ANCIENT GREEK IN COMICS

C
ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΑΙ ƆΕΙΚΟΝΕΣ

A short illustrated guide to ancient conversation for the

use of space-time travelers

Book 1
ΒΙΒΛΙΟΝ ΠΡΩΤΟΝ ΚΑΤΑ ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΝ

Μάθωμεν τὴν γλῶσσαν !

Let's learn the language!
The alphabet

Greek is written with ... the greek alphabet. Good news: you already know this alphabet! You use it in
math and science. We just now have to consider these signs as letters that are pronounced.
(read each letter name in latin and then greek alphabet to practice)

Up./lo. Name Sound Example (in bold)

Α α alpha ἄλφα a cat Attention, trap!
Β β bêta βῆτα b but γ=g gamma
Γ γ gamma γάμμα g gas η=ê êta
Δ δ delta δέλτα d day ν=n nu
Ε ε epsilon ἔψιλον e /e/ prey short and closed ρ=r rho
Ζ ζ zêta ζῆτα dz adze χ = ch’ chi
Η η êta ἦτα ê /ɛː/ tête, air long and open
Θ θ thêta θῆτα th' think
Ι ι iôta ἰῶτα i si, happy rough breathing: C + accent: ’
Κ κ kappa κάππα k keep
Λ λ
Μ μ
lambda
mu
λάμβδα
μῦ
l
m
let
man
ἕν [hen] : one
Ν ν nu νῦ n nose
Ξ ξ xi ξῖ x axe smooth breathing: Ɔ
Ο ο omicron ὄμικρον o /o/ so short and closed
Π π
Ρ ρ
pi
rhô
πῖ
ῥῶ
p
r
pit
red trilled (Spanish, Italian) ἐν [en] : in
Σ σ/ς sigma σῖγμα s sing ς at the end of words
Τ τ tau ταῦ t tail smooth breathing: Ɔ + accent: ~
Υ υ upsilon ὓψιλον ü /y/ Türk, few like u in French “tu”
Φ φ
Χ χ
phi
chi
φῖ
χῖ
ph'
ch'
phone
loch εὖ [ew] : well
Ψ ψ psi ψῖ ps capsule
Ω ω ômega ὠμέγα ô /ɔː/ more long and open

Ε / ε (epsilon) and Ο / ο (omicron) are pronounced closed and short while Η / η (êta) and Ω / ω
(ômega) are pronounced open and long.

The three aspirated consonants Θ / θ (thêta), Φ / φ (phi) and Χ / χ (chi) were first pronounced with an
aspirated h (t + h, p + h, k + h) and then like th in think, ph (= f) in phone and ch of Scottish Loch Ness
or German Bach (or like Spanish Jota, Arabic ‫ )ﺥ‬but not like the ch of English chat!

Γ / γ (gamma) is pronounced as in gas. But when it is located before a guttural consonant (κ, γ, χ), it is
pronounced ng as in ring. Examples : ἄγκυρα [ángküra] «anchor», ἄγγελος [ánggelos] «messenger»
which becomes angel in English.

Υ / υ (upsilon) was pronounced as French u or German/Turkish ü. It is now pronounced like y of happy

in Modern Greek. It has become the Latin letter Y / y which had a ü sound (/y/) in old English (“cyng”).
Ο / ο (omicron) + Υ / υ (upsilon) = ου is pronounced like “ou” in route.

The other groups of vowels or "diphthongs" are pronounced like the sum of these vowels and, in
second position, ι is pronounced like "y" from "eye" (noted “ï” below) and υ like "w" from "web":
αι (a + ï) like eye, οι (o + ï) like boy, ει (e + ï) like may, αυ (a + w) close to mouth, ευ (e + w) to baywing.

The accent marks the syllable pronounced higher and takes the form "ˊ", "ˋ", or "~". Examples:
πέντε [pénte] «five», καλῶς [kalôs] «well, nice!».

