.5 N/mm2 ~10N/mm2 ~10 N/mm2
strength

(d) Paint and varnish

S.No. Paint Varnish

1. It is a coating of a fluidic It is nearly transparent
material that is applied on the solution of resinous material
timber or metallic surface. and is applied on the painted
surface.

4.3 Describe the various ingredients of a paint.

Solution:
Various ingredients of paint: Oil based paint essentially consists of the
following ingredients:
1. Base: A base is a solid substance in a very finely divided form which
forms the bulk of the paint. It imparts durability to the paint and
determines its character. It reduces the shrinkage cracks on drying of
paint and also forms an opaque layer to make opaque the surface being
painted. Some of the bases used in paint are white lead, red lead,
zinc oxide, iron oxide, antimony white, titanium white, titanium
white, lithophone etc.
 2. Vehicle or carrier: A vehicle is the liquid substance which holds the
ingredients of paint in suspension. It makes possible to spread the
paint on the surface to have a uniform thin layer and also acts as a
binder for the ingredients of the paint so that they may adhere to the
surface. Some of the commonly used vehicles are linseed oil, tung oil,
poppy oil, nut oil etc.
3. Drier: This accelerates the process of drying of paint. It absorbs
oxygen from the air and transfers it to the linseed oil (vehicle)
which in turn gets hardened.
4. Coloring pigment: It is added to paint when it is required to have
color of the paint other than that of base. The pigments are available
in the form of fine powder. Table below gives the type of pigment use
for different color.

Color of paint Pigment

Black Graphite, lamp black, vegetable black etc.
Yellow Chrome yellow, zinc chrome, yellow ochre etc.
Red Vermilion red, red lead, carmine etc.
Blue Indigo, Prussian blue etc.
Brown Raw umber etc.
Green Copper sulphate, chrome green etc.

4.4 What are the ingredients of a varnish? Describe the various types
of varnishes.

Solution:
Ingredients of a varnish: Varnish consists of the following:
1. Resin: Copal, lac or shellac and rosin are some of the commonly used
resin. Some other types of resin are amber, mastic, gum dammer etc.
2. Drier: Drier accelerates the drying process. The commonly used driers
are litharge, white copper and lead acetate.
3. Solvent: The type of solvent depends on the type of resin used. e.g.
Linseed oil is used for amber and copal resins, turpentine is used for
mastic, rosin type of resins, wood naphtha is used for some other
varieties of resins etc.

Various Types of Varnishes: According to the type of solvent used,

varnishes are classified as:
1. Oil varnish: Linseed oil is used as a solvent in this varnish. Hard
resins like amber and copal are dissolved in linseed oil and sometimes
a small quantity of turpentine is also used. Oil varnish dries up very
slowly but forms a hard and durable surface.
2. Spirit varnish: In this, the methylated spirit of wine is used as the
solvent. The spirit varnish dries up quickly but is not durable and is
easily affected by weathering actions.
3. Turpentine varnish: Here turpentine oil is used as the solvent and the
resins used are of soft variety like mastic and rosin. These varnishes
dry up quickly and possess some light color but are not tough and
durable.
 4. Water varnish: Some of the resins like shellac is dissolved in hot
water and sufficient quantity of ammonia of borax or potash or soda is
added. These varnishes are used for varnishing maps, pictures etc.

4.5 Explain the following thermal insulation.

(i) Slab or block insulation
(ii) Blanket insulation
(iii) Batt insulating material
(iv) Insulation board

Solution:
(i) Block insulation: It is a rigid or semi-rigid block of insulating
material. The insulating material may be of fiberglass, wool or any
other material. Now-a-day asbestos block insulating is very much is
use but it poses health hazard because asbestos fibers are
carcinogenic.
(ii) Blanket insulation: It is made from fiberglass and comes in varying
densities and thicknesses as per the requirement of the user.
Basically it is same as batt insulation with the only difference that
it is supplied as continuous rolls instead of sheets.
(iii) Batt insulating material: It is used to insulate floors, walls and
ceilings. It is generally made from naturally occurring certain
varieties of cotton or fiberglass or slag wool. This insulating
material is cheap, energy efficient and also has a long life. It is
quite easy to install but for larger jobs, specialized personnel may
be needed. Both batt and blanket insulating are fire resistant and
good for retrofitting but there exists the possibility of occurrence
of holes where air can circulate. Moreover fiberglass particles pose a
health hazard as well.
(iv) Insulating board: It is a thin, lightweight, rigid or semi-rigid
board, generally made from plant fibers. The materials used for
insulating board depend on their insulating properties. These are
created using foam plastics or glass fiber. These boards are made fire
resistant and moisture resistant with the application of certain
chemicals. These materials are categorized based on their insulating
values.
 SSC JE: Paper – II (Conventional)

Unit II Estimating, Costing

and Valuation
1. Rate Analysis, Valuation and Miscellaneous
1.1 What is analysis of rates? Explain its purpose.

Solution:
Analysis of rated: In order to assess the rate of a particular time of
work from the quantities of material and labors required, hiring of tools
sand plants, water changes, contractor’s profit etc., an analysis of rate
is carried out. It is done n order to have an idea about the coast
estimate of the work. Estimate of the work to be done is quite important
before floating a tender. Contractor’s profit is added on all items of
work which have been arranged by him.
Analysis to rates comprises of the following components:
(a) Cost of material
(b) Cost of labour
(c) Tools and plant and sundries (miscellaneous items)
(d) Carriage of the transportation cost
(e) Contractor’s profit (usually it is kept 10-15%.
Purpose of rate analysis:
1. To determine the authenticity of rates quoted by contractor.
2. To assess the quantity of materials and labors required for work.
3. To reconsider and revise the schedule of rates due to cost revision in
materials, labor etc.
4. To determine the prevalent rte for doing the work in the location
under consideration.
1.2 The annual sinking fund of a machine costing 50,000 is 150 and
its salvage value is estimated to be 5,000. Assuming interest rate as
4%, determine the life of the machine.

Solution:
∵ 150 is deposited every year for ‘n’ years in an account that earns
4% interest.
∴ At the end of ‘n’ years amount required = cost of machine – salvage
value
 = 50000-5000 = 45,000
Thus, this 150 deposited @4% interest must generate 45000 after
‘n’ years.
𝐹
∴ 45000 = 150 𝐴, 4%, n

(1+0.04)𝑛−1
⇒ 45000 = 150 0.04

⇒ 300 (0.04) = (1.04)n – 1

⇒ n = 65.4 years ≃ 65 years (say)
∴ Life of machine is 65 years.

1.3 Describe the factors affecting the rate analysis.

Solution:
Factors affecting the analysis of rates:
(a) Location of work to be executed and its situation.
(b) Size and quantum work.
(c) Nature of project.
(d) Specification of work, quality requirements and construction
methodology etc.
(e) Quantity of material and their costs.
(f) Height/level of work at which it is being executed.
(g) Environmental and climatic conditions.
(h) Availability of water.
(i) Miscellaneous factors like safety of personnel, local conditions
etc.
1.4 Briefly explain
(i) Assessed value (ii) Sinking fund

Solution:
(i) Assessed Value: This term is used mainly for taxation purpose of an
asset (like property). It is the value of the asset in monetary terms
as determined by the Government or the urban local bodies (like
factors which influence this assessed value are the location of the
asset (in case of immovable property), market conditions etc.
(ii) Sinking fund: It is a type of fund (or account) in which money is
deposited on regular basis for a definite period of time so that by
the time the fund matures, the accumulated amount can be used for the
replacement of old equipment with a new one, or for repaying the loan
principal etc.

1.5 Define the following terms:

Solution:
Scrap value: Scrap value is the value of dismantles material. For a
building when the life is over at the end of its utility period the
dismantled materials as steel, bricks, timber, etc., will fetch a certain
amount which is the scrap value of the building. In the case of machine
the scrap values is the value of the metal only of the value of the
dismantled parts. The scrap value of a building may be about 10 percent
of its total cost of construction. The cost of dismantling and removal of
the rubbish material is deducted from the total receipt from the sale of
the usable materials to get the scrap value.
Salvage value: It is the value at the end of the utility period without
being dismantled. A machine after the completion of its usual span of
life or when it become uneconomic, many be sold and one may purchase the
same of use for some other purpose, the sale value of the machine is the
salvage value. It does not include the cost of removal, sale, etc.
Sinking fund: The fund which is gradually accumulated by way of periodic
on annual deposit for the replacement of the building or structure at the
end of its useful life, is termed as sinking fund. The object of creating
sinking fund is to accumulate sufficient money to meet the cost of
construction or replacement of the building or structure after its
utility period. The sinking fund is created by regular annual or periodic
deposits compound interest bearing investment, which fund may be created
by taking a sinking fund policy with an insurance company or by
depositing in bank to collect highest compound interest. The calculation
of sinking fund depends the life of the building and scrap value of the
building for the cost of old materials. The cost of land is not taken
into account in calculating Sinking fund as land remains intact.
The sinking fund may also be required for payment of load. If a property
is owned or constructed by taking loads Sinking fund may be created by
setting aside a sum of money annually to accumulate with compound
interest in order to repay the debt at the end of the term of load. The
amount thus set aside is also known as Annuity payment. The amount which
will be set aside may also be paid directly to lender by way of annual
installment. The amount of annual installment of the Sinking fund may be
found out by the formula
Si
𝔩 =(1+i)n −1, where S = total amount of Sinking fund to be accumulated, n=
number of years required to
accumulate the Sinking fund, 𝔦 = rate of interest in decimal and 𝔩 =
number of years required.

Depreciation: Depreciation is the gradual exhausting of the usefulness of

a property. This may be defined a the decrease or loss in the value of a
property due to structural deterioration use, life wear and tear, decay
and obsolescence. The value of a property due to structural deterioration
 use, life wear and tear, decay and obsolescence. The value of a building
or structure will be gradually reduced due to its use, life, wear and
tear, etc., and a certain percentage of the total cost may be allowed as
depreciation to determine its present value. Usually a percentage on
depreciation per annum is allowed. The general annual decrease in the
value of a property is known as Annual depreciation. Usually, the
percentage rate of depreciation is less at the beginning and gradually
increases during late years.
The amount of depreciation being known, the present value of a property
can be calculated after deducting the total amount of depreciation form
the original cost.
Method of calculating depreciation: The various methods of calculating
depreciation are as follows:
1. Straight line method
2. constant percentage method
3. Sinking fund method
4. Quantity survey method

SSC – JE : Paper – II
(Conventional)

Unit III Surveying

1. Fundamental Concepts of Surveying
1.1 A steel tape is 30m long at a temperature of 15 0C and a pull of 50 N
when laid on a flat surface. The type weighs 18 N. It is stretched
between and supports only allowing it to sag. Find the correct length of
the tape at a field temperature of 250C at a pull of 115N. If in the
above condition a base line is measured and the recorded length of the
line 600m, find the correct length of the base line. Take α = 12×10-6 per
0C and E = 2×105 N/mm2. Sectional area of the tape = 7.50 mm 2.

Solution:
Standard length of tape, 𝑙0 = 30 m
Standard temperature, 𝑇0 = 150C
Standard pull, 𝑃0 = 50 N
Total weight of tape, W = 18 N
Field temperature, T = 250C
Applied pull, P = 115N
(𝑃−𝑃0 )𝑙0 (115−50)30
Correction of pull, Cp = + 𝐴𝐸
= + 7.5×2×105
= +0.0036m
Correction of temperature Ct = -α𝑙0 (T-T0) =-12×10-6×30(25-15)
=-0.0036m
𝑊2𝑙 182×30
Correcting for sag. CS = -24𝑃20 = 24×1152
= -0.0306 m
∴ Total correction = 𝐶𝑝 +𝐶𝑡 + 𝐶𝑆 = 0.0013–0.0036–0.0306 = -
0.0329m
∴ Correct length of tape = 30-0.0329 = 29.9671 m ≃ 29.97m
Correct length of measured 600m base line
29.97
= 30
× 600 = 599.4 m

2. Theodolites, Compass and Traverse Surveying

2.1 True bearing of a TV tower (T) from station A is 358 0 00’ and its
magnetic bearing was 80 0’ 00”. Using prismatic compass, bearings of AB,
AC and AD are 2900 00’ 00”, 3400C 00’ 00” and 300 00’ 00” respectively.
Calculate true bearings of AB, AC the AD.
Solution:
 TN means true North
MN means Magnetic North
Magnetic declination = Angle between Tn and MN
= (3600-3580) + 80 = 100 (Towards West)
= -100
True bearing of AB = 290 – 10 = 2800
0 0

True bearing of AC = 3400 - 100 = 3300

True bearing of AD = 360 – (10 ) + 300 = 3800=200
0 0

2.2 State the three pint problem. Explain how it is solved.

Solution:
Three point problem: It is one of the method of resection in plane table
surveying. This method is used where the surveyor wants to set up a table
at a station (say P) towards which no ray has been drawn when the plane
table occupied other stations.
Three point problems can be solved if three well defined points. A, B and
C whose positions a, b and c has already been marked on the plan and
which are clearly visible from the plane table station P. Three point
problems can be solved by any of the following methods:
(a) Trial and error method (b) Mechanical method
(c) Graphical method (d) Analytical method
(e) Geometrical method
(a) Trial and error method: Here the correct orientation of plane table
at station P is obtained by several trial and error methods is also
known as Lahmann’s method.
(b) Mechanical method: Here the plane table is oriented at station P
(whose location is required to be located) roughly be eye judgment or
a compass. Then a point ‘p 1’ is marked on the tracing sheet to
represent P. With alidade pivoted at ‘p 1’, sight the station A and draw
a ray. Similarly sight other stations B, C etc. After that, unfasten
the tracing cloth/paper and move it on the plant till all the rays
pass through plotted pints ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’.
(c) Graphical method: Graphical method of three point problem is solved
using Bessel’s solution.

2.3 A river is flowing from West to East. For determining the width of the
river, two points A and B are selected on the Southern bank such that the
distance AB=75m. Point A is westward. The bearings of a tree C on the
Northern bank are observed to be 300 and 3380
respectively from A and B. Calculate the
width of the river.

Solution:
From C, draw CD ⊥ AB
 ∠CAD = 900-380 = 520
𝐶𝐷
In ∆ADC, tan ∠CAD = 𝐴𝐷
𝐶𝐷
⇒ AD = ……. (i)
𝑡𝑎𝑛520
∠CBD = 3380 – 2400 = 680
𝐶𝐷
In ∆BDC, tan ∠CBD =
𝐷𝐵
𝐶𝐷
⇒ DB = 𝑡𝑎𝑛680

Adding (i) and (ii)

𝐶𝐷 𝐶𝐷
AD+DB = +
𝑡𝑎𝑛520 𝑡𝑎𝑛680
1 1
⇒ 75 = CD [ + ]
𝑡𝑎𝑛520 𝑡𝑎𝑛680
⇒ 75 = CD (1.1853)
⇒ CD = 63.275m
∴ Width of river = 63.275 m

2.4 What are the various methods of doing theodolite traversing?

Describe the deflection angle method in detail.

Solution:
Various methods of theodolite traversing are:
1. Traversing by fast needle method: it consists of the following
methods:
(a) Direct method with transiting
(b) Direct method without transiting
(c) Method of back bearing
2. Traversing by the method of included angles
3. Traversing by the method of direct angles
4. Traversing by the method of deflection angles
Traversing by the method of deflection angles: This method is mainly used
for open traverse like survey of roads, railway line, canal etc.

1. Step 1: Set up the theodolite at starting station (A) and level it.
Measure the magnetic baring of line AB.
2. Step 2: Shift the theodolite to station B. Set up the instrument and
level it .Set the Vernier A of theodolite to zero using the upper clamp
 and tangent screw. Unclamp the lower plate and rotate the telescope to
sight station A. Take back sight on staff held at station A.
3. Step 3: Plunge the telescope so that the telescope points along AB
produced. Release the upper plate and turn the telescope to take a fore
sight reading on staff held at station C. Read both the verniers. The
deflection angle at station B is the mean of the two Vernier readings.
4. Step 4: Change to face right and again determine the deflection angle.
The final deflection angle will be the average of the two readings
obtained with face left and face right positions.
5. Step 5: Repeat Steps 1 to 4 at all other stations.
6. Step 6: Measure the lengths of traverse lines and locate other details.

2.5 A chain the CDE crosses a river, D and E being on the near and
distant banks respectively. A perpendicular DF 54.865 m long is set out
at D on the left of the chain line. The respective bearings of E and C
taken at F are 670 30’ and 1570 30’. Find the chain age of E, given that
CD is 27.630 m and the chainage of D is 382.52 m.
Solution:

∠CFE
= Bearing of FC-
Bearing of FE
= 1570 30’ - 670 30’ = 900
∴ ∆ CEF is a right angle triangle right angled at F.
Δ CDF, ∠CDF = 900
∴ CF = √𝐶𝐷2 + 𝐷𝐹 2 = √(27.63)2 + (54.865)2 = 61.43m
𝐶𝐷 27.63
∴ tan (∠CFD) = 𝐹𝐷
= 54.865 = 0.5036
∴ ∠CFD = tan-1 (0.5036) = 260 44’ (approx)
∴ ∠DFE = 900 - ∠CFD = 900-260 44’= 630 16’
DE
In Δ DFE, tan (∠DFE) =
FD
DE = FD tan (∠DFE) = 54.865 tan (630 16’)=
108.93m
Chainage of E = Chainage of D + DE
= 385.52 + 108.93 = 491.45 m

2.6. Discuss in detail the methods of plane table surveying.

Solution:

Method of plane table surveying:

(a) Radiation: Here the points are located by drawing radial lines from a
plane table station.

The distances of various points are measured and marked on the drawing
sheet to some suitable scale. This method is very suitable for surveying
small areas.
(b) Intersection: Here the point is located on the drawing sheet by
drawing rays from two plane table stations to that point and location the
point of intersection of these two rays.

(c) Resection: It is the method of locating the station that is being

occupied by the plane table.
Here the position of station that is being occupied by the instrument
(i.e., plane table ) is located with respect to the stations whose
location have already been plotted.
There are four methods of resection viz. compass method, back ray method,
two-point problem and three-point problem. Within the three-point
problem, there are several methods like the trial and error method,
mechanical method, graphical method, analytical method, geometrical
method etc.

2.7. The true bearing of a tower T as observed from a station A was 357 0,
the magnetic bearing of the same was 9 0. The back bearings of the lines
AB, AC and Ad were found to be 2860, 3370 and 300 respectively when
measured with a prismatic compass. Find the true bearings of the lines
AB, AC and AD respectively.

Solution:
TN means True North
MN means Magnetic North
Prismatic compass measures bearing with respect to MN.
 Magnetic declination = Angle between TN and MN
= (3600 -3570) + 90
= 120 (towards west) = -120
FB of AB = 1800-(3600-2860) = 1060
∴ True baring of AB = 1060 -120 = 940
FB of AC = 1800-(3600-3370) = 1570
∴ True baring of AC = 1570-120 = 1450
FB of AD = 180 + 300 = 2100
0

∴ True baring of AD = 2100-120= 1980

2.8 Write brief notes on the following:

(i) Prismatic compass
(ii) Plane table and its accessories.

Solution:
(i) Prismatic compass: In prismatic compass, a prism is used for taking
the observations. The prismatic compass is used for measuring Whole
Circle Bearing (WCB). It consists of a circular box of brass or a non-
metallic material. At ht center of box there is a hard steel pivot on
which magnetic needle tests. This magnetic needle is broad in the
middle. An aluminum graduated ring is attached directly to the needle.
The Prismatic compass box is covered with a glass on the top. The
graduations on the aluminum ring increase in the clockwise direction
from 00 to 3600 with 00 to 3600 with 00 reading coinciding with the
south end of the needle. The prismatic compass box is covered with a
glass on the top. The graduations on the aluminum the needle. The 900
graduation is towards the west, 180 0 towards north and 2700 towards
east. The figures are engraved on the aluminum ring. This prismatic
compass is attached with a 45 0 prism with its horizontal and vertical
faces slightly convex to magnify the image of the aluminum ring
graduations.
Plane table and its accessories
Plane table: A plane table consists of a drawing board of a well-
seasoned wood which is mounted on a tripod. The size of the plane
table board is about 600mm ×750mm with thickness of about 20 mm.
Alidade: An alidade is a straight edged ruler with one edge beveled.
It is provided with a sighing vane and object vane. It is used to
orient the plane table at a station.
Plumbing fork: It is a U shaped metal piece the upper arm of which is
pointed and at the lower arm, a plumb bob is attached. It is used for
centering the plane table and for transferring the ground point to the
plane table.
Level tube: Level tube is used for checking the level of plane table.
When the bubble of the level tube is at the center than the table is
properly leveled i.e. horizontal.
 Trough compass: A trough compass is a magnetic compass and is used for
orienting the plane table with respect to the direction of the
magnetic meridian.
Drawing sheet: it is a simple thick paper which is fixed o to the
drawing board by means of clips or tape. The drawing sheet must be
thick enough to bear the abrasion of alidade while making the
observations.

2.9 Explain Whole Circle Bearing system. The following bearings were
observed with a compass from the meridian. Calculate the interior angles.

Line AB BC CD DE EA
Fore 60030’ 122000’ 46000’ 205030’ 300000’
bearing
Solution:

Whole circle bearing system: In this system, the bearings are measured in
clockwise direction. Thus whole circle bearing varies from 0 0 to 3600.
BB of line AB = 1800 + 600 30’ = 2400 30’
∴ Interior ∠B = BB of AB – FB of BC
= 2400 30’ -1220 00’ = 1180 30’
BB of line BC = 1800 +1220 = 3020 00’
∴ Interior ∠C = BB of BC – FB of CD
= 3020-460 = 2560 00’
BB of line CD = 1800 +460= 2260 00’
∴ Interior ∠D = BB of CD – FB of DE
= 2260 - 2050 30’= 200 30’
BB of line DE = 205 30’ -1800 = 250 30’
0

∴ Interior ∠E = (3600-3000) + 250 30’= 850 30’

BB of line EA = 1800 – (3600-3000) = 1200
∴ Interior ∠A = BB of EA – FB of AB
= 1200 - 600 30’= 590 30’
Check: Sum of all the interior angles
= ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠E
= 590 30’ + 1180 30’ + 2560 30’ = 5400
= (n-2) 1800 = (5-2) 1800 = 5400

2.10 For a highway project, a straight runnel is to be run between two

points P and Q whose co-ordinates are given below:
Co-ordinates
Point N E
P 0 0
 Q 4020 800
R 2110 1900

It is desired to sink a shaft at S, the mid-point of PQ. S is to be fixed

from R, the third known point. Calculate:
(i) The co-ordinates of S (ii) The length of RS (iii) The bearing
of RS

Solution:

Given ‘S’ is the mid-point of PQ.

4020+0 800+0
∴ Coordinated of point, S = ( N, E )= (2100 N, 400E)
2 2
Length RS = √(2010 − 2110)2 + (400 − 1900)2 = 1503.33 units
1900−400 1500
tan θ = =
2110−2010 100
∴ θ = 86.190
∴ Bearing of RS = 1800 + θ = 266.190

2.11 What are the errors induced in theodolite survey?

Solution:
The errors which occur in theodolite survey may be classified into three
types depending upon their sources.
(i) Instrumental errors: These may occur due to imperfect adjustments of
the theodolite, due to constructional defects in the instrument of due
to wear of the various components.
The errors due to imperfect adjustments are most common and some of them
are as follows:
(a) Errors due to imperfect adjustments of the plate level.
(b) Error due to line of collimation not being perpendicular to
horizontal axis.
(c) Error due to horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the
vertical axis.
(d) Error due to eccentricity of inner and outer axes.
(e) Error due to eccentricity of verniers.
(f) Error due to imperfect graduations on the horizontal scale.
(g) Vertical index error.
(h) Vertical cross hair not perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
(i) Error due to defective tripod.
 (ii) Personal errors: These can be classified into two categories:
(a) Errors in manipulation: These errors occur due to inaccurate
centering, inaccurate leveling, slip in screws and improper use of
tangent screws.
(b) Errors in sighing and reading: These errors occur due to
inaccurate vernier reading, inaccurate sighting and parallax.

2.12 Determine the correct bearings of the lines of a closed traverse

PQRSTP. The readings are as follows:

Line Fore Back

bearing bearing
PQ 1950 30’ 170 0’
QR 730 30’ 2500 30’
RS 360 15’ 2140 30’
ST 2660 45’ 840 45’
Identify the TP 2340 15’ 570 0’ stations affected
by local attraction.

Solution:

Line Fore Back FB-BB

bearing baring
PQ 190030’ 1700’ 178030’
QR 73030’ 250030’ -17700’
RS 36015’ 214030’ -
178015’
To find ST 266045’ 84045’ 18200’ included
anlages TP 234015’ 5700’ 177015’
∠P = FBPQ -
BBTP = 195030’ - 5700’ = 138030’
∠Q = FBQR - BBPQ = 73030’ - 1700’ = 56030’
∠R = FBRS - BBQR = 36015’ - 250030’ + 3600 = 145045’
∠S = FBST - BBQS = 266 45’ - 214 30’
0 0 = 52 15’
0

∠R = FBTP - BBST = 234015’ - 84045’ = 149030’

Check: ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠D + ∠E = 542030’
 and Theoretical sum = (2n-4) 900 = (2×5-4) 900 = 540000’
Error = 542030’ - 540000’ = +2030’
Correction = - 2030’
−20 30
Correction in each angle = = -300
5
So, correct included angle are,
∠P = 138030’ - 300 = 1380
∠Q = 56030’ - 300 = 560
∠R = 145045’ - 300 = 145015’
∠s = 52015’ - 300 = 51045’
1490
∠T = 149030’ – 300 =
5400 00′

Since, here no line has the difference of 180 0 some we take that line
which has the nearest different to 1800 as line PQ so for line PQ.
+10 30′
Correction in FB of line PQ = 2
= +45’

So, Correction FBPQ = 195030’ + 45’ = 196015’

Correction BBPQ = 196015’ – 1800 = 16015’
Now, Correct FBQR = Correct BBPQ + Correct ∠Q
= 16 15’ + 560 = 72015’
0

Correct BBQR = 72015’ + 1800 = 252015’

Correct FBRS = Correct BBPQ = Correct ∠R
= 252015’ + 145015’- 3600 = 37030’
Correct BBRS = 37030’ +1800 = 217030’
Correct FBST = Correct BBRS +Correct ∠S
= 217030’ +51045’ = 269015’
Correct BBST = 269015’ – 1800 = 89015’
= 89015’ + 1490 = 238015’
Correct BBTP = 238015’ - 1800 = 58015’
Correct FBTP = Correct BBST + Correct ∠T
Correct BBPQ = Correct BBTP + Correct ∠P
= 58015’ + 1380
= 196015’

3. Leveling and Contouring

3.1 What are contour gradients? Explain their importance in the location of a
hill road.

Solution:
Contour gradient: A contour gradient is a line on the surface of the
ground having a constant inclination with the horizontal. e.g. A contour
gradient of 1 in 50 will connect all points lying on a line inclined at
tan-1 (1/50) with the horizontal.
While aligning a hill road, a pre-decided contour gradient will give the
quantity of earthwork in cutting and filling. It gives an idea about the
various points lying on the contour gradient.
3.2 Define and explain contour, contour interval, necessity of contour
plotting. Discuss factors affecting the choice of contour interval.

Solution:
Contour: A contour is a line joining pints of equal elevation on the
ground. All the point lying on a contour will have equal elevation. e.g.
A contour of 60.00m indicates that all points lying on this contour are
having an elevation of 60m.
Contour interval: It is the difference of elevations between two
successive contours.
Necessity of contour plotting: Plotting of contours gives the topography
of the area surveyed. It gives a general idea about the topographic
features of the ground which is helpful n deciding the location or
alignment of an infrastructure project.
Factors affecting the choice of contour interval: The following factors
govern the choice of contour interval:
1. Purpose of map: The contour interval should be so selected that it
serves the purpose of map. Too large contour interval may omit the
necessary details of the map while a too small contour interval will
add to the cost of the project.
2. Nature of ground: The contour interval depends on the nature of
ground. For a flat ground, a large contour interval may serve the
purpose but for mountainous terrain, a small contour interval is
required.
3. Scale of the map: If the scale of the map is small, contour interval
is kept large to avoid over-crowding of contours. However, if the map
scale is large then contour interval is kept small.
4. Extent of survey: Contour interval largely depends on the extent of
survey. For surveying a large area, a large contour interval is
required but for a small area of survey, contour interval may be kept
small.
5. Availability of time and funds: Too small contour interval will
increase the survey work and thereby cost of the project. However,
large contour interval will reduce the amount of time and cost.

3.3 Describe the terms- True and magnetic bearing; local attraction;
back bearings and magnetic declination.

Solution:
True bearing: It is the bearing of a line which it makes with the true
north ( or south) e.g. true meridian.
Local attraction: Presence of magnetic materials (like iron articles like
watch, pens etc.) or a nearby current carrying conductor may affect the
magnetic field in that area. This will change the magnetic meridian
thereby changing the magnetic bearing. This phenomenon is called as local
attraction. However, due to local attraction, true meridian and true
bearing remain unaffected.
Back bearing: It is the bearing of the line against the direction of
survey line e.g. For a survey line AB, the bearing of line AB at station
A is called as fore-bearing and bearing of the line BA at station B is
called as back-bearing of AB.
 Magnetic declination: It is the angle which the magnetic meridian makes
with the true meridian. If magnetic meridian is towards east of true
meridian, then declination is referred to as positive declination and if
magnetic bearing is towards west of true meridian then declination is
referred to as negative declination.

3.4 The readings given in the Table below were recorded in a leveling
operation from points 1 to 10. Reduce the levels by the height of
instrument method and apply appropriate checks. The point 10 is a bench
mark having elevation of 66.374m. Determine the loop closure.

Station Chainage(m) B.S. I.S. F.S. Remarks

1 2 0.597 3.132 B.M. = 68.233 m
2 20 2.587 C.P.-1
3 40 1.566
4 60 1.911
5 80 0.376
6 100 2.244 1.522 C.P.-2
7 120 3.771
8 140 1.334 1.985 C.P.-3
9 160 0.601
10 180 2.002

Solution:

Statio Chainage B.S.(m I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L.(m Remarks

n (m) ) (m) (m) (m) )
1 2 0.567 68.83 68.233 B.M.
2 20 2.587 3.132 68.285 65.698 C.P-1
3 40 1.566 68.285 66.719
4 60 1.911 68.285 66.374
5 80 0.376 68.285 67.909
6 100 2.244 1.522 69.007 66.763 C.P-2
7 120 3.771 69.007 65.236
8 140 1.334 1.985 68.356 67.022 C.P-3
9 160 0.601 68.356 67.755
10 180 2.002 68.356 66.354
Sum = 6.762 8.641

Check:
∑BS - ∑FS = 6.762 – 8.641 = -1.879 m
Last RL – First RL = 66.354 – 68.233 = -1.879 m
Given RL of station 10 = 66.374 m
∴ Closing error = +0.02 m
∴ Correction = -0.02 m
3.5 A road is to be constructed with a uniform rising gradient of 1 in
100. Determine the staff readings required for setting the tops of the
tow pegs on the given gradient at 30 meters interval from the last
position of the instrument. The RL of the first peg is 384.500 m. A fly
leveling was carried out from a BM of RL 387.000 m. The following
observations (in m) were recorded.

Backside 1.625 2.345 2.045 2.955

Foresight 1.315 3.560 2.355

Solution:

B.S.(m) F.S.(m) H.I.(m) R.L(m)

1.625 388.625 387.0
2.345 1.315 389.655 387.31
2.045 3.56 388.14 386.095
2.955 2.355 388.74 385.785
H.I. at last position of instrument = 388.74 m
R.L. of first peg = 384.50m
Therefore, staff reading at first peg= 388.74 – 384.5 = 4.24 m
1
Staff reading at second peg = 4.24 – 30 × = 3.94m
100

3.6 What are the factors affecting selection of contour intervals?

Solution:
The contour interval depends upon the following factors:
1. Nature of Ground: For a flat ground, the contour interval is small,
but for a steep slope, the contour interval is large. If the ground is
broken, the contour interval is kept large so that the contours do not
come too close to each other.
2. Scale of the Map: If scale is small, the contour interval is kept
large so that there is no overcrowding of the contours. On the other h
and, if the scale of the map is large, the contour interval can be
kept small.
3. Purpose of Map: The contour interval selected should be small so that
the map serves the intended purpose, but at the same time it should
not be too small otherwise the cost of the work would be too much. The
contour interval should be kept small when the plan is required for
the detailed design.
4. Time: Contour interval is kept large when time is less.
5. Funds: Contour interval is kept large when funds as less.

4. Tachometric, Curve & Hydrographic Surveying

4.1 A measuring staff is held at a distance of 100 m and 300 m from the axis
of tachometer. If the staff intercepts are 0.99 m and 3 m respectively,
calculate the instruments constants.
Tacheometer is held at A and staff is kept upright at B. If at an angle
of inclination of 100 readings are 2.670, 1.835, 1 m, what is the RL of
Bad n distance between A and B? (Given that HI = 1.42m, RL of A=450.5 m).

Solution:
Let D1 = 100 m, D2 = 300 m, S1 = 0.99 m, S2 = 3 m
∴ For a tacheometer, D = kS + C Where k and C are instrument
constants
∴ D1 = kS1 + C
⇒ 100 = k (0.33) +C …………
(1)
D2 = kS2 + C
⇒ 300 = k (3) + C …………….
(2)
Solving eq. (i) and (ii) k = 99.5
C = 1.495

HI = 1.42m
RL of A = 450.5 m
Vertical distance V is given by
1
V = 2 kS cos 2θ + C sin θ
1
= 2
(99.05) (1.670–1.00) cos200+1.495sin
100
= 78.33 m
∴ RL of B = RL of A + HI + V – r
= 450.5 + 1.42 + 78.33 – 1.835
= 525.415m
 SSC – JE : Paper – II
(Conventional)

Unit IV Soil Mechanics

1. Properties, Classification of Soils, Consolidation and compaction, Permeability
1.1 What is the main difference between compaction and consolidation?

Solution:

S.NO. Compaction Consolidation

1. It is the expulsion of air
from the sol voids on
application of external stress
on the soil.
2. It is fast process.
3. It occurs mostly in sands.
It is the expulsion of pore
water from the soil voids on
application of external stress
on the soil.
It is slow process.
It occurs mostly in clays.

1.2 What is compaction? Why is it needed? List the different methods of

compaction.

Solution:
Compaction: It is a process in which the soil particles are brought close
to each other due to expulsion of air from the voids present in the soil
on application of an eternal stress. Thus the volume change I the soil is
brought about by removal of air from the soil. It is almost an
instantaneous process.
Need for compaction: Compaction, in general, increases the shear strength
of soil due to closer arrangement of soil particles. This in turn
increases the stability and bearing capacity of soil.
Different methods of compaction:
(i) Rollers: Various types of rollers are used for compaction of soil.
The selection of a particular type of roller depends on the contact
pressure required; thickness of soil layer, number of passes required,
speed of roller etc. rollers may be smooth wheeled, pneumatic tyred or
sheep foot rollers.
(ii) Tampers: Tamper (or rammer) is a block of iron about 3 to 5 kg in
mass which is attached to a wooden/steel rod. The tamper is usually
lifted to about 300 mm and dropped freely on to the soil thereby
compacting the soil. Mechanical or machine operated rammers are much
 heavier (around 30 to 150 kg) and are also dropped from a larger
height.
(iii) Vibrators: Vibrators or vibratory rollers bring about the compaction
of soil by transmitting vibrations to the soil. Vibratory rollers are
particularly useful for compacting sandy soils.

1.3 An earth embankment is compacted at water content of 17% to a bulk

density of 1.9 g/cc. The specific gravity of soil grains is 2.65.
Calculate the void ratio of the compacted embankment.

Solution:
Water content, w = 17% = 0.17
Bulk density, γ = 1.9 g/cc
Specific gravity G = 2.65
(G+se)γw
γ= 1+e
wG
Also, e =
S
⇒ Se = wG
(G+wG)γw
∴ γ = 1+e
(1+0.17)2.65×1
⇒ 1.9 = 1+e
⇒ e = 0.63
∴ Void ratio of compacted embankment = 0.63

1.4 A particular sand sample of 250 grams, when sieved successively

through the following sieves, left retention on the sieves as follows:

IS sieve 10mm 4.8mm 2.4mm 1.2mm 600 300 micron 150

micron micron
Retention NIL 10 15 50 50 75 50
in grams

What is its fineness modulus? What sand is it fine, medium or coarse?

Solution:
Total mass of sand sample = 10 + 15 + 50 + 50 + 75 + 50 = 250 grams

IS Sieve Mass of sand Cumulative Cumulative

retained (g) mass of sand percentage of
retained (g) sand retained
(in %)
10 mm NIL - -
4.8 mm 10 10 4
2.4 mm 15 25 10
1.2 mm 50 75 30
600 50 125 50
micron
300 75 200 80
micron
 150 50 250 100
micron
Total 250 685 274

∑cumulative percentage of sand retained on each sieve

∴ Fineness modulus = 100
274
= 100
= 2.74

Table: Fineness modulus for different types of sand

Type of Fineness
sand modulus
Fine sand 2.2-2.6
Medium sand 2.6-2.9

Coarse sand 2.9-3.2

∵ Fineness modulus (=2.74) lies between 2.6 and 2.9.

1.5 A sample of dry soil having specific gravity of 2.74 and having a
mass of 133.7 gm is uniformly dispersed in water to form 1000 cc of
suspension.
(i) Determine the density of suspension immediately after it is
prepared.
(ii) A 10 cc of the suspension was removed from the depth of 21 cm
beneath the top surface after the suspension was allowed to stand for
2 min. and 30 sec. The dry mass of the soil in the curve corresponding
to this observation.
Temperature of suspension = 200C
Viscosity of water at 200C = 0.0102 poise

Solution:
Mass of dry soil, MS = 133.7g
Specific gravity of soil, G = 2.74
Volume of suspension, V = 1000 cc
(i) Density of suspension immediately after it has been prepared is given
by.
MS G−1 133.7 2.74−1
𝜌𝑖 = 𝜌𝑤 + V
(
G
) = 1+
1000
(
2.74
)
= 1.0849 g/cc ≃ 1.085 g/cc
(ii) Depth below the top water surface at which sample was taken i.e.,
H = 21 cm
Time for which suspension was allowed to stand,
t = 2 min 30 sec = 2.5 min
Dry mass of soil in the sample,
MD = 0.406g
Vescosity of water, μ = 0.0102 poise
= 0.0102 × 10-1 Ns/m2
 0.3𝜇𝐻 0.3×0.00102×21
∴ Diameter of soil particle, D = √𝑔(𝐺−1)𝜌 = √981(2.74−1)×1×2.5
𝑤𝑡
= 0.001227 cm = 0.01227 mm
𝑀𝑆 133.7
Now 𝛾𝑠 = 𝑉
= 1000 = 0.1337 g/cc
𝑀𝐷 0.406
𝛾𝐷 = 𝑉
= 0.137
= 0.0406 g/cc
𝛾𝐷 0.0406
∴ Percentage finer, N = 𝛾𝑆
×100 = 0.1337
×100 = 30.37%
∴ Co-ordinate of point on particle size distribution curve is
D, N = 0.01227 mm, 30.37%

1.6 60 cm diameter well is being pumped at a rate of 1360

litres/minute. Measurements in a nearby test well were made at the same
time as follows. At a distance of 6 m from the well being pumped, the
drawdown was 6 m, and at 15 m, the drawdown was 1.5m. The bottom of the
well is 90 m below the ground water table.
(i) Find out the coefficient of permeability.
(ii) If all the observed point were on the Dupuit curve, what was the
drawdown I the well during pumping?
(iii) What is the specific capacity of the well?
(iv) What is the rate at which water can be drawn from this well?

