MATH 403 ANALYSIS I - Spring 2010

Extra Problems-Solutions

√
Problem 1. Let d1 and d2 be metrics on X. Show that d1 , d1 + d2 ,
max{d1 , d2 } are also metrics. Are the functions min{d1 , d2 }, d1 d2 metrics on
X?
Solution: d1 + d2 and √ max{d1 , d2 } are metrics and min{d1 , d2 },√ d1 d2 are not
metrics. To see that d1 is a metric, one can show that f (s) = s satisfies the
properties (a), (b), and√(c) of
√ Problem 3. Indeed, f is increasing and if s, t ≥ 0,
2
then we have
√ s + t ≤
√ ( s√+ t) so that after taking square roots of both sides
one gets s + t ≤ s + t.
Problem 2. Let (X, d) be a metric space. Show that the function

D(x, y) = f (d(x, y)) x, y ∈ X

defines a metric if f satisfies the following conditions:

(a) f (0) = 0;
(b) f is an increasing function;
(c) f (x + y) ≤ f (x) + f (y).
Solution: D(x, y) = 0 if and only if f (d(x, y)) = 0 if and only if d(x, y) = 0 (by
(a)) if and only if x = y since d is a metric. It is clear that D is symmetric. To
see the triangle inequality

D(x, z) = f (d(x, z)) ≤ f (d(x, y)+d(y, z)) ≤ f (d(x, y))+f (d(y, z)) = D(x, y)+D(y, z)

where we have used (a) and then (c).

Problem 3 Let X be a vector space, and let d be a metric on X satisfying
d(x, y) = d(x − y, 0) and d(αx, αy) = |α| d(x, y) for every x, y ∈ X and every
α ∈ R. Show that kxk = d(x, 0) defines a norm on X. Give an example of a
metric on a vector space X which is not associated with a norm in this way.
Solution: Clearly kxk = d(x, 0) ≥ 0 and kxk = d(x, 0) = 0 if and only if
x = 0 by the properties of a metric. Moreover, ktxk = d(tx, 0) = d(tx, t0) =
|t| d(x, 0) = |t| kxk. Finally, using that the metric d satisfies d(x, y) = d(x−y, 0),

kx + yk = d(x+y, 0) = d(x, −y) ≤ d(x, 0)+d(0, −y) = d(x, 0)+d(y, 0) = kxk+kyk .

To give a counterexample take a discrete metric d(x, y) = 0 if x = y and

d(x, y) = 1 for all x 6= y on R. If d(x, 0) were a norm on R, then d(tx, 0) =
|t| d(x, 0) for all t, x ∈ R. For x and and arbitrary t not equal to 0 we would
have 1 = d(tx, 0) = |t| d(x, 0) = |t| which is impossible.
Problem 4. Let (X, d) be a metric space.

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 (a) Show that |d(x, z) − d(y, z)| ≤ d(x, y) for all x, y, z ∈ X. Use this in-
equality to show that if a sequence (xn ) converges to x, then the sequence
(d(xn , y)) converges to d(x, y) for every y ∈ X.
(b) Show that |d(x, z) − d(y, u)| ≤ d(x, y) + d(z, u) for all x, y, z, u ∈ X. Use
this inequality to show that if sequences (xn ) and (yn ) converge to x and
y, respectively, the sequence (d(xn , yn )) converges to d(x, y).
Solution: (a) Let x, y, and z belong to X. By the triangle inequality, d(x, z) ≤
d(x, y) + d(y, z). Hence

d(x, z) − d(y, z) ≤ d(x, y)

Replacing x by y and y by x, we get

d(y, z) − d(x, z) ≤ d(y, x) = d(x, y).

So −d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z)−d(y, z) ≤ d(x, y) and this means that |d(x, z) − d(y, z)| ≤
d(x, y).
If (xn ) is a converging sequence to x in (X, d), then using the above inequality

|d(xn , y) − d(x, y)| ≤ d(xn , x).

Since d(xn , x) → 0, it follows from the squeezing theorem that d(xn , y) → d(x, y)
for every y ∈ X,
Problem 5. Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be two metric space and let Z = X × Y
be the product metric space with the metric

D((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = dX (x1 , x2 ) + dY (y1 , y2 ).

(a) Show that a sequence (zn ) = ((xn , yn )) converges in (Z, D) if and only
(xn ) converges in (X, dX ) and (yn ) converges in (Y, dY ).
(b) Show that a sequence (zn ) = ((xn , yn )) is Cauchy in (Z, D) if and only
(xn ) is Cauchy in (X, dX ) and (yn ) is Cauchy in (Y, dY )
Solution (b) Assume that (zn ) = ((xn , yn )) is Cauchy in (Z, D). Then, given
ε > 0, there is N such that D(zn , zm ) < ε for n, m ≥ N . This means, in view
of definition of D that

dX (xn , xm ) + dY (yn , ym ) < ε

for n, m ≥ N . So (xn ) is Cauchy in (X, dX ) and (yn ) is Cauchy in (Y, dY ).

