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Dewatering and Drying in Mineral Processing Industry:

Potential for Innovation
a b a c b a
Z. H. Wu , Y. J. Hu , D. J. Lee , A. S. Mujumdar & Z. Y. Li
a
College of Mechanical Engineering , Tianjin University of Science and Technology , Tianjin,
China
b
Minerals, Metals and Materials Technology Centre (M3TC) , Faculty of Engineering, National
University of Singapore , Singapore
c
Department of Chemical Engineering , National Taiwan University , Taipei City, Taiwan,
R.O.C.
Published online: 07 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: Z. H. Wu , Y. J. Hu , D. J. Lee , A. S. Mujumdar & Z. Y. Li (2010) Dewatering and Drying in Mineral
Processing Industry: Potential for Innovation, Drying Technology: An International Journal, 28:7, 834-842, DOI:
10.1080/07373937.2010.490485

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 Drying Technology, 28: 834–842, 2010
Copyright # 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0737-3937 print=1532-2300 online
DOI: 10.1080/07373937.2010.490485

Dewatering and Drying in Mineral Processing Industry:

Potential for Innovation
Z. H. Wu,1,2 Y. J. Hu,1 D. J. Lee,3 A. S. Mujumdar,2 and Z. Y. Li1
1
College of Mechanical Engineering, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
2
Minerals, Metals and Materials Technology Centre (M3TC), Faculty of Engineering, National
University of Singapore, Singapore
3
Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Downloaded by [North Dakota State University] at 16:56 29 October 2014

Their selection and operation are dependent mainly on

Wet beneficiation of minerals necessarily requires removal of
large amounts of water—typically contaminated—before further
processing of the concentrated ores can be carried out. Often such
concentrates are transported over large instances by ground or sea
transport. For economic reasons dewatering/drying are essential
unit operations. Often the capacity requirements of the mining
operations are very large, the product processed has low unit value,
and the material is abrasive. The selection of dryers is often
arbitrary. No clear guidelines can be found by noting current
practices in different countries. This article provides a global view
of the types of dewatering equipment and dryers currently used in
the mineral processing industries, provides guidelines for selection
of drying systems, and recommends emerging innovative technolo-
gies, such as superheated steam and pulse combustion drying for
future applications in this industry. A few case studies are examined.
Keywords Dewatering; Innovations; Microwave drying;
Minerals processing; Superheated steam drying
cost-effectiveness.
The objectives of this article are to provide a global
overview of the types of dewatering equipment and dryers
currently used in mineral processing industries and identify
possible new concepts that may be applicable in the
minerals industry.
DEWATERING OF MINERALS
In the minerals industry, dewatering is employed in
order to save on the energy required in thermal drying,
improve the handling properties of the concentrates, and
reduce transportation costs if the concentrates are to be
shipped. Since the 1920s, various dewatering and
upgrading processes have been developed in a number of
industries.[1,2]

INTRODUCTION
Current Dewatering Technologies
In the mineral processing industry, dewatering=drying
Conventional dewatering techniques utilize thickeners,
operations are generally carried out at the raw materials
dewatering screens, vacuum filters, centrifuges, and press-
or product-handling stage; for example, after beneficiation
ure (hyperbaric) filters to reduce product moisture to a
or concentration the ore may require drying to some opti-
lower value. The driving forces exerting dewatering range
mum level to facilitate handling. The minerals are very
from 50 to >5000 g (for centrifuges) or 0.3 to 200 bar (for
often available as solids, aqueous solution, or slurries with
filters). In general, the greater the driving force exerted
different particle sizes. Different dewatering and drying
by any machine, the lower the throughput and the higher
technologies have been used to dehydrate minerals.
the cost. Table 1 lists the current dewatering technologies
Although dewatering and drying are highly energy-
for minerals. Choice of the dewatering technology for a
intensive operations that are also increasingly difficult at
specific material is dependent on many factors such as par-
lower moisture contents, no special attention is generally
ticle size, initial moisture content, etc. Taking coal as an
given to the technical and economical aspects of the
example, dewatering screens, centrifuges, and sieve bends
dewatering=drying process employed in the mineral proces-
provide a low-moisture product with þ600-mm coal; how-
sing industry. It is therefore not surprising that most dryers
ever, their efficiency decreases rapidly with decreasing par-
found in these industries are of the conventional type.
ticle size. Dewatering of
600-mm fine coal is often
accomplished using either vacuum or pressure filtration.
Correspondence: Z. H. Wu, College of Mechanical Engineer-
ing, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Dagulan Road Disk and rotary drum vacuum filters are widely used in
1038, Hexi District, Tianjin 300222, China; E-mail: wddhua@ the United States and produce a filter cake with about
gmail.com 30% moisture. A pressure filter is more effective than