Solution:
Diameter of well, DW = 60 cm = 0.6 m
∴ Radius of well, rw = 30 c, = 0.3 m
Discharge, Q = 1360 lit./min = 0.0227 m3/s

At r1 = 6 m, S1 = 6 m
At r2 = 15 m, S2 = 1.5 m
It is an unconfined aquifer
𝑟 𝜋𝑘
In (𝑟2 ) = 𝑄
(ℎ22 − ℎ12)
1
Here h2 = H-S2 = 90-1.5 = 88.5 m
h1 = H – S1 = 90-6 = 84 m
15 πk
∴ In ( ) 6
= Q
(88.52 − 842 )
⇒ K = 8.53 × 10-6 m/s = 8.53 × 10-3 mm/s
Let SW = Drawndown in the well
𝑟 𝜋𝑘
∴ In ( 2) =
𝑟 𝑄
(ℎ22 − ℎ𝑤
2
)
𝑤
15 𝜋𝑘 2
⇒ In ( ) = (88.52-ℎ𝑤 )
0.3 0.0227
15 𝜋×8.53×10−6
⇒ In(0.3) = 0.0227
88.52 − ℎ𝑤
2

⇒ hw = 67.22 m
∴ Sw = H - hW = 90-67.22 = 22.78 m
 Specific capacity = Discharge per unit drawdown at the
well location
𝑄 0.0227
= 𝑆𝑊
= 22.78
= 9.965 × 10-4 m3/s/m

1.7 A sample of soil has a porosity of 35 percent and specific gravity

of solids is 2.67. Calculate void ratio, dry density and unit weight if
(i) The soil is 50% saturated. (ii) The soil is 100% saturated.

Solution:
Porosity, n = 35% = 0.35
Specific gravity of solids, G = 2.67
(i) Soil is 50% saturated i.e., S = 0.5

𝑛 0.35 7
Void ratio, e = 1−𝑛
= 1−0.35
= 13
= 0.5385

𝑤𝐺
Now, e =
𝑆
𝑒𝑆 0.5385×0.5
⇒ w = 𝐺
= 2.67
= 0.1008

𝑤 (𝐺+𝑆𝑒)𝛾 (2.67+0.5×0.5385)9.81
Bulk density, γ = 1+𝑒
= 1+0.5385
= 18.74 kN/m 3
𝛾 18.74
Dry density, 𝛾𝑑 = = = 17.02 kN/m3
1+𝑤 1+0.1008

(ii) Soil is 100% saturated i.e., S = 1

𝑛 0.35 7
∴ e = 1−𝑛
= 1−0.35
= 13 = 0.5385

𝑒𝑆 0.5385×1
Water content, w = 𝐺
= 2.67
= 0.202

𝑤 (𝐺+𝑆𝑒)𝛾 (2.67+1×0.5385)9.81
Bulk density, γ = =
1+𝑒 1+0.5385
= 20.46 kN/m3
𝛾 20.46
Dry density, 𝛾𝑑 = 1+𝑤 = 1+0.202 = 17.02 kN/m3

Note: 𝛾𝑑 (dry density) in both cases is same as this value does not depend
on S (degree of saturation) it is calculated at S = 0.1%)

1.8 A sample of soil is 5 cm high and 8 cm in diameter. It was tested

in a constant head permeameter. Water percolates though the soil under a
constant head of 45cm for 8 min. the water was collected and weighed. Its
weight was recorded as 500 gm. On oven drying the sample of soil, the
weight was recorded as 450 gm. If G is 2.65 calculated
(i) Coefficient of permeability,
(ii) Seepage velocity of water when the water was under operation.

Solution:
 Constant head, h = 45 cm = 0.45m
Time, t = 8 min. = 8× 60 sec = 480 sec
Mass of water collected = 500 g

500𝑔
∴ Volume of water collected, V = 1𝑔/𝑐𝑐
= 500 cc = 500 ×10-6 m3

500×10−6 𝑚 3
(i) Discharge through the soil, q = 480𝑠𝑒𝑐
= 1.0417×10-6 m3/s

𝑞𝐿 1.0417×10−6 ×0.05
Coefficient of permeability, k = = 𝜋 m/s
𝐴ℎ (0.08)2(0.45)
4
= 2.3 × 10-5 m/s

(ii) Porosity of soil sample is needed for computation of seepage

velocity
𝑉
But seepage velocity, VS = 𝑛
V = ki
ℎ 0.45
= 2.3 ×10-5× = 2.3 × 10-5×
𝐿 0.05
= 20.7 ×10-5 m/s
Weight of over dried soil, MS = 450 g
∴ Dry density of soil sample,
450
𝜌𝑑 = 𝜋
(8)2 (5)
4
𝐺𝜌𝑤 2.65×1
But 𝜌𝑑 = 𝜌𝑑
-1 = 1.79
-1 = 0.48
𝑒 0.48
∴ Porosity, n = = = 0.324
1+𝑒 1+0.48

𝑉 20.7×10−5
∴ Seepage velocity, VS = 𝑛 = 0.324 = 63.89× 10-5 m/s
= 6.4 × 10-4 m/s

1.9 An embankment was compacted at a moisture content of 115%. Its

density was determined with the help of a core cutter and the following
data was collected:
Empty weight of the cutter = 1200 gm
Weight of cutter when it is full of soil = 3200 gm
Volume of the cutter = 1000 cc
Calculate bulk density and saturation percentage of the embankment. If
the embankment becomes fully saturated due to rains, then, determine its
moisture content and saturated density. Take G = 2.70.

Solution:
Water content, w = 0.15
 Weight of empty cutter = 1200 g
Weight of cutter filled with soil = 3200 g
∴ Weight of soil = 3200 – 1200 = 2000 g
Volume of cutter = 1000 cc
Weight of soil 2000
∴ Bulk density of soil, ρ = Volume of soil
= 1000
= 2.0 g/cc
G = 2.7
(𝐺+𝑆𝑒)𝜌𝑤
Now, ρ = 1+𝑒

(𝐺+𝑤𝐺)1
⇒ 2 =
1+𝑒

2.7(1+0.15)
⇒ 2 = 1+𝑒

⇒ e = 0.5525

𝑤𝐺 0.15×2.7
∴ S = 𝑒
= 0.5525
= 0.733 or 73.3%

Now embankment gets fully saturated i.e., S = 1

𝑒𝑆 0.55251
W = 𝐺
= 2.7
= 0.2046 or 20.46%
(𝐺𝑆𝑒)𝜌𝑤 (2.7+1×0.55251)
𝜌𝑠𝑡 = 1+𝑒
= 1+0.5525
= 20.95 g/cc

1.10 The following properties of the soil were determined b performing tests
on clay sample.
Natural moisture content = 25%
Liquid limit = 32%
Plastic limit = 24%
Diameter of 60% size = 0.006 mm
Diameter of 10% size = 0.006 mm
Calculated the liquidity coefficient, uniformity coefficient and relative
consistency.

Solution:
Natural moisture content w = 25%
Liquid limit wL = 32%
Plastic limit wP = 24%
Diameter of 60% size i.e., plastic size such that 60% soil is finer than
this size (D60 ) = 0.006 mm
Diameter of 10% size i.e., plastic size such that 10% soil is finer than
this size (D10 ) = 0.006 mm

Soils with Cu < 4 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜

D 0.006
∴ Uniformity coefficient,Cu = D60 = 0.006 = 1 < 2 [ be poorly graded or uniform soil ]
10
Cu > 4 𝑡𝑜 6 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠
∴ Soil is uniform soil i.e., poorly graded
 w− wp 0.25−0.24
Liquidity index IL = × 100 = × 100 = 12.5%
wl −wp 0.32−0.24
Consistency index or relative consistency
w −w 0.32−0.25
Ic = w L−w × 100 = 0.32−0.24 × 100 = 87.5%
L p

1.11 A sample of soil 10 cm diameter, 15 cm length was tested in a

variable head permeameter. The initial head of water in the burette was
found to be 45 cm and it was observed to drop to 30 cm in 195 seconds.
The diameter of the burette was 1.9 cm. Calculate the coefficients of
permeability in meter/day.
Solution:
d = 0.1m, L = 15cm m
∴ Cross-sectional area of soil sample,
𝜋 𝜋
A = d2 (0.1)2 = 0.007854 m2
4 4
Initial head, h1 = 45cm
Final head, h2 = 30 cm
Time interval, Δt = 195 sec
Diameter of burette = 1.9 cm ×10-2 m
𝜋
∴ Area of burette, a = 4 (1.9×10-2)2 = 2.835 × 10-4 m2

𝑎𝐿 ℎ 2.835×10−4×0.15 45
Coefficient of permeability k = 𝐴𝑡 In (ℎ1) = 0.007854×195 In (30)
2
= 0.11258 × 10-4 m/s = 0.9727 m/day

1.12 Explain standard penetration test of measuring the penetration

resistance of the soil.

Solution:
Standard Penetration Test: It is in-situ that is particularly useful for
cohesion less soil (i.e. sand) because undisturbed sampling of cohesion
less soil is difficult. This test is used to assess the bearing capacity,
shear strength, the angle of internal friction of the soil. It can also
be used to determine the unconfined compressive strength of cohesive
soils.
 This test is conducted in a bore hole using a split spoon sampler. The
bore hole is drilled to the required depth and sampler is lowered to
the bottom of the bore hole.
 The sampler is then driven into soil by a hammer of 63.5 mass falling
from a height of 750 mm at the rate of 30 blows per minute.
 The number of hammer blows required to drive the sampler 150 mm
through the ground is counted.
 The sampler is again driven further by 150 mm and the number of blows
is counted.
 Once again the sampler is driven further 150 mm into the ground and
number of blows is counted.
 The number of blows for the first 15l0 mm is discarded.
 The number of blows for the last two 150 mm are added which gives the
standard penetration number (N).
 Thus standard penetration number is equal to the number of blows
required for 300 mm penetration beyond the first 150 mm penetration.
 If the number of blows for the first 150 mm penetration exceeds 50
then the test results are discarded and the test is stopped.
This standard penetration number (N) is corrected for dilatancy and
overburden pressure.
Correction of dilatancy: Very fine silty sand and also the fine sand
develop pore water pressure which does not get dissipated easily. This
pore water pressure increases the resistance of sol against the hammer
blow and hence standard penetration number (N) gets increases which
otherwise should be less than this value.
When N > 15, the corrected N value for dilatancy is,
NC = 15 + 0.5 (N-15)
Where N = Recorded N value,
If N ≤ 15 then,
NC = N

Correction for overburden pressure: The overburden pressure on soil

affects the penetration resistance of soil, particularly in cohesion less
soils. The confining pressure in cohesion less soil increases with depth
and thus he penetration resistance measured at shallow depths gets
underestimated and at greater depths, it gets overestimated. Thus N value
obtained in the field under various overburden pressure is given by, to a
standard effective overburden pressure. Thus corrected N Value for
overburden pressure is given by, to a standard effective overburden
pressure. Thus corrected N value for overburden pressure is given by,

Nc = 350N (𝜎𝑜 + 70)

Where 𝜎𝑜 = Effective overburden pressure (in kN/m2) ≤ 280 kN/m2

1.13 An earthen embankment is compacted to a dry density of 1.82 gm/cc at

a moisture content of 12%. The bulk density and moisture content are 1.72
gm/cc and 6% at the site from where the soil is borrowed, and transported
at the site of construction. How much exaction should be carried out in
the pit of borrow area for each cu-m of the embankment?

Solution:

Dry density of embankment soil,

𝜌𝑑 = 1.82g/cc
Water content of embankment soil,

W = 0.12

Volume of embankment soil, V = 0.1 m3

Bulk density of borrow pit soil, 𝜌 = 1.72 g/cc

Water content of borrow pit soil, w = 0.06

For embankment soils:

𝑚𝑠
Dry density, 𝜌𝑑 = 𝑉

𝑚𝑠
⇒ 1.82 =
1×106 𝑐𝑚 3

⇒ ms = 1.82× 106 g
𝑚𝑤
Water content, w =
𝑚𝑠

⇒ mw = 0.2184 × 106 grams

∵ Mass of soil solids is constant.

∴ Mass of soil solids to be excavated from borrow pit = 1.82 × 10 6 grams

For borrow pit:

𝑚
Given bulk density of borrow pit, 𝜌 = 1.72 g/cc = 𝑣
where m
= ms + m w
𝜌 1.72
But, dry density 𝜌𝑑 = = =1.62 g/cc
1+𝑤 1+0.06

𝑚𝑠
But 𝜌𝑑 = 𝑣

𝒎𝒔 1.82×106
⇒ V = 𝝆𝒅
= 1.62
cc = 1.123 × 1066 cc = 1.123 m3

∴ 1.123 m3 of soil is required to be excavated per m 3 of embankment

soil.

1.14 In a consolidation test on a soil, the void ratio of the sample

decreases from 1.24 to 1.12 when the pressure is increased from 20 from
20 to 40 tones/sq.m. Calculate the coefficient of consolidation in
m2/year, given that the coefficient of permeability of the soil during
this pressure increment is 8.5 × 10-3 cm/sec.
Solution:

Initial void ratio, e0 = 1.24

Final void ratio, ef = 1.12

∴ Change in void ratio, ∆𝑒 = e0 – ef = 1.24 – 1.12 = 0.12

Change in pressure(stress), ∆𝜎 =𝜎f – 𝜎o = 40 – 20 = ton/m2

𝑘
Coefficient of consolidation, cv = 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑣

𝑎𝑣
Here, mv = 1+𝑒0

∆𝑒 0.12
∴ av = ∆𝜎
= 20𝑡𝑜𝑛/𝑚 2
= 6×10-3 m2/ton

𝑎𝑣 6×10−3
mv = 1+𝑒0
= 1+1.24
= 2.679×10-3 m2/ton

𝑘 8.5×10−3×10−2 𝑚/𝑠
∴ cv = 𝑦𝑤𝑚𝑣
= (1𝑔/𝑐𝑐)2.679×10−3 𝑚 2/𝑡𝑜𝑛

8.5×10−5 𝑚/𝑠 8.5×10−5

= 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 2.679×10−3
𝑚 2/s = 0.03173 𝑚 2/s
(1 2 )2.679 ×10−3𝑚 2/𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑚

= 0.03173×3600× 24 × 365𝑚 2/year = 1× 10−6 𝑚 2/year

1.15 Write a short note on the significant properties of soil.

Solution:

Properties of soil: The various properties of soil depend on the type of

soil, Basically there are two types of soil viz. cohesive soil and
cohesion less soil.

Cohesion less soil: This type of soil does not possess any cohesion and
its shear strength is due to internal friction only. Sand falls under
this category.

 This soil usually possesses good drainage property and its bearing
capacity gets improved by vibration.
 The phenomenon of consolidation is not observed in this type of
soil. This soil has the tendency of undergoing liquefaction.
 This soil generally has high bearing capacity if properly compacted
and long term settlement of footing founded on this soil is not a
problem.
 Undisturbed sampling of this soil is difficult.
Cohesive soil: This soil in addition to internal friction also has
cohesion between the particles. Thus shear strength of this soil is due
to both internal friction and cohesion between the soil particles.

 Clay falls under this category.

 This type of soil undergoes consolidation and does not have the
tendency for liquefaction.
 Some of the index properties of cohesive soils are plastic limit,
liquid limit, plasticity index, consistency index, shrinkage limit,
shrinkage ratio, activity etc.
 Footing founded on this type of soil has to be checked for long term
settlement of soil.
 Undisturbed sampling of this soil is not so much difficult.

1.16 Find out the time required for 50% consolidation in a soil having
thickness of 800 cm and previous starta at top and bottom. What will be
the value of coefficient of consolidation if coefficient of permeability
is 0.0000001 cm/sec?

Void ratio = 1.8, mv = 0.0003 cm2/gm, 𝛄w = 1 gm/cc

Solution:

Thickness of soil stratum = 800 cm = 8 m

∵ Soil is pervious at top and bottom

8
∴ Length of drainage path = = 4 m = 400 cm
2

Coefficient of permeability, k= = 1×10-7 cm/s

Void ratio, e = 1.8

Mv = 3×10-4 cm2 /g

Unit weight of water, yw = 1 g/cc

𝑘 1×10−7 𝑐 𝑚/𝑠
Coefficient of consolidation, cv = 𝑦𝑤 𝑚𝑣
= (1𝑔/𝑐𝑐)3×10−4 𝑐𝑚 2/𝑔
=0.333×10-3 𝑐𝑚 2 /𝑠

Time factor for 50% Consolidation,

𝜋
Tv = 𝑈 2 for U < 60%
4

𝜋
= 4 (0.5)2 = 0.196

𝒄𝒗 𝒕
But, Tv =
𝒅𝟐
 𝒕𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝟎.𝟏𝟗𝟔×(𝟒𝟎𝟎)𝟐
⇒ T = 𝒄𝒗
=
𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟑×𝟏𝟎−𝟑

= 94.174×106 sec

= 2 years 10 months 25 days 1 hour 8.6 min.

1.17 A soil sample in its natural state, when fully saturated, has a
water content of 32.5%. Determine the void ratio, dry and total unit
weight of water required to saturate a soil mass of volume 10 m 3. Assume
Gs = 2.69.

Solution:

∵ Soil is fully saturated.

∴ S = 1

Given water content, w = 32.5% = 0.325

Volume of soil, V = 10m3

Gs = 2.69

𝑤𝐺𝑠 0325×2.69
Void ratio, e = 𝑆
= 1
= 0.87

𝑮𝒔 𝒚𝒘 2.69×9.81
Dry unit weight, yd = 𝟏+𝒆
=
1
= 14.11 kN/m3

Bulk unit weight y = yd (1 + w)

= 14.11 (1+0.325) = 18.7 kN/m3

(𝐺𝑠+𝑆𝑒) 2.69+1×0.87)9.81
Alternatively, y = 1+𝑒
= 1+0.87
= 18.7 kN/m3

(which is same as
above)

Now it is required to fully saturate 10 m 3 of soil

𝑤𝐺
∴ e = 𝑆

𝑒𝑆 0.87×1
⇒ w = = = 0.3234
𝐺 12.69

Weight of solids in 10 m3 of soil (Ws) = yd V = 14.11×10 = 141.1 kN

𝑊𝑤
∵ w = 0.3234 = 𝑊𝑠

⇒ Ww = 0.3234×141.1 = 45.63 kN
 45.63
∴ Mass of water required = × 103 𝑘𝑔 = 4651.4 kg
9.81

Thus 4651.4 kg (or 4.651 m 3) of water is required to fully saturate the

soil.

1.18 A sample of normally consolidated clay was subjected to a

consolidated undrained trail compression test that was carried out until
the specimen failed at a deviator stress of 50 kN/m 2. The pore water
pressure at failure was recorded to be 20 kN/m 2 and confining pressure of
50 kN/m2 was used in the test. Determine the consolidated undrained
friction angel ∅CU and drained friction angle ∅CD.

Solution:

(1) Undrained condition,

𝜎𝑑 = 50 kN/m2

u = 20 kN/m2

𝜎3 = 50 kN/m2

𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑑+ 𝜎3 = 100 kN/m2

𝜎1− 𝜎3 100−50 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙𝑐𝑢 = 𝜎1+ 𝜎3
= 100+50
=3

⇒ 𝜙𝑐𝑢 = 19.47o

(ii) Drained condition

𝜎̅1 = 𝜎1 - u

= 100-20 = 80 kN/m2

𝜎̅3 = 𝜎1 - u = 50-20= 30 kN/m2

𝜎1− 𝜎3 80−30 50
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙𝐶𝐷 = 𝜎1+ 𝜎3
= 80+30
= 110

𝜙𝑐𝑑 = 27.04o

1.19 state and discuss different factors influencing compaction of soil

in the field.

Solution:
There are four main factors which influence compaction and they are as
follows:

(1) Water content: there are two theories to explain the typical
water content-dry unit weight relationship. They are the Lubrication
theory by proctor and the Electrical Double Layer theory by Lambe.
According to Lubrication theory at lower water contents, the soil is
stiff and the soil grains offer more resistance to compaction. As
the water content increases, the dry density increases and air voids
are decreased till the optimum water content is reached, a stage
when lubrication effect is maximum. With further increase in
moisture content, however the water starts to replace the soil
particles and since yw << ys” dry unit weight starts decreasing.
Lambe uses concept of soil structure and the Electrical Double Layer
theory to explain the effect of water content on dry unit weight. In
case of cohesive soils, there is an attractive force namely the
Vander Wall’s forces which acts between two soil particles and a
repulsive force which is due to double layers of adsorbed water
tending to come into contact with each other. While the attractive
forces remain same in magnitude, the repulsive force is directly
related to the size of double layers. If the net force between the
particles is attractive, flocculated structure is the result; if it
is repulsive, the particles tends o move away –‘disperse’. At low
water contents attractive forces are predominant which makes it
difficult for the particles to move about when compactive effort is
applied. A low dry unit weight is the consequence. As the water
content is increased, the double layer expands and inter particle
repulsive forces increase. The particles easily slide over one
another and get packed more closely, resulting in higher dry unit
weight.

The maximum expansion of the double layer is

at the OMC, beyond that, the addition of
water does not add any further to the
expansion of double layer but the water
tends to occupy space which otherwise would
have been occupied by soil articles. Hence a
decrease in unit weight. It also explains
why the shape of the compaction curve is not
the typical inverted V shape in the case of soils which are not cohesive
and plastic in nature.

(ii) Compactive effort: For a given type of compaction, the higher the
compactive effort, he higher the maximum dry unit weight and low the OMC.
In the above figure compaction curve B corresponds to the higher comp
active effort in a MPT, comparing it with the compaction curve A for SPT,
one can see the compaction curve shifts to the top and to the left when
comp active effort is increased. However, the margin of increase becomes
smaller and smaller even on the dry side of the OMC while on the wet side
of OMC, there is hardly any increase at all. If the peaks of compaction
curves for different comp active efforts are joined together a ‘line of
optimums’ is obtained which is nearly parallel to zero air void line.
This brings out the face that even a higher comp active effort does not
result in a higher efficiency of compaction.

(iii) Types of Soil:

(a) Coarse grained, well graded soils compact to high dry

unit weight especially if they contain some fines.
(b) Poorly graded sands lead to lowest dry unit weight
values.
(c) In clay soils, the maximum dry unit weight tends to
decrease as plasticity increases.
(d) Cohesive soils have generally high values of OMC.
(e) Heavy clays with high plasticity have very low maximum
dry density and very high OMC

(iv)Methods of Compaction:

Ideally speaking, the laboratory test must reproduce a given field

compaction procedure, because the mode of compaction does influence
somewhat the shape and the position of the ‘y d’ vs ‘w’ plot. Since
the field compaction is essentially a kneading type compaction or
rolling type compaction and the laboratory tests use dynamic impact
type compaction, one must expect some divergence in OMC and yd(max) in
the two cases.

1.20 A clay stratum has 2.5 m thickness and has initial overburden
pressure of 45 kN/m2. The clay is over consolidated with a
preconsolidation pressure of 65 kN/m2 at the middle of clay layer. Use the
following data:

Initial void ratio = 1.2

Compression index = 0.27

Swelling index = 0.06

Solution:
 Given: H = 2.5m

Intial over burden, 𝜎1 = 45 kN/m2

Pre-consolidation pressure, 𝜎𝑝 = 65 kN/m2

∆𝜎 = 55 kN/m2

e0 = 1.2 Cc = 0.27 Cc = 0.06

∵ 𝜎0 + ∆𝜎 = 100 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 > 𝜎𝑝

𝐶𝑟 𝐻0 𝜎𝑝 𝐶𝑐 𝐻. 65 0.27×2.5 100
Sf = log10 + log10 + log10
1+𝑒0 𝜎0 1+𝑒0 45 1+1.2 65

Sf = 0.06829 m or 68.29 mm

1.21 A direct shear test was conducted on a silty sand. At failure the
normal and shear stresses were fund to be 66 kPa and 40 kPa respectively.
Draw Mohr’s circle and determine:

I. Angle of shearing resistance

II. Principal stresses at failure
III. Locate the pole and find orientation of failure plane.

Solution:

In direct shear test

I. 𝜏 = C + σ̅ tan𝜙

40 = 0 + 66 tan𝜙

𝜙 = 31.22o

𝜙
II. 𝛼 = 45 + 2 = 60.61o

𝜎1 +𝜎2 𝜎1 −𝜎2
𝜎 = 2
+ 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛼

𝜎1−𝜎2
𝜏 = 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼

𝜎1+𝜎2 𝜎1 −𝜎2
66 = 2
+ 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠(2×60.61o)

0.48 𝜎1 + 1.518 𝜎2 = 132 ………………….…(i)

𝜎1−𝜎2
And 40 = ( 2
)sin(2×60.61o)

𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 93.562 ……………..….(ii)
Form eq. (i) and (ii)

𝜎1 = 137.01 kPa

𝜎2 = 43.45kPa …………………………………..(iii)

𝜙
𝜎1 = 45+ = 60.61o
2

𝜙
𝜎2 = 45 - = 29.39o
2

1.22 The pump-out test was performed to determine the field permeability
of an unconfined aquifer and the following observations were made:

RL of original water table before pumping = 250.5 m

RL of water in the well at constant pumping = 245.6m

RL of the rock of impervious layer = 220.0 m

RL of water in observation well = 249.8 m

The distance of observation well from tube well = 48 m

Determine

I. Coefficient of permeability of the aquifer (k)

II. Error in k if observations are not taken in the observation well
and radius of influence is assumed to be 298 m.
III. Actual radius of influence bases on the observations of
observation well.
IV. Radius of influence using Sichart equation.

The diameter of the well is 20 cm and discharge is 250 m 3/hr.

Solution:
 Q = 250 m3/hr

h0 = 245.6 – 220 = 25.6 m

h1 = 249 – 220 = 29.8 m

(i) For an unconfined aquifer

𝜋(𝐻12− ℎ02
Q = 𝑟
2.303𝑙𝑜𝑔[ 1 ]
𝑟𝑤

250 𝜋×𝑘[29.82 − 25.62 ]

60×60
= 48
2.303𝑙𝑜𝑔[ ]
0.1

(ii) K = 5.87×10-4 m/sec

hR = 250.5 – 220 = 30.5 m

𝜋[𝐻𝑅2 − ℎ12]
Q = 𝑅
2.303𝑙𝑜𝑔[ ]
𝑟𝑤

250 𝜋×𝑘[30.52 − 25.62]

= = 48
60×60 2.303𝑙𝑜𝑔[ ]
0.1

K = 6.44×10-4 m/sec
6.44−5.87
So, Percentage error = ( 5.87
) × 100 = 9.71%

(iii) For actual radius of influence

250 𝜋×5.87×10−4[30.52− 25.62]

60×60
= 𝑅
2.303𝑙𝑜𝑔[ ]
0.1

R = 147.80 m

(iv) Drawdown in well = 250.5 – 245.6 = 4.9 m

So as per Sichart eq. R = 3000s√𝑘

R 3000 × 4.9× √5.87 × 10−4 ≃ = 356 𝑚

2. Earth Pressure Theory, Stability Analysis of Slopes, Soil

Stabilization and Exploration & Foundation Engineering
2.1 Under a tri-axial test, a soil sample fails at cell pressure of 60
𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐.if effective soil parameters are c’ = 15 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 and ɸ’ = 20o
Calculate shear strength of soil.

Solution:

Cell pressure, 𝜎1 -= 60 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

Effective cohesion, c’ = 15 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

ɸ’ = 20o

Let 𝜎𝑑 = Deviator stress

∴ 𝜎1 =(𝜎3+𝜎𝑑 )

From Mohr- Coulomb’s equation

𝜎1 = c’ + 𝜎3 tanɸ’

= 15+60 tan20o

= 36.84 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

∴ Shear strength of the soil = 36.84 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

2.2 Three different, homogeneous layers of soil sample have permeablities

8× 10-4 , 50 × 10-4 and 15×10-6 cm/sec and thicknesses 6, 3 and 12 m
respectively. Determine the average permeability in horizontal and
vertical direction.

Solution:

Average permeability in vertical direction,

𝑘1𝐻1 +𝑘2 𝐻2 +𝑘3𝐻3
Kv = 𝐻1 +𝐻2 +𝐻3

8×10−4×6+50×10−4 ×3+0.15×10−4 ×12

= 6+3+12

= 9.514× 10−4 cm/s

Average permeability in horizontal direction,

𝐻1+𝐻2+𝐻3 6+3+12
KH = 𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻3 = 6 3 12
+ + + +
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 8×10−4 50×10 −4 0.15×10−4

= 0.2599×10−4 cm/s

= 0.26×10−4 cm/s
2.3 A 10 m thick bed of sand is underlain by a layer of clay of 6 m
thick. The water table that was originally at ground level is lowered by
drainage to a depth 4m, whereupon the degree of saturation above lowered
water table reduces to 20%. Determine the increase in effective pressure
at mid of clay layer due to water table lowering. Given saturated
densities of sand and clay as 2.1 g/cm3 and 1.8g/cm3, and the dry density
of sand = 9.81 kN/m3]

Solution:

At mid of clay layer

Total stress, 𝜎 = 20.6×10+17.7×3 = 259.1 kN/m2

Pore water pressure, 𝜇 = 13×yw = 13×9.81 = 127.53 kN/m2

∴ Effective stress, 𝜎′ = 𝜎-𝜇 = 259.1 – 127.53 = 131.57 kN/m2

Given dry density of sand, yd = 1.7 g/cc = 16.7 kN/m2

Density of sand in layer I needs to be determined which is computed as

(𝐺+𝑒)𝑦𝑤
𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 = (∵ 𝑠 = 1)
1+𝑒

(𝐺+𝑒)9.81
⇒ 20.6 = 1+𝑒

𝐺+𝑒
1+𝑒
= 2.1 …(i)

𝐺𝑦𝑤
yd = 1+𝑒

𝐺×9.81
16.7 =
1+𝑒

𝐺
⇒ 1+𝑒
= 1.7 …(ii)

From (i) and (ii)

2
e = 3 = 0.67

G = 2.839
 (𝐺+𝑒)𝜌𝑤 2.839+0.2×0.67
∴ Density of sand in layer 1, 𝜌 = 1+𝑒
= ( 1+0.67
)9.81 =17.5kN/m2

After lowering of water table at mid of clay layer,

Total stress, 𝜌 = (17.5×4)+(20.6×6)+(17.7×3) = 246.7 kN/m2

Pore water pressure, 𝜇 = (6+3)𝜌𝑤 = 9×9.81 = 88.29 kN/m2

∴ Effective stress, 𝜎′ = 𝜎 - 𝜇 = 246.7 – 88.29 = 158.4 kN/m2

∴ Increase in effective stress = 158.4 – 131.57 = 26.83 kN/m2

2.4 What soil investigations are required for construction of

(i) an embankment and (ii) a building? Give details.

Solution:

Soil investigations required for construction of an embankment:

I. Bearing capacity of the soil on which embankment is required to be

constructed.
II. Seepage properties of the soil on which embankment is proposed to be
constructed.
III. Slope stability characteristics of the soil.
IV. Erosion control measures required on the embankment slope.
V. Load expected on the embankment i.e. whether the embankment is for
road traffic or is for a railway track.
VI. Consolidation characteristics of the soil and the ultimate
settlement expected in the embankment soil.
VII. Geometry of the proposed embankment and shear strength (c, ɸ)
characteristics of the soil.
VIII. Water table level in the embankment.

Soil investigation required for construction of a building:

I. Bearing capacity of the soil.

II. Shear strength (c, ɸ) characteristics of the soil.
III. Water table level at the location of building foundation.
IV. Consolidation characteristics of the soil and ultimate settlement
expected.
V. Load expected on the soil.
VI. Liquefaction potential of the soil.

2.5 A direct shear box test performed on a remolded sand sample yielded
the following observations at the time of failure.

Normal load = 0.36 kN

Shear load = 0.18 kN

The sample area was 36 cm2

Determine:

(i) The angel of internal friction,

(ii) The magnitude and direction of the principal stresses in the zone of
failure, and

(iii) The magnitude of maximum deviator stress if a sample of the same

sand with the same void ratio were tested in a tri-axial test with an all
round pressure of 60 kN/m2. Assume C=0.

Solution:

Normal load, N = 0.36 kN

Shear load, T = 0.18 kN

Area of soil sample, A = 36 cm2 = 3600 mm2

𝑁 0.36×103
∴ Normal stress, 𝜎 = = = 0.1kN/m2
𝐴 3600

𝑇 0.18×103
Shear stress, 𝜏 = 𝐴
= 3600
= 0.05kN/m2 (given c=0)

(i) Now 𝜏 = 𝜎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ɸ

⇒ 0.05 = 0.1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ɸ

⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ɸ = 0.5

⇒ ɸ = 26.57o

(ii) Principal stresses P1, and P2, are given by,

𝜎 𝜎 2
P1, 2 = 2 +√( 2 ) + 𝜏 2

0.1 0.1 2
⇒ P1, 2 = +√( ) + (0.05)2
2 2

∴ P1 = 0.1207 N/mm2 (Compressive)

and P2 = -0.0207 N/mm2 (Tensile)

The angle which the failure plane makes with the major principal plane is
ɸ 26.57𝑜
𝜃 = 45o + = 45o + = 58.3o
2 2

(iii) Normal stress at failure, 𝜎1 = 0.1 N/mm2

But 𝜎1 = 𝜎d + 𝜎c
 Where 𝜎d =Deviator stress, 𝜎c = All round cell pressure=60
kN/m2=0.06N/mm2

∴ 𝜎1 = 𝜎d + 𝜎c

⇒ 0.1 = 𝜎d + 0.06

⇒ 𝜎d = 0.04 N/mm2

∴ Deviator stress = 0.04 N/mm2

2.6 A 2.2m square footing is located at a depth of 4.4m in a stiff clay

of saturated unit weight 21 kN/m3. The undrained strength of clay at a
depth of 4.4 m is given by parameter c = 120 kN/m2 and ɸu = 0. For a
factor of safety 3, with respect to shear failure, compute (i) the net
value of bearing capacity, and (ii) and the value of maximum load that
could be carried by the footing.

Solution:

Size of square footing = 2.2 m × 2.2 m

∴ B = 2.2 m

Depth of footing, Df = 4.4 m

Saturated unit weight of soil, 𝛾sat = 21 kN/m3

Cohesion, c = 120 kN/m2

ɸu = 0

Factor of safety, FOS = 3

Ultimate bearing capacity of square footing is given by

𝑞u = 1.2 cNc + qNq + 0.4 ByNy

∵ Bearing capacity factors Nc, Nq are Nγ not given and thus these are
required to be calculated passive earth pressure coefficient,
1+sinɸu 1+0
𝑘p = 1−sinɸu
=1−0 = 1

1 𝑘p
∴ Ny = tanɸu ( − 1)
2 COS2ɸu

= 0 (∵ ɸ𝑢 =0)
3π ɸ
3π ɸu − u )tanɸu
a = exp ( 4 − ) tanɸu = e( 4 2 =e0 = 1
2
 a2 1
∴ Nq = π ɸ = π = 1
2cos2 ( − u) 2cos2 ( )
4
4 2

For ɸu = 0, Nc = 5.7

∴ qu = 1.2cNc + qNq + 0.4 ByNy

= 1.2(120)(5.7)+(21)(4.4)(1)+0.4(2.2)(21)(0)

= 913.2 kN/m2

∴ Net ultimate bearing capacity,

qnu = qu - y D f = 913.2 – 21 (4.4) = 820.8 kN/m2

∴ Net safe bearing capacity,

qnu 820.8
qns = = = 273.6 kN/m2
FOS 3

∴ Safe bearing capacity, qs = qns + y D f = 273.6 + 21(4.4) = 366 kN/m2

∴ Footing can carry a maximum load

=qns A = 273.6×(2.2×2.2) = 1324.224 kN

2.7 Explain the factors which affect the bearing capacity of soils.

Solution:

Factors affecting the bearing capacity of soil:

1. Soil type i.e., cohesive or cohesion less.

2. Size of the footing.
3. Shape of the footing i.e., rectangular, square, circular, wall
footing etc.
4. Unit weight of soil both above the footing leve and below the footing
level
5. Location of water table in the soil.
6. Depth of foundation i.e., shallow foundation or deep foundation.
7. Surcharge load.
8. Ground inclination.
9. Loading eccentricity.
10. Amount of settlement.

2.8 In a plate bearing test on pure clayey soil, failure occurred at a

load of 12.2 tones. The size of the plate was 45 cm × 45 cm and the test
was done at the depth of 1.0 m below ground level. Find out the ultimate
bearing capacity for a 1.5 m wide continuous wall footing with its base
at a depth of 2 m below the ground level. The unit weight of clay may be
taken as 1.9gm/cc and Nc = 5.7 and Nq = 1 and Ny = 0.
Solution:

Failure load for plate test = 12.2 tons = 122kN

Unit weight of clay soil, 𝛾 = 1.9 g/cc = 19 kN/m2

∵ Plate is a sort of square footing and ultimate bearing capacity of

square footing is given by.

qu = 1.3 cNc + qNq + 0.4 B𝛾 N𝛾 Where B=45cm=0.45cm

Given, Nc = 5.7, Nq = N𝛾 = 0
122×1000
qu = 0.45×0.45
N/m2 = 602.5 kN/m2

Depth of plate, Df = 1 m

∴ qu = 1.3 cNc + qNq + 0.4 B𝛾 N𝛾

⇒ 602.5 = 1.3c(5.7)+(1×19)(1)+0.4(0.45)(19)(0)

⇒ c = 78.7 kN/m2

Now for wall footing 1.5 m wide, B = 1.5 m

Depth of wall footing, Df = 2 m

∴ Ultimate bearing capacity of wall footing is,

qu = cNc + qNq + 0.5 B𝛾 N𝛾

= 78.7(5.7)+(19×2)(1)+0.5(2)(19)(0)

= 486.59 kN/m2≃ 48.659 ton/m2

2.9 A sand deposit is 10 m thick and overlies a bed of soft clay. The
ground water table is 3 m below the surface. If the sand above the ground
water table has a degree of saturation of 45%, plot the diagram showing
the variation of the total stress, pore water pressure and the effective
stress. The void ratio of the sand is 0.70. Take G = 2.65.

Solution:

Given sand above water table is 45% saturated i.e., S = 0.45.

∴ Bulk unit weight of sand above water table
(G+Se)𝛾w (2.65+0.45×0.7)9.81
𝛾 = 1+e
= 1+0.7
= 17.11kN/m2

Sand below water table is saturated, so degree of saturation = 100% i.e.,

S=1
(G+Se)𝛾w (2.65+0.45×0.7)9.81
∴ 𝛾sat = 1+e
= 1+0.7
= 19.33kN/m2 where
S=1

Surface A-A

Total stress, 𝜎 = 0

Pore pressure, u = 0

∴ Effective stress, 𝜎′ = 𝜎 - u = 0

Surface B-B

Total stress, 𝜎 = 17.11 × 3 = 51.33 kN/m2

Pore pressure, u = 0

Effective stress, 𝜎′ = 𝜎 - u = 51.33 – 0 =51.33 kN/m2

Surface C-C

Total stress, 𝜎 = 𝛾 (3) + 𝛾sat (7) = 17.11 × 7 = 186.64 kN/m2

Pore pressure, u = 9.81 × 7 = 68.67 kN/m2

Effective stress, 𝜎′ = 𝜎 - u

= 186.64 – 68.67 = 117.97 kN/m2

2.10 Calculate the ultimate bearing capacity per unit area of:

I. A strip footing 1 m wide

II. A square footing 3 m × 3 m
III. A circular footing of diameter 3 m

Given: Unit weight of the soil 1.8t/m3, cohesion -2 t/m2 and ɸ = 20

degree. Nc = 17.5 ,Nq =7.5 and 𝐍𝜸 =5.