There is a last sound which is not denoted by a letter but by a sign placed to the left for upper case
letters or above lower case letters and looks like a small "c". It is called the “rough breathing”. It
corresponds to an aspirated h as in English "hat". It exists only on the first vowel (or the second if the
word begins with a diphthong) and any initial υ or ρ. Examples: ὑπέρ [hüper] “above” (hence English
“hyper” with an “h”), οἱ [hoï] “the” (plural), ῥίνος [rhinos] “of the nose” (hence rhinoceros, oto-rhino-
laryngologist etc…). If the initial vowel does not carry aspiration it is replaced by the “soft breathing”
which is like an inverted c: Ɔ. Example: ἰδού [idou] "lo!, behold!, there!" or εὖ [ew] "well".

This “h” sound permits to differentiate some important small words:

• ἡ [hê] “the” (feminine) from ἤ [ê] “or, either”
• ἕν [hen], εἷς [heïs] “one” from ἐν [en], εἰς [eïs] “in”

1
῾h Nouns, articles and adjectives

αa In Greek, as in English, there are three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter.
alpha
Nouns ending in -ς (-ος, -ας, -ης, -εύς) are often (but not always) masculine (m):
βb ἄνθρωπος human, ἀδελφός brother, υἱός son, νεανίας young man, στρατιώτης soldier, σκυτεύς cobbler
bêta
(-της and -εύς denote one who practices an action or a profession, as for English words ending in -er)
γg
gamma Nouns ending in -η or -α are often feminine (f):
κόρη girl, ἀδελφή sister, σφαῖρα ball (= sphere), οἰκία house
δd
delta Nouns ending in -ον or -μα are neuter (n) (-μα denotes a thing or the result of an action):
παιδίον child, τέκνον child (of someone)/offspring, δένδρον tree, οἴκημα dwelling, ὑπόδημα shoe
εe
epsilon Nouns ending in -ήρ are masculine or feminine:
μήτηρ mother, πατήρ father, θυγάτηρ daughter
ζz
zêta The article
ηê There is a definite article (the) which is, according to the gender, ὁ « ho » m, ἡ « hê » f, τό « tó » n,
êta
but there is no indefinite article (a, an):
ὁ ἄνθρωπος the man (the human), ἄνθρωπος a man (a person).
θ th
thêta
The word for “one” also changes form depending on gender:
ιi εἷς “heïs” m, μία, “mia” f, ἕν “hen” n.
iôta εἷς ἄνθρωπος (one man) m, μία κόρη (one girl) f, ἕν παιδίον (one child) n.

κk “ἕν” all alone can also mean "one (only) thing"

kappa
To say "some ..., a certain …, any …" we use τις m/f, τι n, placed before or after the word:
λl ἄνθρωπος τις a (certain) man, someone τι δένδρον a / any tree
lambda
To form the plural:
μm
mu It is formed in the m and f with the endings -οι / -αι / -ες and in the n with the ending -α

νn The definite article (the) becomes οἱ “hoï” m, αἱ “haï” f, τά “ta” n.

nu “τά” can also mean "the things"

ξx Nouns m (or f) in -ος make -οι

xi οἱ ἀνθρώποι the men, the humans
οo Nouns m in -ης or -ας and f in -η or -α make -αι
omicron
οἱ στρατιῶται the soldiers, οἱ νεανίαι the young men, αἱ κόραι the girls
πp Nouns in -ήρ make -έρες
pi
οἱ πατέρες the fathers
ρr Nouns m in -εύς make -εῖς ( ancient contraction of -εύες)
rhô
οἱ σκυτεῖς the cobblers, the shoemakers
σ, ς s Nouns n in -ον make -α
sigma
τὰ τέκνα the children
τt Nouns n in -μα make -ματα (these names were formerly in -ματ but τ has disappeared in the singular)
tau
τὰ ὑποδήματα the shoes
υ u, y The adjective agrees in number and gender with the noun it modifies
upsilon