Conversely, if (xn ) is Cauchy in (X, dX ) and (yn ) is Cauchy in (Y, dY ), then
given ε > 0, there is N so that

dX (xn , xm ) < ε/2 and dY (yn , ym ) < ε/2

for all n, m ≥ N . Hence for n, m ≥ N ,

D(zn , zm ) = dX (xn , xm ) + dY (yn , ym ) < ε

2
showing that (zn ) is Cauchy in (Z, D).
Problem 6. Assume that (an ) is a Cauchy sequence of real numbers and that
k ≥ 2. Show that also (akn ) is Cauchy.
Solution Since (an ) is Cauchy, it is bounded so that |an | ≤ A for some constant
A and all n. Take ε > 0. There is N such that |an − am | < kAεk−1 for n, .m ≥ N .
Then for n, m ≥ N ,
 k
an − akm  = (an − am )(ank−1 + ank−2 am + +ank−3 a2m + . . . + an am
k−2 k−1 
  
+ am
ε
≤ |an − am | · kAk < · kAk = ε,
kAk−1
showing that (akn ) is Cauchy.

Problem 7. Let (an ) and (bn ) be sequences such that |an+1 − an | ≤ bn for
all n and the series (bn ) converges. Show that (an ) is Cauchy and hence it
converges.
Problem 8. Let I = [1, 3/2] and let f : I → R be defined by f (x) = −x2 /2 +
x + 1.
(a) Show that f is strictly decreasing (i.e., f (x) > f (y) whenever x < y) and
that f (I) ⊂ I.
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(b) Show that |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ 2 |x − y| for all x, y ∈ I.
(c) Let x0 = 1 and xn+1 = f (xn ) for all n ≥ 0.√Use (b) to show that the
sequence (xn ) is a Cauchy and that lim xn = 2.
Solution f ′ (x) = −x + 1 < 0 for x > 1. Hence f is strictly decreasing for
x > 1, f (1) = 3/2 and f (3/2) = 11/8 > 1. Hence f (I) ⊂ I. Next
   
 1   1
|f (x) − f (y)| = − (x2 − y 2 ) + (x − y) = − (x + y)(x − y) + (x − y)

2 2
 
 1 
= |x − y| · 1 − (x + y)
2
1 3 1 1
 y ∈1 I, then 1 ≤1 2 (x + y) ≤ 2 so that − 2 ≤ 1 − 2 (x + y) ≤ 0
Note that if x,
showing that 1 − 2 (x + y) ≤ 2 . So, if x, y ∈ I, then

1
|f (x) − f (y)| ≤ |x − y| .
2
(One can also use the mean value theorem get the above estimate). Observe
that
1
|xx+2 − xn+1 | = |f (xn+1 ) − f (xn | ≤ |xn − xn−1 |
2
showing that the sequence (xn ) is contractive. Hence (xn ) is Cauchy and it
converges to some x. Since xn+1 = f (xn ) and xn → x and f is continuous,
√
x = f (x). So, −x2 /2 + x + 1 = x, i.e., x2 = 2 and we must have x = 2.

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Problem 9. Assume that 0 < a < b and x0 = a, y0 = b, and
√ 1

xn+1 = xn yn , yn+1 = xn + yn , n ≥ 0.
2
Show that the sequence (xn ) is increasing, that (yn ) is decreasing, and that both
converge to the same limit (you don’t have to find the limit).
Solution: Note that
1
√ 1 √ 1 √ √
yn+1 −xn+1 = xn +yn − xn yn = (xn −2 xn yn +yn ) = ( xn − yn )2 ≥ 0
2 2 2
for all n. So
√ √
xn+1 = xn yn ≥ xn xn = xn
showing that (xn ) is decreasing, and
1
1

yn+1 = xn + yn ≥ yn + yn ≥ yn
2 2
showing that (yn ) is decreasing. Since 0 ≤ xn ≤ yn < y1 , the sequence (xn ) is
bounded. Hence (xn ) converges to some point x and also (yn ) converges to y.
Then
x+y
y=
2
from which one concludes that x = y.
Problem 10. Discuss the convergence or divergence of the following series:
P  √n+1−√n 
(a) n

1
P
(b) (ln n)p

1
P
(c) n(ln n)p

1
P
(d) (ln n)ln n

(−1)n+1 lnnn
P
(e)

n1/n an where
P P
(f) an is a convergent series.
P P
(g) an e−nx where x > 0 and the partial sums of the series an are
bounded.