Solution:

Unit weight of soil, 𝛾 = 1.8 t/m2 = 18 kN/m3

Cohesion, c = 2 t/m2 = 20 kN/m2

Angle of internal friction, ɸ = 20o

Nc = 17.5

Nq = 7.5

N𝛾 = 5

(i) Strip footing 1 m wide

B = 1 m

Ultimate bearing capacity, qu = cNc +qNq + 0.5 B𝛾 N𝛾

∵ Depth of footing is not given and thus assuming the footing to be

resting on ground surface,

Df = 0

∴ q = 𝛾 Df = 0

∴ qu = cNc + 0.5 B𝛾 N𝛾

= 20(17.5) + 05 (1)(18)(5)

= 395 kN/m2 = 39.5 t/m2

(ii) Square footing of size 3 m × 3 m

B = 3 m

Ultimate bearing capacity for square footing is given by,

qu =1.2 cNc +qNq + 0.4 B𝛾 N𝛾

Here depth of footing, Df = 0 (Assuming the footing to be resting

on ground surface)

q = 𝛾 Df = 0

∴ qu = 1.2 cNc + 0.4 B𝛾 N𝛾

 = 1.2(17.5) (20)+0.4(3)(18)(5)

= 528 kN/m2 = 52.8 t/m2

(iii) Circulara footing of 3 m diameter

B = 3 m

Ultimate bearing capacity of circular footing is given by

qu = 1.2 cNc +qNq + 0.3 B𝛾 N𝛾

= 1.2(20)(17.5)+0+0.3(3)(18)(5) (here Df =0 So
D
q= 𝛾 f =0)

= 501 kN/m2 = 50.1 t/m2

2.11 A retaining wall with a smooth vertical back is 9 m high and retains
a two-layer sand backfill with the following properties:

0-3 m depth : c’ = 0.0 𝝓’ = 30o 𝜸 = 18 kN/m3

3-9 m depth : c’ = 0.0, 𝝓’ = 35o , 𝜸 = 20 kN/m3

Show the active earth pressure distribution and determine the total
active thrust on the wall. Assume that water table is well below the base
of the wall.

Solution:

1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙’ 1 1−sin30o 1
For upper layer of = f sand, k a1 = 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙’ 1
= 1+sin30o
= 3

Active earth pressure,

At A, PA = 0
1
At A, pB = k a1 𝛾1 z1 = 3
× 18 × 3 = 18 kN/m2

1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙’ 2 1−sin35o
For lower layer of sand, k a1 = = = 0.271
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙’ 2 1+sin35o
Active earth pressure

At B, pB = k a2 𝛾1 z1 = 0.271 ×18×3 = 18 kN/m2

At C, pC = k a2 𝛾1 z1 + k a2 𝛾2 z2 = 0.271 ×(18×3+20×6)

= 47.154 kN/m2
1 1
Total active thrust on wall = 2
k a1 𝛾1 z12 + k a2 𝛾1 z1 z2 + 2
k a2 𝛾1 z12

1 1 1
= 2
× 3×18×32 + 0.271 ×18×3×6+2×0.271×20×62

= 212.364 kN/m2

2.12 A layer of sand 6.0 m thick lies above a layer of clay soil. The
water table is at a depth of 2.0 m below the ground surface. The void
ratio of the sand layer is 0.6 and the degree of saturation of the sand
layer above the water table is 40%. The void ratio of the clay layer is
0.7. Determine the total stress, neutral stress and effective stress at a
point 10 m below the ground surface. Assume specific gravity of the sand
and clay soil respectively as 2.65 and 2.7.

Solution:

Bulk unit weight of sand above water table

G+Se 2.65+0.4×0.6
𝛾ts =( ) 𝛾w = ( )×9.81 = 17.72 kN/m3
1+e 1+0.6

Saturated unit weight of sand,

G+e 2.65+0.6
𝛾sat.s = ( 1+e ) 𝛾w = ( 1+0.6
)×9.81 = 19.93 kN/m3

G+e 2.7+0.7
Saturated unit weight of clay, 𝛾sat.c = ( ) 𝛾w = ( )×9.81 = 19.62 kN/m3
1+e 1+0.7

At level A-A,

Total stress, 𝜎A = 0

Neutral stress, 𝑈A = 0

Effective stress, ̅̅̅

𝜎A = 0

At level B-B,

Total stress, 𝜎B = 𝛾ts ×2 = 17.72× 2= 35.44 kN/m2

 Neutral stress, 𝑈B = 0

Effective stress, ̅̅̅

𝜎B = 𝜎B - 𝑈B = 35.44 kN/m2

At level C-C,

Total stress, 𝜎c = 𝛾ts ×2 + 𝛾sat.s × 4= 17.72 × 2 + 19.93 × 4 =

115.64 kN/m2

Neutral stress, 𝑈C = 𝛾W × 4 = 9.81 × 4= 39.24 kN/m2

Effective stress, ̅̅̅

𝜎C = 𝜎C - 𝑈C = 75.92 kN/m2

At level D-D,

Total stress, 𝜎D = 𝛾ts ×2 + 𝛾sat.s × 4 + 𝛾sat.c ×4

= 17.72 × 2 + 19.93 × 4 + 19.62×4 = 193.64 kN/m 2

Neutral stress, 𝑈D = 𝛾W × 8 = 9.81 × 8= 78.48 kN/m2

Effective stress, ̅̅̅

𝜎D = 𝜎D - 𝑈D = 115.16 kN/m2

2.13 Describe plate load test as per IS 1888. Discuss the limitations.
What are the effects of size of plate on bearing capacity and settlement?

Solution:

(a) Plate load test: This test was originally designed to determine
modulus of sub grade reaction which is used in design of rigid pavements.

Plate load test is used to determine:

1. Ultimate bearing capacity of soil based on shear criteria.

2. Allowable bearing pressure based on settlement criteria.

3. Settlement of foundation.

The test is performed in following steps

1. Loading on the rigid plate which is placed at the level of foundation.

2. Determining settlement corresponding to the load applied.

3. Plotting load settlement curve.

4. Determining ultimate bearing capacity or allowable bearing pressure

using load settlement curve.

Procedure:

 The test is performed at the level of foundation and if water table

is at or above the test level, then it must be lowered by pumping
before conducting the test.
 The plate lode test is performed in a test pit dug up to the base
level of the footing having general width of test plate.
 The size of rigid plated varies from 300 mm to 750 mm (300 mm, 600
mm and 750 mm) and thickness not less than 25 mm which may be
circular or square. Smaller size plates are used in dense or stiff
soils where as larger are being used in loose or soft soils.
 The test plate is seated at the centre of pit over a thin layer of
sand and load is applied with hydraulic jack or through truss
loading.
 Initially, minimum seating pressure of 7 kPa is first applied to the
plate and removed after seating the load test. Now three dial gauges
are attached at 120o to each other to record the settlement.
 The test load is applied in increments not more than 100 kPa or not
more than 20% of expected ultimate bearing capacity.
 The settlement is recorded by taking average of the three dial
gauges and load settlement curve is plotted either on arithmetic
scale or log scale.
 The load is continued until on the following stage is attained:

(a)Settlement becomes progressive indicating shear failure.

(b) Loading pressure exceeds three times allowable pressure.
(c)Total settlement of plate becomes more than 10% of size of plate
(i) Loose sands and soft clays
(ii) Dense sand and stiff clay
Determination of ultimate bearing capacity:

Case-I: For Clays:

 In clays, bearing capacity is independent of size of footing

∴ quf = qup

Where, quf = ultimate bearing capacity of footing

qup = Ultimate bearing capacity of plate determined from

load.
Settlement curve

Case-II: For Sand:

 In sandy soils, bearing capacity is proportional to size of footing.

B
quf = qup ×B f
p

Where, Bf = width of footing

Bp = width of plate

 Using FOS = 2.5 – 3.0, safe bearing capacity can e determined.

Allowable bearing pressure based on settlement criteria using plate load

test:

 The permissible settlement of tooting is prescribed by codal

provision.
For sandy soil = 25 mm
For clay soil = 40 mm
 Using following empirical relation, permissible settlement of plated
can be computed, say Sp

SF B (B + 0.3) 2
Sp
= [BF (BP + 0.3)] …..….for dense sands
P F

SF BF
Sp
= BP
…..….For clays

n+1
SF S
Sp
= (BF ) …..… for slits; n = 0.5
p

Where, Bf and BP are width of foundation and plate respectively in

‘m’.
  Using above relations, find permissible settlement of plate and
using load settlement curve, determine safe settlement pressure or
allowable pressure on plate ;
qaf = qap …………for clays

BF
qaf = qap × …… for sands.
BP

Limitations of plate load test:

(i) In no case shall a test plate smaller in width than

30 cm be used, because experimental evidence has indicated that the
load settlement behavior of the soil is qualitatively different for
smaller widths of the test plates compared to that of larger widths.
(ii) Settlement of a foundation cannot exceed about four
times the settlement of a plate of 30 cm width, howsoever large its
width may be.
(iii) If the soil plate load test may lead to misleading
results. Consider for example, the subsoil conditions illustrated.
Where the upper stratum is strong soil like dense sand and the lower
stratum is a weak soil like soft clay. In such a situation, the load
test reflects the load settlement characteristics of the stronger
stratum but does not give any indication of the settlement behavior
of the poorer soil below. The foundation being of a much larger
width its bulb of pressure of the same load intensity as that on the
test plate, will extent into the weaker stratum. Hence, the
extrapolated settlement of the foundation will be much smaller than
the actual settlement, leading to unsafe design.
(iv) The effect of capillarity in a sand bed is to
increase its effective vertical stress or its stiffness. A test
plate resting on a capillary sand bed undergoes smaller settlement
than a plate resting on dry or submerged sand bed.
(v) A plate load tset is of short duration. The
settlement measured is only immediate settlement. In granular soils,
immediate settlement can be taken as the total settlement, while in
cohesive soils, consolidation settlement, which constitutes most
part of the total settlement, cannot be predicted through this test.
Hence the plate load test is not of much relevance in clayey soils
for which the settlement criterion is very important in the
determination of the allowable bearing pressure of a foundation.

2.14 A 6 m high vertical wall supports a saturated cohesive soil with

horizontal surface. The top 3.5 m of the backfill has bulk density 18
kN/m3 and apparent cohesion of 16 of kN/m 2. The bulk density and apparent
cohesion of the bottom 2.5 m is 19.5 kN/m 3 and 18 kN/m2 respectively. What
will be total active earth pressure on the wall? Draw the pressure
distribution diagram. Assume that tension cracks will develop. Locate the
point of application of the resultant pressure.

Solution:

For part AB 𝜎h = 𝑘a 𝜎v - 2c√ka

= 1 x 18z – 2 x 16 = 18 – 32

σh at A = -32 kN/m2

σh at B = 18 X 3.5 – 3.2 = 31 KN/m2

32
For σh = O ⇒ h = = 1.78 m from A
18

For part BC

𝜎h at B in soil (2) 𝜎h = 𝑘a 𝜎v2 -c√k a

= 1×18×3.5-3.2=31KN/m2

𝜎h at C = (18×3.5+19.5×2.5)-2×18 = 75.75 kN/m2

So distribution is given as

Total active earth pressure after development of tension crack

1 27+75.75
P = (2 × 1.72 × 31) + ( 2
) × 2.5

= 26.67 + 128.4375

= 155.1075 kN/m

Location of Resultant Pressure

1.72
y1 = (2.5 + ) = 3.073 m
3

75.75+2×27 2.5
y2 = ( )× = 1.0523 m
75.75+27 3
 SSC – JE: Paper – II
(Conventional)

Unit V
Hydraulics
26.67×3.073+128.4375×1.0523
𝑦̅ = 155.1075

= 1.399 m ≃ 1.4 m from bottom

1. Fluid Properties, Hydrostatic force, Buoyancy and Floatation

1.1 A 1.5 m Diameter sphere is immersed in water and tied to a rope. If

tension in the rope is 5.3 kN, calculate the weight of the sphere in
air.

Solution:
∵ The sphere is in equilibrium

⇒ W-FB = T

W = T + FB

= 5.3×1000 + 𝛾fluid Vimmersed g

π
= 5300 + 1000 × 6 (1.5)3 × 9.81

= 5300 + 17335.7 = 22635.7 N = 22.6357 kN

∴ Weight of sphere in air = 22.6357 kN ≃ 22.64 kN

1.2 The space between two parallel horizontal plates is kept 5 mm apart.
This is filled with crude oil of dynamic viscosity 2.5 kg-s/m2. If the
lower plate is stationary and the upper plate is pulled with velocity
of 1.75 m/s, determine the shear stress on the lower plate.

Solution:

Dynamic viscosity of crude oil, 𝜇 = 2.5 kg-s/m2=2.5×9.81 Ns/m2 = 24.525

Ns/m2

dv v−0
Shear stress on lower plate, 𝜏=𝜇 dy = 24.525( d
) =
1.75
24.525(5×10−3 )=8.58×103N/m2

1.3 The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil.
Each side of the plate is 60 cm.The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm.
The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 m per sec requires a force of 98. 1 N
to maintain the speed,determine:

(i) The dynamic viscosity of the oil, in poise, and

(ii) The kinematic viscosity of the oil, in stokes, if the specific

gravity of the oil is 0.95.
Solution:

Area of pate, A = 0.6×0.6 m2 = 0.36m2

du
Force on plate, F = A 𝜇 dy

v−0
 98.1 = (0.6×0.6) 𝜇 ( )
d
2.5
 98.1 = 0.36 𝜇 ( )
12.5×10−3
 𝜇 = 1.3625 Ns/m2 = 13.625 poise

Specific gravity of oil = 0.95

∴ Density of oil, 𝜌 = 0.95×1000 = 950 kg/ m3

𝜇 1.625
∴ Kinematic viscosity of oil, v = = = 1.4342 × 10−3 m2/s
𝜌 950

= 14.342 × 10−4 m2/s

= 14.342 cm2/s = 14.342 stokes

1.4 The space between two parallel plates 4 mm apart is filled with an
oil of specific gravity 0.85. The upper plate of area 600 cm 2 is dragged
with constant velocity of 0.75 m/s by applying a force of 0.2 kgf to it.
Assume straight line velocity distribution and calculate velocity
gradient, dynamic viscosity of oil in poise and kinematic viscosity of
oil in stokes.

Solution:

Force on plate, F = 0.2 kgf = 0.2×9.81 N = 1.962 N

But F = τA
 F 1.962N 1.962
⇒ τ = = = N/m2
A 600cm2 600×10−4

du
Now τ = 𝜇
dy

v−0
⇒ 32.7 = 𝜇( d
)

0.75−0
⇒ 32.7 = 𝜇 (4×10−3 )

⇒ 𝜇 = 0.1744 Ns/m2=1.744 poise = Dynamic

viscosity of oil

du v−0 0.75−0
Velocity gradient = dy
= d
= 4×10−3
= 187.5 m/s/m

𝜇 0.1744
Kinematic viscosity of oil, v = = = 2.05×10-4 m2/s
𝜌 0.85×1000

= 2.05 cm2/s = 2.05 stokes.

1.5 An oil of viscosity 1.0 poise and relative

density 1.05 is flowing through a circular pipe of diameter 5 cm and
of length 200 m. The rate of flow is 3.52 I/ sec. find the shear
stress at the pipe wall.

Solution:

Coefficient of dynamic viscosity,

𝜇 = 1 poise = 0.1 Ns/m2

Pipe diameter, D = 5 cm = 0.05 m

Length of pipe, L = 200 m

Discharge, Q = 3.52 lit./s = 3.52 × 10-3 m3/s

Q 3.52×10−3
Mean velocity, Vavg = A
= π
(0.05)2
= 1.793 m/s
4

Assuming laminar flow, the mean velocity of velocity of flow is given

by,

1 ∂ρ
Vavg = (− ) D2
32𝜇 ∂x

1 ∂ρ
⇒ 1.793 = (− ) (0.05)2
32×0.1 ∂x
 ∂ρ
⇒ (− ) = 2295.04N/m2/m
∂x

1 ∂ρ
Now, v = (− ) (R2 − r 2 )
4𝜇 ∂x

∂v 1 ∂ρ r ∂ρ
∴ = (− ) (−2r) = (− ) …..…(i)
∂r 4𝜇 ∂x 2𝜇 ∂x

∂v
Shear stress at pipe wall, τo =μ where y = R – r ⇒ ∂y = -∂r
∂y

∂v
= -𝜇
∂r

∂v
Substituting from (i), we have
∂r

−r ∂ρ r ∂ρ 0.025
τo = - 𝜇 [ (− )] = (− ) = (2295.04) = 28.688 N/m2
2𝜇 ∂x 2 ∂x 2

∴ Shear stress at pipe wall = 28.688 N/m2.

1.6 What do you mean by “Viscosity”? Velocity distribution of a fluid of

dynamic viscosity 8.63 poise is u = 2/3y – y2 in which u is the velocity
in m/sec at a distance y meter above the plate. Determine the shear
stress at y = 0 and y = 0.15 m.

Solution:

Viscosity: It is the property of fluid due to which fluid offers

résistance to the moment of one layer of fluid over another layer of
fluid. Viscosity arises because of cohesion and exchange of molecular
momentum between the fluid layers.

Given,

Coefficient of dynamic viscosity, 𝜇 = 8.63 poise = 0.863 Ns/m2

2
Velocity distribution, u = 3y-y2

∂u 2
∴ Velocity gradient, ∂y
= 3
− 2y

∂v 2
∴ Shear stress, τ = μ ∂y
= μ (3 − 2y)

2 2
∴ Shear stress at y = 0 τo = μ = (0.863) = 0.5753 N/m2
3 3

2
Shear stress at y = 0.15 m, τ = μ(3 − 2(0.15)) = 0.3164 N/m2
2. Fluid Kinematics, Dynamics & Flow Measurements, Flow Through
Pipes and Dimensional Analysis

2.1 An open tank 5 m long, 2 m deep and 3 m wide contains oil of relative
density 0.9 to a depth of 0.9 m. If the tank is accelerated along its
length on a horizontal track at a constant value of 3 m/s 2, determined
the new position of oil surface.

Solution:

Let θ = angle made by fluid surface with the horizontal when

accelerated.
a 3
tanθ = g
= 9.81

5×3
∴ H = 5tanθ = 9.81
= 1.53 m

H 5
∴ h = (or tanθ) = 0.765
2 2

∴ Final height = 0.9 + 0.765 = 1.665 m < 2 m

∴ Pressure at rear end = ρg (0.9 + h)

= (0.9 × 1000)9.81(0.9+0.765)

= 14700.285 kN/m2

Pressure at front end = ρg (0.9 – h)

=900×9.81 (0.9 – 0.765)

= 1191.915 kN/m2= 1.192 kN/m2

2.2 Write a note on flow measurement methods employed for pipe flow and
open channels. (with specific reference to trains).
 Solution:

Pipe flow measurement methods: There are many methods employed to measure
the flow in pipes the results of which form very rough estimate to very
precise ones. Some of them are as follows:

I. Venturimeter: In this, pressure head is converted to velocity

head and the differential head is measured at the throat
sections. Advantage with this flow measuring device is that head
loss is small, there are no moving parts and thus there is no
wear and tear due to moving parts. Moreover there are very little
chances of clogging of venturimeter.
II. Pitot tube: In this, the velocity head is converted into pressure
head which is measured. These get clogged very frequently if
water is turbid. In case, velocity is large then there will be
large velocity head which will be converted to a large pressure
head in Pitot tube and thus the size of Pitot tube becomes very
large unless a manometer with a dense liquid like mercury is
used.
III. Flow nozzle: It is similar to venturimeter but head loss is large
here due to the absence of downstream diverging section. The flow
measurement equation is same as that of venturimeter.
IV. Orifice meter: This is a thin plate with a small orifice in it
which creates a pressure differential. Measurement of this
pressure differential is used to compute the discharge. The
orifice opening is beveled for better accuracy.

Channel flow measurement methods: Some of the methods of channel flow

measurements are as follows:

I. Velocity-area method: This method involves measurement of the cross-

section of the river at a particular site (called as gauging site)
and measuring the velocity of flow through the cross – sectional
area. The gauging site so selected should be well defined and
permanent i.e. its cross – section should not get changed from time
to time.
II. Dilution method: This method also called as chemical method is based
on the continuity principle. A tracer of know concentration is
allowed to mix completely in the river and concentration of the
resultant mix is determined from the concentration profile plot. The
drawback of this method is that it cannot be used in case of
unsteady flows.
III. Electromagnetic method: this method is based on Faraday’s principle
that an emf is induced in the conductor if magnetic flux linked with
it changes with time. Here large coils are buried under the ground
carrying current which produce a vertical magnetic field. Flow of
 water produces an emf (voltage) across the sides of the channel
which is measured. This signal output E is rela4ted to discharge Q
as:

Ed n
Q = k1 ( I
+ K2)

Where k1 , k 2 and n are constants and E is induced emf I is current

in the coil.

iv. Ultrasonic method: It is similar to area – velocity method with the

only difference that here velocity is measured using ultrasonic signals.

2.3 A horizontal bend in pipeline conveying water gradually reduces from

60 cm to 30 cm diameter and deflects the flow through an angle 0f 60 o
At the larger end the gauge pressure is 1.75 kg/cm2
(i) When there is no flow,
(ii) When the flow is 876 lit./sec

Solution:

d1 = 60 cm = 0.6m

p1 = 1.75 kg/cm2 = 171.675 kN/m2

(i) When there is no flow.

P1 = P2 (∵There is no flow and hence no pressure

difference)

Let Rx and Ry are forces exerted on bend in the x and y directions i.e.,
in the horizontal and vertical directions respectively.

For equilibrium, ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

⇒ P1A1- p2A2 cos60o – Rx = 0

 π π
⇒ Rx = 1713675 × 4
(0.6)2 – 171.675× 4 (0.3)2
cos60o

⇒ Rx = 42.47 kN (←)

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ Ry – p2 A2 sin 60o = 0
π
⇒ Rx = 171.675 × (0.3)2 sin60o = 10.51 kN (↑)
4

Resultant force on bend (R) = √R2x + R2y = √(42.47)2 + (10.51)2 = 43.kN

Ry
Tanθ =
Rx

10.51
⇒ θ = tan-1( ) = 13.9o
42.47

(ii) When the flow is 876 ℓ/s.

Q=876 ℓ/s = 0.876 m3/s

Q = A1 v1 = A2V2 (same discharge at 1-1 and 2-

2)
π π
⇒ 0.876 = (0.6)2v1 = (0.3)2v2
4 4

∴ v1 = 3.1 m/s, v2 = 12.4 m/s

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section (1) – (1) and (2)-(2) assuming

that there are no major or minor losses.(i.e., neglecting losses)

p1 v2 1 p2 v2 2
ρg
+ 2g
= ρg
+ 2g
(∵ Pipe is horizontal, ∴ Z1 =
Z2)

171.675×103 (3.1)2 p2 (12.4)2

⇒ 9.81×1000
+ 2×9.81
= ρg
+ 2×9.81

p2
⇒ ρg
= 10.153 m

⇒ p2 = 10.153 × 1000 ×9.81 = 99600.93 kN/m2

When, ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

⇒ p1 A1 -p2 A2cos60o – Rx = pQ (v2cos60o – v1)

 π π
⇒ [171.675 × 4 (0.6)2 − 99.6 × 4
(0.3)2 cos60o – Rx]103

= 103 × 0.876 (12.4cos60o – 3.1)

⇒ Rx = 42.304kN

When, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ Ry -p2 A2 sin60o = pQ (v2sin60o)

π
⇒ [R y − 99.6 ×
4
(0.3)2 sin60 o ]103 = 103 × 0.876 (12.4 sin 60o

⇒ Ry = 15.504kN (↑)

∴ Resultant force R = √R2x + R2y

= √(42.304)2 + (15.504)2

= 45.06 kN
R
y
∴ θ = tan-1 (R ) = 20.13o
x

2.4 Lubricating oil of specific gravity 0.85 and dynamic

viscosity 0.01 kgf-sm2 is pumped through a 3 cm diameter pipe. If
pressure drop per meter length of the pipe is 0.15 kgf/cm2, determine
the mass flow rate in kg/min, the shear stress at the pipe wall, the
Reynolds’s number of flow and the power required per 40 m length of pipe
to maintain the flow.

Solution:

Specific gravity of oil = 0.85

∴ Density of oil = 0.85 × 1000 = 850 kg/m 3

Coefficient of dynamic viscosity, μ = 0.01 kgf-s/m2 = 0.01 × 981 Ns/m2

= 0.0981 Ns/m2 ≃ 0.1 Ns/m2

Pipe diameter, d = 3 cm = 0.03 m

Pressure drop per meter pipe length,

∆ρ 0.15 ×9.81 N
L
= 0.15 kgf/cm2 = 10−4 m2

= 1.4715 × 104 N/m2 per meter pipe length

Length of Pipe, L = 40 m
 ∴ Total pressure drop, ∆ρ = 1.4715 × 104 × 40 = 58.86 × 104 N/m2

Let flow is laminar.

1 ∂ρ R2
∴ Average flow velocity, Vavg = 4μ
(−
∂x
)
2

1 (0.015)2
= (1.4715 × 104 ) = 4.14 m/s
4×0.1 2

ρV avgd 850 ×4.14 ×0.03

Reynolds’s number Re = = = 1055.7 < 2000
μ 0.1

∴ Flow us laminar and assumption is correct.

∴ Discharge, Q = A. Vavg
μ μ
= d2vavg = (0.03)2 (4.14)
4 4

= 2.926 × 10-3 m3/s = 2.926 lit/s

∴ Mass flow rate = ρQ = 850 × 2.926 × 10-3 kg/s

= 149..226 Kg/min

∆ρ 58.86×104
Head loss, hf = ρg
= 850 ×9.81
70.588 m of oil

∴ Power required for flow, P = ρQgh f

= 850 × 2.926 × 10-3 × 981 ×70.588

= 1722.24 W = 1.722 kW

2.5 Calculate the discharge through a pipe of dia. 200

mm when the difference of pressure head between two ends of a pipe 500 m
apart is 4 m of water. Take the value of f = 0.009 in the formula

4.f.L.V2
hf = d.2g

Solution:
 From continuity principle, Q1 = Q2

⇒ A1v1 = A2v2
π μ
⇒ d2v1 = d2v2
4 4

⇒ v1 = v2 (Since d1 = d2 =d=200 mm)

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections (1)-(1) and (2)-(2)

p1 v2 1 p1 v2 2
ρg
+ 2g
+ z1 = ρg
+ 2g
+ z2 + hf

p1−p2
⇒ ( ) = hf (∵ v1 = v2 and z1 = z2)
ρg

4f:v2
But hf = 2dg

p1−p2 4f:v2
⇒ ρg
= 2dg

4(0.009)500v2
⇒ 4 = 2(0.2)9.81

⇒ V = 0.934 m/s
μ
∴ Discharge, Q = AV = (0.2)2 × 0.434
4

= 0.02934 m3/sec = 29.34 lit./sec

2.6 Find the discharge through a rectangular orifice 2.0 m wide and 1.5 m
deep fitted to a water tank. The water level in tank is 3 0 m above the
top edge of the orifice. Take Cd = 0.62.

Solution:

Width of orifice = b = 2 m (given)

Coefficient of discharge, Cd = 0.62

 Discharge through a rectangular orifice is given by,

2 3/2 3/2
Q = 3
Cd b√2g [H2 − H1 ] where H2=3+1.5=4.5 m, H1=3 m

2
= (0.62)(2)√2 × 9.81[4.53/2 − 33/2 ] = 15.93 m3/s
3

2.7 Estimate for 1 : 20 model of a spillway (i)

prototype velocity corresponding to a model velocity of 2 m/sec, (ii)
prototype discharge per unity width corresponding to a model discharge
per unit width of 0.3 m3/sec/m, (iii) pressure head in the prototype
corresponding to a model head of 5 cm of mercury at a point (iv) the
energy dissipated per second in the model corresponding to a prototype
value of 1.5 kW.

Solution:
Lm 1
Length ratio, Lr = Lp
= 2

(i) Prototype velocity for model model velocity of 2 m/sec.

Velocity ratio, Vr = √Lr

Vm 1
⇒ = √
Vp 20

⇒ Vp = Vm √20 = 2√20

Vp = 8.944 m/s
(ii) Prototype discharge per unit width for model discharge per unit width
of 0.3 m3/s/m.
Vr Ar √𝐋𝐫 × 𝐋𝟐 𝟑/𝟐
𝐫
Discharge intensity ratio, qr = Lr
= 𝐋𝐫
= 𝐋𝐫
𝐪𝐦 𝟏 𝟑/𝟐
𝐪𝐩
= (𝟐𝟎)

qp = qm (20)3/2 = 0.3 ×(20)3/2

qp = 26.83 m3/s/m

(iii) Prototype pressure head for model pressure head of 5 cm of Hg.

ρ
( ) = Lr
ρg r

ρ/ρg)m 1
⇒ ρ/ρg)p
= 20
 (ρ/ρg)p =20×( ρ/ρg)m

= 20×5 = 100 cm of Hg

(iv) Energy dissipated per second in model for 1.5 kW. Energy dissipated in
prototype.
Energy dissipated /sec. = Work done/sec. Power
Pr = FrVr
= ρr L3r × g r × √Lr
7/2
= Lr (∵ ρr = 1 and g r = 1)

Pm 1 7/2
⇒ PP
= (20)

1 7/2
⇒ Pm = 1.5 × (20)

⇒ Pm = 4.19 × 10-5 kW = 0.042 W

3.1 A pelton wheel is to be designed for the following specifications

Shatf power = 11772kW; Head = 380m;

Speed = 750 rpm; Overall efficiency = 86%

Diameter is not exceed one – sixth of the wheel diameter

Determine:

(i) The wheel diameter

(ii) The number of jets required and
(iii) Diameter of the jet

Take coefficient of velocity = 0.985 and speed ratio = 0.46

Solutions

Given: Shaft power, P = 11772kW; Head, H = 380m; Speed, N = 750rpm

Overall efficiency η = 86 % pr 0.86

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

11772 × 103
⇒ 0.86 = 𝜌 𝑄𝑔ℎ

11772 × 103
⇒ Q = 0.86 × 103 ×9.81 ×380
= 3.672𝑚 3 /𝑠
Also, v = 𝑐𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ = 0.985√2 × 9.81 × 380 =
85.05m/s
𝑢
Given, speed ratio = = 0.46
√2𝑔𝐻

∴ u = 0.46√2𝑔ℎ = 0.46√2 × 9.81 × 380

= 0.46(85.35) = 39.721m/s

𝜋 𝐷𝑁 60(39.721)
Now, u = 60
⇒ D= 𝜋 (750)
= 1.01m ≃ 1 m (say)

𝐷 1
∴ Diameter of jet, d = 6
= 6
= 0.167𝑚

𝜋 𝜋
Discharge through one jet, q = v. 4
𝑑2 = 85.05 × 4
(0.167)2 = 1.863𝑚 3 /𝑠

𝑄 3.672
∴ Number of jets required, n =𝑞 =1.863 = 1.97 ≃ 2 nos.(say)

Thus two jets are required with diameter (d) which is given by
𝜋
Q = n. 4
𝑑2 𝑣

𝜋
⇒ 3.672 = 2. 4
𝑑2 (85.05)

⇒ d = 0.166 ≃ 0.167

Which is very close to diameter considered earlier.

3.2 A rectangular channel 2.0 m wide has a discharge of 250 lit/ sec
which is measured by a right angled V – notch weir. Find the position of
the apex of the notch from the bed of the channel if the maximum depth of
the water is not to exceed 1.3 m. Take 𝑪𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐

Solution:

Cd = 0.62

Discharge, Q = 250ℓ/s = 0.25𝑚 3 /𝑠

 Discharge from a right angled V – notch is given by,
5
8 𝜃 90°
Q = 15
𝐶𝑑 √2𝑔 𝐻2 (∵ tan2 = tan ( 2
)=
1)
5
8
⇒ 0.25 = (0.62) √2 × 9.81 𝐻 2
15

⇒ H = 0.493 m

Given maximum depth of water, 𝐻𝜊 = 1.3𝑚

𝑄 0.25
∴ Flow velocity through channel V = = = 0.962 m/s
𝐴 2 ×1.3

𝑉2 (0.0962)2
∴ Head due to flow velocity i.e., velocity of approach (ℎ𝑎 ) = 2𝑔
= 2 ×9.81

= 4.717 × 10−4 m which is very small

Thus head due to velocity of approach can be neglected.

Thus head over the V-notch = H = 0.493 m

∴ Apex of V-notch is located at (Ho − H) = (1.3 – 0.493) m = 0.807 m above

the channel bed

3.3 A centrifugal pump having an impeller of 35cm outside diameter rotates

at 1050rpm. The vanes are radial at exit and are 7.0 cm wide. The velocity
of radial flow through the impeller is 3 m/sec. The velocity in the
suction and delivery pipes are 2.5 m/sec and 1.5 m/sec respectively.
Neglecting frictional losses, determine the height through which pump
lifts and the – power of the pump.

Solution:

Given data:

Outside diameter of impeller, 𝐷1 = 35 cm = 0.35 m

Speed, N = 1050 rpm

Width at outlet 𝐵1 = 7 cm = 0.07m

Velocity of flow, 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝑉𝑓2 = 3 m/sec

Velocity in suction pipe, = 2.5 m/sec

Velocity in delivery pipe, 𝑉𝑑 = 1.5 m/sec

Now, tangential velocity of impeller at outlet
𝜋 𝐷1𝑁 𝜋 ×0.35 ×1050
𝑢 1= 60
= 60
= 19.24 m/sec

As the vanes are radial at exit

∴ 𝑉𝑊1 = 𝑢 1 = 19.24 m/s

As we know, the head developed will be given by

𝑉𝑤1 𝑈1 u2d
𝐻𝑚 = 𝑔
= 𝑔

(19.24)2
= 9.81
= 37.735 𝑚

V2d
Now, 𝐻𝑚 = ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑 + ℎ𝑓𝑠 + ℎ𝑓𝑑 =
2𝑔

Where ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑑 = 𝐻𝑠

Which is known as the static head which is the net vertical height
through which the liquid is lifted by the pump.

V2d 1.5 2
∴ Neglecting frictional losses, 𝐻𝑠 = 𝐻𝑚 − 2𝑔
= 37.735 − 2 ×9.81
= 37.62 m

The horse power of the pump is given by

𝑊𝑄 𝐻𝑚
HP = 75

Where Q = π × 0.35 × 0.07 × 3 𝑚 3 /𝑠 = 0.231

𝑚 3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
1000 ×0.231 ×37.735
HP = 75
= 116.224 h.p.

3.4 Derive the condition for the trapezoidal channel of best section.
Prove that the hydraulic mean depth for such a channel is one – half the
depth of flow.

Solution:

Consider a channel section of bottom width (B) depth of flow (y), side
slope = 1 : m

Side slope of the channel is m horizontal: 1 vertical

 1
i.e. tan θ =
𝑚

1
Area of flow, A = 2
[𝐵 + (𝐵 + 2𝑚𝑦)]𝑦

⇒ A = (B + my) y ………………………..(1)

Wetted perimeter, P = B + 2 √1 + 𝑚 2 y ………………………(2)

Putting the value of B from Equation (1) to (2), we get

𝐴
P = 𝑦
− 𝑚𝑦 + 2 √1 + 𝑚 2 y ……………….(3)

dP
Since, dy
= 0

dP A
Thus, dy
= − y2 − m + 2 √1 + 𝑚 2 = 0

(𝐵+𝑚𝑦 )𝑦
⇒ 2 √1 + 𝑚 2 = m +
𝑦2

B+2my
⇒ 2
= y√1 + m2

Thus, length of the side slope is equal to the half to top width

𝐴 (𝐵+𝑚𝑦 )𝑦 (B+my)y
R = = =
𝑃 𝐵+2𝑦√1+𝑚 2 B+ B+2my

𝑦
R = 2

dP
For best slope, dm
= 0

𝐴
P = 𝑦
− 𝑚𝑦 + 2 √1 + 𝑚 2 y

𝑑𝑃 2 ×2m
⇒ = −1 𝑦 + y = 0
𝐷𝑚 2√1+𝑚 2

⇒ 2m = √1 + 𝑚 2
1
⇒ m = = cot θ
√3

Thus, θ = 60°
B+2my
∵ 2
= (√1 + m2 )y
 2y 1 2
⇒ B + = 2√1 + ( ) y
√3 √3

2y
⇒ B =
√3

2y
Also length of side slope = (√1 + m2 )y = = B
√3

3.5 The discharge of a Pelton wheel turbine is 5 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔ec at a head of

300 m at the nozzle. There are two runners and each runner has two jets.
The length of the pipeline is 1900m. The efficiency of the transmission
for the pipe is 90%. Assume friction factor f as 0.008. Diameter jet
diameter, pipe diameter and output of the turbine. The overall efficiency
of turbine is 85%.

Solution:

Pelton turbine

Given, Q = 5 𝑚 3 /𝑠ec

H = 300m

Two runner → Each has two jet

Length, L = 1900 m

ηtransmission = 90% = 0.90

F = 0.008

𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 85% = 0.85

Given, 𝐻𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 300𝑚

So, 𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0.9 × 300 = 270𝑚

Velocity of jet @ nozzle = √2gHnet

= √2 × 9.81 × 270 = 72.78 m/s

𝑄 5
Discharge from each jet = 4
= 4
= 1.25𝑚 3 /𝑠ec

𝜋
∴ 1.25 = 4
× 𝑑2 × V

𝜋
= 4
× 𝑑2 × 72.78
So, d = 0.1478m

Now, hf = 300 – 270 = 30 m

f L V2
Also, hf = 2gD

8 Q2 fL
30 = ×
π2 g D5
8 × 52 ×0.008 ×1900
30 = π2 ×9.81 × D5
D = 1.009 m ≃ 1 m

Output power Output power

∴ 𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = Input power (W.P) = pQgH
Output power = 0.85 × 1000 × 9.81 × 5 × 300
= 12507.75 × 103 Watt
Output power = 12507.75kW

SSC – JE: Paper – II

(Conventional)

Unit VI Irrigation
Engineering
1.Water Requirement of Crops, Hydraylic Structures, Hydrology and
Miscellaneous

1.1 Write a short note on Consumptive use of water.

Solution:

Consumptive use of water:

 It is the amount of water required by a crop in transpiration
i.e. growth of plant tissues and the water lost from the
surrounding soil and from the leaves as evaporation. It is also
referred to as evapotranspiration.
  The value of consumptive use of water varies from crop to crop
and from soil to soil. Also it may differ for the same crop at
different times of a year.
 Consumptive use is useful in assessing the irrigation
requirement for a crop.
 The factors which affect the consumptive use of crop are
temperature, humidity, wing velocity, atmospheric pressure etc.
 Blaney – Criddle equation is the most commonly used expression
for estimating the consumptive water requirement of a crop in a
area which is given by:

kp
Cu = [1.8t + 32]
40

Where Cu = monthly consumptive use (in cm)

k = Crop factor which is determined experimentally for each crop under

the given environmental conditions

t= Mean monthly temperature (in ∘C)

p = Monthly percentage of annual day light hours for the period under
consideration

1.2 Explain the term Base period and Crop period. After how many days
will you order irrigation in order to ensure healthy growth of crops
if:
(i) Field capacity of soil = 29%
(ii) Permanent wilting point = 11%
(iii) Density of soil = 1300 kg/𝐦𝟑
(iv) Effective depth of root zone = 700m
(v) Daily consumptive use of water of the given crop = 12 mm

Consider moisture content must not be less than 25% of the water
holding capacity between the field capacity and permanent wilting
point.

Solution:

Base period: It is the time between first watering of the crop after
sowing to the last watering before harvesting.

Crop period: It is the between sowing and harvesting of the crop. Thus
crop period is marginally larger than based period.

Numerical: Available moisture = Field capacity – Permanent

wilting point
 = 29 – 11 = 18%

Given moisture content must not be less than 25% of water holding
capacity of soil between the field capacity and permanent wilting
point.

∴ Depth of water stored is zone between these two limits of 13.5% and
29%

γd .d
= [F. C. −Optimum moisture content]
γw

1300
= 1000
× 700(0.29 − 0.135)

= 0.14105 m ≃ 0.141 m = 141 mm

Thus 141 mm of water is available for consumptive use. But daily

consumptive use of water by crop = 12 mm/day
141
∴ 141 of water will be utilised in 12
= 11.75 days ≈ 11 days

∴ After 11 days, irrigation will be required.