834
 DEWATERING AND DRYING IN MINERAL PROCESSING INDUSTRY 835

TABLE 1
Current dewatering technologies for minerals
Dewatering Technology Characteristics of the dewatering methods
Gravity Sedimentation Employ principles of gravity settling and applied in mineral concentrates and
thickness tailings. High capacity, low maintenance, and operating cost, large physical size
Cyclones Widely used in the mining industry. Design and operational simplicity, high
capacity, low maintenance, and operating cost, small physical size. Applied as
classification or concentration
Centrifuges Vibrating basket The dilation and disturbance of the materials bed facilitates removal of water. Feed
centrifuges rate: 100 tons=h. Product moisture: 5–10 wt%. Centrifugal force: 60–75 g
Scroll Dewatering spiral concentrates of
0.5 þ 0.1 mm. Feed rate: up to 60–70 tons=h.
centrifuges Product moisture: 12–16 wt%. Feed solids: 40–55 wt%. Centrifugal force: 110 g
Filtration Horizontal belt Handle a wider range of feed size and flexible in its tolerance of feed changes and
surges. Simple in design and low cost in flocculants and maintenance
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Drum filters Handle coarser feeds. A relatively small footprint and a lower capital cost. Tolerant
to feed rate changes. Continuous operation
Disc filters Handle coarser feeds. Compact design and low capital cost. A higher maintenance
demand. Careful level control needed
Mechanical thermal pressing Mechanical expression (1–10 MPa) at elevated temperatures. Removal of 7% of
moisture. Energy-efficient operation. Changes in physical and chemical structure
of minerals

vacuum filters in lowering the cake moisture but its capital
and operating costs are high.
Hydrocyclones are widely used in mineral processing.
Because mineral slurries generally tend to be abrasive, the
erosion-induced wear of the internal wall of hydrocyclones
is a critical issue for safety and economic considerations.
The injected solids particles such as sand and ore particles
impinge the inside surfaces of the components of hydrocy-
clone, causing mechanical wear and eventual failure of the
devices. Xu et al. used a computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) model to predict the erosion rate inside hydrocy-
clones and developed some new hydrocyclone designs with
highly significantly lower erosion rate.[3] Figure 1 shows the
proposed 75-mm standard hydrocyclones fitted with four
different inlets and their erosion rate distributions.
Table 2 lists the maximum and average computed erosion
rates and pressure drops for each case.
Although the standard hydrocyclone with tangential
inlet (Fig. 1a) has been widely used in mineral processes,
the erosion rate for it is the largest compared with the
other three designs. Also, an obvious wear hot spot can
be found at the bottom of the cone section, where the ero-
sion rate is very high. The maximum and integral erosion
rates are 3.72E-4 and 1.87E-6 kg=(m2  s). But the pressure
drop is the lowest, 32.8 kPa. For the involute inlet, which
can provide a smooth transition from pressure energy to
rotational momentum, the distribution of erosion rate is
relatively uniform and the value is low. For the circular
involute inlet shown in Fig. 1c, the maximum erosion
rate is only 4.32E-7 kg=(m2  s) and the average value is
2.91E-8 kg=(m2  s), which is less than that of the case
of the tangential inlet. Moreover, the pressure drop of
circular involute inlet (45.7 kPa) is slightly higher. This
example shows that CFD modeling can act as a design
and analysis tool to improve the performance of conven-
tional mineral dewatering and drying devices. Mujumdar[4,5]
and Mujumdar and Wu[6] discussed in detail how math-
ematical modeling can enhance the innovations in conven-
tional drying=dewatering techniques.
New Developments in Dewatering Technology
Electrodewatering
Mechanical dewatering methods can extract the free
water contained in the liquid sludge relatively easily and
efficiently by applying high pressure or vacuum. The result-
ing partially dewatered sludge will still contain a relatively
high percentage of water, but it consists mainly of adsorbed
water. Until electrodewatering came along, only thermal
treatment, which is costly in terms of energy and capital,
would allow extracting the adsorbed water. The working
principle of electrodewatering is that the water in the
sludge contains cations (positive ions) that, under the effect
of a continuous electrical current, are attracted by the
negative pole—in this case, the cathode. Through viscous
action, the movement of the cations through the water in
the sludge carries water molecules toward the cathode,
where the water is finally drained out of the sludge. To
compensate for the volume loss created by the extracted
water, the distance between the anode and the cathode is
 836 WU ET AL.