φ ph Example: καλός, ή, όν beautiful (Adjectives are usualy given with their singular endings in the order m, f, n)
phi Singular: καλ-ός (m), καλ-ή (f), καλ-όν (n)
Plural: καλ-οί (m), καλ-αί (f), καλ-ά (n)
χ ch
chi It is often placed before the noun or, in order to insist on it, after the noun and the repeated article
The beautiful shoe τὸ καλὸν ὑπόδημα or τὸ ὑπόδημα τὸ καλόν
ψ ps The beautiful children τὰ καλὰ τέκνα or τὰ τέκνα τὰ καλά
psi A beautiful girl καλὴ κόρη

ωô
ômega
2
3
῾h
Numbers up to 10:
αa
alpha Another good news: you already know how to count in Greek!
You use these Greek words or their derivatives in many English words, for example: trilogy, tetrapod,
βb pentagon, hexagon, heptathlon, octopus, decalitre etc…
bêta
one ἕν hen
γg two δύο duo
gamma
three τρία tria
δd four τέτσαρα tetsara *
delta five πέντε pente
six ἕξ hex
εe seven ἑπτά hepta
epsilon
eight ὀκτώ oktô
ζz nine ἐννέα ennea
zêta ten δέκα deka
ηê * The word for four is τέτταρα in the dialect of Athens (Attic) and τέσσαρα in other dialects. Likewise,
êta
the word for “sea” is either θάλαττα or θάλασσα "thalassa".
This changing sound (ττ / σσ) was once "ts" and then it became either "tt" or "ss" depending on the
θ th Greek dialects. For simplicity we will note it "τσ" knowing that, depending on the place or time, it will be
thêta
written either "ττ" or "σσ".
ιi Words for one (ἕν), three (τρία) and four (τέτσαρα) have a particular form in the masculine and the
iôta
feminine:
κk We already saw it for “one” (ἕν n): εἷς “heïs” m, μία, “mia” f
kappa

λl For three and four, it's the same form in the f and m:
lambda three : τρία n  τρεῖς m, f
four : τέτσαρα n  τέτσαρες m, f
μm
mu τρία παιδία three children
τρεῖς κόραι three girls
νn τέτσαρες στρατιώται four soldiers
nu
The other numbers do not change:
ξx πέντε παιδία five children
xi
πέντε ἄνθρωποι five persons
οo To say "zero, nothing, none" we add "οὐδ(ε)-" to the number one: οὐδέν n, οὐδείς m, οὐδεμία f
omicron
"And, and also, plus" is said: καί
πp "How much/many? " (in the plural): πόσοι m, πόσαι f, πόσα n, with a ";" which replaces the "?"
pi “many, a lot (of)”: πολλοί m, πολλαί f, πολλά n

ρr And to rank in order:

rhô
first πρῶτος, η, ον prôt-os
σ, ς s second δεύτερος, α, ον dewter-os
sigma
third τρίτος, η, ον trit-os
fourth τέταρτος, η, ον tetart-os
τt
tau fifth πέμπτος, η, ον pempt-os
sixth ἕκτος, η, ον hekt-os
υ u, y seventh ἕβδομος, η, ον hebdom-os
upsilon eighth ὄγδοος, η, ον ogdo-os
ninth ἔνατος, η, ον enat-os
φ ph tenth δέκατος, η, ον dekat-os
phi
Previous: πρότερος, α, ον “proter-os”
χ ch Next, following: ἑπόμενος, η, ον “hepomen-os”
chi
Last: ὕστατος, η, ον “hustat-os”
ψ ps ἡ ὕλη the forest, ὁ λύκος the wolf (lyco), ὁ στρατός the army, ὁ στρατηγός the general (strategus), ὁ δρόμος the race
psi

ωô
ômega
4
οἱ ἑπόμενοι

5
 The verb in the present indicative
῾h
st
αa There are three types of verbs (depending on the ending for "I" 1 sg): verbs in -ω, -μαι and -μι
alpha Examples : τρέχω I run, ἐργάζομαι I work, δίδωμι I give

βb Personal pronouns are not required.