1.3 Write a short note on Night irrigation.

Solution:

Night Irrigation: It refers to the practice of irrigation of crop at

night so as to lower the loss of water due to evaporation. Since water
is a sparse resource and thus it always remains debatable when to
irrigate the crop in a day or at night. Many prefer irrigation at the
time of early dawn while others prefer afternoon time. Among all, day
time irrigation is the most uneconomical due to high
evapotranspitation demand of crop.
In night irrigation, it is ensured that irrigation should complete by
the morning before sunrise in order to have sufficient soaking of
water by the soil. Water lost during night time irrigation is about 25
– 50% less than that during day time irrigation.

1.4 give brief account of the drawbacks in Kennedy’s theory.

Solution:

Drawbacks of Kennedy’s theory:

  Kennedy assumed that eddy current in channel arises only due to
roughness of channel bed.
 This theory is applicable only for those channels which carry
certain amount of silt.
 This theory is applicable only for regime channels.
 The channel width (B) and depth of flow (y) has no significance
in this theory.
 It is a trial and error based design approach.
 There is no logical basis for assigning the values of ‘m’
(critical Velocity Ratio i.e. CVR) to different types of soil and
the phenomenon of silt transportation is no properly accounted
for.
 It assumes that silt carried in the flowing water by the vertical
eddies generated from the channel bed only actually eddied get
generated from the entire wetted perimeter of the channel.
 This theory gives no expression for determining the channel bed
slope.

1.5 Enumerate the assumptions made in Lacey’s theory of canal design.

Solution:

Assumptions in Lacey’s theory of canal design:

(i) Lacey assumed that silt is transported due to eddies generated

from the entire wetted perimeter of canal section and that the
canal section achieves a semi – elliptical (or cup shaped)
profile called as regime canal.
(ii) Grain size of the silt material is considered important in
this theory which is related to sit factor as f = 1.75 (dmm )0.5
(iii) Kutter’s formula is used lacey’s theory for computation of
flow velocity.
(iv) Lacey assumed that canal slope bears a definite relation with
discharge which Kennedy didn’t considered
(v) Lacey assumed a constant discharge through the canal.
(vi) It is assumed that canal flows uniformly in an incoherent
alluvium which bears the same characteristics as that is being
carried by the canal.

1.6 Using lacey’s theory, design an irrigation channel carrying 30

𝐦𝟑 /𝐬𝐞𝐜. take silt factor as 1.0.

Solution:
 The design to be followed to design irrigation channel using Lacey’s
theory are:
1
Qf2 6
(a) Calculation of velocity, V = ( )
140
Where Q is discharge in m3 /s and f is silt factor
1
30 ×1.0 2 6
∴ V = ( 140
) = 0.774 m/s

(b) Calculation of hydraulic mean radius

5 V2 5 0.7742
R = 2
( )
f 2
× 1
= 1.50m

Q 30
(c) Area of channel, A = V
= 0.774
= 38.76 m2
For a trapezoidal channel, A = (B + ZY) y
1
Assuming side slope to be 1H : 2V (z will be )
2
⇒ A = (B + 0.5y) y
⇒ 38.76 = By + 0.5 y 2 ………………(i)

(d) Wetted perimeter

P = 4.75 √Q = 4.75 √30 = 26.02m
For a trapezoidal channel, P = B + 2y √Z2 + 1
⇒ 26.02 = B + 2y √0.52 + 1
⇒ B + 2.2361y = 26.02 ……………………..(ii)
Substituting value of B from (ii) in (i), we get
(26.02 – 2.2361y)y + 0.5y 2 = 38.76
1.7361 y 2 − 26.02y + 38.76 = 0
⇒ y = 1.68m
Substituting value of y in (ii), we get
B = 26.02 – 2.2361 × 1.68 = 22.27m

5 5
f3 13
(e) Calculation of bed slope, S = 1 = 1 = 1.698 × 10−4 =
3340Q 6 3340Q ×306
1
5888

1.7 Discuss the factors affecting duty of water.

Solution:

Factor affecting duty of water:

(i) Water requirement of crop
(ii) Type of soil
 (iii) Permeability of soil
(iv) Temperature
(v) Humidity
(vi) Type of crop
(vii) Vapour pressure

1.8 A trapezoidal dam with a vertical water face is 2.5 m wide at the
top and 14 m wide at the base. The height of the dam is 27 m. Find the
maximum depth of water so that the dam section is free from tension.
Assume unit weight of dam material as 21 kN/𝐦𝟑 and that of water as
9.81 kN/𝐦𝟑.

Solution:

Component Description L.A about Moment

Toe
W1 2.5 × 27 × 21 = 1.25 18073.125
1417.5
W2 1
× 11.5 ×27 6.33 25006.1175
2
×213260.25
1 4.67 -640.6911H
U3 × 9.81 × H × 14 =
2
68.67H
1 H
PH × 9.81 ×H 2 = 4.905H 2 -3.27 H 3
2 3
∑ 𝑉 = 4677.75 − 68.67𝐻
MR −MO
𝑥̅ = ∑ Fv
180.73.125+25006.1175−640.6911𝐻−3.27 𝐻 3
𝑥̅ = 4677.75−68.67 𝐻
e = (7 - 𝑥̅ )
∑ Vv 6e
σtoe = B
(1 −
B
)
4677.75−68.67H 6(7−𝑥̅ )
σtoe = 14
[1 −
14
]=0
H = 16.917
 SSC – JE: Paper – II
(Conventional)

Unit VII Transportation

Engineering

Section – A: Highway Engineering

1.Geometric Design

1.1 What is super elevation? Derive the relation between super elevation
and speed of vehicle on horizontal curve. Design the rate of super
elevation for a horizontal curve of a radius 500 m and speed 100km/hr.

Solution:

Super – elevation: Super-elevation (or banking) is the raising of

the outer edge of road with respect to the inner edge in order to
counteract the centripetal force arising due to negotiation of a
curve by a vehicle. Without super – elevation, it a vehicle
negotiates a curve then it will be thrown out of the curve due to
outward acting centripetal force.
 Let W= Weight of vehicle

V = velocity of vehicle

B = width of road
𝐸
E = super – elevation where tan θ = 𝐵
= 𝑒(𝑠𝑎𝑦)

F = frictional force between the vehicle tyres and

road = μN

P = centrifugal force on horizontal curve

Thus resolving the various forces in two perpendicular directions,

We have, F = μN = μ (W cos θ + P sin θ) ………………….(i)

And F + Wsin θ = P cos θ

⇒ μ(W cos θ + P sin θ) + Wsin θ = P cos θ …………………..(ii)

⇒ W(sin θ + μ cosθ) = P(cosθ - μ sinθ)

P sinθ+ μsinθ
⇒ W
= cos θ− μ sin θ

P μ + tanθ
⇒ = …………………….(iii)
W 1− μ tanθ

W v2
Now P = gR

P V2
⇒ W
= gR
= tanθ

P
Substituting W
in (iii),

V2 μ + tanθ μ+e
= = ≃ μ+e (∵μe <<1)
gR 1− μ tanθ 1− μ e

∴ v = √gR (μ + e)

Given radius of horizontal curve, R = 500m

Speed of vehicle V = 100km/h = 27.78 m/s

 Super – elevation is designed for 75% of maximum speed

= 0.75 × 100 = 75 km/hr = 20.83 m/s

V2 (20.83)2
∴ e = tanθ = gR
= 9.81 ×500
= 0.088 > 0.07

Thus fix ‘e’ to 0.07

V2
Now, μ + e =
gR

(20.83)2
⇒ μ = - 0.07 = 0.018 < 0.15 (Ok)
9.81 ×500

Thus provide a super – elevation of 0.07 or 7%

1.2 Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance for a design speed of
100 km/hr. Assume maximum overtaking acceleration as 1.92 km/hr/sec.

Solution:

Given: V = 100kmph or 27.78 m/s

Maximum overtaking acceleration = 1.92km/hr/s = 0.53m/s2

Speed of overtaken vehicle = 27.78 – 4.5 = 23.28m/s
Consider two way undivided highway
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
d1 = Vb × t = 23.28 × 2 = 45.56m
1
d2 = b + 2S = Vb T + 2
aT 2
4S
T = √a
S = 0.7Vb + 6 = 0.7 × 23.28 + 6 = 22.296
m
4 ×22.296
T = √ 0.53
= 12.97 sec
1
d2 = 23.28 × 12.97 + 2 × 0.53 × 12.972 = 346.52m
d3 = 27.78 ×12.97 = 360.31 m
So, OSD = 46.56 + 346.52 + 360.31
= 753.39m

2. Pavement Design

2.1 Compare and contrast flexible and rigid pavements.

Solution:

Flexible vs Rigid Pavement

S.No. Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

1. Here load is transferred by
soil grain to grain contact.
2. Here any deformation in the
sub - grade gets reflected
at the top surface since
flexible pavement the shape
of soil sub –grade
3. Due to grain to grain
transfer to load, this
pavement is constructed in
layers.
4. This is analyzed and
designed by empirical and
semi – empirical approaches.
5. Compressive stress is the
predominant stress in this
pavement.
Here load is transferred by the
slab action (i.e.by flexure) on
the pavement.
Here any sub –grade deformation
is not reflected at the top due
to bridging of pavement slab
over the depression.
Here only the pavement slab is
constructed
It is analyzed and designed by
elastic theory
Flexural stresses are the
predominant stresses in this.

2.2 Describe the method of laying Water Bound Macadam (WBM) road.

Solution:

The following are followed:

(i) Preparation of sub grade: The subgrade must be strong enough so

that it does not settle under the loads and thus soil subgrade is
compacted usually by rollers (of weight 80kN) after sprinkling
water on to the soil. Any resulting depressions must be filled
first before laying the second layer.
(ii) Construction of sub – base: Here in this step, crushed stones or
over burnt bricks or boulders in thickness of 10 cm – 20 cm is
laid. The sub – base is also compacted by rollers.
(iii) Construction of base: On the prepared surface of sub – base, a
layer of base course is laid of specified material. The
thickness, grade and cross – section are maintained as per the
design and specifications.
(iv) Preparation of wearing course: This layer is the top must surface
which undergoes large abrasion due to moving vehicles. This
course is laid in one or more layers and thickness of this layer
is kept as per the design. Generally this wearing course is of
asphalt of tar.
After all these steps, shoulders are constructed by spreading earth on
either side of the pavement at the specified slope and width. This is
achieved by rolling and tamping.

2.3 Discuss the various causes of disintegration and the major

faults occurring in WBM and surface treated (asphalt roads) in India.

Solution:

Following are the chief causes of disintegration or failure of WBM and

surface treated roads in India:

(i) Inadequate stability or strength: Poor mix proportioning or

inadequate thickness are main reasons for the lack of stability
or strength of sub base layer. Soft varieties of stone aggregates
also make the base course layer weak. Improper quality during the
construction results in poor base course.
(ii) Loss of binding action: Due to internal movements of aggregate in
sub base or base course layers under the repeated stress
applications, the composite structure of the layers gets
disturbed. This results in loosening of the total mass and
formation of alligator cracks on the bituminous surfacing of
flexible pavements.
(iii) Loss of base course materials: The loss of base course materials
is only possible when wither the base course is not covered with
a wearing course or the wearing course has completely worn out.
Due to the fast moving vehicles plying on the road, there is a
suction caused between the pneumatic tyres and the exposed base
material. This causes removal of binding material in WBM base and
the stone aggregates are left in a loose state.
(iv) Inadequate wearing course: Absence of wearing course or
inadequate thickness or stability of wearing course exposes the
base course to the damaging affects of climatic variation mainly
due to rains, frost action and traffic. Bullock cart traffic
affects the surface course. Pervious wearing course also permits
the surface water to seep through and soften the base course thus
weakening it.
(v) Use of inferior materials: many failures mainly structural
failures are attributes due to the use of inferior materials in
the paving jobs. Some materials exhibit satisfactory
characteristics initially, but show rapid deterioration due to
weathering.
(vi) Failure of wearing course: failure of wearing course is observed
due to lack of proper mix design, improper gradation of
 aggregates, inadequate binder content and inferior type of binder
result in a poor bituminous surfacing.

Some major faults occurring in flexible pavements are:

(a) Alligator (map) cracking: This is the most common type of

failure and occurs due to relative movement of pavement layer
materials. This may be caused due to repeated application of heavy
wheel loads resulting in fatigue or due to moisture variations
resulting in swelling and shrinkage of subgrade and other pavement
materials.
(b) Consolidation of pavement layers: Formation of ruts are mainly
attributed to the consolidation of one or more layers of pavement.
The repeated application of loads the same wheel path cause
cumulative deformation resulting in consolidation deformation or
longitudinal ruts. Shallow ruts on the surfacing course can be due
to wearing along the wheel path.
(c) Shear failure and cracking: shear failures are associated with
the inherent weakness of the pavement mixtures, the shearing
resistance being low due to inadequate stability or excessively
heavy loading. The shear failure cause upheaval of pavement
materials by forming a fracture or cracking.
(d) Longitudinal cracking: Due to frost action and differential
volume changes in subgrade, longitudinal cracking is caused in
pavement traversing through the full pavement thickness. Settlement
of fill and sliding of side slopes would also cause this type of
failure.
(e) Frost heaving: frost heaving is often misunderstood for shear
or other types of failures. In shear failure the upheaval of portion
of pavement is followed with a depression. In the case of frost
heaving, there is mostly a localized heaving up of pavement potion
depending upon the ground water and climatic conditions.
(f) Lack of binding with lower layer: slipping occurs when the
surface course is not bound with the underlying base. This results
in opening up and loss of pavement materials forming patches or pot
holes. This condition is more pronounced when the prime/tack coat in
between two layers is lacking.
(g) Reflection cracking: This type of cracking is observed in
bituminous overlays provided over existing cement concrete
pavements. The crack pattern as existing in cement concrete pavement
are mostly reflected on bituminous surfacing in the same pattern.
Structural of the total pavement section is not much influenced by
the presence of reflection cracks but since the cracks appear at the
 surface, these allow surface water to seep through and cause damage
to the soil subgrade or result in mud pumping.

3. Highway Materials, Maintenance and Properties

3.1 List down the modes of water penetration into road structure with a
neat sketch.

Solution:

Modes of water penetration into road structure:

(i) Capillary rise of sub – soil water from beneath the pavement.

(ii) Penetration of surface water from top of the pavement

(percolation), mostly through cracks.

(iii)Penetration of Sub – soil water from sides of the pavement.

(iv)Interception of water due to flooding cross drains provided

along the pavement.

(v) Interception of surface water from sides of the pavement.

3.2 Differentiate between the following with reference to bituminous

construction:

1. Prime coat and Tack coat.

2. Bituminous concrete and bituminous macadam

Solution:

1. Prime Coat: A prime coat is a coating applied directly to a prepared

base before additional layers of support or coating are applied.
Prime coat asphalt preparation is a vital element, as it directly
affects the shear strength of the final asphalt product.
A prime coat is mainly responsible for protecting the subgreade of a
construction project before additional layers are added. In asphalt
preparation, they can also act as a binder with secondary and
tertiary compounds, creating a better adhesion between the layers.
Prime coat asphalt acts as an initial sealer in the asphalt laying
process to block the other layers form moisture, dust and debris
before additional coating installations.

Important things to remember about installing a prime coat or prime

coat asphalt are:
 It provides temporary waterproofing, but must have additional
compound layers in order for the floor, wall, or ceiling
coating to perform long – term water proofing duties.
 The asphalt prime coat must completely penetrate the base
surface in order to be effective.
 A prime coat must completely cure before an additional layer
in incorporated.
 It is vital to be aware of weather conditions when apply an
asphalt prime coat. In the case of wet weather, this step
should by postponed to avoid runoff into the water supply.

Tack Coat: A tack coat is applied after the prime coat, to form
an adhesive bound between the tack coat and the next layer of
coating. The tack coat prevents slippage and may sometimes
function as a more long – term sealer to protect the substrate
from moisture and bacteria. For asphalt prime coat systems, the
tack coat is one of the most vital parts of the process, as it
connects the subsequent layers and forms the base of those layers
strength.

Important things to remember about installing a tack coat are:

 It is vital that the prime coat is clean and dry before

installing a tack coat.
 The higher the viscosity of the tack layer, the more shear
strength the overall structure will have. Diluted, slow –
 set emulsions are the most typical style of applying a tack
coat.

2. Bituminous macadam (BM) or Bitumen Bound macadam is a premixed

construction method consisting of one or more courses of compacted
crushed aggregates premixed with bituminous binder, laid immediately
after mixing. The is laid in compacted thickness of 75 mm or 50 mm
and three different gradation of aggregates have been suggested for
each thickness to provide open graded and semi-dence constructions.
The BM is essentially a base course or binder course and hence
should be covered by a suitable surfacing course before exposing to
traffic. BM base course is considered to be much superior than other
types of base course materials such as WBM with respect to load
dispersion characteristics and durability.

Bituminous Concrete or Asphaltic Concrete (AC) is dense graded

premixed bituminous mix which is well compacted to from a high
quality pavement surface course. The AC consists of a carefully
proportioned mixture of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, mineral
filler and bitumen and the mix is designed by an appropriate method
such as the Marshal method to fulfil the requirements of stability,
density, flexibility and voids. The thickness of bituminous concrete
surface layer usually ranges from 40 to 75 mm. The IRC has provided
specification for 40 mm thick AC surface course for highway
pavements.

Sections – B: Railway Engineering

1. Ballast, Formation and sleepers

1.1 Give advantage and disadvantages of concrete sleeper.

Solution:

Advantages:

1) Concrete sleepers has long life (of about 50 years).

2) These are very good for the purpose of track – circuiting (in
automatic signaling)
3) These are not prone to fire timber sleepers.
4) These are easy to manufacture.
5) These are resistant to insect attack.
6) Pre – stressed concrete sleepers enhance the load carrying capacity
of tracks.

Disadvantages:
 1) Concreter sleepers are brittle in nature and get cracked easily.
2) Once broken, concrete sleepers cannot be repaired.
3) These do not have any scrap value like in case of steel sleepers or
wooden sleepers.
4) Due to high density of concrete, these sleepers are very and thus
their transportation and handling cost many a times make them
uneconomical.

1.2 What are the requirements of good ballast in railway engineering?

Explain how the minimum depth of ballast cushion is estimated.

Solution:

Requirement of Good Ballast:

 It should be chemically inert or does not react with rail or

metal sleeper.
 It should be able to get packed properly without any
disintegration that is it should have good crushing strength.
 It should make proper drainage medium and soak minimum water.
 It should offer good resistance to wear and tear.
 The size of stone ballast should be 4cm for metal sleepers 5cm
for wooden sleepers and 2.5 for turnouts and cross – over.

Depth of Ballast Section:

The depth of ballast layer has important role on bearing capacity and
distribution of load on subgrade.

Greater the depth of ballast, greater will be load bearing capacity.

 Width of ballast layer beyond the ends of sleepers effect

lateral stability of the track.
 In India this width is kept in between 38cm to 43cm from the end
of sleeper.
 Load distribution below the sleepers is assumed to be 45° to the
vertical, so minimum depth is calculated as follows.
 Let spacing of sleepers is S and width if sleeper is w
Dmin
Tan 45° = S−W
( )
2

Where

S = spacing of sleepers
W = width of sleeper
Minimum depth of ballast layer,
S−W
Dmin = 2

Dimensions B.G. M.G. N.G.

1. Width of ballast 3.35 cm 2.25 cm 1.83 cm
2. Depth of ballast 20 to 25 cm 15 to 15cm
20cm
3. Quantity of stone ballast per 1.036 m3 0.71m3 0.53m3
meter length

SSC – JE: Paper – II (Conventional)

Unit VIII Environmental
Engineering

1. Water Demand

1.1 Discuss the impact of urbanization and industrialization on water

resource (in terms of both quantity and quality)

Solution:

Impact of urbanization and industrialization on water resources:

Impact in terms of quantity: Increased urbanization and

industrialization puts heavy load on city’s existing water resources.
Industries like pulp and paper, tanneries, meat processing units etc.
demand for too much of water.

 Too much urbanization area affects adversely affects the ground

water recharge there by lowering the ground water level.
 When the city’s water resources become insufficient to meet the
water demand, alternative sources have to be searchers for. Conveying
water from such new sources incurs expenditure on infrastructure
development like construction of head works, of canals, construction
of new WTPs etc.
 Increased urbanization and industrialization also leads to increased
generation of waste which overloads the existing STPs and also causes
water pollution.

Impact in terms of quality: With too much industrialization, water

quality deteriorates.
 The waste generated is often dumped on the ground which
contaminates the ground water through leachate.
 When existing STPs get overloaded, it is quite common that a
significant amount of waste gets disposed off without any treatment
which contaminates the ground and the rivers and oceans.
 Industries often discharge many harmful elements like lead, arsenic
etc. Which when discharged into the river or gets infiltrated to the
ground makes water unfit for use, either temporarily or permanently.
 Discharging of industrial waste into the rivers invariably poses
hazard to the aquatic life and disturbs the ecosystem.
 2. Quality control of Water Supply and Water treatment

2.1 Compute the dimensions of a continuous flow rectangular setting tank

treating average of 24 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 liters/day. Take detention period for raw
water sedimentation to be 6 hours.

Solution:

Daily flow rate, Q = 24 × 105 lit./day = 1 × 105 l/hr

24 × 105 × 10−3
= 24 ×3600
m3 /s = 0.0278 m3 /s

Detention period t d = 6 hours

∴ Volume of tank, V = Qt d

= (105 lit/hr) (6hr) = 6 × 105 lit = 600m3

Assuming setting velocity of particles in the tank as 1 mm/s

i.e., v = 1mm/s = 10−3 m/s

Q 0.0278
∴ plan area of tank, A = = = 27.8 m2
V 10−3

V 600
∴ Depth of tank, d = A
= 27.8
= 21.58m

Let Free board = 300mm

∴ Overall depth, D = d + Free board = 21.58 + 0.3 = 21.88 m =

22 m (say)
L
Let B
= 3

∴ A = 27.8 m2

⇒ LB = 27.8

⇒ 3B2 = 27.8

⇒ B = 3.044 m ≃4 m (say)

∴ L = 3B = 3 × 4 = 12m

∴ Dimension of tank = L × B × D = 12m × 3m × 22m

2.2 Design a 15 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 LPD water treatment plant with rapid sand filter.
Assume suitable design parameters.

Solution:

Water required to be filtered daily = 15 × 106 ℓ/day

Let 2% of filtered water is required for backwashing

∴ Requirement of total filtered water = 1.02 × 15 × 106 = 15.3 × 106

ℓ/day

Let time elapsed in backwashing = 30 min = 0.5 hours

15.3 × 106
∴ Requirement of filtered water per hour = (24−0.5)
= 0.651 × 106 ℓ/hr

Assuming a filtration rate of 6000 ℓ/hr/m2

0.651 × 106
Area of filter required = 6000
= 108.5 m2

L
Let = 2
B

∴ LB = 108.5 m2

⇒ 2B.B = 108.5

⇒ B = 7.365 m ≃ 7.5 m (say)

∴ L = 2 B = 2 × 7.5 = 15m

It two filter units are used then area required for one filter unit will
be half of the total area of filter required.
108.5
∴ Area of one filter 2
= 54.25 m2

∴ LB = 54.25 m2

⇒ 2B2 = 54.25

⇒ B = 5.208 m ≃ 5.5 m (say)

∴ L = 2B = 2 × 5.5 = 11m

∴ Provide two filter units each of plan dimension 11m × 5.5m

Design of under – drainage system:

The under – drainage system consists of a central pipe with number of
laterals with perforations at their bottom extending in both directions.

Let area of perforations = 0.2% of filter area

0.2
= 100
× 11 × 5.5 = 0.121m2

Let area of lateral = 3 times the area of perforations

= 3 × 0.121 = 0.363 m2

Let area of central pipe = 2 times the area of lateral

= 2 × 0.363 = 0.726 m2

0.726
∴ Diameter of central pipe = √ π = 0.961 m ≃ 1 m (say)
4

This central pipe is laid along the length of filter at the centre of
filter bottom. Laterals will meet this central pipe at right angles.
11 ×100
∴ No. of laterals = 25
= 44 on either side of central
pipe.

∴ Total number of laterals in each filter unit = 44 × 2 = 88

𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Length of each lateral = =
2 2

5 .5 1
= 2
− 2
= 2.25 m

Let diameter of perforations in laterals = 10mm = 0.010 m

Total area of perforations
∴ No. of perforations required = Area of one perforation

0.121
= π = 1540.6 (Too high)
(0.01)2
4

If diameter of perforations = 15 mm then total number of perforations

0.121
= π = 684.7 ≃ 685(say)
(0.015)2
4

685
∴ No. perforation in each lateral = 88
= 7.78 ≃ 8 (say)

π
∴ Area of perforations per lateral = 8 × 4
(0.015)2 = 0.001414 m2

∴ Area of each lateral = 3 times the area of perforations in it (assumed

above)
 = 3 × 0.001414 = 0.004242 m2

0.726
∴ Diameter of each lateral = √ π = 0.0735 m = 73.5 m
4

= 7.35 cm ≃ 7.5 cm(say)

∴ Provide 88 laterals each of 7.5 cm diameter with centre to centre

spacing of 25 cm each having 8 perforations of 15 mm size with 1 m
diameter central pipe.

Wash water:

Let, rate of filter washing = 0.5m/min.

0.5 ×11 ×5.5
∴ Wash water discharge = m2 /s = 0.504 m2 /s
60

0.504
Flow velocity through for wash water = [ π ] = 1.3m/s
88 × (7.5 ×10−2)2
4

0.504
Flow velocity in central pipe of 1 m diameter = π = 0.64 m/s
(1)2
4

2.3 Describe in detail the methods employed to purify water, before

supplying to the consumers.

Solution:

Methods of purification of water: Before supplying to the consumers,

water needs to be purified to make it suitable for drinking and domestic
purposes. The various water purification methods can be broadly
classified as physical, chemical and biological treatment processes.

Physical Treatment Process: Here water is purified by employing various

physical methods. The amount of removal of impurities depends on the size
and shape of the impurities, their solubility, their density, viscosity
of water and so on.

Some of the physical treatment processes are:

 Screening: In this process the impurities get removed by

obstructing them through screens of size less than the size of the
impurities.
 Sedimentation: In this process the various impurities are allowed
to settle down in the bottom due to gravity. Denser the particle is,
more efficient will be its removal. Thus water is allowed to move
 slowly through the sedimentations tank so that sufficient time is
there for gravitational setting of particles.
 Filtration: Here water is allowed to pass through a medium which
entraps the fine impurities present in water and discharges clean
water. The amount of impurities removed depends on the type of
filter medium used. Smaller the effective size of filter openings,
more efficient is the filtration and more time and head loss of
water occurs.

Chemical treatment Process: In this, a chemical reaction is brought

about and the amount of filtration depends on the size and nature of
impurities.

 Coagulation and flocculation: Sometimes the size of impurities is so

small that it is difficult to have gravitational setting. For
setting of such impurities, flocs are generated by addition of
coagulants which trap these impurities. As the size of these flocs
increases, they settle down due to gravity.
 Ion Exchange: In this method, certain heavy ions present in water
are replaced light, non-hazardous ions. It is a very efficient
method of water purification.
 Disinfection: After water was been purified and is ready for
household supply, it needs to be disinfected so that pathogenic and
other harmful organisms get killed instantly and they do not get
generated further in the course of supply of water form treatment
plant to the consumer. Various disinfection methods are ozonation,
UV treatment, chlorination etc.

Biological Treatment process: For treatment of water, generally

biological treatment is not given as it is ensured that all the
pathogenic micro-organisms get killed in the disinfection process
itself. However biological treatment is a very important process in
the treatment of sewage.

2.4 Design a rapid sand filter system for a water supply of 9 MLD to a
township. All the principal components shall be designed. Enumerate your
assumptions during the design steps.

Solution:

Water to be filtered daily = 9 MLD = 9 × 106 𝑙/day

Let 2% filtered water is required for back washing.

 ∴ Total requirement of filtered water = 1.02 × 9 × 106 = 9.18
×106 𝑙/day

Let time required for back washing = 30 min = 0.5 hours

9.18 ×106
∴ Requirement of filtered water per hour = = 0.391 ×106 𝑙/day
(24−0.5)

Let, rate of filtration = 6500lt/hr/m2

0.391× 106
∴ = 6500
= 60.15 m2

L
Let B
= 2

∴ LB = 60.15

⇒ 2B2 = 60.15

⇒ B = 5.48 m ≃ 5.5 m (say)

∴ L = 2 B = 2 (5.5) = 11m

If two filter units are used then, area of one filter unit,
60.15
= LB = 2
= 30.075 m2

⇒ 2B2 = 30.075

⇒ B = 3.88 m ≃ 4 m (say)

∴ L = 2B = 8 m

∴ Provide two filter units each of plan dimension 4m × 8m

Design of under – drainage system:

The under – drainage consists of a central pipe with number of perforated

laterals at the bottom extending in both directions,

Let Area of perforations = 0.2% of filter area

0.2
= × 4 × 8 = 0.064m2
100

Let area of lateral = 3 times the area of perforations = 3 × 0.064 =

0.192 m2

Let area of central pipe = 2 times the area of lateral = 2 × 0.192 =

0.384 m2
 0.384
∴ Diameter of each lateral = √ π = 0.6992 m ≃ 0.7 m(say)
( )
4

This central pipe is laid along the filter length at the middle of filter
bottom. Laterals will meet this central pipe at right angles.

Let spacing of lateral = 30 cm c/c

8 ×100
∴ Number of laterals = 30
= 26.67 ≃ 27 on either side of
center pipe.

So, that number of laterals on both sides in each filter unit = 27 × 2 =

54

𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

Length of each lateral = 2
= 2

4 0.7
= 2
– 2
= 1.65 m

Let diameter of perforations in the laterals = 10 mm

Total area of perforations

∴ Number of perforations required = Area of one perforation

0.064
= π = 814.87 ≃ 815 (say)
(0.01)2
4

815
∴ Number of perforation in each lateral = 54
= 15.09 ≃ 16 (say)

π
Area of perforations per lateral = 16 × (0.01)2 = 0.001257 m2
4

∴ Area of each lateral = 3 times the area of perforations (as assumed)

= 3 × 0.001257 = 0.003771 m2

0.003771
∴ Diameter of each lateral = √ π = 0.06929 m = 6.929 ≃ 7cm
( )
4

∴ Provide 54 laterals each of 7 cm diameter with centre to centre spacing

of 30 cm having 16 perforations of 10 mm diameter with 0.7 m diameter
central pipe.

Wash water:

Let, rate of filter washing = 0.5m/min.

0.5 × 8 ×4
∴ Wash water discharge = 60
= 0.267 m3 /s

Diameter of lateral provided = 7cm

Diameter of central provided = 0.7m
0.267
∴ So, velocity of flow through lateral = π = 1.28 m/s
54 × (0.07)2
4

0.267
Flow velocity in central pipe = π = 0.694 m/s
(0.7)2
4

2.5 Measures to control water pollution.

Solution:

Measures to control water pollution: Given below are some of the methods
which can reduce the risk of water pollution:

1. Minimizing the generation of waste: Developing non – polluting

technologies which can reduce the industrial waste generation. Apart
from that, good housekeeping practices reduce the waste generation.
2. Wastewater treatment at source only: Treating the wastewater at the
point of its generation not only reduces the load on waste treatment
plants but also considerably reduces the possibility of sewage
leakage in the course of their transit to the treatment plants.
3. In – situ control of water pollution: It includes aeration of lakes,
dreading of nutrient rich sediments from eutrophic lakes etc.

2.6 Write short note on types of impurities in water in the light of

domestic supply.

Solution:

Impurities in domestic supply: The commonly found impurities in domestic

water supply are as given below. IS 10500:2012 lays down standards of
drinking water.

(1) Suspended solids: These are the insoluble matter in drinking

water. The suspended solids either be organic or inorganic.
(2) Dissolved solids: it is the amount of matter that remains in
dissolved state and is determined by evaporating a known mass of
water sample and weighing the residue left.
(3) Total solids: is the sum total of dissolved and suspends
solids. It should not exceed 500mg/l in domestic water supply.
(4) Fluoride: It helps in preventing the decay of teeth but its
excessive amount leads to mottling of teeth. It must not exceed 1
mg/l.
 (5) Sodium: Sodium (Na+) when present in excessive amount combines
with OH- which leads to corrosion.
(6) Chloride: It increases the corrosive character of water and it
must not exceed 250mg/l.
(7) Nitrate: High concentration of nitrate(NO− 3 ) causes
methaemolobinemia (blue baby disease) in infants. It must not
exceed 45mg/l.
(8) Iron: It usually causes discoloration of water and must not
exceed 0.3mg/l.
(9) pH: Potable water ideally should be neutral(pH-7). In any
case, it should be in the range of 6.5 to 8.5.
(10) Hardness: Hardness in water leads to formation of scale in the
utensils and interferes with heat exchange leading to wastage of
energy. It also prevents of scale in the utensils and interferes
with heat leading to wastage of soap also. It should not exceed
250mg/l as CaCo3.
(11) Manganese: Similar to iron, it also causes discolouration of
water and should not exceed 0.1mg/l.
(12) Heavy metals: Heavy metals like arsenic, cadmium, lead,
chromium etc. must not be there in potable water as some of them
are even carcinogenic.

3. Design of Sewer, Quality and Characteristics of Sewage

3.1 A combined sewer of a circular section is toaid to serve a particular

area. Calculate the size of the sewer.

Area = 100 hectare, Population = 1 lakh, Rate of water supply = 135lpcd.

Time of entry = 3 min: time of flow = 15 min

Average impermeability factor = 0.5

Maximum permissible velocity = 2 m/s

𝟐𝟓.𝟏 ×𝟑𝟎
Intensity of rainfall in mm/hr = 𝒕+𝟏𝟎

Solution:

Area, A = 100 ha
Population = 1 lakh = 105
Rate of water supply = 135lpcd
Time of entry Te = 3 min
 Time of flow Tf = 15 min
∴ Time of concentration, Tc = Te + Tf = 3 + 15 = 18 min
Average impermeability, factor K = 0.5
25.1 ×30
Intensity of rainfall (mm/hr) = 𝑡+10
where t is time
of concentration in minutes
25.1 ×30
i.e. Pc = = 26.89 mm/hr =
18 +10
2.689 cm/hr
1 1
∴ Peak rate of runoff, θP = KPc A = (0.5)(2.689)100 = 3.735
36 36
3
m /s
Total water supply = 135 ×105 lt/day
Let 80% of water supplies gets converted to sewage.
∴ Sewage produced per day = 0.8 ×135 ×105
108 ×105 × 10−3 ×m3
= 108 × 105 lt/day =
24 ×3600s
= 0.125 m3 /s
Let peak sewage floe is there the average sewage flow
∴ Peak sewage flow = 3 × 0.125 = 0.375 m3 /s
∴ Total maximum flow in the combined sewer, Q = 3.735 + 0.375 = 4.11
m3 /s
Maximum permissible velocity, V = 2 m/s
3
Let sewer is flowing th full at peak discharge with maximum
4
permissible velocity
Let D = sewer diameter
3 π 3π
∴ Area of flow A = 4
. 4 D2 = 16
D2 …………………(i)
Q 4.11
But A = v
= 2
= 2.055m2 ……………..(ii)
Equating equations (i) and (ii)

3π
D2 = 2.055
16
⇒ D = 1.87 m ≃1.9 m (say)
∴ Sewer of diameter 1.9 m is sufficient to carry the combined peak
discharge.

3.2 Calculate the diameter and discharge of circular sewer laid at a

slope of 1 in 400, running half full and with velocity 1.9 m/s (n =
0.012)

Solution:
1
Slope of the sewer, S = 1 in 400 = 400
 𝐷
Depth of flow, y = 2
Velocity of flow, v = 1.9 m/s
n = 0.012
Using manning’s equation,
2
1
V = 𝑛
𝑅 3 √𝑆
2
1 1
⇒ 1.9 = 𝑅3 √
0.012 400
𝐴
⇒ R = 0.308 m = (=𝑃)
1 𝜋 𝜋
Flow area, A = ( 𝐷2 ) = 𝐷2
2 4 8
πD
Wetted perimeter, P = 2
𝜋 2
𝐴 𝐷 𝐷
8
∴ Hydraulic radius, R = = πD =
𝑃 4
2
But R = 0.308 m
𝐷
⇒ 4
= 0.308
∴ Diameter of sewer = 1.232 m
𝜋 1 𝜋
Flow area, A = ( 4 𝐷2 ) 2 = 8
(1.232)2 = 0.596𝑚 2
∴ Discharge Q = vA = 1.9 × 0.596 = 1.1324 ≃ 1.13
3
m /s
∴ Discharge from the sewer is 1.13 m3 /s

3.3 The 5 day BOD of waste is 280 mg/ℓ. The ultimate BOD is reported to
be 410 mg/l. At what rate the waste is being oxidized?

Solutions:

5 Day BOD = L = BOD5 = 280 mg/ℓ

L0 = Ultimate BOD = 410 mg/ℓ
∵ L = L0 ( 1 − e−kt )
⇒ 280 = 410 ( 1 − e−k ×5 )
⇒ k = 0.23 day −1
𝐷𝐿
∴ Rate of oxidation of waste = 𝐷𝑡
= -kL = - 0.23 × - 64.4 mg/ ℓ/day

3.4 Write short notes on the following:

(i)Sewer (ii) Sewage

(iii)Sewerage system (iv) Drain and trench drain

Solution:
(i)Sewer: In wet system of disposal, the sewage is carried through pipes
running partially full making it open channel flow. These sewage carrying
pipes are called as sewers.

(ii) Sewage: The waste products arising out from domestic use along with
human faces are mixed with sufficient quantity of water thereby bringing
the waste in a flow able condition. This mixture of waste and water is
called as sewage.

(iii)Sewerage system: The collective process of collecting the sewage,

treating the sewage and finally disposing it off is referred to as
sewerage system. It includes sewer and sewage along with sewer
appetencies.

(iv)Drain and trench drain:

Drain: It means to remove (or carry) water (rain water, waste water,
agricultural water etc.) from (to) an area by redirecting its flow away
from (to) the area by providing a confined flow path. This confined flow
path may either be lined or unlined.

Trench drain: It is a type of lined drain whose top edge is flushed with
the adjoining area and is used to drain out the water or to carry the
fluid (chemicals etc.) many times it is also used to carry the utility
services like electricity wires, telephone lines, LAN cables etc.
Covering its top surface with a grating prevents the entry of debris into
the trench drains.

3.5 Discuss, in detail the physical and chemical characteristics of

sewage.

Solution:

Physical characteristics of sewage:

(i)Odour: Fresh sewage is almost odorless but as times elapses, it starts

to emit foul gases due to decomposition of organic matter thereby making
deficiency oxygen in the sewage oxygen deficient.

(ii)Colour: Fresh sewage is yellowish in colour. Due to further

decomposition of organic matter in sewage, its colour changes to dark
brown or black. Sometimes, presence of certain specific element (s) from
industrial waste may give specific colour to sewage.
(iii)Turbidity: Normally sewage is turbid and may also contain floating
matter like match sticks, greases, oils, paper pieces etc.

(iv)Temperature: In general, temperature of sewage is slightly higher

than the fresh water due utilization of water which adds heat into the
waste – water though to very small extent. As the temperature of sewage
increases, the dissolved oxygen content in the sewage decreases.

Chemical characteristics of sewage:

(i) Chloride content: The normal chloride content in domestic sewage is

about 120mg/l. However industrial waste may contain a higher amount of
chloride.

(ii)pH: Fresh sewage is alkaline i.e. its pH is greater than 7. Due to

decomposition of sewage, acids are produced which lowers the pH of
sewage.

(iii)Solids content: The solids present in sewage may be classified as

dissolved solids, suspended solids and settable solids. Collectively all
these types of solids are called as total solids. Dissolved solids get
dissolved in sewage while suspended solids a float in the sewage. That
portion of total solids that settle out in the bottom of the vessel is
called as settle able solids.