tailings ponds at a coal washery using three horizontal elec-

trodes, 570 tons of material were dewatered to a spadeable
consistency (67% solids) in 2 weeks at 26–33 V for an
energy consumption of about 9 kWh=tons of starting
material, or 20 kWh=tons on a dry solids basis. A further
9.5 days’ dewatering at 33–40 V gave a dryer product (over
75% solids) for 36 kWh=tons (dry). Gopalakrishnan et al.
reported vacuum dewatering of titanium oxohydrate and
pyrite slurries that was enhanced electrokinetically through
application of a constant DC voltage cross the bed.[8] The
powder was applied either continuously or in an interrup-
ted mode. The interrupted mode, first proposed by Prof.
Mujumdar at McGill University, removed more water than
continuous power, with lower consumption of energy.
Additional water could be removed in the interrupted
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model by adding base at the node to neutralize the acidity

produced by the reaction at the anode when the power was
on. Much R&D has appeared recently that confirms
advantages of the interrupted operation.

FIG. 1. Erosion rate distributions on inner wall of hydrocyclones fitted
with different inlets: (a) standard tangential inlet, (b) modified tangential
inlet, (c) circular involute inlet, and (d) elliptical involute inlet.
adjusted by applying a mechanical force to the electrodes
and controlled pressure to the sludge to be dewatered.
The resulting sludge is very dry; by changing the operating
parameters, a dryness of 25 to 50% or greater can be
achieved.
Lockhart carried out large-scale laboratory tests on pure
clays and various fine suspensions from mineral proces-
sing.[7] In one field trial of electroosmotic dewatering in
Cross-Flow Microfiltration
Cross-flow microfiltration is a technique that may be
applied when processing very fine minerals that will not set-
tle or filter efficiently by conventional means. In cross-flow
filtration, the suspension to be filtered is passed tangen-
tially over the surface of the filter. The formation of a filter
cake is restricted by the shear at the membrane surface and
the process is strongly influenced by the rheology of the
suspension undergoing treatment. Cross-flow microfilters
are of modular design that enables them to be employed
for intermittent or transient application, to be moved early
between locations. The most appropriate cross-flow filters
for mineral suspensions are perforated or porous tubes of
4–13 mm in diameter operating in parallel, which can pro-
vide an extremely large filtering area enclosed in a small
total volume. Alternative cross-flow filter designs include
hollow fiber and spiral-wound modules.
GE Osmonics, Inc. filed a patent about cross-flow
filtration cartridges.[9] The cartridges are made using a
semipermeable membrane of sheet formation that was cast
upon an integral polymeric fibrous support material, which
exhibits excellent permeate flow in the plane. After gelling