bêta αὐτ-ός m, -ή f, -ό n (he, she, it) is often replaced by a demonstrative (see page 14).
Preceded by the article or appended to a subject it means “the same”, “(him/her/it)-self” (“auto"):
γg ὁ αὐτὸς ἄνθρωπος the same man ; ὁ ἄνθρωπος αὐτός the man himself ; ἐγὼ αὐτός my-self
gamma
Verbs in -ω or -ῶ in -μαι in -μι
δd run do, make work can give be
delta Infinitive τρέχ-ειν ποι-εῖν ἐργάζ-ε-σθαι δύνα-σθαι διδό-ναι εἶ-ναι
εe
epsilon I ἐγώ τρέχ-ω ποι-ῶ ἐργάζ-ο-μαι δύνα-μαι δίδω-μι εἰ-μί
thou, you σύ τρέχ-εις ποι-εῖς ἐργάζ-ει δύνα-σαι δίδω-ς εἶ
ζz he, she, αὐτός, αὐτή, τρέχ-ει ποι-εῖ ἐργάζ-ε-ται δύνα-ται δίδω-σι(ν) ἐσ-τί(ν)
zêta
it, they (n)* αὐτό, αὐτά*
ηê we ἡμεῖς τρέχ-ομεν ποι-οῦμεν ἐργαζ-ό-μεθα δυνά-μεθα δίδο-μεν ἐσ-μέν
êta you (pl), ye ὑμεῖς τρέχ-ετε ποι-εῖτε ἐργάζ-ε-σθε δύνα-σθε δίδο-τε ἐσ-τέ
they (m, f) αὐτοί, αὐταί τρέχ-ουσι(ν) ποι-οῦσι(ν) ἐργάζ-ο-νται δύνα-νται διδό-ασι(ν) εἰ-σί(ν)
θ th For endings in -σι(ν) and -τι(ν): ν disappears before a consonant: εἰσὶ καλοί they are beautiful(m)
thêta
In verbs in -μι, except εἶναι / εἰμί (to be / I am), if the preceding vowel is short in the infinitive and in the
ιi plural, it becomes long in the singular and so ο becomes ω, ε and α become η:
iôta
διδόναι to give  δίδωμι I give
συνιέναι to understand  συνίημι I understand
κk
kappa
(ἐγὼ) ἐργάζομαι I work, I am working
(ἡμεῖς) δυνάμεθα τρέχειν we can run
λl αὐταί εἰσι(ν) they are (f)
lambda
(σὺ) ποιεῖς you do, you’re doing, you make (sg) = thou dost, thou makest
μm (ὑμεῖς) συνίετε you (all) understand (pl)
mu ὁ σκυτεὺς ἐργάζεται the cobbler works/is working
οἱ στρατιῶται τρέχουσιν the soldiers run/are running
νn
nu *(!) strangely, with a plural neuter subject the verb is singular:
τὰ παιδία τρέχει the children run/are running (litt. “the children runs/is running”)
ξx
xi To form negation:

οo Just add before the verb “οὐ” which becomes "οὐκ" before a vowel (“οὐχ” in case of rough breathing)
omicron οὐκ εἰσὶ καλοί they are not beautiful
οὐ συνίημι I don’t understand
πp
pi To ask a question:
ρr You can simply add at the end of the sentence the sign “;" which corresponds to our "?"
rhô συνίης ; (do) you understand?
σ, ς s You can also add at the beginning of the sentence “ἆρα, ἆρ’” or “ἤ” to reinforce the question
sigma ἆρα συνίησιν ; does he (realy) understand?
τt The verb to know
tau
It has a special conjugation:
υ u, y
upsilon To know (inf) εἰδέναι
I know οἶδα
φ ph Thou knowest, you know (sg) οἶσθα / οἶδας
phi
He, she, it knows οἶδε
χ ch We know ἴσμεν
chi
Ye/you (all) know (pl) ἴστε
ψ ps They know ἴσασι(ν)
psi
ἕν οἶδα ὅτι οὐδὲν οἶδα “I know one (thing); that I know nothing” (Σωκράτης: Socrates).
ωô
ômega 6
7
῾h The complement (direct object)

αa In English, the subject is placed before the verb and the complement (direct object) after.
alpha We can say "The man throws the ball" not "The ball throws the man"!