(iv)Dissolved oxygen (DO): In sewage, it must be ensured that a certain

minimum amount of dissolved oxygen is always there for sustaining the
aquatic life. The dissolved oxygen in the sewage goes on reducing due to
decomposition of organic matter if treatment of sewage is not done. As
temperature of the sewage increases, Do content decreases.

(v)Chemical oxygen demand (COD): The organic matter present in sewage

may be biologically active (i.e. biodegradable) and /or biologically (or
non – biodegradable). BOD is the amount of oxygen required to oxidize the
biologically active i.e. bio – degradable organic matter. Nitrites are
intermediate stage of decomposition of organic matter. Nitrates are the
end product of biological decomposition of organic matter.

3.6 Define the term BOD, COD and TDS. The 5 day 30o C BOD of sewage
sample is 110 mg/l. Calculate its 5 days 20 oC BOD. Assume the
deoxygenating constant at 20oC, 𝒌𝟐𝟎 , as 0.1.

Solution:

BOD: Organic matter present in sewage is of two viz.

(i) Biologically active or biodegradable organic matter.

(ii) Biologically inactive or non – biodegradable organic matter.

The amount of oxygen required for oxidation of biodegradable organic

matter is called as bio – chemical oxygen demand or the BOD.

COD: It is the amount of oxygen required for oxidation of both

biologically active and biologically inactive organic matter i.e., the
amount of oxygen required for oxidation of entire organic matter.

The COD of a sewage sample is determined by oxidizing the sample with a

strong oxidizing agent like potassium permagnate (KMn𝑂4 ) pr potassium
dichromate (K 2 Cr2 O7 ).

TDS: On filtering a sample of water, the suspended solids remain on the

filter while the matter passing through the filter is considered to be
dissolved. This dissolved matter left as a residue on evaporation is
called as total dissolved solids (TDS)

Given, at 30o C BOD5 = 110mg/𝑙

𝑘20 = 0.1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1
𝑁𝑜𝑤, K T = K 20 (1.047)T−20
∴ K 30 = 0.1 (1.047)30−20 = 0.158𝑑𝑎𝑦 −1

When T =30o C
BOD5 = L0 ( 1 − 10−k30 t )
⇒ 110 = L0 ( 1 − 10−0.158×5 )
⇒ L0 = 131.29 mg/l
Ultimate BOD (L0 )remains the same irrespective of temperature.
∴ When T = 200 C L0 = 131.29 mg/l

∴ BOD5 = L0 ( 1 − 10−k20 t )
⇒ BOD5 = 131.29 ( 1 − 10−0.01×5 ) = 89.77 mg/l
∴ BOD5 at 200 = 89.77 mg/l

4. Treatment and Disposing of Sewage

4.1 What is the mechanism involved in treatment of waste water (sewage)

by septic tank?

Solution:
Treatment of sewage by septic tank: In septic tank, the treatment of
sewage is carries out by anaerobic decomposition. Septic tank is a sort
of sedimentation tank with detention period ranging from 12 hours to 36
hours. The settled sludge gets digested in the bottom of the tank.
Anaerobic decomposition evolves obnoxious gases and thus the septic tank
is covered with a lid provided with a shaft for the escape of gases so
formed. The digested sludge at eh bottom of the tank is removed
periodically (usually in intervals of 3 months or 6 months).

Septic tank is required where there is no sewer system for disposing off
the wastes.

4.2 Design a septic tank for a small colony of 300 persons with average
daily sewage flow of 85 litres per head. Detention period is 30 hours.
Clearing interval is 6 months.

Solution:

Population = 300
Average daily sewage flow = 85 liters per head
Detention period, t d = 30 hours
Cleaning interval = 6 months
Sewage produced per day = 85 × 300 = 25500 liters/day
∵Detention period is 30 hours and thus sewage produced in 30 hours
25500
= 24
× 30 = 31875 liters = 31.875m3
Let rate of sludge deposition in septic tank = 30 lit/capita/year
∴ In the given cleaning interval of 6 months, volume of sludge
deposited in the septic tank
= 30 × 300 × 0.5 = 4500 lit. = 4.5 m3
∴ Total volume of septic tank required
= 31.875 + 4.5 = 36.375 m3
Let depth of tan = 1.5 m
36.375
∴ Plan area of tank = 1.5
= 24.25m3
L
Let B
= 2
∴ L = 2B
∴ LB = 24.25
⇒ (2B) B = 24.25
⇒ B = 2.482 m
∴ L = 2B = 2 (3.482) = 6.964 m
Let a free board of 300 mm is provided.
∴ Overall depth of tank = 1.5 + 0.3 = 1.8 m
Width of tank = 3.482 m ≃ 3.5 m
 Length of tank = 6.964 m ≃7 m
∴ Size of septic tank = 7 m × 3.5 m × 1.8m

4.3 A town on the bank of river Ganga discharges 18000𝐦𝟑 𝐝𝐚𝐲 −𝟏 of treated
wastewater into the river. The treated wastewater has a 𝐁𝐎𝐃𝟓 of 20 mg 𝐋−𝟏
and A BOD decay constant of 0.12 𝐝𝐚𝐲 −𝟏 at 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐂. The river has a flow rate
of 0.43𝐦𝟑 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 and an ultimate BOD of 5.0 mg 𝐋−𝟏. The DO of the river is
6.0 mg 𝐋−𝟏 and the DO of the wastewater is 0.4 mf 𝐋−𝟏 . Compute the Do and
initial ultimate BOD in the river, immediately after mixing.

Solution:

Discharge of treated wastewater,

Qt = 18000m3 /day

5 day BOD of treated wastewater,

BOD5 t = 20 mg/l

Ultimate BOD of treated wastewater,

BOD5 t 20
BODt = (1−10−kt )
= (1−10−0.12 × 5 )
= 26.71 mg/l

Do of treated wastewater,DOt = 0.4 mg/l

Discharge of river Ganga, QR = 43m3 /s = 0.43 × 3600 × 24 m3 /day

= 37152 m3 /day

Ultimate BOD of river, BODR = 5.0 mg/l

Do of water, DOR = 6.0 mg/l

QR BODR +Qt BODt
Ultimate BOD of the mix, BOD𝐦𝐢𝐱 = QR + Qt

37152 ×5.0+18000 ×26.77

= 37152+18000
= 12.1 mg/l

QR DOR +Qt DOt

DO of the mix, DO𝐦𝐢𝐱 = QR + Qt

37152 ×6.0+18000 ×0.4

= 37152+18000
= 4.17 mg/l

4.4 What is girt? Why should grit be removed from wastewater? What is the
basic principle behind the design of girt chambers? What is the reason to
have constant velocity of flow in grit chamber [conventional horizontal
flow] and how is it achieved?

Solution:

Grit chambers or grit channels, as they are usually called, are the
sedimentation basins placed usually after the fine screens and certainly,
before the primary sedimentation tank. The grit chamber removes the
inorganic grit such as sand, gravel, and other mineral matter that has a
nominal diameter of 0.15 to 0.20 mm or more.

Grit removal basins, such a s Grit chamber or Grit channels or Detritus

tank are the sedimentation basins placed in front of the wastewater
treatment plant to remove the inorganic particles such as sand, gravel,
grit shells, bones and other non – putresible materials that may clog
channels or damage pump due to abrasion and to prevent their accumulation
in sludge digestors.

Grit chambers are infect, nothing but like sedimentation tanks designed
to separate the intended heavier inorganic materials by the process of
sedimentation due to gravitation forces and to pass forward the lighter
organic materials.

The basic principal in the design of the grit chambers is that the flow
velocity should neither be too low as to cause the setting of lighter
matter organic matter, nor should it be so high as not to cause the
settlement of the entire silt and girt present in sewage.

If there are large variations in discharge, then the grit chamber is

designed for generating optimum velocity at peak discharge and velocity
control section, such as a properly designed modified weir, called a
proportional flow or a sutro weir, is provided at the lower end of the
rectangular grit channel, which helps in varying the flow area of the
section in direct proportion to the flow, and thus, helps to maintain a
constant velocity in the channel (within the permissible limits of ± 5 tp
10% over the designed value), even at varying discharges.

4.5 Determine the dissolved oxygen at the end of 2 days for the following
data.

Characteristics Stream Waste

water water
3
Flow (m /sec) 22 3
DO(mg/liter) 10 0
 BOD(mg/liter) 3 190

Assume:

Deoxygenation constant K = 0.11 per day

Reoxygenation constant R = 0.33 per day

Solution:

QR DOR +QW DOW

DO𝐦𝐢𝐱 = QR + QW

22 ×10 +3 ×0
= 25
= 4.17 mg/l

22 ×3 +3 ×190
BOD𝐦𝐢𝐱 = 25
= 25.44 mg/l

DO = initial oxygen deficit = 9.2 – 8.8 = 0.4 mg/l

Ko to
Dt = [10−kd t −10−kR t ] + [D10 × 10−kr t ]
kR − kD

0.11 × 25.44
= [10−0.11 ×2 −10−0.33 ×2 ] + [0.4 × 10−0.33 ×2 ]
0.33−0.11

= 4.969 mg/l

Dt = 9.2 – 4.969 = 4.23 mg/l

5. Air and Sound Pollution

5.1 Define air pollution. Enlist natural and manmade air pollution. What
are the effects of air pollution on human, plant and materials?

Solution:

Air pollution: When the air gets contaminates with such substances so
that the resulting air poses life threat to human and other living
organisms then this is called as air pollution. These substance which
pollute the air are called as air pollutants.

Natural air pollution: Natural air pollution is caused due to:

(i) Duststroms
(ii) Volcanoes spreading ash and other toxic gases in the
environment
Man made air pollution: Manmade air pollution is caused due to:

(i) Emission from automobiles

(ii) Industrial emission
(iii) Dust originating from construction sites
(iv) Open air burning of agricultural wastes and other refuse
(v) Excessive use CFC as refrigerant
(vi) Burning of coal in thermal power plants

Effects of air pollution: Air pollution has many hazardous effects on

human, plants and other living beings. These are enumerated below:

(i) Sulphur dioxide causes irritation when inhaled and has an

adverse effect on the mucous membrane. It increases the breathing
rate and causes oxygen deficiency.
(ii) Hydrogen sulphide is a foul smelling gas and cause headache,
sleeplessness and conjunctivitis along with pain in the eye.
Higher concentration of this pollutant may lead to blockage of
oxygen transfer in humans.
(iii) Carbon monoxide: It results due to incomplete combustion of
coal. When inhaled, it replaces oxygen in hemoglobin and forms
carboxy – hemoglobin (CO.Hb) and thus human tissues gets devoid
of oxygen which may lead to death.
(iv) Oxides of nitrogen: There area total of five oxides of
nitrogen viz N2 O, NO, NO2 , NO3 and N2 O5 . Among these, only the NO and
NO2 are injurious to human health. These cause nasal and eye
irritation along with respiratory disorder.
(v) Lead: lead cause irritation to mucous membranes of nose,
throat and lungs. Lead has fatal effect on gastrointestinal
tract, kidney and lever. It retards mental growth.
(vi) Fluorides: hydrogen fluoride and other fluorides cause
fluorosis in cattle.Certain varieties of fluorides are highly
irritant and corrosive in nature.
(vii) Benzene: Benzene and other aromatic hydrocarbons cause
canser.

5.2 Classify the solid wastes, giving suitable example for each of them.
Also explain the different methods of disposal of solid wastes.

Solution:

Refuse represents the dry wastes or solid wastes of the society except
human excreta and sullage. It includes garbage, ashes, rubbish, dust,
etc.

(i) Garbage includes all sorts of putrescible organic wastes

obtained from kitchens, hotels, restautants, etc. All waste food
 articles, vegetable peelings, fruit peelings, etc., are thus
included in this term.
(ii) Ashes denote the incombustible waste products from heaths and
furnaces, and houses or industries.
(iii) Rubbish includes all non – putrescible wastes except ashes.
It, thus includes all combustible and non- combustible wastes such
as rage, paper pieces, broken pieces of glass and furniture, card
boards, broken crockery, etc.

Besides the technical classification based on the type of wastes, the

refuse may also be classified, depending on its source, as: (i) house
refuse; (ii) street refuse and (iii) Trade refuse.

Collection of refuse: The refuse is generally collected in individual

houses in small containers and from there, it is collected by sweepers in
small hand driven lorries/carts and then dumped into the masonry chambers
constructed along roadsides by municipalities. The refuse is finally
carted away by municipal trucks, for further disposal during some day
time.

Disposal of refuse:

The refuse can be disposed of by various methods, such as

(a) Sanitary land filing: In this method of refuse disposal,

refuse is carried and dumped into the low lying area under an
engineered operation, designed and operated according to the
acceptable standards, as not to cause any nuisance or hazards to
public health or safety. Area method and trench method are two
methods of land filing which are usually adopted.
(b) Burning or incineration: Burning of refuse at high
temperatures in furnaces called incinerators is quite a sanitary
method of refuse disposal and is widely adopted in USA where the
refuse is of high calorific value and hence quite suitable for
burning. The heat produced during burning of the refuse is used in
the form of steam power for running turbines to generate
electricity.
(c) Barging it out into the sea: This method may be used to
dispose of refuse by throwing it away into the sea, after carrying
it at reasonable distance from the coast. The sea depth at such
disposal point should not be less than 30m or so, and the direction
of the currents should be as not to bring it back towards the shore.
(d) Pulverization: In this method refuse is pulverized in
grinding machine, so as to reduce its volume and to change its
physical character. The grinded or pulverized refuse becomes
practically odorless and unattractive to this insects.
 (e) Composting: It is biological method of decomposing solid
wastes. This decomposition can be effected either under aerobic or
anaerobic conditions or both. The final end product is manure called
compost or human, which is in great demand as fertilizer for farms.

SSC – JE: Paper – II

(Conventional)

Unit IX Theory of
Structures
1. Properties of Metals, Stress & Strain

1.1 A bar 40 mm in diameter is subjected to a tensile force of 40000 kg.

The extension of bar measured over a gauge length of 200 mm was 0.318 mm.
the decrease in diameter was found to be 0.02 mm. Calculate the values of
Young’s modulus of elasticity and modulus or rigidity of the material.

Solution:

Pull, P = 40000 kg = 400 kN

 Gauge length, ℓ = 200mm

Extension, ∆ ℓ = 0.318 mm

∆ℓ 0.318
∴ Strain, ∈ = l
= 200
= 1.59 × 10−3

π π
Cross – sectional area of bar, A = 4
d2 = 4
(0.04)2 = 1.2566 × 10−3 m2

P 400 × 103
∴ Stress, σ = A
= 1.2566 × 10−3
N/m2 = 318.319 × 106 N/m2

σ 318.319 × 106
∴ Modulus of elasticity, E = ϵ
= 1.59 × 10−3
N/m2 = 200.2 × 109 N/m2 ≃2
×105 N/m2

Given; Decrease in diameter, ∆ d = 0.02mm

∆d 0.02
∴ Lateral strain, = = 5 × 10−4
d 40

∆d
5 × 10−4
∴ Poisson’s ratio, μ = d
= = 3.145 × 10−1 ≃
40 1.59× 10−3
0.315
mE
∴ Modulus of rigidity, G = 2(m+1)

E 2 × 105
= 1 = 2(1.315)
2(1+ )
m

= 0.7605 × 105 N/𝑚m2 = 7.6 × 104 N/𝑚m2

2.2 When a bar of certain material 40 cm square is subjected to an axial

pull of 100, 000 n the extension on a gauge length of 200 mm is 0.1 mm
and the decrease in each side of the square is 0.005 mm. calculate
Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, shear modulus and bulk modulus for the
material.

Solution:

Size of square bar = 40 cm × 40 cm = 0.4 m × 0.4 m

∴ Cross – sectional area of bar, A = 0.4 × 0.4 = 0.16 m2

Gauge length, ℓ = 200mm

 Extension, ∆ ℓ = 0.1 mm
∆ℓ 0.1
∴ Strain, ∈ = l
= 200
= 5 × 10−4

Decrease in side of square, ∆a = 0.005 mm

∆d 0.005
∴ Lateral strain, d
= 400
= 1.25 × 10−5

∆a
a 1.25 × 10−5
∴ Poisson’s ratio, μ = = = 0.025
∈ 5 × 10−4

P 100 ×1000
σ
∴ Modulus of elasticity, E = ϵ
= A
ϵ
= 0.16
5 × 10−4
= 1250N/mm2

mE E 1250
Shear modulus, G = 2(m+1)
= 2(1+μ) = 2(1+0.025)
= 609.76 N/mm2

mE E 1250
Bulk modulus, K = 3(m−2)
= 3 (1−2 μ) = 3 (1−2 ×0.025)
= 438.6 N/mm2

1.3 A solid shaft transmits 250 kW at 100 rpm. If the shear stress is not
to exceed 75𝐍/𝐦𝐦𝟐, what should be the diameter of shaft? If this shaft
is to be replaced by a hollow shaft whose internal diameter shall be 0.6
times the outer diameter, determine the size and percentage saving in
weight, maximum stress being same.

Solution:

Given, τmix = 75N/mm2 , N = 100 rpm, Power, P = 250kW

2π NT
We know that, P = 60
60P 60 ×250
∴ T = = = 23.87 kNm
2πN 2π ×100

(i)Diameter of shaft based on strength criteria

We know, Tmax = τmax ZP

Assuming Tmax = Tmean = 23.8 kNm

π × D3
∴ 23.87 × 106 = 16

16 ×23.87 × 106
D3 = 75 π

1
16 ×23.87 ×106 3
D = ( 75 π
) = 117.468 mm

(ii) Now this shaft is replaced by a hollow shaft whose

 Internal dia = Di
Outer dia = Do

Given, Di = 0.6 Do

Also, Tmax = τmax ZP

π(D40 –D 4i )
23.87 × 106 = 75 × 16Do

D40 − (0.6 Do )4 16 ×23.87 × 106

Do
= 75 π

D40 − 0.1296 D40 16 ×23.87 × 106

Do
= 75 π

16 ×23.87 × 106
0.8704 D30 = 75 π

Do = 123.03mm

Di = 0.6 Do = 73.82 mm

(ii)Percentage saving in weight

C C
area of solid shaft − area of hollow shaft
S S
= C
area of soild shaft
S
πD2 π
− ( D2o − D2i D2 − (D2o −D2i )
4 4
= πD2
= D2
4
(117.468)2− [(123.03)2− (73.82)2 )]
= (117.468) 2
= 02979
Hence, 29.79% of weight is saved

2. Shear Force and Bending Moment

2.1Draw SF and BM diagrams for the beam with applied moments as shown in
figure.

Solution:
 ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0

⇒ R A (L) + M = 0

M
⇒ RA = - L
i.e., R A is acting downwards

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ RA + RB = 0
M
⇒ RB = - RA = L
(↑)

Portion AC: 0 ≤ x ≤ a
M
SF = - L
M
BM = - L
x

M
At x = a, BM = - a
L

Portion CB: a ≤ x ≤ L
M
SF = - L
M x
BM = - L
x + M = M (1 − L)

a
At x = a, BM = M (1 − )
L

At x = L, BM = 0

2.1Draw SF and BM diagrams for the beam having overhangs on both sides
and loaded as shown in figure.

Solution:
 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ R B + R C = 2 (12) = 24kN ………….(i)

∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
3 9
⇒ R B (8) + 2 × 3 × = 2 × 9 ×
2 2

⇒ R B = 9 kN

∴ Rc = 24 - R B = 24 – 9 = 15 kn

Portion AB: 0 ≤ x ≤ 1m

SF = -2x (Linear
variation)
x
BM = - 2x 2
= - x2 (Parabolic
variation)

Portion BC: 1m ≤ x ≤ 9m

SF = -2x + R B = 9 – 2x (Linear
variation)
x
BF = - 2x 2
+R B (x – 1)
x
= - 2x 2
+R B (x – 1)

= -x – 9 - x 2
(Parabolic variation)

At x = 1 m, SF = – 7 kN

BM = -1 kNm

At x = 9m SF = - 9kN

BM = -9kNm
When SF = 0

⇒ 9 – 2x = 0

⇒ x = 4.5 m (from A)

∴ BM is maximum at x = 4.5 m

BMmax = 9(4.5) − 9 (4.5)2 = 11.25kNm

 Portion CD: 9x ≤ x ≤ 12m

SF = - 2x + R B + R c
= - 2x + 24
(Linear variation)
(12−x)2
MB = -2 = -(12 − x)2 (Parabolic
2
variation)

At x = 9 m, SF = -2(9) + 24 = 6kN

BM = - (12 − 9)2 = -9 kNm

At x = 12m, SF = -2(12) + 24 = 0

BM = -(12 – 12) = 0

Point of infection where BM changes sign i.e., BM = 0

9x – 9 - x 2 = 0
∴ x = 1.146m, 2.784m

2.3 Draw SF and BM diagrams for beam loaded with varying load as shown in
figure.

Solution:

Let x is measured from A.

x
∴ Variation of loading w = 200 (1 − ) N/m ∀ ≤ x ≤ 9 m
9
 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

1
⇒ RA + RB = 2
(200) 9 = 900N ………….(i)

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0

1 2
⇒ R A (9) = (200) 9 ( ) 9
2 3

⇒ R A = 900 - R A = 900 – 600 =300 N

∴ R B = 900 - R A = 900 – 600 = 300 N

Shear force at distance ‘x’ from A = SF

1 x
= RA − 2
[200 + 200 (1 − )] x
9
x
= 600 – 100 [ 2 − ] x
9
100x2
= 600 – 200 x + 9
(Which is parabolic
variation)
100x2
= 9
− 200x + 600

When SFx = 0

x2
⇒ 100 9
− 200x + 600 = 0

⇒ x = 3.804 m

(other value x = 14.196 m is inadmissible being greater

than span of 9m)

Bending moment at “x” = BMx

x
1 x 2 × 200+200 (1− ) x
9
= RA − [200 + 200 (1 − )] x [ x ]
2 9 200+200 (1− ) 3
9
x
x 400+200 (1− ) x2
9
= 600x – 100 [ 2 − ] [ x ]
9 200+200 (1− ) 3
9
x
x x2 3−
9
= 600x – 100 (2 − 9) ( ) [ 3
x ]
2−
9
100 x
= 600x - 3
x 2 (3 − 9)
100
= 600x – 100x 2 = 27
x3
x3
= 100 ( −x 2 + 6x) (Which is cubic
27
variation)
dBmx
For, maximum BM, =0
dx
 x2
⇒ 100 ( − 2x + 6) = 0
9

⇒ x = 3.804m

Which is the same point where shear force becomes

zero.

Thus maximum bending moment point corresponds to zero shear force

3.804 3
∴ BMmax = 100 [ 27
− 3.8042 + 6(3.804] = 1.39.23 kNm

Also since BM does not change sign. No point of inflection.

2.4 Draw SF and BM diagram for the beam shown in figure.

Solution:

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 ; R A + R B = 2 × 4 = 8kN

⇒ R A (8) = 2 × 4 × 6

⇒ R A = 6 kN

∴ R B = 8 - R A = 8 – 6 = 2 kN

Let x = Distance of any point on beam measured form A.

Portion AD:0 ≤ x ≤ 4 m

SF = −x = 6 – 2x
 SF(x=0) = 6 kN = SFA
SF(x=4) = - 2 kN = SFD
x
BM = R A x - 2x 2
= 6x - x 2

Portion DB: 4 m ≤ x ≤ 8 m

SF = −4 × 2 = 6 – 8 = -2 kN
SF(x=6) = - 2 kN = SFC
SF(x=8) = - 2 kN = SFB

BM = R Ax – 4 × 2 (x -2) = 6x – 8(x-2) = 16 -2x

BMD = 6(4) – (4)2 = 8 kNm

BMC = 16 – 2(6) = 4kNm

SF = 0 ⇒ x = 3 m

BM(x=3) = 6(3) – 3 = 9 kNm

i.e., BMmax = 9 kNm

2.5 Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the shown in
figure.

Solution:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ R A+R B = 2 × 4 + 6 + 3 +× 2 = 23kN …………………(i)

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

⇒ R B (10) = 2 ×4 × 2 + 6 × 4 + 3 × 6 + 3 × 2 × 1

⇒ R B = 23 - R B = 23 – 12.4 = 10.6 kN

Portion AD: 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 m

SF = R A − 2x = 10.6 – 2x (Linear)

When SF = 0, . x = 5.3 m > 4 m (Inadmissible)

At x = 4 m, SF = 2.6 kN i.e., SFA = 10.6 kN and SFD = 2.6 kN

 x
BM = R A x − 2x 2 = 10.6x - x 2 (Paraboilc)

Maximum BM will occur where SF is Zero i.e., x = 5.3 > 4m

At x = 4 m, MB = 10.6 (4) - 42 = 26.4 kNm = BMD and BMA = 0

Portion DE: 4 m≤ x ≤ 4 m

SF = R A − 2 × 4 − 6 = 10.6 – 8 – 6 = - 3.4 kN = SFD = SFE

(Constant)

BM = R A x − 2 × 4 × (x − 2) − 6(x − 74)
= 10.6x – 8x + 16 – 6x + 24
= - 3.4x + 40 (Linear variation)

At x = 4 m, BM = - 3.4(4) + 4 = 26.4 kNm =BMD

At x = 6 m, BM = - 3.4(6) + 40 = 19.6 kNm =BME

Portion EB: 6 m≤ x ≤ 40 m

SF = R A − 2 × 4 − 6 − 3
= 10.6 – 8 – 6 – 3 = - 6.4 kN = SFE = SFB
BM = R A x − 2 × 4 (x − 2) − 6(x − 4) − 3(x − 6)
= - 6.4x + 58 (Linear variation)

At x = 6 m, BM = 19.6 kNm = BME

At x = 10 m, BM = -6 kNm = BMB

BM = 0

⇒ 6.4x = 58 or x = 9.0625 m

Portion BC: 10 m≤ x ≤ 12 m

SF = R A − 2 × 4 − 6 − 3 + R B − 3(x − 10)

= 10.6 – 8 – 9 + 12.4 – 3x + 30

= 36 – 3x (Linear variation)

At x = 10 m, SF = 6 kN = SFB

At x = 12 m, SF = 0 =SFC

(12−x)2
BM = -3
2
3
= − (12 − x)2 (Parabolic variation)
2
At x = 10 m, BM = - 6 kN = BMB

At x = 12 m, BM = 0 =BMC

2.6 Analyze the beam shown in figure and determine the end moment. Plot
the BMD on the tension side.

Solution:

Analysing the beam using moment distribution method:

6 ×1 × 32
MFAB = − 42
= - 3.375 tm

6 ×3 × 12
MFBA = + 42
= + 1.125 tm

2 × 42
MFBC = − = - 2.67 tm
12

2 × 42
MFCB = + = + 2.67 tm
12

MFCD = −3 × 1 = -3 tm

Distribution Factors:

Joint Members Stiffness (k) D.F

BA 4E (3Ι)
= 3EI 0.429
4
B
BA 4E (4Ι)
= 4EI 0.571
4

CB 4E (4Ι)
= 4EI 1
C 4

CD 0 0
Moment
Distribution:

MAB = −3.028 tm
MBA = 1.8125 tm
MBC = −1.8125 tm
MCB = 3 tm
MCD = −3 tm
MDC = 0 tm

Alternative solution by slope deflection method:

2E
MAB = MFAB + (3I)(θB ) = - 3.375 + 1.5 EIθB
4
(∵θA = 0)
2E
MBA = MFBA+ (3I)(2θB ) = 1.125 + 3EI θB
4

2E
MBC = −2.67+ (4I)(2θB + θC ) = -2.67 + 4EI θ B + 2 EI θC
4

2E
MCB = 2.67+ 4
(4I)(2θC + θB ) = 2.67 + 2EI θB + 4 EI θC

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ MBA + MBC = 0

⇒ 1.125 + 3EI θB − 2.67 +4 EI θB + 2EI θC = 0

⇒ 7 EIθB + 2EI θC = 1.545

……………………..(i) ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0
⇒ MCB + MCD = 0

⇒ 2.67 + 2EI θB +4 EI θB -3 = 0

⇒ EI θB + 2EI θC = 0.165
………………(ii)

From eq. (i) and (ii)

EI θB = 0.23

EI θC = -0.0325

∴ MAB = -3.03 tm

MBA = 1.815 tm

MBC = - 1.815 tm

MCB = 3tm

2.7 Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram and label the values
of the largest positive and negative shearing forces and bending moments
for the beams with overhang a shown in figure.

Solution:

∵ Relative position of UDL either from support A or B is not given.

∴ Assume UDL to be centrally located on span AB

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ R A + R B = 10 × 100 + 1000 = 2000 kg

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

∴ R B (180) = 10 × 100 ×(40 + 50) + 1000(240)

⇒ R B = 1833.33 kg

∴ R A = 2000 - R B = 166.67 kg

Shear Force:

0 < x < 40

SF = R A = 166.67kg

40 < x < 140

SF = R A − 10(x − 10))

SFD = 166.67 – 10 (140 – 40) = 833.33 kg

180 < x < 240

SF = R A + R B − 10 × 100 = 1000kg

SFC = SFB = 1000 kg

SF = 0, BMmax

166.67 – 10(x – 40) = 0

Bending Moment:

0 < x < 40

BM = R A x

BME = 166.67 × 40 = 6666.8 kgcm

180 < x < 240

BM = R A x + R B (x − 180) − 10 × 100(x − 90)

BMB(x =180)= -59999.4 kgcm ≃ - 60000 kg cm

BMC = 0
 0 < x < 140

10 (x−40)2
BM = R A x − 2

BM(x =56.67) = BMmax = + 8055.74 kg cm (Parabolic variation)

BM(x =140) = - 26666.2 kg cm

2.8 Draw BMD and SFD for the beam shown below:

Solution:

Reactions:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

R b + R d = 2 × 12 + 8 = 32

And ∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0, R b × 2 − 8 × 3 − 2 × 12 × 9 = 0
24+216
⇒ Rb = 12
= 2 kN

∴ R d = 32 – 20 = 12kN

For SFD:

Portion AB:

Sx (x from A) = -2x

at, x = 0, SA = 0
 at, x = 3, SB (just left of B) = -6 kN

Portion BC:

Sx (x from A) = -2x +R b

= -2x + 20

at, x = 3, SB (just right of B) = -2 × 3 + 20 = 14 kN

at, x = 12, SC (just left of C) = -2 × 12 + 20 = -4 kN

Portion CD:

Sx (x from A) = -R d

= - 12 kN-m

at, x = 0, SD (just left of D) = -12 kN- m

at, x = 3, SC (just right of C) = -12 kN - m

For BMD:

Portion AB:
𝑥
Mx (x from A) = -2x. 2
= −x 2

at, x = 0, MA = 0

at, x = 3, MB (just left of B) = −32 = - 9 kN-m

Portion BC:
𝑥
Mx (x from A) = -2x . 2
= −x 2

= −x 2 + 20x − 60

at, x = 3, MB (just right of B) = −32 + 20 × 3 − 60 = - 9 kN-m

at, x = 12, MC(just left of C) = −122 + 20 × 12 − 60 = 36 kN-m

Portion CD:

Mx (x from D) = R d . x= 12x

at, x = 0, MD = 0

at, x = 3, MC (just right of C) = 12 × 3 = 36 kN-m

In portion BC

For BM to be zero, Mx = 0

⇒ −x 2 + 20x − 60 = 0

⇒ x = 3.675 m (other root is beyond portion BC)

∴ Point of contra flexure is 3.675 from left end A.

dMx
For BM to be maximum, dx
= 0

d
⇒ dx
(−x 2 + 20x − 60) = 0

⇒ -2x + 20 = 0

⇒ x = 10 m (from left end A)

∴ (Mx )max = - (10)2 + 20 × 10 − 60

= 40kN-m (Sagging)

2.9Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for the beam as shown
below:

Solution:

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0,

R B × 6 − 18 × 8 − 5 × 4 × 2 − 10 = 0
⇒ R B = 32.33 kN

⇒ R A = 5.67 kN

Now, For SFD

SFA = 5.67 kN (↑)

SFC = 5.67 – 5 × 4 = -14.33 kN

To find x, using similar triangle

x 4−x
5.67
= 14.33

⇒ x = 1.134 m

To draw BMD

MA = 0

5 × (1.134)2
ME = 5.67 × 1.134 2
= 3.215 kNm

MC (just left) = 5.67 × 4 – 5 × 2 = - 17.32 kNm

MC (just left ) = -17.32 + 010 = - 7.32 kNm

MB = - 18 × 2 = -36kNm

To find point of contra flexure,

 Mx = 0
x
⇒ 5.67 × x – 5 × x × 2
= 0

⇒ x = 2.268 m

3.Bending and Shear Stresses

3.1 The I – Beam shown in figure is simply supported at its ends over a 4
m span and carries central load of 50000 N which acts through the
centroid, the line of action being as shown in figure. Calculate the
maximum stress.

Solution:

1
PH = P cos600 = 50 × = 25 kN
2

√3
Pv = P cos600 = 50 × 2
= 25 √3 kN

Horizontal force (PH ) will cause torsion in beam and vertical force (Pv )
will cause bending in beam

55 cm 0.55 0.55
∴ Torsion moment, T = PH × 2
= (25kN) ( 2
) = (25kN) (
2
) = 6.875
kNm

Pv L 25√3 ×4
Bending moment, M = 4
× 4
= 25 √3 kN
 5503 (550−2 ×15 )3
Ixx = 190× 12
− (190 − 15) 12

= 26.343 × 108 − 20.505 × 108 = 5.838 × 108 mm4

1903 (190−15 )3
Iyy = 500 × 12
− (550 − 2 × 15) 12

= 3.144 × 108 − 2.322 × 108 = 0.822 × 108 mm4

∴ Polar moment of inertia, J = Ixx + Iyy = (5.838 + 0.822) × 108

= 6.66 × 108 mm4

∴ Maximum shear stress due to torsion is given by,

fs T
r
= J

T 6.875 × 106 0.55

⇒ fs max = r = ×( ) = 2.84 N/mm2
J 6.66 × 108 2

Maximum bending stress is given by

f M
=
y I

M 25 √3 × 106 0.55
⇒ fb max = y = ×( ) = 20.4 N/mm2
Ixx 5.838 × 108 2

Also, at supports shear force is maximum and thus there maximum shear
stress will also occur.

Pv 25√3
Maximum shear force, V = 2
= 2
= 12.5√3 kN = 21.65 kN

PH 25
Maximum shear force due to PH (H) = 2
= 2
= 12.5 kN

Let q1 = Maximum shear stress due to vertical shear force

(V)

V B
= ( (D2 − d2 ) + d2 )
8 𝐼 xx tW
 12.5 √3 × 103 190
= [ (5502 − 5202 ) + 5202 ] = 3.14 N/mm2
8 × 5.830 × 108 15

q2 = Maximum shear stress due to horizontal shear force

(H)
H
= Ixx b
(Ax̅)

b = 2 ×15 = 30 mm

190 15 190 15 1
Ax̅ = 2 ×15( − )= ( − ) = 114843.75 mm3
2 2 2 2 2

12.5 × 103
∴ q2 = 0.822 × 108 ×30
(114843.75) = 0.583 N/mm2

∵ At supports, shear stress, q1 and q2 are acting at different locations

of the beam section and thus they cannot be added up.

At mid – span section,

Maximum bending stress = 20.4 N/mm2

And maximum shear stress = 2.84 N/mm2

4. Deflection of Beams

4.1 Determine the slope and deflection at the free end of the cantilever
loaded as shown in figure. Take I = 10000 𝐜𝐦𝟒and E = 2.1 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 kg/𝐜𝐦𝟐

Solution:
 E = 2.1 × 106 kg/cm2

Ι = 10000cm4

Uniformly distributed load, w = 100 kg/m = 1 kg/cm

Slope at end C = slope at B

w 𝔩3 1 ×(200)3
= 6E𝔩
= 6 ×2.1 ×106 ×10000

= 6.35 ×10−5 radians = 0.00364 degrees

Deflection at end C = Deflection at B + (Slope at) (BC)

w 𝔩4 w 𝔩3 6𝔩 w 𝔩3 w 𝔩3
= 8E𝔩
+ 6E𝔩
(50) = 8
(
6E𝔩
) +
6E𝔩
(50)

6 ×200
= (6.35 × 10−5 ) + (6.35 × 10−5 ) 50
8

= 1270 × 10−5 cm = 12.7 × 10−5 m = 0.127 mm

So, θC = 0.00364° and ∆C = 0.127 mm

4.2 Find the slope and deflection at the free end of a cantilever shown
in figure. Moment of inertia of AC is twice the moment of inertia of BC.

Solution:

Let x is measured from end B

d2 y
∵ EI = - M
dx2
 d2 y M −Wx −Wx Wx Wx
⇒ E dx2
= − I
= −[ I
|
2I
]=
I
|+
2I

dy Wx2 Wx2
∴ 𝐸 = + C1 | +
dx 2I 2I

dy
At x = 𝔩, dx
= 0

Wℓ2 W ℓ2
∴ 0 = 2I
+C1 + 4I

3W ℓ2
⇒ C1 = − 4I

dy W𝑥 2 3W ℓ2 Wx2
∴ 𝐸 dx = − |+
2I 4I 2I

W𝑥 3 3W ℓ2 Wx3
Integrating, Ey = − x + C2 | +
6I 4I 12 I

At x = l, y = 0

W ℓ3 3W ℓ3 W ℓ3
∴ 0 = 6I
− 4I
+ C2 + 12 I

W ℓ3
⇒ C2 =
2I

W𝑥 3 3W ℓ2 W ℓ3 Wx3
∴ Ey = − x+ |+
6I 4I 12 I 12 I

For slope and deflection at free end B of cantilever beam, x = 0

dy 3W ℓ2
∴ Slope at B = |
dx x=0
= 4EI
= θB

3W ℓ3
Deflection at B = y|x=0 = 2EI
= ∆B

4.3 Find the deflections at point D and C of the beam loaded as shown in
figure.

Solution:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
 R A + R B = 2× 2 + 2 × 2 + 4 = 12 MN

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

⇒ 2 × 2 × 1 + 8 + 2 × 2 × 5 + 4 (6) = R B (4)

⇒ R B = 14 MN

∴ R A = 12 - R B = -2 MN i.e., acting
downwards

d2 y x (x−4)
EI = − [−R A x − 2x | + 8 |+R B (x − 4) − 2(x − 4) − 4(6)]
dx2 2 2

= −[−2x − x 2 | + 8|+14(x − 4) − (x − 4) − 24]

= −[−2x − x 2 | + 8|+14(x − 4) − (x 2 + 16 − 8x) − 24]

dy x3 14x2 x3 8x2
∴ 𝐸𝐼 dx = − [−x 2 − 3
+ C1 | + 8x |+ 2
− 56x − 3
− 16x + 2
− 24x]

On integrating again

x3 x4 7 (x−4)4
EIy = − [− 3
− 12 + C1 x + C2 |−4x 2 |+ 3 (x − 4)3 − 12
− 12x 2 ]

At x = 0, y = 0 C2 = 0

x3 x4
∴ 0 = − [− − + C1 x + 4x 2 ]
3 12

64 256
⇒ 0 = − [− − + 4C1 + 64]
3 12

32
⇒ C1 = −
6

For deflection at D, x = 2m

1 x3 x4 32
∴ yD = − [− − − x + 0]
EI 3 12 6

1 8 16 32 44
= EI
[ + +
3 12 3
] =
3EI

For deflection at C, x = 6 m

1 x3 x4 32 7 x4
∴ yD = − EI
[−
3
− 12 − 6
x + 0 + 4x 2 + 3 (x − 4)3 − (12 − 8x 2 ) − 12x 2 ]
 1 56
= − EI
[−72 − 108 − 32 + 144 +
3
+ 180 − 432]

1 56 904
= − EI
[−320 +
3
]=
3E𝐼

4.4 A cantilever of length ‘ℓ’ and depth‘d’ tapers in plan in such a way
that the breadth ‘b’ at the fixed end, decreases to zero at the free end.
Determine the deflection at the free end due to load ‘W’ acting at the
free end (shown in figure)

Solution:

Let bx = width of beam at a distance ‘x’ form free end B

b
= L
x

∴ Ix = moment of inertia of beam section distant ‘x’ from

free end B

bx d3 bd3
= 12
= 12ℓ
x

d2 y
∴ EI dx2
= - M

d2 y M
⇒ E dx2
= − I

d2 y 121
⇒ E dx2
= − bd3 x (−Wx)

d2 y 12 W ℓ
⇒ E =
dx2 bd3
 dy 12 W ℓ
Integrating, E dx
= bd3
x + C1

dy
At x = ℓ, E dx
= 0

12 W ℓ
∴ 0 = + C1
bd3

12 W ℓ
⇒ C1 = − bd3

dy 12 W ℓ 12 W ℓ 12 W ℓ
∴ E dx
= bd3
x− bd3
= bd3
(x − ℓ)

12 W ℓ x2 12 W ℓ2
Integrating Ey = 2bd3
− bd3
x + C2

At x = ℓ, y = 0

6 W ℓ3 12 W ℓ3
∴ 0 = bd3
− bd3
+ C2

12 W ℓ3 6 W ℓ3 6 W ℓ3
⇒ C2 = bd3
− bd3
= bd3

12 W ℓx2 12 W ℓ2x 6 W ℓ3
∴ Ey = 2bd3
− bd3
+ bd3

For deflection at free end, x = 0

6 W ℓ3
∴ EyB = bd3

6 W ℓ3
⇒ yB =
E bd3

4.5 For the beam shown in figure, find deflection at the free end and
middle of span.

Solution:

∵ Beam and loading is symmetrical about mid – span.