TABLE 2
Erosion rate for four inlet ducting designs
Pressure Maximum erosion Face average
Inlet drop (kPa) rate (kg=m2  s) erosion rate (kg=m2  s)
Standard tangential inlet 32.8 3.72  10
4 1.86  10
6
Modified tangential inlet 81.7 7.62  10
7 4.72  10
8
Circular involute inlet 45.7 4.32  10
7 2.91  10
8
Elliptical involute inlet 74.1 4.58  10
7 3.52  10
8
 DEWATERING AND DRYING IN MINERAL PROCESSING INDUSTRY
to form a polymeric semipermeable membrane, the product
is spirally wound about a porous tube in association with
feed-passageway-providing sheet material, but in the
absence of any separate permeate carrier, to form an effec-
tive cross-flow filtration cartridge in the absence of any
separate permeate carrier. Holdich et al. discussed the vari-
ous scale-up and operating models of cross-flow filtration
systems for both suspensions thickening and washing free
from a solute.[10] A shear drag model was developed for
the mineral cross-flow filtration systems. It was found that
the flux rate is very important to process scale use.
Enhanced Dewatering with Surfactants and Flocculants
In recent years, the need for improved floc conditioning
is being increasingly recognized. Operators are assessing
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options for improved and controlled mixing of flocculants
into filter feeds, and also the use of mixed flocculant formu-
lations (anionic and cationic) to produce smaller tighter
flocs, which in turn can produce enhanced cake per-
meability without large increases in porosity. Two distinct
types of proprietary chemical additives are generally avail-
able for industrial use: flocculant filter aids and surfactant
dewatering aids.
Sherex Chemical Company Inc. reported that improved
dewatering results are achieved by adding to the mineral
ore slurry an effective amount of a dewatering aid compris-
ing an alkoxylated C6-C11 alkanol or alkanoic acid
wherein alkoxylation is conducted with propylene oxide
or butylene oxide.[11] Mwaba studied the role of surfactants
in the dewatering of graphite and hematite suspensions.[12]
When the surfactant sodium di-(2-eththylhexyl) sulphosuc-
cinate, which adsorbs on both graphite and hematite
surfaces, leads to small but significant reductions in the
final moisture contents of the filter cakes and also increases
the average filtration rates. These enhancements on the
filtration rates are attributed to the changes in the wetting
characteristics of the mineral surfaces, which are caused by
the surfactant adsorption.
Other Improvements
A recent development in the minerals industry is the use
of ceramic filter media in vacuum disc filters. The pores of
these filters are so fine that air breakthrough is prevented,
thus permitting retention of higher vacuum levels and pro-
duction of drier cakes. Also, some plants have been testing
hyperbaric pressure filters as a means of reducing product
moisture. The dewatering driving force is applied as an over-
pressure to the filter and is usually approximately 3 bars.
Compared with vacuum filtration, substantial reductions
in product moisture (6–10 wt%) and increases in throughput
(up to 2.5 times higher) have been achieved. A research
project funded by the Centre for Mining Technology and
Equipment reported development of a pilot-scale (approxi-
mate 3 tons=h coal) of a novel technique to reduce product
837
moisture form coarse coal centrifuges. The technique
involves injecting a turbulent stream of air through the
particle bed as it travels through the centrifuges. Reductions
in product moisture of up to 1 wt% have been achieved.
Demonstrations of full-scale centrifuges are being planned.
DRYING OF MINERALS
Conventional Drying Techniques for Minerals
Conventional dryers used in the mineral processing
industry are classified as hearth, shaft, and grate type.
Other types of dryers used less commonly in current prac-
tice are the spray, fluid bed, pneumatic or flash conveyor,
drum, stationary- and rotating-tray type, infrared type,
and others. The commonly used drying mediums are hot
air, combustion gas, and steams. Table 3 lists the character-
istics of the dryers and their applications in the mineral
processing industry. Mujumdar has provided a comprehen-
sive discussion on classification and selection of dryers.[13]
Drying of iron ore concentrate in a large-scale fluidized
bed was reported by Davis and Glazier.[14] Iron ore concen-
trate containing 3–4.5% moisture needs to be dried to a
1.5% moisture level to avoid formation of lumps due to
freezing of the moisture during winter. This job was
accomplished in a fluidized bed dryer with a diameter of
3.66 m and a capability of 515 tons=h. The combustion
gas from fuel oil was used as drying medium and its super-
ficial gas velocity was 2 m=s. The residence time of the solid
inside the bed ranged from 1.5 to 2 min and the moisture at
the outlet was 0.1%. The required moisture content of 1.5%
of the concentrate was obtained by blending the nearly
bone-dry concentrate with the wet concentrate. This
large-scale fluidized bed dryer was reported to perform well
and to be useful for economically exploring the technology
in similar areas. Fluidized bed dryers were reported to
dehydrate alumina and remove 80% of the combined water
of hydragillite (Al2O3  3H2O).[15] The alumina thus
obtained could readily react with ammonium fluoride to
produce ammonium cryolite, which can subsequently be
used to produce alumina by the electrolytic method. Also,
readers can find applications of fluidized bed dryers in
dehydration of many nuclear materials, sands, etc.
When sand is quarried it typically has a moisture con-
tent of about 6%. Sand is used in large quantities by the
construction industry, in foundries, by the glass industry,
and in water filtration and sewage treatment works. Sand
is fed into a dryer where it is dried according to the custo-
mer’s requirement. It is then cooled, screened, and con-
veyed via a totally enclosed system to silo storage. Fluid
beds are generally used where throughput is 50–100 tonnes
of sand per hour. Figure 2 shows a fluidized bed sand dryer
schematically. The fluid bed utilizes air in generating a fluid
bed and the combustion exhaust gas acts as the energy
source. The fluid bed ensures a good transfer of heat from
 838 WU ET AL.