βb In Greek it is the case which indicates who is the subject and who is the object.
bêta We can say "ὁ ἄνθρωπος βάλλει τὴν σφαῖραν" or "τὴν σφαῖραν βάλλει ὁ ἄνθρωπος"

γg There is a remainder of this system in English for some personal pronouns:

gamma Subject case (nominative) : I, she, he, we
Object case (accusative) : me, her, him, us
δd he sees us = us he sees (as would say Yoda! ☺)
delta

εe To form the object case (accusative):

epsilon
For neuter there is no change
ζz For feminine and masculine:
zêta
In the singular we add a -ν to the final vowel (after removing -ς if any)
ηê The article ὁ m becomes τόν and ἡ f becomes τήν
êta
ὁ ἄνθρωπος  ὁρῶ τὸν ἄνθρωπον I see the man/person
θ th ὁ στρατιώτης  ὁρῶ τὸν στρατιώτην I see the soldier
thêta
ἡ σφαῖρα  ὁρῶ τὴν σφαῖραν I see the ball
ιi αὐτός (he)  αὐτόν (him)
iôta αὐτή (she)  αὐτήν (her)

κk except for the ending -εύς which becomes -έα and -ήρ which becomes -έρα
kappa ὁ σκυτεύς  ὁρῶ τὸν σκυτέα I see the cobbler
ὁ πατήρ  ὁρῶ τὸν πατέρα I see the/my father (the possesive is implied)
λl
lambda βάλλω τὴν σφαῖραν I throw the ball (βάλλ-ειν: to throw)

μm In the plural
mu The ending -οι becomes -ους
The endings -αι and -ες become -ας
νn The ending -εῖς becomes -έας
nu
The article οἱ (m) becomes τούς and αἱ (f) becomes τάς
ξx οἱ ἄνθρωποι  ὁρῶ τοὺς ἄνθρωπους I see the men/people
xi οἱ στρατιώται  ὁρῶ τοὺς στρατιώτας I see the soldiers
αἱ κόραι  ὁρῶ τὰς κόρας I see the girls
οo οἱ πατέρες  ὁρῶ τοὺς πατέρας I see the/our fathers
omicron οἱ σκυτεῖς  ὁρῶ τοὺς σκυτέας I see the cobblers
αὐτοί (they m.)  αὐτούς (them m.)
πp αὐταί (they f.)  αὐτάς (them f.)
pi
ἀσπάζομαι τοὺς φίλους I greet the(my) friends (ἀσπάζ-εσθαι: to greet, ὁ φίλ-ος: the friend)
ρr
rhô The other personal pronouns
σ, ς s subject object
sigma (nominative) (accusative)
τt I ἐγώ ἐμέ, με me
tau thou, you (sg) σύ σέ, σε thee, you (sg)
we ἡμεῖς ἡμᾶς us
υ u, y you (all) (pl) ὑμεῖς ὑμᾶς you (all) (pl)
upsilon

φ ph ἆρ’ ἐμὲ ἀναγνωρίζεις ; do you recognize me? (ἀναγνωρίζ-ειν: to recognize)

phi
The numbers 1 and 4 m, f in the accusative (the others do not change):
χ ch 1 εἷς « heis » m  ἕνα ἔχω ἕνα υἱόν I have one son (ἔχ-ειν: to have/hold)
chi
1 μία, « mia » f  μίαν ἔχω μίαν θυγατέρα I have one daughter
ψ ps 4 τέτσαρες m, f  τέτσαρας
psi
ἔχω τέτσαρας ἀγαθοὺς φίλους I have four good friends (ἀγαθ-ός: good)
ωô
ômega
8
9
῾h How to say "of"