 4W
∴ RA = RB = = 2W
2

d2 y Wx +2W (x−a)
EI = −[ | ]
dx2 CA AE

dy Wx2 2W
∴ EI dx
= 2
+ C1 ⌊− 2
(x − a)2

Wx3 W
EIy = 6
+ C1 + C2 |− 3
(x − a)2

At x = a, y = 0

Wa3
∴ 0 = 6
+ C1 a + C2

Wa3
⇒ C1 a + C2 =− 6
…………………….(i)

1 dy
Again at x = a + 2
, dx
= 0

1
At x = 0 a + , y = 0
2

W 1 2 1 2
∴ 0 = (a + ) + C1 − W ( )
2 2 2

Wℓ2 W(2a+ ℓ) 2 W
⇒ C1 = − = (ℓ2 − 4a2 − 4aℓ)
4 8 8

Substituting C1 in (i)

Wa2 Wa W
C2 = − − (ℓ2 − 4a2 − 4aℓ) = (8a3 − 3aℓ2 + 12a2 ℓ)
6 8 24

∴ For deflection at free end, x = 0

C2 W
∴ yC = yD = = (8a3 − 3aℓ2 + 12a2 ℓ)
EI 24 EI
 ℓ
For deflection at mid-span, x = (a+2)

1 W 1 3 W 1 W W ℓ3
∴ yE = [ (a + ) + (ℓ2 − 4a2 − 4aℓ) (a + ) + (8a3 − 3aℓ2 + 12a2 ℓ) − ( )]
EI 6 2 8 2 24 3 8

W 1 3 1
= [4 (a + ) + 3(ℓ2 − 4a2 − 4aℓ) (a + ) + (8a3 − 3aℓ2 + 12a2 ℓ) − ℓ3 ]
24EI 2 2

W
= [4aℓ2 − 8a3 − 8a2 ℓ + 2ℓ3 − 4a2 ℓ − 4aℓ2 + 8a3 − 3aℓ2 + 12a2 ℓ−ℓ3 ]
24EI

W Wℓ2
= [ℓ3 − 3aℓ2 ] = (ℓ-3a)
24EI 24EI

5. Theory of Columns and Shear Centre

5.1 A steel rod 5m long and of 3 cm diameter is used as a column, with

both ends fixed .Determine the crippling load by writing the
𝟔 𝟐
differential. Take E = 2 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝐠/𝐜𝐦 .

Solution:

Diameter of rod, d = 3 cm

∵ Both ends are fixed.

∴ At supports, an opposite moment (M) will ect.

d2 y
EI dx2
= m – P.y

d2 y P M
⇒ dx2
+ EI
y = EI

(Differential equation for column with both ends fixed)

4 π2 EI
Crippling load, Pcr = ℓ2

π
4π2 (2× 106 kg/ cm2) (3)4 cm4
64
=
(500)2cm2

= 1255.75kg

5.2 A solid steel column and a hollow steel column, both have the same
length and same cross – section area, and are fixed at the ends. If the
𝟐
internal diameter of hollow column is 𝟑
of its external diameter find the
ratio of bucking strengths of solid steel column to that of hollow steel
column.

Solution:

Let, Ps = Buckling strength of solid column

PH = Buckling strength of solid column

∵ Both ends of both the columns are fixed

∴ Effective length of solid column

= Effective length of hollow column

ℓ
= 2

π2 EIS
π2 EIS
ℓ 2 π 4
PS ℓ2
eff
( )
2 IS 64
d
∴ PH
= π2 EIH
= π2 EIH
= IH
= π
(d2−d41)
4
64
ℓ3
eff ℓ 2
( )
2

d4 d4 81 d 4
= = 4 = ( )
d42−d41 2
d42−( d2) 64 d2
3

Now Area of solid column = Area of hollow column

π π
⇒ d2 = (d22 − d12 )
4 4

2 2 5
⇒ d2 = d22 − d12 = d22 − (3 d2 ) = 9 d22

d 2 5
⇒ ( ) =
d2 9

PS 81 d 4 81 d 4 25 5
∴ = ( ) = ( ) = =
PH 65 d2 65 d2 65 13

13
⇒ PH = PS = 2.6Ps
5

∴ Hollow column is 160% more stronger than solid column.

6. Miscellaneous
6.1 A square hole is punched out of a circular laminate, as shown in
figure. Find the moment of inertia about Y-Y through C.G.,

Solution:

Let D = Diameter of disc = 10 cm

Moment of inertia about y – y is,

π 4 × 43
Ι = 64
D4 − [ 12
+ (4 × 4)22 ]

π 64
= 64
(10)4 − [ 3 + 64]

π 4
= (10)4 -64( )
64 3

= 490.87 – 85.33 = 405.54 cm4

6.2 Find the moment of inertia of the triangular section shown in figure.

Solution:

Consider an element of width bx and thickness ‘dx’ at a distance ‘x’ from

apex A.

Now, ∆ ADE ~ ∆ ABC

x b
∴ H
= H
x

b
⇒ bx = H
x

∴ Moment of inertia of element about base BC is,

dΙ = (𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥) (H − x)2

∴ Moment of inertia of whole section is,

 𝐻 𝐻 𝑏𝑥
Ι = ∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫0 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (H − x)2 = ∫0 𝐻
(H − x)2 dx

b 𝐻 b H2 H4 2
=
H
∫0 (𝐻2 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 − 2𝐻𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 =H ( 2 (H 2 ) + 4
−
3
H4 )

b H4 H4 2H4 b 6+3−8 bH3

= [ + − ] = [ ] H4 =
H 2 4 3 H 12 12

bH3
∴ Moment of inertia of triangular section about base BC = 12

H 2
IBC = IG + A ( )
3

bH3 bH H2
⇒ 12
= IG + 2
( )
9

bH3 bH3 bH3

⇒ IG = − =
12 18 36

bH3
∴ Moment of inertia of section about centroid = 36

63. Determine the forces in the members of the truss shown in the figure
below:

Solution:

In question, both the supports A and F are on rollers and as such frame
is unstable and will move towards right due to horizontal 2000 kg force.
Thus support A is assumed to be pinned.
 ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

⇒ HA = 2000 kg (←)

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ R A + R F = 20000 kg

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

⇒ R F (9) = 20000(6) + 2000(3)

⇒ R F = 14000 kg (↑)

∴ R A = 20000 - R F = 20000 – 14000 = 6000 kg (↑)

Joint A

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ R A = FAD sin θ

3
⇒ 6000 = FAD (3√2)

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

⇒ FAD cos θ + HA = FAB

3
⇒ FAB = 6000 √2 (3√2) + 2000

⇒ FAB = 8000 kg (Tensile)

Joint D

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

⇒ FAD cos θ + 2000 = FDC cos θ

1 1
⇒ 6000 √2 ( ) + 2000 = FDC ( )
√2 √2

⇒ FDC = 8000 √2 kg (Comp)

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ FAD sin θ+FDC sin θ = FDB

1 1
⇒ 6000 √2 ( )+ 8000 √2 ( ) = FDB
√2 √2
⇒ FDB = 14000 kg (Tensile)

Joint B

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ FDB = FBE cos θ

1
⇒ 14000 = FBE ( )
√2

⇒ FBE = 14000 kg (Tensile)

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

⇒ FBA + FBC = FBE sin θ

1
⇒ 8000 + FBC = 14000 √2 ( )
√2

⇒ FBC = 6000 kg (Comp)

Joint C

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

⇒ FBC +FDC cos θ = FCF cos θ

1 1
⇒ 6000 +8000 √2 ( ) = FCF ( )
√2 √2

⇒ FCF = 14000 √2 kg (Comp)

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ FCF sin θ = FCD sin θ + FCE

1 1
⇒ 14000 √2 ( ) = 8000 √2 ( ) + FCE
√2 √2

⇒ FCE = 6000 kg (Tensile)

Joint E

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ FBE cos θ + FCE = 2000

1
⇒ 14000 √2 ( ) + 6000 = 20000
√2

⇒ 20000 = 20000
As a check, this confirms that forces in members BE and EC are correct.

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

⇒ FBE cos θ = FEF

1
⇒ 14000 √2 ( ) = FEF
√2

⇒ FEF = 14000 kg (Tensile)

Joint F

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

⇒ FCF cos θ - FEF = 0

1
⇒ 14000 √2 ( ) - 14000 = 0
√2

⇒ 0 = 0 This confirms that

results are true.

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

⇒ FCF sin θ = RF

1
⇒ 14000 √2 ( ) =14000
√2

⇒ 14000 = 14000 Thus results are correct

MemberLength Force Nature of

(m) (kg) force
AB 3 8000 T
BC 3 6000 C
AD 3√2 6000 √2 C
BD 3 14000 T
DC 3√2 8000√2 C
BE 3√2 14000√2 T
CE 3 6000 T
EF 3 14000 T
CF 3√2 14000√2 C
6.4 The cross – section of a joist is a T – section, 120 mm × 200 mm × 12
mm, with 120 mm side horizontal Sketch the shear stress distribution and
hence find the maximum shear stress if it has resist shear force of
200kN.

Solution:
Shear force, F = 200 kN

Let y̅ = Distance of neutral axis (NA) to of T-beam

120 ×12 ×6+188 ×12 ×106 247776
= 120 ×12+188 ×12
= 3696
= 67.04 mm

123 1883
Ixx = INA = [120 × 12
+ 120 × 12 × (67.04 − 6)2 ] + [12 × 12
+ 12 × 188 × (106 − 67.04)2 ]

= 15.45 × 106 mm4

Maximum shear stress will occur at N.A

F
∴ qmax = Ib
(Ay̅)

200 × 103 67.04−12

= [120 × 12 × (67.04 − 6) + 12(67.4 − 12) ( )]
15.45 ×106 ×12 2

= 1.0787 × 10−3 [87897.6 + 18176.41] = 114.42 N/mm2

6.5 For the I – section shown in figure determine the position of

centroid and moment of inertia about the base flange (𝐈𝐊𝐋 )

Solution:

Let ‘G’ be the centroid of the section distant ′y̅′ form base KL.
 (250 ×24 ×12)+(456 ×16 ×252)+(150×20 ×490) 3380592
∴ y̅ = 250 ×24+456 ×16+150 ×20
= 16296
= 207.45 mm

Moment of inertia of the section about KL (IkL )

243 4563 203

= [250 × 12
+ 250 × 24 × 122 ] + [16 × 12
+ 16 × 456 × 2522 ] + [150 × 12
+ 150 × 20 × 4902 ]

= 1152000+589750272+720400000

= 1311.02272mm4

= 13.113 × 108 mm4

6.6 Analyze the portal frame shown in the figure. Also sketch the
deflected shape of the frame. The A is fixed and the end D is hinged.
Also, the value of EI is constant throughout.

Solution:

Fixed end moments:

MFAB = MFBA = MFBC = MFCB = MFCD = MFDC = 0

Slope deflection equations:

2EI 3∆
MAB = 0 + 4
(0 + θB −
4
) (∵ θA = 0)

= 0.5EI θB − 0.375∆EI

2EI 3∆
MAB = 0 + (2θB + 0 − ) = EI θB − 0.375∆EI
4 4

2EI
MBC = 0 + (0 + 0 – 0) = 0
4

2EI
MCB = 0 + 4
(0 + 0 – 0) = 0

2EI 3∆
MCD = 0 + 4
(2θC + θD −
4
) = EI θC + 0.5EI θD − 0.375EI∆

2EI 3∆
MDC = 0 + 4
(2θD + θC −
4
) = EI θD + 0.5EI θC − 0.375EI∆

Equilibrium equation:

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0

⇒ 𝑀𝐵𝐴 + 𝑀𝐵𝐶 = 0
⇒ EI θB − 0.375EI∆ = 0 ………………..(i)

∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0

⇒ 𝑀𝐶𝐵 + 𝑀𝐶𝐷 = 0

⇒ EI θC + 0.5 EI θD − 0.375EI∆ = 0 ……………..(ii)

∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0
∑ 𝑀𝐷𝐶 = 0

⇒ 0.5 EI θC + EI θD − 0.375EI∆ = 0 ………………………(iii)

MAB −MBA 1.5 EI θB − 0.75 EI∆

HA = =
4 4

MCD EI θC + 0.5 EI θD − 0.375 EI∆

HD = 4
= 4

HA + HD = 8t …………………………..(iv)

⇒ 1.5EI θB − 0.75EI∆ + EI θC +0.5 EI θD − 0.375EI∆ =32

⇒ 1.5EI θB + EI θC + 0.8 EI θD − 1.125EI∆ = 0

Subtracting (ii) from (i)

EI θB - EI θC + 0.5 EI θD = 0

⇒ θB − θC − 0.5 θD = 0 …………………(v)

Subtracting (iii) from (ii),

0.5 EI θC − 0.8 EI θD = 0

⇒ θC = θD ………………….(vi)

Subtracting 3 – times of (iii) from (iv)

1.5EI θB −0.5 EI θC − 2.5EI θD = 32

32
⇒ 1.5θB −0.5 θC − 2.5 θD = EI
…………………….(vii)

Solving (v), (vi) and (viii)

64
θB = EI
42.67
θC = EI
42.67
θD =
EI

Substituging θB in eq. (i)

 64 – 0.375EI∆ = 0
64
⇒ EI∆ = 0.375
= 170.67

∴ MAB = 0.5 (64) – 0.375 (170.67) = -32. kNm

MBA = 64-64 = 0

MBC = MCB = 0

MCD = 42.67 + 0.5(42.67) – 64 = 0

MDC = 42.67 + 0.5(42.67) – 64 = 0

SSC – JE : Paper – II (Conventional)

Unit X RCC
Design
1. Shear, Torsion, Bond, Anchorage and Development Length

1.1 A rectangular RCC beam with b = 300 mm and d = 550 mm, has a service
shear force of 100kN at a section near the support. Four bars of 20 mm
dia. (= 1257 𝐦𝐦𝟐 ) are provided as tensile reinforcement at the
section, which are continued to the support. For M20 concrete and Fe
415 grade bars, design vertical stirrups for the section.

Solution:

Width of beam b = 300 mm

Effective depth of beam d = 550 mm
Service shear force = 100 kN

Area of steel shear force, V = 1.5 × 100 = 150 kN

π
Area of steel reinforcement, Ast = 4× × 202 = 12.56.64 mm2 = 1257
4
mm2 (given)

M 20 concrete and Fe 415 steel are used.

V 150 ×1000
Nominal shear stress, τv = = = 0.91 N/mm2
bd 300 ×550

Percentage of steel reinforcement provided

Ast 1257
pt = bd
× 100 = 300 ×550 × 100 = 0762%

Design shear strength of concrete for M20 grade and 0.762% steel
reinforcement (τc ) = 0.5634 N/mm2

Thus shear stirrups need to be designed to carry the shear force of

Vus = (τv − τc ) = (0.91-0.5634) 300 (550) = 57.2 kN

Using 2 legged 8 mm dia stirrups,

π
Area of stirrups, A sv = 2 × 4
× 82 = 100.53 mm2

∴ Spacing of shear stirrups is given by,

 d
Vus = 0.87fy Asv Sv

0.87fy Asv d 0.87 (415)(100.53)(550)

⇒ Sv = = = 237 mm c/c ……(i)
Vus 57.2 ×1000

Also, from the requirement of minimum shear reinforcement.

Asv min 0.4

bsv
≥ 0.87 𝑓𝑦

2.175 fy Asv min 2.175 (415)(100.53)

⇒ Sv ≤ b
= 300
= 302.5 mm c/c ……(ii)

0.75d (550)=412.5
Also, Sv ≤ [300 mm
= [0.75 300 mm mm = 300 mm ………………..(iii)

From eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii)

Sv ≤ 300mm

Adopt Sv = 250 mm c/c

∴Provide 2 legged 8 mm dia. Stirrups @ 250 mm c/c

1.2 (i) What is bond? Explain flexural and anchorage bond?

(ii) What is development length? Write its significance in RCC design?

Solution:

(i) Bond: it is the adhesive force between the cement mortar and the
reinforcing bars. It is due to the bond only that it is possible to
transfer the axial force form steel bars to surrounding cement mortar.
Bond gives strain compatibility.

Flexural bond: This bond comes into play in flexural members due to shear
i.e., due to variation in bending moment which in turn causes variation
in axial tension along the length of reinforcing bar. Flexural bond is
most critical where shear is quite significant.
Anchorage bond: This bond arises over the length of reinforcing bar
i.e., length of anchorage or at the end of reinforcing bar. This resists
pulling out of reinforcing bar in tension or pushing in of the bar in
compression.

(ii) Development length: it is what minimum length of the reinforcing bar

beyond a section which resists the pulling out of bar in tension or
pushing in of bar in compression. It is calculated as per the following:

Let ∅ = bar diameter

π
A = 4
∅2

Ld = development length

τb = bond stress

Resistance offered by Ld distance of bar = pull out or push in of bar

tension or compression respectively.
π
τb π∅ Ld = Ab fs = 4
∅2 (0.87fy )

0.87 fy
⇒ Ld = 4τbd

Significance of development length in RCC design: in order to resist

flexural tension by the reinforcing bar, the required minimum bond
strength must get developed which depends on the length of bar available
for bond formation. This reinforcing bar must by placed more than
development length beyond the section to resist the axial
tension/compression in the bar.

1.3 A simply supported 18 m effective span RCC rectangular beam of 500 mm

× 1500 mm (overall depth) section is reinforced throughout with 21 nos.
25 mm diameter bars in three layers of 7 bars each at Clear cover of 37.5
mm on tensile face. The reinforcement on the compression face is 4 -25 mm
+ 1-20 mm diameter bars in one layer at an effective cover of 50 mm. The
clear over between the different layers on tension face is 25 mm. M 25
grade concrete and Fe 415 grade steel bars are used in the beam
throughout. The beam is laterally restrained throughout the span.

(a) What shall be the superimposed uniformly distributed load w, that the
beam can carry at working conditions?

(b) Design the shear reinforcement at support it design shear strength of

concrete τ is given as follows for different values of p = 100 𝐀𝐬 / bd.
 P 1.25 1.5 1.75
𝛕𝐜 (𝐌𝐏𝐚) 0.70 0.74 1.78

Solution:

π
Area of tension steel, Ast = 21 × × 252 = 10308.35 mm2
4

Percentage tension reinforcement,

Ast
pt = × 100
bd

For computing effective depth (d), centroid of tension reinforcement has

to be located which will lie at the centroid of middle layer of tension
reinforcement bars.
1
∴ d = 1500-37.5 – 25 (I layer bars) – 25 - 2
(25) (II layer bars)
= 1400 mm

Limiting percentage of tension reinforcement

fck xulim
pt lim = 41.61 fy
. d

25
= 41.61 × 415
× 0.48 = 1.203%

Ast 10308.35
But pt = × 100= × 100 = 1.473%
bd 500 ×1400

Thus pt > pt lim and section is reinforced in compression zone also so that
over – reinforced section can be avoided and section has been designed as
doubly reinforced section.

Effective cover in compression zone (d’) = 50 mm

MU lim = 0.138 fck bd2

= 0.138 (25) 500 (1400)2 = 3381 kNm

∵ pt lim = 1.203%
 pt lim 1.203
∴ Ast lim = 100
bd 100
× 500 × 1400 = 8421mm2

∴ ∆Ast = A st − Astlim = 10308.35 – 8421 =

1887.35mm2

M−3381 × 106
But ∆Ast =
0.87 (415)(1400−50)

∴ Moment of resistance of beam section is 4300.93 kNm

w ℓ2
M = 8

w (18)2
⇒ 4300.93 = 8

⇒ w = 106.2 kN/m
106.2
∴ Working load = 1.5
= 70.8 kNm

∴ Self weight of beam = 0.5 × 1.5 ×25 = 18.75 kN/m

∴ Superimposed working load = 70.8 – 18.75 = 52.05 kN/m

∴ Beam can carry a super – imposed working load of 52.5 kn/m

For pt = 1.473 %, τc = 0.736 N/mm2

wℓ 18
Factored shear force, V = = 1.062 × = 955.8 kN
2 2

V 955.8 ×103
∴ Shear stress, τv = bd
= 500 ×1400
= 1.365 N/mm2

∴ Shear reinforcement shall be designed for shear force of

Vus = (τv − τc ) bd

= (1.365 – 0.736) × 500 × 1400 = 440.3 kN

d
Now Vus = 0.87fy Asv Sv

π
Using 8 ∅ - 4 L stirrups, Asv = 4 × × 82 = 201.06 mm2
4

1400
∴ 440.3 ×103 = 0.87 (500) 201.03 × sv

⇒ sv = 278 mm c/c = 280 mm (say)

∴ Provide 4L -8 ∅ stirrups @ 280 mm c/c/ at supports

 2. Footing, Columns, Beams and Slabs

2.1 Design a rectangular beam section of width 300 mm, for a total
service bending moment 200 kNm. Use m 20 concrete and bars Fe 415 grade.
Assume the exposure as mild. Design for flexure only.

Solution:

Width of the beam, b = 300 mm

Total service bending moment = 200 kNm

∴ Fectored bending moment, M = 1.5 × 200 = 300 kNm

Grade of concrete is m20 i.e.,fck = 20 N/mm2

Grade of steel Fe415 i.e., fy = 415 N/mm2

RCC beam section is designed as balanced section

Over – reinforced section is never designed

Ultimate moment of resistance for Fe 415 grade steel is

Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

Where d = Effective depth of beam section

Design of beam depth:

The beam section is required to carry a factored bending moment of 300

kNm i.e., ultimate moment of resistance of beam section must be greater
than or at least equal to 300 kNm.

∴ Mu lim ≥ 300 kNm

⇒ 0.138 fck bd2 ≥ 300 × 106 Nmm

⇒ 0.138 (20) (300) d2 ≥ 300 × 106

⇒ d ≥ 601.93 mm

Given exposure condition is mild. For mild exposure condition, minimum

clear cover required is 20 mm. Let 25 mm clear cover is provided

Let 20 mm diameter bars are used and diameter of shear stirrups is 8 mm

∴ Overall depth of beam required
1
D = d + clear cover + dia. Of stirrups + (dia. of bar)
2

1
= 601.93 + 25 8 + (20) = 644.93mm
2

Thus overall depth of beam (D) must be greater than 644.93 mm

Let D = 650 mm is adopted

∴ Effective depth of beam,

1
d = 650 – 25 – 8 − (20) = 607mm
2

> 601.93 mm (= minimum effective depth required)

(ok)

Thus provide a beam section of 300 × 650 with 25 mm clear cover

Reinforcement required:

The amount of reinforcement required can be computed directly using the

relation

pt Ast 0.5fck R
= = [1 − √1 − 4.598 ]
100 bd fy fck

M 300 ×106
Where R = = = 2.714
bd2 300 ×6072
N/mm2

0.5 (20) 2.714

= [1 − √1 − 4.598 × ] = 9.31975 ×10−3
415 20

⇒ pt = 0.9319% (=percentage of steel reinforcement

required)
0.9319 0.9319
⇒ Ast = bd = (300)(607) = 1696.99mm2
100 100

∵ 20 mm dia. Bars were assumed above while computing effective depth

1696.99
∴ No. of 20 mm dia bars required = π = 5.4 ≃ 6 nos. (say)
(20)2
4
2.2 Design a suitable square footing for a column of size 350 × 350𝐦𝐦𝟐.
The column transfers a service load of 1000 kN. Use M 20 concrete and Fe
415 grade bars. Safe capacity of soil is 200 kN𝐦𝟐 . Check for flexure and
two way shear only.

Solution:

Column size = 350 mm × 350 mm

Service load = 1000 kN

Safe bearing capacity of soil (SBC) = 200 kN/m2

Let weight of column and footing = 10% of 1000 kN = 100 kN

∴ Total load coming on soil = 100 + 100 = 1100 kN

1100
∴ Footing area required (A) = 200
= 5.5 m2

∴ Size of square footing = √5.5 = 2.345 m

Thus provide a square footing of 2.5 m × 2.5 m

Thickness of footing: Soil pressure

1.5 ×1000
Net design soil pressure at ultimate load = 25 ×2.5
= 240 kN/m2 = 0.24
N/mm2

(a) One – way shear

The critical section for one – way shear will be at a distance ‘d’
form the column face

2500−350
∴ Factored shear force (Vu1 ) = 0.24 × 2500 ×[ 2
− d] = 600(1075 − d)N

Let 0.3% tension reinforcement is provided in footing

Thus for pt = 0.3% and M20 concrete, design shear strength

Of concrete (τc ) = 0.388 N/mm2

∴ One way shear resistance of footing

 Vc1 = 0.388 × 2500 × d = 970 d N

∴ Vc1 ≥ Vv1

⇒ 970 d ≥ 600 (1075 – d)

⇒ d ≥ 410.83 m

(b) Two – way shear

𝑑
Critical section for two shear be at a distance 2
from the column face

∴ upward two – way shear force

Vu2 = 0.24 (350+d)2

Two − way shear resistance of concrete

Column width
Vc2 = kτc 4 (350 + d) d where K = Column depth
=
1

∴ Vc2 = (1) (1.118) 4(350+d) d [τc = 0.25 √fck = 0.25 √25 =

2]
1.118N/mm

∴ Vc2 ≥ Vu2

⇒ 1.118 (4) (350+d) d ≥ 0.24 (350+d)2

⇒ 1565.2d + 4.472d2 ≥ 29400+0.24 d2 + 168 d

⇒ 4.232 d2 +1397.2d – 294000 ≥ 0

⇒ d ≥ 19.85 mm

Thus one way shear governs the depth of footing i.e., d ≤ 410.83 mm

Using 75 mm clear cover and 20 mm dia. Bars, overall depth footing

required
20
D = 410.83 + 75 2
= 495 .8 mm
Provide footing of depth, D = 550 mm
20
∴ Effective depth of footing, d = 550 – 75 - 2
= 465 mm

(c) Flexural moment

Critical section for moment will be at the face of column

∴ Moment at critical section

2500−350 2 1
M = 0.24 × 1000 × ( 2
) ×
2

= 138.675 kNm

For Fe 415, Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

⇒ 138.675×106 = 0.138 (20)(1000) d2

⇒ d = 224.15 mm < 465 mm (ok)

Thus footing depth, D = 550 mm

Reinforcement required:

Critical moment, M = 138.675 kNm

M 138.675 ×106
R = = = 06413 N/mm2
bd2 1000 ×465 2

pt Ast fck R
∴ = = [1 − √1 − 4.598 ]
100 bd 2fy fck

20 0.6413
= 2(415)
[1 − √1 − 4.598 ×
20
] = 0.001847

∴ pt = 0.1847% < 0.3% as assumed earlier in one – way shear

(OK)

0.3% tension reinforcement is provided

0.3
⇒ Ast reqd = × 1000 × 465 = 1395 mm2 /m width of footing
100

∴ with 20 mm ∅ bars, spacing required

π
100 × × 202
4
S = 1395
= 225.2 mm c/c

Provide 20 ∅ @ 200 c/c both ways

2.3 A reinforced concrete beam 30 cm × 60 cm in section is reinforced
with 4 bars 16 ∅ at top and 5 bars 22 ∅ at bottom with an effective cover
of 4 cm. Assume safe compressive strength of concrete = 50 kg/ 𝐜𝐦𝟐 ; 𝛔𝐬𝐜 =
𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎𝐤𝐠 /𝐜𝐦𝟐, m = 19. Find moment of resistance (WSM).

Solution:

σs = 50 kg /cm2 = 4.9 N/mm2

σs = 1400kg /cm2 = 137.3 N/mm2

M = 19
π
Ast = 5 × × 222 = 1900.66 mm2
4

π
Asc = 4 × 4
× 162 = 804.25 mm2

d=600 - 40 = 560 mm

C = T

bn2
⇒ 2
+ (m − 1)Asc (n − dc ) =𝑚Ast (d − n)

300n2
⇒ + (19 -1) 804.25 (n – 40) = 19 (1900.66) (560 – n)
2

⇒ 150n2 + 14476.5n − 579060 = 20223022.4 – 36112.54 n

⇒ 150n2 + 50589.04n − 20802082.4 = 0

∴ n = 240.2 mm

mσc 19 ×4.9
Location of critical neutral axis, nc = (mσ + σs
) d= (
19 ×4.9+137.3
) 560
c
 = 226.28 mm < n (=240.2 mm)

∵ n > nc

∴ Stress in concrete will reach its maximum value i.e., σc = 4.9 N/mm2

∴ Stress in concrete at the level of compression steel is given by

n− dc 240.2−40
d=c ( ) = 4.9 ( ) = - 4.084 N/mm2
n 240.2

c n
∴ Moment of resistance, M = bn (d − ) + (m − 1)Asc. c ′ (d − dc )
2 3

300 ×240.2 ×4.9 240.2

= (560— ) + (19 − 1)804.25(4.084(560 − 40)
2 3

= 84.72 × 106 + 30.74 × 106 = 115.47 × 106 Nmm ≃115.5 kNm

∴ Moment of resistance of beam section is 115.5 kNm.

2.4 Design a reinforced concrete beam with balanced section for flexure
by working stress method for the data given below (WSM)

Effective span (simply supported) = 8 m; Live load = 12 kN/m; Breadth of

the beam = 300 mm; concrete grade = M 20; Reinforcement steel grade = Fe
415

Solution:

Effective span, ℓ = 8 m

Live load, LL = 12 kN/m

Width of beam, b = 300mm

M20 concrete and Fe415 are to be used.

∴ σcbc = 7 N/mm2
Mrb
For balanced section, Q = σcbc bd2
= 0.1304

Let overall depth of beam, D = 550 mm and 50 mm is effective cover

∴ d = 550 – 50 = 500 mm

∴ self weight of beam = 0.3 × 0.55 × 25 = 4.125 kN/m

∴ Total load, W = 4.125 + 12 = 16.125 kN/m

wℓ2 82
∴ Moment, m = 8
= 16.125 × 8
= 129 kNm

M
∴ Q = = 0.1304
σcbc bd2

129 ×106
⇒ 7 ×300 ×d 2
= 0.1304

⇒ d = 686.35 > 500

Provide 750 mm depth

∴ D = 750 + 50 = 800 mm

self weight = 0.3 × 0.8 × 25 = 6 kN/m

Total load = 6 + 12 = 18 kN/m

wℓ2 18(8)2
Moment (M) = 8
= 8
= 144 kNm

M
∴ θ = σcbc bd2
= 0.1304

144 ×106
7 ×300 ×d 2
= 0.1304

⇒ d = 725.16 > 750

Reinforcement:

Ast bal
pt,bal = bd
× 100 = 0.438

⇒ Ast bal = 985.5 mm2

985.5
∴ No. of 20 mm dia. Bars required = π = 3.13 ≃ 4 bars (say)
× 202
4

2.5 Design a circular tank of 13.75 m diameter and 3.0 height of wall.
Free board = 0.3 m. The tank rests on a firm ground. The walls are fixed
at base and free at top.
Solution:

Diameter of tank = 13.75 m

Height of wall = 3 m

Free board = 0.3 m

Let M20 concrete and Fe415 steel are used

Permissible stresses:

σct = 1.2 N/mm2 (for tank walls)

σcc = 5 N/mm2

σst = 150 N/mm2

m= 13

Reinforcement in tank wall:

1 1
Maximum hoop tension = 2
pgHD = 2(1000)9.81 (3) 13.75 N = 202.33 kN

∴ Tension reinforcement per meter height of tank is

202.33 ×106
Ast = = 1348.87 mm2
150

π
100A∅ 100 0× × 122
4
Using 12 mm dia. bars, spacing, s = Ast
= 1348.87
= 83.85 mm c/c

∴ provide 12 mm dia. bars @ 80 mm c/c spacing on either face of the wall

Also provide nominal reinforcement of 10∅ @ 200 c/c

Thickness of tank wall:

Let, wall thickness = t

0.5 pgHD
∴ σct = 100t+(m−1)Ast

0.5 ×1000 ×9.81 ×3 ×13.75

⇒ 1.2 = 1000 t+(13−1)1348.87

⇒ t = 152.42 mm

∴ provide 200 mm wall thickness

Tank base design:

Let thickness of base slab = 200 mm

Provide a layer of lean concrete (M10) 75 mm thick below the tank base
0.3
Provide a mat of orthogonal reinforcement @ 0.3% = × 1000 × 200 =
100
600mm2 in each direction
600
∴ Reinforcement on one face = 2
= 300mm2
π
100 0× × 102
4
∴ Spacing of 10 mm dia. bars = 300
= 261.8 mm c/c ≃ mm (say)

∴ provide 10 mm dia. bar @ 250 mm c/c

2.6 Design a simply supported RCC slab for an office floor having clear
dimensions of 4 m by 10 m with 230 mm walls all – around. Adopt M20 grade
concrete and Fe415 grade HYSD bars.

Solution:

Clear span along x = 4000 mm

Clear span along y = 10000 mm

Centre to centre distance between supports along

230 230
x = 4000 + 2
+ 2
= 4230 mm

Centre to centre distance between supports along

230 230
y = 10000 + 2
+ 2
= 10230 mm

10230
Aspect ratio, r = 4230
= 2.42 > 2
⇒ One – way slab

M20 and Fe 415 are to be used

Ultimate moment of resistance

Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

Let live load = 3 kN/m2

Let thickness of slab = 135 mm with 20 mm clear cover

∴ Dead load of slab = 0.135 × 25 = 3.375 kN/m2

∴ total load =3.375 + 3 = 9.5625 kN/m2 ≃ 9.56 kN/m2

Assume width of slab (b) = 1000 mm

9.56 ×10.232
∴ Factored moment (M) = 8
= 125.06 kNm/m width of slab

∴ Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

⇒ 125.06 × 106 = 0.138 (20) (1000) d2

10
⇒ d = 212.86 mm > 135 - 20 − 2
= 110 mm (Assumed above)

Revise slab thickness to 250 mm so that effective depth of slab

10
= 250-20 - 2 = 225 mm

∴ Revised dead load of slab = 0.25 × 25 = 6.25 kN/m2

∴ Revised factored load = 1.5 (6.25 + 3) = 13.875 kN/m2

10.232
∴ Factored moment (M) = 13.875 × = 181.5 kNm
8

∴ Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

⇒ 181.5× 106 = 0.138 (20) (1000) d2

⇒ d = 256.4 mm > 225 mm (Not safe)

Revise slab thickness to 350 mm so that

10
d = 350 - 20 − 2
= 325 mm

Dead load of slab = 0.35 × 25 = 8.75 kN/m2

 ∴ factored load = 1.5 (8.75 + 3) = 17.625 kN/m2

10.232
∴ Factored moment = 17.625 × 8
= 230.56 kNm

∴ Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

⇒ 230.56 × 106 = 0.138 (20) (1000) d2

⇒ d = 289 mm < 325mm

Thus slab depth can be reduced

Let depth of slab = 325 mm

10
So that d = 325 - 20 − 2
= 300 mm

∴ Dead load of slab = 0.325 × 25 = 8.125 kN/m2

∴ factored load = 1.5 (8.125 + 3) = 16.6875 kN/m2 ≃ 16.7

kN/m2

10.232
∴ Factored moment = 16.7 × = 218.5 kNm
8

∴ Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

⇒ 218.5 × 106 = 0.138 (20) (1000) d2

⇒ d = 281.4 mm < 300mm

∴ Provide slab thickness of 325 mm

Reinforcement required:

pt Ast 0.5 fck R

= = [1 − √1 − 4.598 ]
100 bd fy fck

218.5 ×106
Where, R = 1000 ×300 2
= 2.43
2
N/mm

0.5(20) 2.43
= [1 − √1 − 4.598 × ] = 0.008088
415 20

∴ pt = 0.81%
0.81
Ast = 100
× 1000×300 = 2430 mm2
 π
100A∅ 100 0× × 102
4
Using 10 m ∅ bars, spacing, (s) = Ast
= 2430
= 32.3 mm c/c

π
100 0× × 162
4
Using 16 mm ∅ bars, spacing, (s) = = 82.74 mm c/c
2430

∴ provide 16 mm dia. bars @ 80 mm c/c spacing

Provide reinforce in the transverse direction @ 0.12% of gross area

0.12
= × 1000 × 325 = 390mm2 /m length of slab
100

∴ Spacing requires with 10 mm dia. bars

π
100 0× × 102
4
= 390
= 201.38 mm

< 5d (= 5 × 300 = 1500mm)

∴ Provider 10 mm dia. bars @190 mm c/c as transverse reinforcement.

Note: Since slab is simply supported and thus no tensional reinforcement

at corners is needed.

2.7 Design a cantilever retaining wall to retain an earth embankment 4 km

high above ground level. The density of earth is 18 kN/𝐦𝟑 and its angle
of repose is 30°. The embankment is horizontal at top. The safe bearing
capacity of the soil may be taken as 200𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝟐 and the coefficient of
friction between soil and concrete is 0.5. Adopt M20 grade concrete and
Fe415 HYSD bars.

Solution:

Safe bearing capacity of soil (SBC) (p) = 200 kN/m2

Coefficient of friction between soil and concrete (μ) = 0.5

M20 concrete and Fe415 steel are to be used.

Depth of footing required as per Rankine’s formula

ρ 1−sin ∅ 2
hd = ( )
γ 1+sin ∅

200 1−sin 30° 2

= 18
(
1+sin 30°
) = 1.23m

Let depth of footing (hd ) = 1.5 m

∴ Total height of retaining wall (h) = 4 + 1.5 = 5.5 m

Coefficient of active earth pressure

1−sin ∅ 1−sin 30° 1

ka = 1+sin ∅
= 1+sin 30° = 3

Coefficient of passive earth pressure

1+sin ∅ 1+sin 30°

kp = 1−sin ∅
= 1−sin 30° = 3

The length ‘x’ as shown in figure above is given by

k 1
X = (√ a ) h = (√ ) 4.5 = 1.5 m
3 3 ×3

Assuming triangular base pressure distribution below the footing

3 3
L = 2
x = 2
(1.5) = 2.25 m

Stability against overturning:

The preliminary dimensions of the retaining wall as assumed are shown

below along with earth forces acting on it.
Lateral force on wall due to active earth pressure

1 1 1
P1 = 2
k a γh2 = 2
( ) (18)(5.5)2 = 90.75 kN per meter length of
3
wall.

∴ Overturning moment (about point E) = M0

h 5.5
= P1 ( 3) = 90.75 ( 3 ) = 166.375 kN/m length of wall

Stabilising moment will be provided by weight of wall and soil

Weight of soil (W1 ) = 18 (1.7) (5.5 – 0.6)

1.7
= 149.94 kN/m acting at 2
= 0.85 m from point C

∴ Moment (M1 ) = 149.94 × 0.85 = 127.45 kN/m m about C

Weight of rectangular portion of stem (W2 )

= 0.3 (5.5 -0.6)25

0.3
= 36.75 kN/m acting at(1.7 + 2
) = 1.85m from C.