TABLE 3
Conventional drying technologies for minerals
Dryers Characteristics of the drying methods
Hearth dryer Conduction drying. Inherently slow and highly labor intensive. Use for drying of flotation
concentrate of zinc and lead, copper sludge, washed kaolin, etc. 10–30% thermal efficiency.
Grate dryer Convective drying. Drying of ‘‘Green balls’’ in iron, copper, and chromium manufacture. 30–60%
thermal efficiency. 25–75 kg water evaporation=h=m2 of grate area
Shaft dryer Convective drying. Applied in zinc and iron industries. Typical size 2  2  20 m. 35–60% thermal
efficiency. Low capital costs and maintenance cost
Rotary dryer Direct or indirect heat. Operating in near atmospheric pressure or vacuum. Drying of yellow cake
in the uranium leaching process. Retention time of 5 to 25 min. Dryer load of 3–15%
Spray dryer Particularly in drying a wide assortment of mineral flotation concentrates. Solid content of
55–70 wt%. High thermal efficiency and low product moisture content (<5%). Careful choice of
atomizer
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Vacuum dryer Environmentally safe operation with no dust problems. High hot water recovery. Batch drying
process
Fluidized bed dryer Batch or continuous drying in an upward flow of hot gas. Efficient method of drying for
fluidizable, nonsticky solids, or even slurries such as titanium dioxide, zirconium silicate, zircon,
coal, etc. Residence time of 5–25 min
Flash dryer Flash or pneumatic dryers transport wet, pulverized solids in a hot air stream. Suitable for fine
feed. Fast drying and often used to remove surface moisture
Conveyor=screw Wet feed is carried on a belt and vibrating conveyor by passing a heating chamber. Hollow shafts
conveyor dryer or flights found in screw dryer. Well suited as a supplemental dryer for an existing dryer
Drum dryer Used for slurries or pastes. Wet material coat on the outer surface of a rotating drum steam heated.
Vacuum may be applied
Rotating shelf or Operation principle similar to drum dryer. Use to dry materials such as bauxite, borax, calcium
Disk dryer carbonate, powdered coal, kaolin, mica, soda ash, thorium dioxide, zinc powder, and iron ore
concentrate