αa In English, to indicate possession, relationship or origin, we place "of" before the noun or “’s” after.
alpha In Greek we use a case called genitive which changes the ending.
“The child's ball / The ball of the child”: “ἡ σφαῖρα τοῦ παιδίου” or, more often: “ἡ τοῦ παιδίου σφαῖρα”
βb To form the case of belonging or origin (genitive):
bêta
In the singular
γg The endings m/f -ος, -ης, -ας and n -ον become -ου
gamma
Feminine nouns in -η or -α add -ς
δd The ending -εύς becomes -έως
delta Nouns n in -μα make -ματος
Nouns m/f in -ήρ make -ρός
εe The article ὁ m or τό n becomes τοῦ and ἡ f becomes τῆς
epsilon
ὁ ἄνθρωπος  τοῦ ἀνθρώπου of the man
ὁ στρατιώτης  τοῦ στρατιώτου of the soldier
ζz ὁ νεανίας  τοῦ νεανίου of the young man
zêta
τὸ τέκνον  τοῦ τέκνου of (my, your, his, her) child
ηê ἡ σφαῖρα  τῆς σφαῖρας of the ball
êta ὁ σκυτεύς  τοῦ σκυτέως of the cobbler/shoemaker
ὁ πατήρ  τοῦ πατρός of the (/my, your, his, her) father
θ th τὸ οἴκημα  τοῦ οἰκήματος of the housing/shop
thêta αὐτός, αὐτό (he, it)  αὐτοῦ, ἑαυτοῦ of him, of it, his, its
αὐτή (she)  αὐτῆς, ἑαυτῆς of her, her
ιi (ἑαυτοῦ and ἑαυτῆς if the subject is the owner: his / her own)
iôta
ὁ τοῦ ἱππέως ἵππος τρέχει the rider’s horse is running (ἵππος: horse, ἱππεύς: rider, horseman)
κk ἡ θύρα τοῦ οἰκήματος τοῦ σκυτέως ἐστὶν ἀνοικτή the door of the shoemaker's housing/shop is open
kappa (ἡ θύρα: the door, ἀνοικτός: open / κλειστός: closed)
τὸ τοῦ στρατιώτου ξίφος the soldier's sword (τὸ ξίφος: the sword)
λl τὸ σκῦτος μόσχου the calfskin (τὸ σκῦτος: the leather, ὁ μόσχος: the calf)
lambda
τὸ ξίφος and τὸ σκῦτος are neuter: their plural is in -η (τὰ ξίφη the swords) and their genitive in -ους
μm We will indicate the genitive of words as follows:
mu ὁ ἄνθρωπος (-ου), ὁ σκυτεύς (-έως), ὁ πατήρ (-τρός), τὸ οἴκημα (-ατος), τὸ ξίφος (-ους)

νn In the plural
nu The ending is always -ων, the article τῶν
τῶν ἀνθρώπων of the men
ξx τῶν στρατιωτῶν of the soldiers
xi τῶν σφαῖρων of the balls
τῶν πατέρων of the/our fathers
οo τῶν σκυτεῶν of the cobblers/shoemakers
omicron
τῶν οἰκήματων of the housings
αὐτῶν, ἑαυτῶν of them, their
πp
pi
The other personal pronouns
ρr subject possessive possessive
rhô (nominative) (genitive) adjectives
I ἐγώ ἐμοῦ, μου of me ἐμ-ός, -ή, -όν my, mine
σ, ς s
sigma thou, you σύ σοῦ, σου of thee, of you σ-ός, -ή, -όν thy, thine, your, yours
we ἡμεῖς ἡμῶν of us ἡμέτερ-ος, -α, -ον our, ours
τt you (all) ὑμεῖς ὑμῶν of you (all) ὑμέτερ-ος, -α, -ον your, yours
tau
The genitive of personal pronouns (ἐμοῦ, μου), (σοῦ, σου), ἡμῶν, ὑμῶν is often used instead of
υ u, y possessive adjectives ἐμ-ός -ή -όν (my), ἡμέτερ-ος, -α, -ον (our) etc…
upsilon
His ball: ἡ σφαῖρα αὐτοῦ (note that the article is kept)
Their children: τὰ τέκνα αὐτῶν
φ ph Our soldiers: οἱ στρατιώται ἡμῶν or : οἱ ἡμέτεροι στρατιώται
phi
Thy/your shoe: τὸ ὑπόδημά σου or : τὸ σὸν ὑπόδημα
χ ch My father: ὁ πατήρ μου or : ὁ ἐμὸς πατήρ
chi ὁ πέπλος τῆς ἡμέτερας θυγατρός ἐστι καλός the dress of our daughter is beautiful (ὁ πέπλος: the dress)
ψ ps The numbers 1, 3 and 4 in the genitive (the others do not change except δύο  δυοῖν see dual p. 66):
psi
of one ἑνός m, n μιᾶς f of three τριῶν of four τετσάρων
ωô
ômega
10
11
 How to say “to”, “for”, “with”
῾h
αa We use another case called dative.
alpha It is formed in the singular with "-ι" and in the plural with "-ις" or "-σι(ν)"