∴ Moment (M2 ) = 36.75 × 1.85 = 67.99 kN/m m about C

Weight of triangular portion of stem (W3 )

1
= 2
(0.6 – 0.3) (5.5 -0.6) (25-19)

0.3
= 4.41 kN/m acting at(1.7 + 3
) = 1.6 m from
C.

∴ Moment (M3 ) = 4.41 × 1.6 = 7.06 kN/m m about C

Weight of base slab portion DC (W4 )

2
= 0.6 × (3-1) 25 = 30 kN/acting at 2
= 1 m
from C

Moment (M4 ) = 30 × 1 = 30 kNm/m about C

Weight of base slab portion ED (W5 )

 1
= 0.6 × 1 × 25 = 15 kN/m acting at (2 + 2) = 2.5 m
from C

∴ Moment (M5 ) = 15 × 2.5 = 37.5 kNm/m about C

∴ Total weight (W) = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4 + W5 = 2361.1 Kn/m

Total restoring moment about C

(Mw ) = M1 + M2 + M3 + M4 + M5 = 270 kNm/m

Mw Mw 270
xw = R
= W
= 236.1
= 1.14 m from C

∴ Stabilizing moment about E

MA = W (L - xw ) = 236.1 (3 – 1.14) = 439.15 kNm/m about E

0.9𝑀𝑟 0.9(439.15)
∴ FOS against overturning = = = 2.4 > 1.4
𝑀0 166.375

∴ Retaining wall is safe against overturning.

Check for soil pressure at base:
Resultant upward reaction = R = W 236.1 kN
𝑀𝑊 166.375+270
Distance of resultant (R) from and C = L R = 𝑀0 + = = 1.85 m
𝑅 236.1
from C
𝐿 3 𝐿
∴ Eccentricity (e) = LR – 2
= 1.85 – 2
= 0.35 m < 6
(= 0.5m)
6𝑒 6×0.35
i.e., 𝐿
= 3
= 0.7 < 1

𝑅 6𝑒 236.1 6×0.35
∴ Soil pressure at base (q) = 𝐿
(1± 𝐿
) = 3
(1± 3
)

kN kN
133.79 m2 < 200 m2 (SBC)(OK)
= [
23.61 kN/m2

Check for stability against Sliding:

Sliding force (Pa) = P1 = 90.75 kN/m
Restoring force (F) = 𝛍R = 0.5(236.1) = 118.05 kN/m
 0.9𝐹 0.9(118.05)
∴ FOS against sliding = 𝑃𝑎
= 90.75
= 1.17 < 1.4
∴ A shear key is required to generate the passive resistance.
Passive resistance required (Pp) = 1.4 (90.75) -0.9 (118.05) =
20.181 kN/m
Provide a shear key of 300 × 300 mm at a distance of 1500 mm from E
so that stem reinforcement can be taken directly to shear key.

h1 = 1500-300 = 1200mm = 1.2 m

h2
∴ Passive resistance (Pp)
Design of toe slab:
= h1 + 300 + 1500 tan 300 = 1200+300+1500 tan 300
= 2366.03 mm ≃ 2366 mm = 2.366 m
1 1
= 2
kpγ (ℎ22 - ℎ12) = 2
(3) (18) (2.3662 − 1.22 )
= 112.26 kN/m > 20.81 kN/m

Downward acting load of toe slab = 0.6 × 25 = 15kN/m2

Let clear cover = 75 mm and dia. of bar = 20 mm
20
∴ Effective depth of toe slab (d) = 600 -75- 2
= 515 mm
∴ Factored moment at the face of stem (Mu)

1 97.06+2×133.79 1
= 1.5 2 (133.79 + 97.06) (1) ( ) -1.5 ×1×12
97.06+133.79 3

= 1.5 [60.77 - 7.5] = 79.91 kN/mm

Factored shear force (at distance ‘d’ from stem face)

1
Vu = 1.5 [ (133.79 + 115.98) (1-0.515)] = 90.85 kN/mm2
2
 Vu 90.85×1000
Nominal shear stress, 𝜏𝑢 = = =0.176 kN/mm2
bd 1000×515

𝑝𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑅
100
= 𝑏𝑑
= 2𝑓𝑐𝑘 [1 − √1 − 4598(𝑓 )]
𝑦 𝑐𝑘

𝑀𝑈 79.91×106
Where R = = = 0.3013 N/mm2
𝑏𝑑2 1000×5152
𝑝𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 20 0.3013
∴ = = [1 − √1 − 4.598 ]= 0.0008495
100 𝑏𝑑 2(415) 20

∴ pt = 0.085% (Too small)

𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.85
𝑏𝑑
≥ 𝑓𝑦
0.85 85
⇒ pt min = 𝑓𝑦
= 415
= 0.205 %

Let 0.3% reinforcement of provided.

0.3
∴ Ast = (1000) (515) = 1545 mm2/m
100

𝜋
1000 𝐴∅ 1000 𝑥 (20)2
4
∴ Spacing of 20 mm dia. bars = 𝐴𝑠𝑡
= 1545
= 203.3 mm c/c

Provide 20 mm dia. bars @ 180 mm c/c

Design shear strength of concrete for 0.3% steel and M20 concrete (𝛾c)

= 0.388 N/mm2 > τv (=0.176 N/mm2)

0.87 𝑓𝑦 0.87(415)
Development length (Ld) = 4(1.6 𝜏𝑏𝑑 )
∅ = 4(1.6 𝑥1.2)
∅ = 47∅

= 47x20 = 940 mm( beyond the stem face)

0.12
Distribution reinforcement @ 0.12% = 100
x 1000 x515 = 618 mm2/m

𝜋
1000 × 162
4
∴spacing of 16 mm dia. Distribution bars = 618
= 325.3 mm c/c but ≯
300 mm

Provided 16 ∅ distribution bars @ 280 mm c/c

Design of heal slab:

Load due to soild overburden = (5.5-0.6)18 = 88.2 kN/m2

Self weight of heel slab = 0.6 x 25 = 15 kN/m 2

∴ Total downward acting load = 88.2 + 15 = 103.2 kN/m 2

Factored moment at stem face (Mu) = 1.5 [1/2 (28.17 +79.59) 1.4]
2 𝑥 79.59+28.17 1.4
( 79.59+28.17
) 3
= 91.8 kNm/m

Factored shear face at stem face (Vu) = 1.5[1/2 (28.17 +79.59) 1.4] =
113.15 kN/m
20
Effective depth of hell slab (d) = 600- 75 – 2
= 515 mm

𝑝𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑅
∴ 100
= 𝑏𝑑
= 𝑠𝑓𝑦
[1-√1 − 4.598 𝑓
𝑐𝑘

𝑀𝑢 91.8 𝑥 106
Where R = = = 0.346 n/mm2
𝑏𝑑2 1000 𝑥 5152

20 0.346
= 2(415)
[ 1-√1 + 4.598 20
] = 0.000978

∴ ρt = 0.098%
85 85
But, ρt min = fy
= 415
= 0.205%

Provide 0.3% reinforcement.

0.3
∴ Ast = × 1000×515 = 1545 mm2/m
100

π
1000Aϕ 1000× ×202
4
∴ Spacing of 20 mm dia. bars = Aϕ
= 1545
= 203.3 mm c/c

Provide 20 mm dia. bars @ 180 mm c/c.

Vu 113.15×103
Nominal shear stress (τv ) = bd
= 1000×515
= 0.22 N/mm2

Design shear strength of concrete (τc ) = 0.388 N/mm2 > τv (=0.22 N/mm2)
(OK)

0.87fy
Development length (Ld) = 4(1.6γbd)
ϕ = 47 ϕ = 47(20) = 940 mm (beyond stem
face)
 0.12
Distribution reinforcement @ 0.12%= 100
×1000×515 = 618 mm2 i.e. 16 ϕbars @
280 mm c/c

Design of stem:

Height of stem above base = 505 – 0.6 = 4.9 m

Let clear cover = 50 mm and bar dia. = 20 mm

20
∴ Effective depth of stem at base (d) = 600 – 50 - = 540 mm
2

1 1 1
Factored moment at base of stem (Mu) = 6
k a γh3 = ( )(18)(4.9)3 = 117.65
6 3
kNm/m

Mu 117.65×106
∴ R = = = 0.403 N/mm2
bd2 1000×5402

ρt Ast fck R
∴ = = [1 − √1 − 4.598 ]
100 bd 2fy fck

20 0.403
= [1 − √1 − 4.598 ] = 0.0011433
2(415) 20

∴ ρt = 0.114%
85 85
But ρt min = = = 0.205%
fy 415

Provide 0.3 % reinforcement.

0.3
∴ Ast = × 1000×540 = 1620 mm2/m
100

π
1000Aϕ 1000× ×202
4
∴ Spacing of 20 mm dia. bars = Ast
= 1620
= 193.9 mm c/c

Provide 20 mm dia. bars @ 180 mm c/c/

Critical section for shear will be at a distance‘d’ above the base of

stem i.e., (4.9 – 0.54) = 4.36 m below the top of stem.

1
∴ Factored shear force (Vu) = 1.5[2 k a γh2 ] (18)(4.36)2 = 85.54
kN/m

Vu 85.54××203
∴ Nominal shear stress (γu) = = = 0.158 N/mm2
bd 1000 ×540

< τc (=0.388 N/mm2) (OK)

Provide 16 ϕ distribution @ 280 mm c/c.

2.8 A reinforced concrete beam 400 mm X 650 mm (effective) in section is

reinforced with 3 bars of 28 mm ϕ. If the effective span is 5 m, find
the concentrated load the beam can support at the centre. Assume M20
concrete and Fe250 steel (m = 13.33).

Solution:

Effective span of beam (ι) = 5 m

M 20 concrete.

Fe 250 steel.

Modular ratio (m) = 13.33

Let effective cover = 50 mm

∴ Overall depth of beam (D) = 650 + 50 = 700 mm

π
Area of tension steel (A st ) = 4
× 282 × 3 = 1847.3 mm2

Self weight of beam = 0.4 × 0.7× 25 = 7 kN/m

Actual depth of neutral axis:

0.5 bn2a = mAst (d-na )

⇒ 0.5(400) n2a = 13.33(1847.3) (650-na )

⇒ 200 n2a + 24624.509 na – 16005930.85 = 0

∴ na = 227.95 mm

Critical depth of neutral axis:

 1 1
Critical depth of neutral axis, nc = [ 𝜎 ] d = [ 230 ] 650 = 187.6 mm
1+ 𝑠𝑡 1+
𝑚𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐 13.33(7)

Thus, na>nc

𝑛𝑎 227.95
∴moment of resistance, M = 0.5σcbcbna (d − ) = 0.5(7)(400)227.95(650 − )
3 3

= 183.19 knm

Moment due to self weight of beam

52
Md = 7 x 8
= 21.875 kNm

Moment due to concentrated load W

𝑊𝑙 5
Mw = = W ( ) = 1.25 W kNm
4 4

∴ Md + MW = M

⇒ 21.875 + 1.25 W = 183.19

⇒ W = 129.052 kN

∴ Beam can support a maximum concentrated load of 129.052 kN.

2.9 Design a column to carry a load of 590 kN. Height of the column is
3.5 m effective, one side of the column is restricted to 250 mm. use σcc
= 5 N/mm2, σcc = 190 N/mm2 and 10 mm ϕ lateral ties.

Axial P = 590

ℓ = 3.5 m

Effective length of column σcc = 5 N/mm2

σcc = 190 N/mm2

P = σcc (Ag – Asc) + σscAsc

⇒ 590 x 103 = 5(Ag – Asc)+190 Asc

Let 1% reinforcement is provided.

𝐴𝑔
∴ Asc = 1% of Ag =
100
 𝐴𝑔 𝐴 99 × 5 190
∴ 590 x 103 = 5(Ag − ) + 190 ( 𝑔 ) = Ag + Ag
100 100 100 100

Ag = 86131.4 mm2

Now, one side of column = 250 mm

86131.4
∴ other side of column = 250
= 344.5 mm ⋍ 350 mm(say)

∴ Column size 350 x 250 mm

350 𝑥 250
∴ Area of steel (Asc) = 1% of Ag = 1% of Ag = 100
= 875 mm2

875
∴ No of 16 mm dia. bars required = 𝜋 = 4.25 ⋍ 6 (say)
(16)2
4

875
No. of 20 mm dia. bars required = 𝜋 = 2.8 ⋍ 4 (say)
(20)2
4

∴ Provide 4-20ρ bars at the corners at a clear cover of 44 mm.

Design of ties:
20
=5 mm
Tie diameter (ϕt) ≥ [ 64 mm = 6 mm

But given 10 mm dia. ties are to be provided which is greater than 6 mm

(ok)

Least lateral dimension = 250 mm

Pitch ≤ [ 16ϕ = 16 x 20 = 320 mm = 250 mm
300 mm

∴Provide 10∅ ties @ 200 m/cc

2.10 Design a cantilever slab to carry a superimposed load of 4188 N/m 2.

The overhang of the slab is 1.2 m. Adopt M20 concrete and Fe415 steel.

Solution:

L = 1.2 M
Overhand of slab = clear span (l) = 1.2 m

Superimposed load = 4188 N/m2 = 4.188 kN/m2

𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 1200
Let depth of slab = 10
= 10
= 120 mm

Let slab depth(D) = 150 mm

Using 10 mm dia. Bars effective slap depth

1
d = 150 -20 – 2
(10) = 150 mm

Self weight of slab = 0.15 x 25 = 3.75 kN/m 2

∴ total load = 3.75 + 4.188 = 7.938 kN/m 2

∴ Factored load (W) = 1.5 x 7.938 = 11.907 kN/m 2

1.2
∴ Factored moment (M) = 11.907 x 1.32 x 2
= 8.573 kNm/m width of
slab

For Fe 415, Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

⇒ 8.573 x 106 = 0.138 (20) (1000) d2 (given M20 concret4e

is to be used)

⇒ d = 55.733 mm < 125 mm

Reinforcement requirement:

𝑝𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑅
100
= 𝑏𝑑
= 2𝑓𝑦
[1 − √1 − 4.598
𝑓𝑐𝑘

𝑀 8.573𝑥106
Where R = 𝑏𝑑2
= 1000 𝑥 125 2
=
0.549 N/mm2

20 0.549
= [1 − √1 − 4.598 = 0.0015719
2(415) 20

∴ pt = 0.157 %
𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.85
Also, 𝑏𝑑
= 𝑓𝑦

85 85
⇒ pt min = = = 0.17% > pt (=0.157%)
𝑓𝑦 100
Provide 0.17 % steel.
0.17
⇒ Ast = x 1000 x 125 = 212.5 mm2
100

𝜋
1000𝐴∅ 1000 × ×82
4
∴ Using 8 ∅bars, spacing = = = 236.54 mm c/c ⋍200 mm c/c
𝐴𝑠𝑡 212.5
(say)

Provide 8 mm ∅ bars @ 200 mm c/c.

Also provide nominal distribution reinforcement @ 0.12% i.e.,

𝜋 2
1000 𝑥 𝑥8
4
= 0.12 = 335 mm spacing ⋍ 300 mm c/c
𝑥 1000 𝑥 125
100
(say)

Provide 8 mm ϕ bar @ 300 mm c/c

Anchorage length:
0.87 𝑓𝑦 0.87× 415 ×8
Anchorage/development length (Ld) = ( 4 𝜎 ) ϕ = 4 × 1.6 × 1.2
= 376.09 mm
𝑏𝑑

Thus main reinforcement bars must external beyond the support for a
distance of at least 375 mm. A 90o bend will provided an additional
anchorage value of 8 ϕ = 8 x 8 = 64 mm.

Deflection check;

ℓ
For cantilever, (𝑑)basic = 7

𝜋 82
1000𝐴∅ /𝑠 1000 × ×
4 200
Percentage reinforcement provided = x 100 = x 100 = 0.201%
𝑏𝑑 1000 ×125

0.157
∴ fst = 0.58 x 415 x 0.201
= 188.01 N/mm2

∴ kt = 2

∵ pc = 0

⇒ kc = 1

𝑙 𝑙
∴ ( )max = ( )basic kt.kc = 7 x 2 x1 = 14
𝑑 𝑑

𝑙 1200
( )prov. = = 9.6 < 14
𝑑 125
2.11 Design a cantilever beam with a clear span of 3 m which carries a
superimposed load of 15 kN/m/ Its depth varies from 500 mm at the fixed
end to 150 mm at the free end. show reinforcement with a neat sketch.

Solution:

Clear span, l =3m

Superimposed load = 15 kn/m

Let width of beam, b = 300 mm

500+150
Average depth of beam = = 325 mm (for purpose of load calculation)
2

∴ Self weight of beam = 0.3 x 0.325 x 25 = 2.4375 kN/m = 2.44

kN/m

∴ Total load = 15 + 2.44=17.44 kN/m

∴ Factored load, w = 1.5 x 17.44 = 26.16 kN/m

3
∴ Factored moment M = 26.16 x 3 x = 117.72 kN/m
2

Let M25 concrete and Fe500 steel are used

For Fe 500 Mulim = 0.133 fckbd2

117.72 x 106 = 0.133 9 (25) (3000 d2

d = 343.53 mm

But effective depth available (assuming 20 mm clear cover and 20 dia.

bars with 8 mm stirrups)
 20
= 500 – 20 -8 – 2
= 462 mm > 343.53 mm

Thus depth of beam provided at the section of maximum moment is adequate.

Reinforcement required:

𝑝𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑅
= = [1 − √1 − 4.597 ]
100 𝑏𝑑 2𝑓𝑦 𝑓 𝑐𝑘

𝑀 117.72 𝑥 106
Where R = = =
𝑏𝑑2 300 𝑥 462 2
1.838 N/mm2

25 1.838
= 2(500)
[ 1- √1.4.598 25
] = 0.0046598

∴ pt = 0.466 %
0.466
⇒ Ast = 100
x300 x 462 = 645.876 mm2

∴ no. of 20 mm dia. bars required

645.876
= 𝜋 = 2.06 ⋍ 3 nos. (say)
×202
4

Percentage of tension reinforcement provided

𝜋
3 × ×202
4
= 300 × 462
x 100 = 0.68 %

Shear reinforcement design;

500−150
tanβ = 3000
= 0.1167

Factored shear force, V = wℓ = 26.16 x 3 = 78 .48 kN

∴Nominal shear stress, V = wℓ= 26.16 x 3 = 78.48 kN

𝑀 117.72𝑥106
𝑉−( )𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 78.48𝑥103 − (0.1167)
∴ Nominal shear stress, τv = 𝑑
𝑏𝑑
= 300 𝑥 462
462
 = 0.352 N/mm2

For M 25 concrete and Pt = 0.68 % design shear strength of concrete (𝛾c) =

0.553 N/mm2

Thus, τv < τc

However, τu> 0.5 τc

And thus a minimum nominal shear reinforcement has to be provided i.e,

𝐴𝑠𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.4
𝑏𝑠𝑣
≥ 0.87 𝑓𝑦

using 2 legged 8 mm dia. stirrups,

𝜋
ASv = 2 x x 82 = 100.53 mm2
𝑛

𝐴𝑠𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.4
∴ 𝑏𝑠𝑣
≥0.87 𝑓
𝑦

2.175 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑆𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 2.175(500)(100.53)

Sv = 𝑏
= 300
= 364.42 mm c/c

0.75 x 462 = 346.5 mm

But sv = 0.75 d = [ = 300 mm c/c
300 mm

∴ Provide 2 legged 8 dia. stirrups @ 280 mm c/c.

2.12 A simply supported beam of 4.5 m effective span is carrying a live

load of 25 kN/m. The size of the beam has to be restricted to 250 mm x
380 mm depth. Design the beam for bending using limit state method. The
design coefficients are K = 0.138, ‫=ﺡ‬0.80, Ku = 0.479. Use M20 grade
concrete and Fe 415 steel.

Solution:

Effective span of beam, l = 4.5 m

Live load = 25 kN/m

 Beam size = 250 x 380 mm

∴ Dead load of beam = 0.25 x 0.38 x 25 = 2.375 kN/m

∴ Total load = 25 + 2.375 = 27.375 kN/m

∴ Factored load (w) = 1.5 x 27.375 = 41.0625 kN/m =

41.06kN/m

∴ Factored moment for which beam is to be designed is

𝑤𝑙 2 41.06 𝑥 4.52
M = 8
= 8
= 103.9kN/m

M20 concrete and Fe415 steel are to be used.

For Fe 415, limiting moment of resistance is,

Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

Let effective cover = 50 mm

∴ Effective depth of beam (d) = 380 -50 = 330 mm

∴ Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

= 0.138 (20)(250)(300)2 Nmm =

75.141 kNm

Thus, M > Mu lim

⇒ Doubly reinforced section is required.

𝑓 𝑥𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚 20
pt lim = 41.61 ( 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ) ( 𝑑
) = 41.61 (415) (0.479) = 0.961
𝑦
%
𝑜𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑚 0.61
∴ Ast lim = 100
bd = 100
x 250 x 330 = 792.825 mm2

Let 20 mm dia. bars are provided as compression reinforcement.

∴ d’ = 25 (clear cover) + 8 (stirrup) + ½ (20) = 43 mm

(𝑀−𝑀𝑢 lim) (103.9−75.141)106

∴ Δ𝐴𝑠𝑡 = = + 277.54 mm2
0.87𝑓𝑦 (𝑑−𝑑′ ) 0.87(415)(330−43)

∴ Ast = Ast lim + Δ Ast = 792.825 + 277.54 = 1070.65 mm2

If three bars in tension zone are provided then diameter of bar required
is given by,
 𝜋
3 x 4
d2 = Ast

1070.365𝑥4
⇒ d = √ = 21.31 mm
3𝜋

If four bars are provided then bar dia. required

1070.365𝑥4
= √ 3𝜋
= 18.46 mm ⋍ 18.46 mm ⋍ 20 mm
(say)

∴ Provided 4 nos. 20 mm dia. bars in tension zone.

𝜋
∴ Ast provided = 4 x 4
x 202 = 1256.64 mm2

∴ Actual effective depth (d) = 380 – 25 (clear cover) 8 (stirrup) – ½

(20)

= 337 mm > 330 mm (assumed above)

𝑑′ 43
Now, 𝑑 = 337
= 0.1276

∴ fsc = 346.55 N/mm2

0.87 𝑓𝑦 ∆𝐴𝑠𝑡
∴ Asc reqp =
𝑓𝑐 −0.447 4𝑐𝑘

0.961
Now, Ast lim prov = (250)(337)=809.64 mm2
100

∴ (∆Ast)prov. = Ast provided – Ast lim prov

= 1256.64 – 8.9.64=447 mm2

087 fy∆ Ast 0.87(415)(447)

∴ Asc reqd = fsc −0.447 fck
=
346.55−0.447(20)
= 478.03 mm2

478.03
∴ No. of 20 mm dia. bars required = 𝜋 = 1.5 ⋍ 2 nos (say)
(20)2
4

∴provided 2 nos. 20mm dia, bars as compression reinforcement

Check for section not to become over-reinforced:

For section not to become over –reinforced

xu ≤ xu lim

1
Actual effective depth provided (d) = 380 – 25 - 8 – 2
(20) = 337 mm

𝑑′ 43
∴ = = 0.1276
𝑑 337
∴ fsc = 346.55 N/mm2
1256.64
pt prov =250𝑥 337 x 100 = 1.49 %

𝜋
2𝑥 𝑥 202
4
pc prov. = 250 𝑥 337
x 100 = 0.746%

Minimum percentage of compression reinforcement required,

0.87𝑓𝑦 (𝑝𝑡 −𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑚 0.87 (415)(1.49−0.961)
Pc* = = = 0.566%
𝑓𝑠𝑐 − 0.447 𝑓𝑐𝑘 346.55−0.447(20)

Thus, Pc > Pc*

⇒ Section is under – reinforced.

Check for deflection:

1070.365
∴ Pt = 1.49% and fst = 0.58 x 415 x = 205.02
1256.64
N/mm2

∴ kt = 0.99

Pc = 0.746 %

Kc = 1.199

𝑙
for simply supported beam, (𝑑)basic = 20

𝑙 𝑙
( )max = ( )basic ktkc
𝑑 𝑑

= 20 (0.99) (1.199) = 23.74

ℓ 4500
( )
d actual
= 337
= 13.35 < 23.74 (ok)

2.13 Design a beam of 4.8 m span carrying a total load of 15 kN/m

inclusive of self weight. The beam is laterally supported throughout.

Solution:

Span of beam, l = 4.8 m

Total load the beam is required to carry including its self weight =
15kNm

∴Factored load, W = 1.5 x 15 – 22.5 kN/m

 𝑊𝑙 2 22.5 𝑥 4.82
∴Factored moment, M = 8
= 8
= 64.8 kN/m

∴grade of concrete and grade of steel are not given.

∴ Assume grade of concrete as M 20 and grade of steel as Fe 415.

Beam depth required:

For fe415, ultimate moment of resistance,

Mulim = 0.138 fck bd2

Let width of beam, b = 300 mm

∴ Mulim = 0.138 fck bd2

⇒ 64.8 x 106 = 0.138 (20) (300) d2

⇒ d = 279.75 mm

This effective depth is coming out to be less than width of beam.

⇒ Beam width can be reduced.

Let revised beam width. b = 250 mm

∴ Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

⇒ 64.8 x 106 = 0.138 (20) (250) d2

⇒ d = 306.45 mm

Let clear cover = 25 mm

Dia. of shear stirrups = 8 mm

Dia. of reinforcing bars = 20 mm

∴ Overall beam depth required,

D = 306.45+1/2 (20) + 8 + 20 = 344.45 mm

Adopt, D = 350 mm

∴ d = 350 – 20 8 – ½ (20) = 312 mm > 306.45 mm

Reinforcement required;

𝑝𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 0.5 𝑓𝑐𝑘 2.663

100
= 𝑏𝑑
= 𝑓𝑦
[1 − √1 − 4.598 ×
20
]
 64.8 𝑥 106
Where R = M/𝑏𝑑2 = 250 𝑥 3122
=
2.663 kN/m2

0.5(20) 2.663
= [1 − √1 − 4.598 × ]
415 20

pt = 0.909%
𝑝𝑡 0.909
∴ Ast = bd = (250)9312) = 709.02 mm2
100 100

709.02
∴ no of 20 mm dia. bar required = 𝜋 2 = 2.3 ⋍ 3 nos. (say)
20
4

Percentage of reinforcement provided

𝜋
3𝑥 𝑥 202
4
ptprov = 250 𝑥 312
x 100 = 1.208%

𝑓 𝑥𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚 20
Limiting percentage steel ptlim = 41.61( 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ) ( 𝑑
) = 41.61 (415)(0.48) =
𝑦
0.963%

Thus, Ptpov > ptlim

⇒ section is over – reinforced.

Instead of revising the beam section, increase the grade of concrete

Let m25 concrete is used

𝑝𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 0.5 (25) 2.663

∴ 100
= 𝑏𝑑
= 415
[ 1 − √1 − 4.598 ×
25
]

⇒ Pt = 0.861 %
0.861
⇒ Ast = (250)(312) = 671.58 𝑚𝑚2
100

25
pt lim = 41.61 (415)(0.48) = 1.203%

∴no of 16 mm dia, bars required

671.58
= 𝜋 = 3.34 ⋍ 4 nos. (say)
(16)2
4

∴ Percentage reinforcement provided

𝜋
4× × 162
4
Pt prov= x 100 = 1.03%< 1.203%
250× 312
(OK)
Design of shear reinforcement::

𝑊𝑙 4.8
Factored shear force, V = 2
= 22.5 x 2
= 54 kN

Percentage reinforcement provided,

ptprov = 1.03 %

𝑉 54 𝑥 1000
Nominal shear stress, τv = 𝑏𝑑
= 250 𝑥 312
= 0.692 N/mm2

For M 25 concrete and 1.03% steel, design shear strength of concrete

(table 19 of is 456:200),

τc = 0.6479 N/mm2

Alternatively:

τc can be computed as ,

(√5𝛽+1−1)
τc = 0.85√0.8𝑓 ck 6𝛽

0.8 𝑓𝑐𝑘 0.8𝑥25

2.818
where, β = [6.89 𝑝𝑡 (whichever is more) = [6.89𝑥1.03 = [ = 2.818
1 1 1

√5(2.818)+ 1−1 )
∴ τc = 0.85 √0.8(25) 6 (2.818)
= 0.649 N/mm2

(which is almost same as the value taken from

IS 456 : 2000)

∴ Shear reinforcement needs to be designed for the sheer force of

Vus = (τv = τc) bd

= (0.692 – 0.6479)250(312) N = 3.4398 kN ⋍

3.44 kN

Using 2 leffed 8 mm dia. stirrups,

𝜋
Asv = 2 x 4
x 82 = 100.53 mm2

∴ Spacing of shear stirrups is given by

𝑑
Vus = 0.87 fy Asv 𝑠𝑣

312
3.44 x 103 = 0.87 (415) 9100.53)
𝑆𝑣
Sv = 3291.99 mm
 0.75 d ( ) 234 mm
But Sv ≤ [ = [0.75 312 mm = [ = 234 mm
300 mm 300 mm 300 mm

∴ Provide spacing Sv = 200 mm (say) < 234 mm

Also minimum shear reinforcement is given by.

𝐴𝑠𝑣 𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.4
𝑏𝑠𝑣
≥ 0.87 𝑓𝑦

2.175 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝑣 2.175 (415)(100.53)

⇒ Sv = = = 362.96 mm
𝑏 250

∴ Provided 2 legged 8 mm dia. stirrups @ 200 mm c/c

2.14 A singly reinforced beam having a width of 250 mm is reinforced with

3 bar sw of 16 mm diameter at an effective depth of 400 mm. if m20 grade
concrete and Fe415 HYSD bars are used, compute for the section.

1. Working moment of resistance.

2. ultimate moment of resistance

Solution:

Width of beam, b = 250 mm

𝜋
Area of steel reinforcement, Ast = 3 nos. - 16ϕ = 3 x 4
x 162 = 603.2 mm2

Effective depth of beam, D = 400 mm

M20 concrete and Fe 415 steel are used.

Percentage reinforcement provided,

𝐴𝑠𝑡 603.2
Pt = x 100 = x 100 = 0.603%
𝑏𝑑 250𝑥400
Limiting percentage of steel reinforcement,

𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑥𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑚 20
Pt lim = 41.61 ( ) ( ) = 41.61 ( )(0.48) = 0.963%
𝑓𝑦 𝑑 415

∴ Pt < pt lim

⇒ section 9 is under – reinforced and Fst = 0.87 fy and , Xulim.

∴ moment of resistance of the beam section is given by,

M = 0.87 fy Ast (d-0.42 xu)

Depth of neutral axis (xu) can be computed as

C =T

⇒ 0.362 fck bxu = 0.87 fy Ast

0.87(415)(603.2)
⇒ xu = = 120.32 mm
0.362(20)(250)

∴ M = 0.87 fyAst (d-0.42xu)

= 0.87 (415) (603.2) (400-0.42 x 120.32) =

76.11 kNm

∴ Working moment of resistance

76.11
= 1.5
= 50.74 kNm

The beam section reaches its ultimate moment of resistance when x u = xulim

For Fe415, ultimate moment of resistance is given by

Mu lim = 0.138 fck bd2

= 0.138 920) (250) (400)2 Nmm 110.4 kNm

2.15 Design a square column section subjected to concentrated load of

1000 kN at service. Consider concrete grade of m25 and grade Fe415.

Solution:

Concentrated service load = 100 kN

∴ Factored load, P = 1.5 x 1000 = 1500 kN

M25 concrete and fe415 are to be used.

∵ Column length is not given

∴ It is assumed that exmin and ey min both are less than 0.05 D so that the

following expression is applicable i.e

P = 0.4 fck Ac + 0.67 fy As

Let side of square column Is D and 1% steel is provided.

∴ Area of steel reinforcement.

As = 1% of gross column are

= 1% of Ag = 0.01 D2

∴ Area of concrete, Ac = Ag - As = D2 – 0.01 D2 = 0.99 D2

∴ P = 0.4 fck Ac + 0.67 fy As

 1500 x 1000 = 0.4 (25) (0.99 D2) + 0.67 (415) (0.01 D2)
 D = 343.9 mm

Adopt D = 350 mm

∴ Area of steel, As = 1% of Ag = 0.01 (350)2 = 1225 mm2

1225
∴ no. of 25 mm dia. bars required = 𝜋 = 2.5
(25)2
4

1225
no. of 20 mm dia. bars required = 𝜋 = 3.89 which is close to 4.
(25)2
4

∴ Provide 4 nos. – 20 mm dia. bars at the corners of the square column.

Design of column ties:

Tie diameter, ∅ ≥ ∅main/4 = 20/4 mm 5 mm = 6 mm

6 mm 6 mm 6 mm

≤ D 350 mm

tie spacing, st 16 ∅ main = 16 x 20 = 320 mm = 300 mm

300 mm 300 mm

∴ provide 6 mm dia. ties @ 250 mm c/c with a clear cover of 40 min.

2.16 design a cantilever beam which projects beyond the fixed end by 3 m.
The superimposed load on it is 10 kN/m. use M20 grade (σcbc = 7 N/mm2) of
concrete and Fe415 steel (σst = 230 N/mm2). Assume moderate exposure
conditions.

Solution:

σcbc = 7 N/mm2

σst = 230 N/mm2

for cantilever beam, D = 500 mm

Effective cover = 50 mm

∴ effective depth , d = 500-50 = 450 mm

let width of beam, b = 300 mm

∴ Self weight of beam = 0.3 x 0.5 x 25 = 3.75 kN/m

Superimposed load = 10 kN/m

∴ Total load, w = 3.75 + 10 = 13.75 kN/m

𝑊𝐿2 13.75 × 32
Bending moment, m = = = 61.875 kNm
2 2

For M20 concrete, σcbc= 7 N/mm2

for Fe415 steel, σst 230 N/mm2

m= 13.33

Q = 0.91

j = 0.9

∴ Modular ration, m = Qbd2

  61.875 x 106 = 0.91 (300) d2
 d = 476 mm > 450 mm

∴ D = 476 mm > 450 mm

∴ D = 530 m so that d = 530 -50 = 480 mm > 476 mm

∴ Revised self- weight of beam = 0.3 x 0.53 x 25 =3.975 kN/m

Superimposed load = 10 kN/m

∴ Revised total load = 13.975 kN/m

32
∴ Revised bending moment, M = 13.975 x 2
= 62.8875 kN/m

M = Qbd2

 62.8875 x 106 = 0.91 (300) d2

 d = 479.96 mm ⋍ 480 mm

Tension reinforcement:

𝑀 62.8875 × 106
Area of tension reinforcement Ast = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝑗𝑑
= 230 × 0.9 × 480
= 632.925 mm2

632.925
Using 20 mm diameter bars, number of bars required = 𝜋 = 2.01
(20)2
4

632.925
using 16 mm diameter bars, number of bars required = 𝜋 = 3.15 ⋍ 4
(16)2
4
nos. (say)

∴ provide 4 nos. 16 mm ∅ diameter bars.

Shear reinforcement

𝑉 𝑊𝑙 13.975 × 3 × 103
Nominal shear stress, ‫ﺡ‬v = 𝑏𝑑
= 𝑏𝑑
= 300 ×480
= 0.29 N/mm2

For 0.56 % steel and M20 concrete, shear strength of concrete, ‫ﺡ‬c = 0.3
N/mm2

∵ ‫ﺡ‬v ⋍ ‫ﺡ‬c

∴ Provide nominal shear reinforcement

using 2 – legend, 6 mm diameter bars as shear reinforcement, spacing

required.
 𝜋
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑆𝑣 230 × × 62 × 2
4
Sv = 0.4 𝑏
= 0.4 × 300
= 108.38 mm

∴Provide 2-legged 6 mm diameter bars @ 100 mm /cc

2.17 A rectangular, singly reinforced beam 300 mm wide and 500 mm

effective depth is used as a simply supported beam over an effective span
of 6 m. the reinforcement consists of 4 bars of 20 mm dia. if the beam
carries a load of 12 kN/m (inclusive of self weight), determine the
stress developed in concrete and steel. take m = 19.

Solution :

In this question, concrete grade and steel grade are not given therefore
it is assumed that concrete is of grade M15 and steel of grade fe415.

Given m = 19
280
 3𝜎𝑐𝑏𝑐
= 19
280
 𝜎cbc = 3 ×19
= 4.9 N/m2 ≈ 5 N/mm2

which corresponds to M15 concrete.

For Fe415, σst = 230 N/mm2

𝜋
𝐴𝑠𝑡 4× ×202
4
Percentage tension steel, Pt = 𝑏𝑑
x 100 = 300 × 500
x 100 = 0.838%

Let depth of neutral axis = kd (from top of compression fibre)

𝑝𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 𝑝 𝑚 𝑡 𝑝 𝑚
Where, K = - 100
+ [( 100 )2 + ( 50 )]1/2

0.838 𝑥 19 0.838 𝑥 19 0.838 𝑥 19

= - ( 100
) + [( 100
)2 + ( 50
)]1/2 = 0.427

Neutral axis depth factor for balanced section = Kb

93.33 93.33
= 𝜎𝑠𝑡 +93.33
= 230+93.33
= 0.289

∴ K > Kb
  section is over – reinforced.
 In this case, concrete will reach to its permissible value i.e..,
fcbc = 5 N/mm2
 However stress in steel will not reach to its yield stress value
i.e., < σst (=230 N/mm2)

2.18 Design a circular column with helical reinforcement subjected to a

working load of 1500 kN. Diameter of the column is 450 mm. the column has
unsupported length of 3.5 is effectively held in position at both ends
but not restrained against rotation. use limit state design method. use
M25 concrete and HYSD Fe415 steel.

Solution:
Given: P= 1500 KN, Pu, = 1.5 x 1500 = 2250 kN, Circular dia. = 450 mm,
Left=3.5 m
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 3500
Check for slenderness ratio 𝐷
= 450
= 7.78 < 12
Therefore, column can be designed as short column
3500 450
Check for minimum eccentricity emin = 450
+ 30
= 22.8 mm
As, 0.05 D = 22.5 mm
≈ emin
= Codal formula for axially compressed short column may be used
P= 1.05 (0.4 fck Ac + 0.67 fyAsc)
𝜋
Area of concrete Ac = x 4502 - Asc
4
Asc = Area of steel
𝜋
2250 x 103 = 1.05(0.4x 25 x( 4 x 4502 – Asc ) +0.67 x 415Asc)
Asc = 2060.9 mm2
𝜋
Asc,min at 0.8% of Ag = 0.8/100 x 4
x 4502 = 1272.35 mm2
Providing 8 bars of 20 mm ∅
𝜋
 Asc provided = 8 x 4
x 202 = 2513.27 mm2 > 2060.9 mm2 (OK)
Design of spiral reinforcement
Assuming a clear cover of 40 mm over spirals,
Core diameter = 450 - (40 x 2) = 370 mm
Assuming a spiral bar diameter of 6 mm and pitch S t
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Ps =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
per unit length of column
 𝜋 (370−6)
= ( 4 × 62) x π x 𝑆𝑡
𝜋
( 4 × 3702)

0.3007
=
𝑆𝑡

𝐴𝑔 𝑓
as per code: Ps > 0.36 [𝐴 -1][ 𝑓𝑐𝑘 ]
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑦

𝜋
0.3007 ×4502 25
 ≥ 0.36 [ 𝜋4 -1 ] [415]
𝑠𝑡 × 3702
4
0.3007
 𝑠𝑡
≥ 0.36 x (0.479) x (0.0602)
 st ≤ 28.94 mm

AS per code 75 mm

𝑑𝑖𝑎.
St < Core 6
= 61.67 mm

and St > { 25 mm

{ 3∅h = 18 mm

Providing 6∅ spiral at 28 mm c/c pitch.