the air to the sand, so exhaust temperatures are typically
quite low at around 48 C. It is designed with a large expan-
sion chamber and the dust presented to the arrestment
plant is a fine fraction. In order to keep the temperature
of the emissions above the dew point of around 50–60 C
it is often necessary to trace heat in the arrestment plant.
Rotary dryers are also used as sand dryers. They tend to
be older units and use about 40% more energy than fluid
beds, although there are wide variations due to differences
in type of fuel, moisture content of feed, discharge
FIG. 2. Schematic of a fluidized bed sand dryer.
temperature, etc. Below around 30 tonnes per hour rotary
dryers tend to be cheaper than fluid beds. They are used for
throughputs of 30–50 tonnes of sand per hour.
Emerging Drying Methods
Superheated Steam Drying
Superheated steam drying is a drying technology that
uses superheated steam as the drying medium. Compared
with the hot air drying, the steam atmosphere is an inert,
no oxidation and explosive drying medium for the pro-
ducts, which has great application potential in the drying
of coal and metal sulphide concentrates.
Superheated steam is an attractive alternative to the con-
ventional hot air used in coal drying because it eliminates
fire hazard.[16–19] The use of superheated steam for drying
coal has a number of advantages, including (1) improved
safety through the reduced risk of explosion or fire (due
to lack of oxygen). (2) Significant reduction in dust
emission. (3) Increased drying rates and thermal efficiency.
(4) Improved coal grindability. Rao and Wolff found that
drying coal with superheated steam at the temperature
of 250 C has a significant impact on coal grindability.[20]
 DEWATERING AND DRYING IN MINERAL PROCESSING INDUSTRY
(5) Reduction in sulphur content. The degree of desulphur-
ization reported was between 40 and 50% at steam tempera-
tures between 300 and 500 C. In general, the pure
superheated steam environment primarily reduced the inor-
ganic sulphur content (including pyretic sulphur) of the
coal. However, steam processing environments that had a
small amount of air did provide significant reductions in
the organic sulphur content as well. (6) Reduction in sodium
content. Baria and Hasan measured the sodium content of
lignite and subbituminous coals before and after drying
the coal in superheated steam.[21] They found that at steam
temperatures between 270 and 320 C, the sodium content of
the coals was reduced by 50–90%, depending on the type of
coal and the steam temperature.
Figure 3 shows the fluidized bed drying process of brown
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coal using superheated steam developed by Wirbelshicht-
Trocknungmit interner Abwarmenutzung (WTA).[22] The
WTA dryer used a fluidized bed of superheated steam along
with vapor compressors for recovering the latent heat from
the processes. The coal is dried from 55–60% moisture
content down to 12% moisture. The flow rate of coal is
44 tons=h of wet coal. In the dryer, the steam is 110 C and
50 mbar. Some of the steam from the dryer is compressed
to 4 bar and 150 C for heating the fluidized bed in the dryer
via submerged tubular heat exchanger bundles in which this
steam is condensed. Compared to the rotary steam-tube
dryers, the WTA superheated steam dryer is claimed to
 consume 80% less energy;
 have 80% less dust emissions;
 have a smaller capital cost compared to rotary
steam-tube dryers.
Pulse Combustion Drying
Pulse combustion (PC) is an intermittent (periodic)
combustion process of gaseous, liquid, or solid fuels that
FIG. 3. Schematic of WTA fluid-bed superheated steam coal dryer.
839
has promising application potential in drying. Pulse
combustion drying technology utilizes one or multiple
pulse combustors to produce high-temperature and
high-velocity pulsating jets, which can be used for drying
wet materials. Industrial applications of pulse combustion
to drying can be found mainly in spray drying and to a
lesser extent in fluid bed and flash drying. Short drying
time, high energy efficiency, improved product quality,
and environmentally friendly operation are noted as the
key advantages of this drying technology. Ellman et al. first
carried out experimental studies of lignite drying using a
205 kW pulse combustor.[23] The moisture content of lignite
was reduced from the initial 35% (wet basis) to below 10%
with a product output of 20 tons=h. In 1969, Ellman
developed a more powerful lignite dryer where the pulse
combustor had a heat load of 713 kW and a combination
of propane, 3% residue, and lignite was used as fuel. This
pulse combustion dyer can produce 3.2 tons of brown
coal=hour.