2.19 Design a constant thickness footing for a reinforced concrete column

of 300 mm x 300 mm. The column is carrying an axial working load of 600
kN. the BC of soil is 200 kN/m2. use M-25 concrete and HYSD Fe-415 bars.
Use limit state design method.

100 Ast 0.15 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0

‫ﺡ‬c(N/mm2) 0.19 0.36 0.49 0.57 0.64

Solution:

Given : P = 600 kN, qa = 200 kN/m2

Assuming the weight of the footing and backfill to be 100% of the column
load of 600 kN.
 600𝑥1.1
∴ Base area required = 200
= 3.3 m2

Designing a square footing of size = √3.3 = 1.82 m

Assuming size of the footing to be 2 m x 2m

Thickness of footing slab based on shear:

Net soil pressure at ultimate load with a load factor of 1.5.

600×1.5
qu = 2×2
= 225 kN/m2 = 0.225 N/mm2

(a) One way shear

Critical section is at a distance of ‘d’ from the column face. ‘d’ is the
effective depth of the footing

Factored shear force; Vu1 = 0.225 x (2000 x (850 – d))N

Vu1 = (382500-450 d)N

Let percentage of steel reinforcement to be provided in tension be = 0.25

Frome table provided; ‫ﺡ‬c = 0.36 N/mm2

one way shear resistance, Vc1 = 0.36 x (200xd) = 720d N

For footing to be safe in one way shear: V u1 ≤ Vc1

(382500 – 450 d)N ≤720 d N

Or, d ≥ 326.9 mm
(b) Two – way shear

Critcal section is at d/2 from the periphery of the column.

Taking depth of footing as 350 mm

 factored shear force = Vu2 = 0.225 x [20002-(300 + 3500)2]

 Vu2 = 804.94 x 103 N

Two way shear resistance: Vc2 = Ksτc[4 x (300 + d) x d]

where, ks = 1.0 for a square column

and τc = 0.25 √𝑓 ck = 1.25 N/mm2

 Vc2 = 1 x 1.25 x [49300 + d) x d] = 5d (300 +d)

For footing to be sage in two way shear : Vu2 ≤ Vc2

or 804.94 x 103 ≤ 5d2 + 1500 d

or 5 d2 + 1500 d – 804.94 x 103 ≥ 0

On solving, d ≥ 278.35 mm

So, providing a clear cover of 50 mm and 12∅ bars in both directions with
an effective depth of 350 mm as per one way shear criteria.

Overall thickness = D = 350 + 50 = 400 mm

And Effective thickness = d = 400 – 50 – 12/2 = 344 mm

(C) Design of flexural reinforcement

Critical section for moment is at column face

(1000−150)2
 Mu = (0.225 x 2000) x 2
= 162.56 kN-m

𝑀𝑢 162.56 × 106
𝑏𝑑2
= 2000 × (344)2
= 0.686

𝑀𝑢 𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑦 𝑝𝑡
now, = (0.87 fy)( )[1- ( )]
𝑏𝑑2 100 𝑓𝑐𝑘 100

Where Pt is area of steel required.

𝑝𝑡 415 𝑝𝑡
 0.686 = (0.87 x 415) ( ) )[1- ( )]
100 25 100

68.6 = 361.05 pt [ 1-0.166 pt]

 59.93. 𝑃𝑡2 - 361.05 pt + 68.6 = 0

𝑡𝑃
(100 ) = 0.058

Ptreqd = 0.058% which is less than pt for one way thickness.

Pt = 0.25% > minimum pt = 0.12%
0.25
∴ Astreqd 𝑥 (2000𝑥 344) = 1720 mm2
100
Number of bars required using 12 mm ∅ bars
1720
= 𝜋 = 15.2 ≈ 16
× (12)2
4
2000−(50× 2)− 12× 16)
Spacing of bars = s = ( (16−1)
= 113.86 mm
So, Provide 12 mm Ø bar @ 100 mm c/c both ways.
2.20 Enumerate the situations in which doubly reinforced concrete beams
become necessary. What is the role of compression steel?
Solution:
When the bending moment required to be resisted is more than the moment
of resistance of a balanced section of singly reinforced beam of given
size, there are two alternatives:
(1) To use an over-reinforced section.
(ii) To use doubly reinforced section. An over reinforced section is
always uneconomical and also undesirable because of sudden failure
probability. Also the increase in the moment of resistance is not in
proportion to the increase in the area of tensile reinforcement. The
reason behind this is that the concrete, having reached maximum allowable
stress, cannot take more additional load without adding compression
steel. The other alternative is to provide reinforcement in the
compression side of the beam and thus to increase the moment of
resistance of the beam beyond that of a balanced section.
Doubly reinforced sections are also useful in following situations:
(1) Where the members are subjected to probable reversal of external
loads and thereby the bending moment in the section reverses, such as in
concrete piles etc. (2)When the members are subjected to loading,
eccentric to either side of the axis, such as in columns subjected to
wind loads.
(3) When the members are subjected to accidental lateral loads, shock or
impact.
The steel reinforcement provided in the compression zone is subjected to
compressive stress. However, concrete undergoes creep strains due to
continued compressive stress, with the result that the strain in concrete
goes on increasing with time. This increases compressive strain in steel
in addition to creep strain in compressive steel. Thus the total
compressive strain in compressive steel will be much greater than the
strain in surrounding concrete due to flexure alone. Thus, compressive
steel takes up all the additional compressive stresses beyond the
permissible compressive stress for concrete making the section safe
against failure in flexure.

2.21 A classroom is of the size 8.5 m x 3.6 m. Design a simply supported

roof slab for this room. The superimposed load is 5 kN/m2. Use M20 grade
concrete and HYSD Fe415 steel. Use limit state method for the design.
100 As /bd 0.15 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0
‫ﺡ‬c N/mm2 0.19 0.36 0.49 0.57 0.64

Solution:
𝑙𝑦 8.5
= = 2.36 >2 (one way slab)
𝑙𝑥 3.6
3600
Let, Effective depth of slab = 20
= 180 mm
Assuming effective curve of 40 mm
Overall depth = 180 + 40 = 220 mm
Effective depth = 240 - 40 = 200 mm
Let, Width of wall supporting slab = 250 mm (Say 240 mm)
Effective span, Leff = 3600+ 2001
or Minimum
3600+ 250
 Left = 3.8 m
Loads for 1 m strip of slab
Self weight = 25 x 0.24 x 1 = 66 N/m
Live load = 5x1 = 5 kN/m (Given)
Assume floor load of = 1 kN/m
 Total load, W = 6 + 5 + 1 = 12 kN/m
 Factored load, Wu = 1.5.x 12 = 18 kN/m
𝑊𝑢 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 18 × 3.82
 Factored moment, Mu = 8
= 8
= 32.49 kN/m
Check for depth,
For Fe415,
MOR (limiting) = 0.138 fckBd2

32.40 × 106
 drag = √
0.138 × 20 × 1000
 drag = 108.49 mm
dprovided = 200 mm dprovided > dreqd. (OK)
Reinforcement in slab
𝑓𝑐𝑘 4.6 𝑀𝑢
Ast = 0.5x [1- √1 − ] Bd
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐵𝑑 2

20 4.6 × 32.49 × 106

= 0.5 x [1-√1 − } x 1000 x 200
415 20 ×1000 × 2002
Ast = 473.42 mm2
0.12
Minimum reinforcement = 0.12% of Bd = x 1000 x 200 = 240 mm2
100
Adopting 12 mm ∅ bars;

𝜋
Spacing required, S = 1000 x x 122
4
473.42 = 238.9 mm

So, provide 12 mm θ bars at 230 mm c/c

Check for spacing for main bars,
3d
Max. spacing = or minimum
3.0

3×200
= or = 300 mm
3.0

Provide spacing = 230 mm (OK)

Distribution reinforcement: Adopt 8 mm ϕ bars provided as minimum
reinforcement for shrinkage
⇒ Area required = 0.12% of Bd = 240 mm2
𝜋
100× ×82
4
⇒ Spacing = 240
= 209.44 mm

Max. spacing = 5d 5×200

or = or = 450 mm
450 min 450 min

So adopt a spacing of 200 mm for 8 mm ϕ bars provided as distribution

reinforcement.
Check for shear:
𝑊 𝐿 18×3.6
VU = 2𝑢 = 2
= 32.4 kN
 𝑉𝑢 32.4×103
𝜏𝑉 = 𝐵𝑑
= 103 ×200
= 0.162 MPa < 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 (= 1.8 MPa)

100𝐴𝑠𝑡 100𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒

pt = =
𝐵𝑑 1000×200

𝜋
1000× ×122
4
𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 230
= 491.73 mm2
100×491.73
⇒ pt = 1000×100 = 0.246%
Using the table given and interpolating 𝜏𝑐 between pt values of 0.15 and
0.25.

0.36−0.19
𝜏𝑐 = 0.19 = .025−0.15
× (0.246 – 0.15) = 0.53 N/mm2 >𝜏𝑉

k value depth = 240 mm = 1.1

𝜏𝑉 < k𝜏𝑉
and
𝜏𝑉 < 𝜏𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥

2.22. Explain the steps for the design of column with helical reinforcement
in limit state method.

Solution:
The following steps are followed for design of columns with helical
reinforcement in LSM:
Step- 1: Check for slenderness ratio
𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑦
When 𝑒𝑥 and both are less than 12 then column is considered as short
𝐷 𝑏
column otherwise the column is long column.

Step-2: Check for minimum eccentricity

𝐿 𝐷
emin = + < 20
500 30

𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
Also, 𝐷
< 0.05

Step-3: Design load calculation

 PU = = 1.5 × Given load (P)
Step-4: Calculation of area of steel and number of reinforcement bars
Area should be between 0.8% of 6% gross area of column as per IS 456
PU = [ 0.4 fCKAC + 0.67fyASC] × 1.05
Step-5: Calculation of helical reinforcement
The pitch of the helical reinforcement should be such that following
criteria should be satisfied.
Volume of reinforcement per unit column length Vb 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐴𝑔
Volume of core VC
≥ 0.36 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
-1

𝐷𝑔 = Gross diameter
𝜋
Gross Area = 4 (Dg)2
DC = Core diameter
𝜋
Core area = 4 (DC)2
Core volume for volume for unit length
VC = 1000 AC
Vh = Volume of helical reinforcement for same unit length
Dh = DC – ϕn
Vh = (No. turns) ×(Length of one turn) × c/s of helical
reinforcement
Length of heliz is one turn = √(𝜋𝐷ℎ )2 + 𝑝 2 ≃ 𝜋 𝐷ℎ

Volume of helical reinforcement in 1000 mm

1000 𝜋
Vh = 𝑝 × (πDh) × 4 𝜙ℎ2

Step-6: Spirals
Helical reinforcement i.e. spirals provide very good confinement to
concrete. The diameter and pitch requirement of spirals is same as that
of ties,. However, when columns are designed to carry 5% extra load, then
pitch of the spiral ties should be as given below:
Maximum spacing of spiral tie i.e., pitch (S t) < Core diameter /6
75mm
Minimum spacing of spiral tie i.e., pitch (S t) > 3 times the
diameter of tie.
 Unit XI Steel Design

1.1 A member of a truss ISA 125×95 is used to carry a tensile load of

180 kN. The angle section is connected to a 10mm thick gusset plate,
through the longer leg. By five powers driven shop rivets, as shown in
figure. Select a suitable angle thickness and rivet diameter.

Solution:
Let, t = Angle thickness (in mm)
d = Diameter of rivet hole (in mm)
Tensile load, P = 180 kN
Permissible tensile stress, 𝜎𝑡 = 0.6 fy = 0.6 ×250 = 150 N/mm2
𝑃 180×103
∴ Net area required, An = 𝜎𝑡
= 150
= 1200 mm2

Trial-1
Let, t = 10 mm and d = 21.5 mm (for 20mm dia. rivets)
10
∴ Area of connected leg, A1 = (125 - 21.5 - 2 ) 10= 985 mm2
10
Area of outstanding leg, A2 = (95 - ) 10 = 985 mm2
2
3𝐴1 3(985)
∴ k = 3𝐴1 +3𝐴2
= 3(985)+900
= 0.7665
∴ Net area available = A1 + kA2
= 985 + 0.7665 (900)
= 1674.85 mm2 > 1200 mm2

Trial-2
Let t = 10 mm and d = 19.5 (for 18mm dia. rivets)
10
∴ A1 = (125-19.5 – ) 10 = 1005 mm2
2
10
A2 = (95 - ) 10 = 900mm2
2
 3𝐴1 3(1005)
∴ k = 3𝐴1 𝐴2
= 3(1005)+900
= 0.7701
∴ Anet = 𝐴1 + 𝐾𝐴2
= 1005 + 0.7701 × 900
= 1698.09 mm2 > 1200 mm2

Trial-3
Let, t = 8 mm and D = 19.5 mm
8
∴ A1 = (125-19.5 – 2)8 = 812 mm2
8
A2 = (95 - )8 = 725 mm2
2
3𝐴1 3(812)
∴ k = = = 0.7699
3𝐴1 𝐴2 3(812)+728
∴ Anet = A1 + kA2 = 1372.49 mm2 > 1200 mm2
Thus a large number of combinations of angle thickness and rivet diameter
are possible.
For economy adopt t = 8 mm
and d = 19.5 mm i.e., dia. of rivet = 18mm

1.2 Find the maximum load P that can be carried by the bracket
connection shown I figure, if 6-20 mm diameter power driven shop rivets
are used.

Solution:

Eccentricity of load (e) = 400 mm

Total no. of rivets (n) = 6
Nominal dia. of rivet = 20 mm
∴ Gross dia. of rivet = 20 + 1.50 = 21.5 mm
According to IS 800: 1984 maximum permissible shear stress
in power driven shop rivets = 100 MPa and in bearing = 300 MPa
𝜋
Shear strength of rivet, PS = (21.5)2 (100) N
4
= 36.31 kN
Bearing strength of rivet, Pb = dt (300) = 21.5(10) 300N = 64.5
kN
(Out of 10mm and 12 mm thickness, lesser will be the governing
thickness)
∴ Rivet value, RV = 36.31 kN
Rivet A will be highly stressed.
𝑃 𝑃
Direct load on rivet A, F1 = 𝑛 = 6
Load on rivet A due to twisting moment
𝑃𝑒𝑟
F2 = 2
Σ𝑟
Where, r = √502 + 502 = 50√2 mm
 and Σr2 = 4(50√2)2 + 2(50)2 mm

𝑃(500)50√2
∴ F2 = = 0.8√2P
25000

50 50 1
Cosϕ = 𝑟
= 50√2
=
√2
∴ Resultant force on rivet A, F = √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 2𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑝 𝑃 1
= √ 6 + (0.8√2𝑃)2 + 2 ( 6 ) (0.8√2𝑃 )( ) = 1.2548 P
√2
But F ≤ RV
⇒ 1.2548 P ≤ 36.31 kN
⇒ P ≤ 28.94 kN
∴ Maximum load (P) = 28.94 kN (say)

1.3 The bracket shown in figure consists of pair of mild steel plates
riveted to the flange of 305 mm× 152mm I-column. If the resultant force
on the critical rivet is limited to 45 kN, determine the load P, the
bracket can support.

Solution:

Eccentricity of load (e) = 300 mm

Highly stressed rivet will be rivet a located closest to the load (P)
69 75 2
r = √( 2 )2 + (75 + 2
) = 117.67 mm
Total no. of rivets, n = 8
𝑃 𝑃
∴ Direct load on each rivet, F1 = =
𝑛 8
Load o rivet a due to twisting moment
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑃(300)(117.67)
F2 = Σ𝑟2 = Σ𝑟2
Now, Σ𝑟 2 = 4(117.67)2 + 4(37.52+34.52) = 65770.94
mm2
𝑃(300)(117.67)
∴ F2 = = 0.5367 P
65770.92
∴ Resultant force on rivet A, F = √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 2𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
 34.5
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = 0.2932
117.67
𝑃 2 𝑃
F = √( 8 ) + (0.5367𝑃 )2 + 2 ( 8 ) (0.5367𝑃 )(0.2932)
= 0.5857 P
Given resultant force on critical rivet I s limited to 45 kN
∴ F ≤ 45 kN
⇒ 0.5857 P ≤ 45
⇒ P ≤ 76.83 kN
Now the bracket consists of a pair of mild steel carry
= 2 × 76.83 = 153.66 kN ≃ 153 kN (say)

1.4 Calculate the size of the weld required for the welded bracket
loaded as shown in figure.

Solution:

Let t = throat thickness of weld

∵ Welding is done on all the four edges and thus CG of weld groups will
𝟐𝟎𝟎
lie in the middle i.e., x̄ = 𝟐 = 100 mm

𝒕×𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝟐𝟎𝟎×𝒕𝟑
Moment of inertia about 𝒙 − 𝒙, IXX = 2 × 𝟏𝟐
+ 2 𝟏𝟐
+ 200t (150)2

= 4.5 t ×106 +9 t×106 = 13.5 t 106 mm4

(Ignoring term containing t3 as it will be
very small)
𝑡3 2003
Moment of inertia about y-y, Iyy
= 2 300 × 12 + 300t(100)2 +2×t× 12
= 6t × 106 + 1.33 t × 106
= 7.33 t × 106 mm4
(ignoring term containing t3 as it will be
very small)
∴ Polar moment of inertia, J = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 20.83 t × 106 mm4
r = √1002 + 1502 = 180.28 mm
100
Cos θ = 180.28 = 0.5547
 100103 100
Direct shear stress, τ𝑉𝑓1 = 2(200+300)𝑡
= 𝑡
N/mm2
Shear stress due to twisting moment,
𝑇 100×103 (400) 346.19
τ𝑉𝑓2 = r = × 180.28 =
𝐽 20.83𝑡×106 𝑡
 ∴ Resultant stress (τ) = √𝛕𝟐 𝑽𝒇𝟏 + 𝛕𝟐 𝑽𝒇𝟐 + 𝟐𝛕𝑽𝒇𝟏 𝛕𝑽𝒇𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐 𝟑𝟒𝟔.𝟏𝟗 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟒𝟔.𝟏𝟗

= √( 𝒕
) +( 𝒕
) + 𝟐( 𝒕
)(
𝒕
) 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟕

𝟒𝟏𝟎.𝟏𝟗
= 𝒕
n/mm2
But τ ≤ 108 N/ mm2
𝟒𝟏𝟎.𝟏𝟗
⇒ 𝒕
≤ 108
⇒ t ≥ 3.8 mm
𝒕 𝟑.𝟖
∴ Minimum size of weld (s) = = = 5.43 mm ≃ 6 mm
𝟎.𝟕 𝟎.𝟕
∴ Provide fillet weld of 6 mm size.

1.5 Find the suitable pitch for single riveted lap joint for plates 1
cm thick, if 𝝈𝒕 = 300 N/mm2.

Solution:

Diameter of rivet using Unwin’s formula (ϕ) 6.04√𝒕 = 3.01√𝒕 = 6.01√𝟏𝟎 =

19mm = 18mm (say)
∴ Gross dia. of rivet, d = 18 + 1.5 = 19.5 mm
𝝅 𝝅
Shear strength of rivet, PS = 𝟒
d2𝝈𝑺 = 𝟒 (19.5)2 100 N = 29.86 kN
Bearing strength of rivet, Pb = dt𝝈𝒃 = (19.5) 10 (300) N = 58.5
kN
∴ Rivet value, RV = 29.86 kN = Strength of rivet per pitch
length
Tearing strength of plate, Pt = (s-d) t𝝈𝒕
= (s- 19.5) 10 (150) N
= 1500 (s-19.5) N
Equating strength of rivet per pitch length with tearing strength of
plate will give the most economical pitch.
∴ 1500 (s-19.5) = 29.86 × 103
⇒ s = 39.41 mm ≃ 40 mm
 But pitch ≮ 2.5 ϕ (18) = 45 mm
∴ Provide pitch of 45 mm using 18 mm diameter rivets.

1.6 Calculate the maximum load that the bracket shown in figure can carry if
the size of the weld on flange is 8 mm and that on the web is 5 mm. The
allowable shear stress is 102.5 N/mm2.

Solution:

Size of weld on flange = 8 mm

Size of weld on web = 5 mm
∴ Effective throat thickness of weld
t = 0.7 × (lesser weld size)
= 0.7(5) = 3.5 mm
∴ Moment of inertia about x-x,
𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟑
𝑰𝒙𝒙 of weld = 2 × 3.5 × = 9.115 × 106 mm4
𝟏𝟐

𝐖 𝑾 𝑾
Direct shear stress in the weld = 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐞𝐥𝐝
= 𝟐×𝟐𝟓𝟎×𝟑.𝟓
= 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟎
N/mm2

𝟔𝑴 𝟔(𝑾)(𝟐𝟒𝟎) 𝑾
Shear stress in weld due to moment = 𝒕𝒅𝟐
= 𝟐×𝟑.𝟓×𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟐
= 𝟑𝟎𝟑.𝟖
N/mm2

𝑾 𝑾
∴ Combined resultant stress = √(
𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟎
)𝟐 + (𝟑𝟎𝟑.𝟖)𝟐
 𝐖
= N/mm2
𝟐𝟗𝟗.𝟑𝟐𝟑

𝑾
∴ ≤ 102.5
𝟐𝟗𝟗.𝟑𝟐𝟑
⇒ W ≤ 102.5 × 299.323 N = 30.68 kN
∴ Maximum load (W) = 30.68 kN ≃ 30.5 kN (say)

1.7 What are the advantages and disadvantages of welded joints?

Solution:
Advantages of welded joints:
1. Welded joints are more economical than riveted or bolted joints
because splice plates and rivets are not required.
2. Welded joints are more rigid than riveted joints. The cover plates,
connecting angles etc. in riveted joints make the joint more
flexible.
3. It is because of welding that now it is very easy to joint tubular
section.
4. Due to fusion of two metal pieces, the structure obtained is
continuous. thus welded joints give better architectural appearance.
5. Welding process does not make large sound as compared to riveted
joints and thus less noise pollution is there.
6. Because of the absence of splice plates, connecting angles etc, the
drawing detailing also gets reduced thereby saving in cost and time.
7. The efficiency of welded joint is more than that of riveted joint.
Disadvantages of welded joints;
1. More skilled personnel are required for making welds in the metal.
2. The inspection of welded joint is difficult and expensive.
3. The heat generated during the welding process may distort the
connecting members.
4. Welded joints are more prone for brittle failure as compared to
other joints.

1.8 Determine the maximum load in the rivers of the eccentric connection
shown in figure.

Solution:
Eccentricity of load (P) from = e = 200+ 100 = 300 mm
No of rivets(n) = 9
Load (P) = 60 kN
It is assumed that load is shared equally be all rivets.
𝑃 60
∴ Load coming one one rivet (F1) = 𝑛= 9 =6.67 kN
Rivet ‘R’ will be highly stressed.
Load on rivet ‘r’ due to moment i.e., eccentricity of axial load (F 2) =
𝑃𝑒𝑟
Σ𝑟2

where, r = √1002 + 1002 = 100√2mm

Sr2 = 4(100√2)2 + 2(100)2 + 2(100)2 + 0 = 120000 mm2
𝑃𝑒𝑟 60(300)100√2
∴ F2 = = = 15√2 kN
Σ𝑟2 120000
∴ Resultant force on rivet ‘R’ = √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 2 𝐹1 F2 cosϴ

= √6.672 + (15√2)2 + 2(6.67)15√2𝑐𝑜𝑠45o = 26.36 kN

∴ Maximum force/load on the rivet = 26.36 kN

1.9 Classify welded joints according to type of joints.

Solution
Classification of welded joints; According to the type of joint, welded
joint are classified as ;
1. Butt/groove welded
2. Lap/fillet welded
3. Tee welded
4. Corner welded
5. Slot welded
6. Plug welded
7. All these welded joints are shown in figure below.

1.10 A single rivet lap joint is used to connect 12 mm thick plates by

providing 200 mm dia rivets at 50 mm pitch. Determine the strength of the
joint and joint efficiency. Take working stress in shear is rivets = 80
N/mm2, working stress in bearing in rivets = 250 N/mm 2 and working stress
in axial tension in plates = 156 N/mm2.
Solution:
Pitch, p = 50 mm
Nominal diameter of rivet, ∅ = 20 mm
∴ Gross diameter of rivet, d = 20 + 1.5 = 21.5 mm
Here rivets are in single shear.
𝜋
∴ Strength of rivet in shear, ps = 4
d2 (τvf)
𝜋
= (21.5)2 (80) N
4
= 29.04 kN
…(i)
strength of river in bearing, pb = dtτb
=(21.5)12(250)N = 64.5 kN …(ii)
Tearing strength of plate, Pt = (p-b)tσat
=(50-21.5)12(156)N=53.352 kN
…(iii)
∴ Strength of joint = Minimum of (i), (ii) and (iii)
= 29.04 kN
Strength of solid plate per pitch length
= ptσat = 50 x 12 x 156 N = 93.6 kN

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 29.04

∴ Efficiency of joint = x 100 = x 100 = 31.03 %
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 93.6

1.11 Design a riveted splice for a tie of a steel bridge, 20 cm wide, 20

mm thick carrying an axial tensile force of 50000 kg. use 12 mm thick
cover plates, 22 mm diameter rivets. Permissible stresses:
Tension in plates = 1500 kg/cm2
shear in rivets = 1000 kg/cm2
bearing in rivets = 3000 kg/cm2
Give a neat sketch of the arrangement.
Solution:

Taking g = 10 m/s2 and 1 kg/cm2 = 0.1 N/mm2

50000 𝑥 10
∴ Axial tensile force, P = 1000
= 500 kN
Nominal diameter of rivets = 22 mm
∴Gross diameter of river d’ = 22 + 1.5 = 23.5 mm
Designing the splice as a double cover but joint as it will give maximum
efficiency.

500 kN   500 kN

Given that thickness of cover plates = 12 mm

width of main plate = 20 cm = 200 mm
Thickness of main plate = 20 mm
𝜋 𝜋 100
Assuming the width of cover shear = 4 (d’)2 x fs x 2 = 4 x (23.5)2 x 1000
x 2
=86.75 kN
300
strength of rivet in bearing = d’t fb = 23.5 x 20 x 1000 = 141 kN
∴ Rivet value, Rv = 86.75 kN
𝑃 500
Number of rivets, n = 𝑅𝑣
= 86.75
= 5.76 ≈ 6

The rivets can be arranges in diamond pattern checking the strength of

cover plate and main plate in tearing
As we know that 3-3 is critical for cover plates.
∴ Strength of cover plates in tearing at 3-3 ≥ 500 kN
150
 (200 – 3 x 23.5) x 24 x = 466.2 kN < 500
1000
Providing two rivets at 3-3, then
1500
Strength of cover plats in tearing at 3-3 = (200-2 x 23.5) x 24 x
1000
= 550.8 kN > 500 kN (Hence safe)
Thus 2 rivets can be provided at 3-3, Hence safe
Thus arranging rivets in chain pattern, in 3 pairs of two rivets each.
1-1 is critical for main plate,
∴ Strength of main plate in tearing at 1-1 > 500 ≥ 500 kN
150
 =(200-2 X23.5) x 20 x = 459 kN < 500 kN
1000

Thus one rivet can be provided at 1-1.

We can provided three rivetsw at 2-2, thus checking for tearing of amin
plate at 2-2

150
 =(200-3 x23.5) x 20 = + Rv > 500
1000
150
 =(200-3 x23.5) x 20 = 1000+ > 86.75
 = 4758.25 < 500, Hence unsafe
 Thus, providing tow rivets at 2-2
150
 Strength of main plate in tearing at 2-2 =(200-3 x23.5) x 20 = 1000
+
> 86.75
= 545.75 . 500. Hence safe.

thus at 1-1 at the most one rivet can be provided. two rivets can be
provided at 2-2. Two rives can be provided at 3-3. we have to create 4-4
in order to incorporate the remaining one rivet. thus the arrangement
will be as given below.
Equating the strength of rivet per pitch length to the strength of plate
per pitch length in tearing.
150
Rv = (S-23.5) x 20 x 1000
150
 86.75 = (s23.5) x 20 x 1000
 s = 52.42 mm = 60 mm < 2.5 x 22 = 55 mm
1.12 in a roof truss, the member consists of 2 IAS 100 x 75 x 8 mm. the
angles are connected to either side of a 10 mm gusset plate at member is
subjected to a working pull of 280 kN. Design the welded connection
assuming they are made in the workshop. The centre of gravity of the
section from the top may be considered 31 mm.

Solution:
Lest assume Fe 410 steel grade
Factored load = 1.5 x 280 kN = 240 kN
Load on each angle = 210 kn
Weld thickness;
Minimum weld thickness = 3 mm
(for 8 mm angle section)
Maximum = 8 – 1.5 = 6.5 mm
3
or 4x 8 =6 mm
so provide 6 m weld size,
𝑓𝑢
Design strength (ks) l
√3𝛾𝑚𝑤
 l = 264.03 mm
to find length of weld on each sie
Moment about centre
l1 x 31 – l2 (100-31) = 0
l1 = 2.225 l2
Also l1+l2 = 264.03
l1 = 182.16 mm
l2 = 81.86 mm

2.Tension, Compression and Flexural Member

2.1 A tension member is a truss consists of a pair of angle ISA 100 x 65

x 10 mm welded on either side of a 12 mm thick gusset plate, using a 7 mm
weld. Design the welded joint as shown in figure.
Properties of ISA 100 x 65 x 10
Area = 15.51 cm2
Cx = 3.37 cm

Solution

For ISA 100 x 65 x 10 , A = 1551 mm2

Cxx = 33.7 mm
Cyy = 16.3 mm
 Maximum tension that the member can carry
= Tensile strength of member
= 0.6 fy (2A) = 0.6 x 250 (2 x 1551) N = 465.3 kN
Size of weld (s) = 7 mm

Total length of weld = 2(s+y)

Permissible shear stress in weld = 108n/mm 2
Strength of weld per mm length = 0.7 x 7 x 108 = 529. N/mm
∴ 526.2 x 2(x+y) = 465.3 x 103
(∴ Max. Tension that the member can carry = strength of weld)
 x + y = 439.63 …(i0

Taking moments about bottom weld.

529.2 x (2x) (100) = 465.3 x 103 x (Cxx)
 10584x = 465.3 x 103 (33.7)
x = 148.15 mm
∴ y = 439.63 – x = 439.63 – 148.15 = 291.48 mm
∴ provide x ⋍ 150 mm and y ⋍ 295 mm weld length at top and bottom
respectively.

2.2 An RSJ 55 cm deep and 19 cm wide having flange and web thicknesses of
1.5 cm and 0.99 cm respectively is used as a beam. Calculate the moment
of resistance at a section wher3e maximum stress is 100 n/mm2.
Solution:

Maximum stress is limited to 100 N/mm2.

Moment of inertia of the section about x-x
5503 5503
Ixx = 190 x 12 - (180.1) 12
= 523.98 x 106 mm4
𝐼 523.98 𝑥 106
∴Section modulus, Zxx = 𝑥𝑥
𝑦
= 275
= 1.905 x 106 mm3
∴Moment of resistance of the section
M = fZxx = 100 x 1.905 x 106 Nmm
=190.5 kNm

2.3 Computer the allowable compressive load on an axially loaded steel

column having a cross- section as shown in the figure and an effective
length of 3.5 m.
For the purpose of computing the cross- sectional area, the moment of
inertia and the radius of gyration, the maximum width of the outstand
should be taken out not more than 16 times the thickness of the flange.
Also, the maximum depth of web should be taken not more than 50 times its
thickness.
use the following data:

l/r Allowable stress in axial compression

(kg/cm2)
60 1130
70 1075
80 1007
90 928
100 840

Solution:

flange outstand ≤ 16 x flange thickness = 16 x 6 = 96 mm

Maximum web depth ≤ 50 x web thickness = 50 x 6 = 300 mm
Thus the effective section is shown below:
∴Cross- sectional area, A = (198 x 6) x 2 + 300 x 6 = 4176 mm 2
198 𝑥 (300+6+6)3 192 𝑥 3003
Moment of inertia about x-x Ixx = –
12 12
= 69.13 x 106 mm4
6 𝑥 1983 300 𝑥 63
Moment of inertia about y-y, Iyy = 12
x 2 + 12
= 7.77 x 106 mm4
Thus , Iyy < Ixx
∴Minimum radius of gyration,
𝐼𝑦𝑦 7.77 𝑥 106
rmin = ryy = √ 𝐴 = √ 4176 = 43.135 mm
Effective length of column, I = 3500 mm
𝑙 3500
∴ Slenderness ratio, λ = 𝑟 = 43.135 = 81.141
𝑚𝑖𝑛
∴from given table, allowable compressive stress after interpolation
= 997.9861 kg/cm2 = 97.9 N/mm2
∴Allowable compressive load = 97.9 x 4176 N = 408.83 kN ⋍ 41.7 tons

2.4 Design a built – up column composed of two channel section placed

back to back, carrying an axial load of 1345 kN. Effective length of
column is 4.95 m. (take fy = 250 kN/mm2)
Solution:

Axial load = 1345 kN

Effective length (i) = 4.95 m
fy = 250 N/mm2
 1345 × 103
∴ Cross – sectional area required = 100
= 12227.3 mm2
12227.3
∴ Area of one channel section required = 2
= 6113.65 mm2
Try ISMC 400 @ 448.61 N/m

A = 6293 mm2 D = 400 mm

bf = 100 mm Cyy = 24.2 mm

Ixx = 15082.8 x 104 mm4 Iyy = 504.8 x 104 mm4

rxx = 154.8 mm ryy = 28.3 mm

∴Area provided by two channels

= 2 x 6293 = 12586 mm2 > 1227.3 mm2

The two channels are so placed that Ixx = Iyy for the built up column

Now Ixx = Iyy

∴rmin is kept equal to rxx

 rmin = rxx = 154.8 mm

𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑙 4950
∴ λ = = =m = 31.977
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑥𝑥 154.8

For fy = 250 N/mm2 and λ = 31.9877

σac = 143.81 N/mm2 > 110 N/mm2

∴ load carrying capacity = 143.81 x 12586 N = 1809.99 kN > 1345 kN

𝑠
∴ 2Ixx = 2[Iyy + A ( +Cyy)2]
2
 𝑠
 2 x 15082.8 x 104 = 2 [504.8 x 104 + 6293 (2 + 24.2)2]

 s = 256 mm

∴ Place two channels at a clear spacing of 256 mm.

Design of lacing;

Let lacing bars are inclined at 45o with the vertical

spacing for lacing abrs,

C = 2(s+g+g)cot 45o

(for ISMC 400 @ 448.61 N/m value of g = 60 mm)

= 2()256 + 60 + 60) (1) = 752 mm

𝑐 752
∴ 𝑟𝑦𝑦
= 28.3
= 26.57 < 50

Also 0.7 λ = 0.7 x 31.977 = 22.38

𝐶
∴ > 0.7 λ
𝑟𝑦𝑦

∴ Change 45o inclination to 60o i.e., 26.57 > 22.38

∴ C = 2(256 + 60 + 60) cot 60o = 434.17 mm

𝐶 434.17
∴ 𝑟𝑦𝑦
= 28.3
= 15.34 < 0.7 λ

Maximum shear force in lacing,

2.5
V 2.5 of axial load = 100
x 1345 = 33.625 kN

𝑉 33.625
∴ Shear in each panal, 𝑁
= 2
= 16.81 kN

∴ compressive force in lacing bar

𝑉 1
= 𝑁
cosec 60o = 16.81 x = 19.41 kN
√3

Let 20 mm diameter rivets are used.

∴ For 20 mm dia. rivets, width of lacing flat = 60 mm

Gross dia. of rivet = 20 + 1.5 = 21.5 mm

∴ Minimum thickness of lacing flat

1
≥ (length of lacing flat between inner rivets)
40

1
= (256 + 60 + 60 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐60o = 10.85 mm ⋍ 14 mm (say)
40

∴ Provide 60 ISF 14.

𝑡 14
∴Minimum radius of gyration ® = = = 4.015 mm
√12 √12

𝑖 256 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 60𝑜

λ = = = 73.14 < 145
𝑟 4.0415

For Fy 250 N/mm2 and λ = 73.14, σac = 108.546 N/mm2

∴ compressive load carrying capacity of lacing flat

= σac x width of flat x thickness of flat

= 108.546 x 60 x 14 N

= 91.18 kN > 23.77 kN (OK)

Tensile strength of lacing flat = (B-d) tσst = (60-21.5) 14(0.6 x 2500N

= 80.85 kN > 23.77 kN

Design of connections:

∵ 200 mm dia. rivets are assumed and let two lacing flats are

connected at one point.

∴ Two way shear strength of river,

𝜋 𝜋
Ps = 2 X d2 x ‫ﺡ‬vf = 2 x x (21.5)2 x 100 N = 72.61 kN
4 4

Bearing strength of rivet, Pb = dtσb = (21.5) (14) 300 N =90.3 kN

∴Strength of rivet = 72.61 kN

𝑉
Force on rivet form lacing flat = 2 ) cotϴ= 2 (16.81)COT60O = 19.41 Kn
𝑁

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡 19.41

∴ No of rivets required = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑡
= 72.61
= 0.27 ⋍ 1

Provided one 20 mm diameter rivet.

Design of tie plate

Effective depth of tie plate (d’) = (s+2C yy)

= (256+2 x 24.2) = 304.4 mm

∴ Overall depth of tie plate (d) = d’ + 2 x Edge distance

= 304.4 + 2 x 40 = 384.4 mm ⋍ 385 mm (say)

1 1
Thickness of tie plate ≥ 50
(s+2g) = 50
(256+ 2 x 60)

= 7.52 mm = 8 mm (say)

length of tie plate = s + 2bf = 256 + 2 x 100 = 456 mm

∴Provided a tie plate of size 456 x 385 x 8 mm and connect it with 20 mm

dia. rivets

2.5 Calculate the moment of resistance of the compound steel section show

in the figure. the compound section consists of two steel sections ISMB

200 @ 25.4 Kg/m

(Ixx= 2235.4 cm4, Axx = 32.33 cm2) with a single cover plate, 40 cm wide

and 16 mm thick connected to the top flange.;

Assume bending stress = 150 MPa.

Solution:

Distance of centroid of section from top of cover plate = y

2 𝑥 3233 𝑥 9100+16)+400 𝑥 16 𝑥 8
= 2 𝑥 3233+400 𝑥 16
= 62.28 mm

∴ Ixx = 2Ixx (I-section) + Ixx (Plate)

400 𝑥 16 3
= 2[2235.4 x 104 + 3233(116-62.28)2] + + 400 x 16 (62.28-8)2
12
= 82.361 x 106 mm4

∴ section modulus,

𝐼 𝑥𝑥 82.361 𝑥 106 82.361 𝑥 106

Zxx = 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
= (216−𝑌)
= (216−62.28)
= 53.58 x 104 mm3

∴moment of resistance, M = Fb x Zxx = 150 x 53.58 x 104 Nmm = 80.37 kNm

2.6 A mild steel T-section has the following cross-section dimensions:

total depth = 200 mm

Width of flange = 120 mm

thickness of flange = 20 mm

Thickness of web = 20 mm

If the yield stress, σy = 250 MPa, determine the plastic moment capacity

of the section. also calculate the shape factor for the section.

Solution.

Plastic moment capacity Mp = σyZp

where Zp = Plastic section modulus

= A/2 (y1+y2)

Let x-x be the equal area axis devising the section into two equal

halves.

Let distance of axis x-x from top = y

1
∴ Area of bottom portion of T-beam = 2(Total area of T-beam)

 (200-y) 20 = ½ [120 x 20 + (200 – 20020]

 40(200-y) = 6000

 y = 50 mm

Distance of centroid of upper half from x-x = y1

120 𝑥 20 𝑥 (50−10)+ (50−20)20/2

= 120𝑥20+(50−20)20
= 35 mm

Distance of centroid of lower half from x-x

 (200−𝑦)
= y2 = 2
= 75 mm

𝐴 6000
∴ plastic section modulus, Zp = 2
(y1+y2) = 2
(35+75) = 330000 mm3

∴ Plastic moment capacity, Mp = σyZp

=(250 x 330000) Nmm

=82.5 kNm

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….