Figure 4 presents a pulse combustion spray-drying
installation developed by Hosokawa Bepex Corporation
(Minneapolis, MN), which consists of a pulse combustor,
a drying chamber of various configurations, and a
cyclone.[24,25] In a pulse combustion spray dryer, the hot
high shear and the intense pressure wave fronts instantly
atomize the liquid or slurries into fine droplets without
the need for an atomizer. There is no need for a blower
or a compressor to supply the drying gas as in the case
of a conventional spray dryer. Hosokawa Bepex has tested
over 120 different materials and their results were reported
to be encouraging with most products being of equal or
better quality than those produced by conventional spray
dryers. The tested minerals include amorphous silica, briny
FIG. 4. A pulse combustion spray drying installation and its PC burner
assembly.
 840
wastewaters, ceramic aluminum oxide, iron sulfate, kaolin
clay, manganese methionine, metallic oxides, nickel
carbonate, titanium dioxide, zeolite, oxylates, copper
lysine, mineral supplements, etc.
Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles have attracted much
interest because they possess various remarkable physical
and chemical properties that are distinct from those of con-
ventional bulk materials. A continuous spray pyrolysis
(SP) method is generally used to produce high-purity
ZnO nanoparticles, which includes salt-assisted-SP (SASP),
low pressure-SP (LPSP), and flame-SP (FSP). A research
group in Hiroshima University (Japan) proposes a new
SP method for the preparation of nanoparticles, which is
called pulse combustion-SP (PC-SP).[26] The PC-SP experi-
mental setup is shown schematically in Fig. 5. The setup
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mainly consisted of a pulse combustor, a furnace, an elec-
trostatic precipitator, a filtration system, and an atomizer
(two-fluid nozzle). The ratio of the flow rates (L=min)
of the fuel (propane) to the oxidizer in the PC system
(Pultech, Kobe, Japan) was fixed at 1:26.6. This ratio pro-
duced a pulse engine energy of 1000 kcal=h and 115 dB at a
frequency of 1000 Hz. A high production rate (15 g=h) was
achieved in this setup. The prepared ZnO nanoparticles
were spherical and highly crystalline with an average size
of 15.6 nm. In addition, high UV light absorption and vis-
ible light transparency properties were successfully
obtained for a dispersion of ZnO nanoparticles in glycerol.
Pulse combustion drying is a novel technology but it
appears to face many problems that need to be sorted
out before any progress can be made. Wu and Mujumdar
(2006) have provided a comprehensive review of the prac-
tical aspects of pulse combustion from an industrial
perspective.[27,28]
FIG. 5. Schematic of the pulse combustion-SP system setup for prepar-
ing ZnO nanoparticles.
WU ET AL.
Microwave Drying
Microwave drying has district advantages such as high
process speed, uniform heating, high energy efficiency,
better and rapid process control, less space requirement,
selective heating, etc. Due to above merits, microwave
energy has potential in minerals drying; for example, dry-
ing of ceramics, fine coal, pretreatment of refectory gold
ore and concentrate, etc.
James Graham reported a new, powerful industrial
microwave system capable of continuous, large-scale indus-
trial processing.[29] The system has been used to dry fine coal
to a controlled aggregate moisture content, without starting
combustion or degrading the coking qualities of the coal.
Figure 6 shows the schematics of the microwave drying
system called the Drycol process (Drycol Australia Pty
Ltd., Brisbane, Queensland, Australia). The process
achieves a drying efficiency of 62–94% depending on the
coal types, with a significant reduction of coal contaminants
such as sulfur, potassium, phosphorus, etc. From this point
of view, microwave drying improves the quality of fine coal.
Combined Grinding and Drying
Sometimes drying may be achieved simultaneous with
another operation. For example, heat produced during
grinding can be used effectively to reduce the moisture con-
tent significantly while reducing the particle size. In some
other applications, for example, drying of sludge from a
de-inking plant, initial moisture content of 54% can be
reduced to as low as 12% (wet basis) during grinding. This
also destroys any pathogens that may be present. One of the
commercial grinder dryers of interest to coal drying is the
KDS Micronex grinder=dryer (First American Scientific
Corporation, Delta, British Columbia, Canada).[13] A typi-
cal KDS grinder chamber has a diameter of 1.3 m and
encloses a set of eight spinning chains and a stationary torus
above it. The chains are spun horizontally at high rotational
speeds; the chain tip speed can reach about 200 m=s, causing
high frictional heating due to aerodynamic drag. The
bottom surface of the torus, which is flat, provides a surface
for the particles to collide on and shatter. This results in
grinding action accompanied by drying. The mechanism
of drying is partly thermal and partly mechanical dewater-
ing. This saves on energy for drying. Air temperatures in the
chamber can reach between 70 and 90 C.
FIG. 6. The Drycol process for fine coal.
 DEWATERING AND DRYING IN MINERAL PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Drying with Heat Pump or Waste Heat
For a high thermal efficiency dryer, it is generally not
economically justifiable to install heat-recovery equipment
to recover the low-level heat in the exhaust gas. If the
exhaust gas is at high temperature for whatever reason,
one must carefully evaluate the possibility of installing
heat-recovery systems for such a dryer. The heat pump
technology can efficiently recover the waste heat and there
has been a growing interest in recent years to apply the heat
pump drying technology to foods and biomaterials. It is
also likely that heat pump technology may find applica-
tions in the drying of minerals.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and Great River
Energy are testing a new coal drying technology that could
dramatically reduce the emissions of lignite-burning power
Downloaded by [North Dakota State University] at 16:56 29 October 2014
plants. The project is located in Coal Creek Station in
Underwood, North Dakota, and involves a lignite fuel
enhancement system (LEFS), which uses waste heat to
dry fuel before it is fed into the boiler.[30] Typically, about
45% of the fuel heat put into a conventional pulverized
coal-fired power plant is lost in the condenser; another
20% exits the stack. The LFES (shown in Fig. 7) exploits
how this heat can be used to predry wet coal. During the
first phase of the project, GRE built the prototype dryer
and used it for one year to process about 300,000 tons of
lignite. Usually, the dryer was operated at a throughput
of 75 tons=h, but dryer capacity tests were conducted over
a range of 75 to 105 tons=h.
The dried lignite was directed to one of Coal Creek
Station’s eight pulverizers, each of which provides about
14% of the plant’s total fuel. Although the dryer reduced
the moisture content of the overall fuel feed by just 1.1%,
its use provided many significant operating benefits:
 NOx emissions decreased 7.5%;
 CO2 emissions fell 0.5%;
 Boiler efficiency increased 0.5%;
 Pulverizer power consumption decreased 3.3%;
FIG. 7. The lignite fuel enhancement system located in Coal Creek Sta-
tion in Underwood, North Dakota.
841
 SO2 emissions fell 1.9%;
 Mercury emissions decreased 0.5%.
Fath presented a typical application of a diesel engine
waste heat recovery technique developed for drying of clay
minerals–bentonite.[31] The clay mineral muds are com-
monly used in drilling oil and gas wells, which need to be
dried to 10–12% moisture contents to maintain good
physicochemical properties. A 285-kW, Caterpillar diesel
engine-generator set for in-house electricity generation
was used as the source of waste heat for bentonite drying.
The drying air temperature generated from this diesel
engine set varied from 30 to 50 C depending on the ambi-
ent air temperature, which suits the drying requirements of
bentonite. It was estimated that the drying production rate
was 4 tons=day maximum.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
An attempt is made to provide a general overview of
competing drying=dewatering processes for minerals. Some
new dewatering=drying technologies are identified, such as
microfiltration, cross-flow filtration, superheated steam
drying, pulse combustion drying, etc. Specifically, super-
heated steam drying of minerals such as pulverized coal
is being adopted as the technology of choice due to its
inherent high thermal efficiency and safe operation because
there is no danger of fire and explosion in this process.
Pulse combustion is a novel technology that has many
distinct advantages. As the global demand for minerals
increases, it is expected that newer drying and dewatering
technologies will emerge in the near future. Unfortunately,
R&D in mineral processing has been at low levels for over
five decades. Perhaps all operations in this industry deserve
a second look. It should be possible to benefit from
advances made in other industries. Use of solar energy,
ambient air, and windmills is possible at vast mine sites.
Techno-economics of such applications in mineral proces-
sing should be evaluated carefully.
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