βb (Nominative, accusative, genitive and dative form the “declension” of words, summarized on page 65)
bêta
In the singular
γg
gamma The article (meaning "at, to the, for the, with the") is either τῷ m/n or τῇ f
In fact, the endings were in -ωι and -ηι but the "ι" after the long vowel ended up not being pronounced
δd and its trace is kept in the writing by a small ι placed under the vowel. This sign is called “iota subscript”.
delta
The endings -ος m/f, -ον n become -ῳ τῷ φίλῳ to (/for/with) the friend
εe The endings -η f, -ης m become -ῃ τῇ κόρῃ to (/for/with) the girl
epsilon Nouns f in -α and m in -ας make -ᾳ τῇ σφαῖρᾳ with the ball
Nouns n in -μα make -ματι τῷ ὑποδήματι to/with the shoe
ζz The ending -ήρ becomes -ρί τῇ ἐμῇ μητρί to (/for/with) my mother
zêta The ending -εύς becomes -εῖ τῷ σκυτεῖ to (/for/with) the cobbler

ηê αὐτός m, αὐτό n (he, it)  αὐτῷ (to/for/with him, it) m, n

êta αὐτή f (she)  αὐτῇ (to/for/with her) f

θ th The young man gives a flower to the girl ὁ νεανίας δίδωσι ἄνθος τῇ κόρῃ (τὸ ἄνθος: the flower)
thêta I give him the ball δίδωμι τὴν σφαῖραν αὐτῷ
I play (with the) ball παίζω σφαῖρᾳ (παίζειν: to play)
ιi I give a present to my mother δίδωμι δώρον τῇ ἐμῇ μητρί (τὸ δώρον: the present)
iôta
In the plural
κk
kappa The article is either τοῖς m/n or ταῖς f
λl The endings -ος m/f, -ον n become -οις τοῖς φίλοις to (/for/with) the(/my) friends
lambda Nouns m in -ης, -ας and f in -η, -α make -αις τοῖς στρατιώταις to (/for/with) the soldiers
Nouns n in -μα make -μασι(ν) τοῖς οἰκήμασι(ν) to/for/at the housings
μm The ending -εύς becomes -εῦσι(ν) and -ήρ, -ράσι(ν) τοῖς ἱππεῦσι(ν) to (/for/with) the horsmen
mu
ταῖς μητράσι(ν) to (/for/with) the(/our) mothers
νn αὐτός m, αὐτό n (he, it)  αὐτοῖς (to/for/with them) m, n
nu αὐτή f (she)  αὐταῖς (to/for/with them) f

ξx The other personal pronouns

xi
Subject Indirect object
οo (nominative) (dative)
omicron
I ἐγώ ἐμοί, μοι (to) me
πp thou, you σύ σοί, σοι (to) thee, you
pi we ἡμεῖς ἡμῖν (to) us
you (all) ὑμεῖς ὑμῖν (to) you (all)
ρr
rhô δίδωμί σοι τὴν σφαῖραν I give you the ball
ὑμῖν λαλῶ I speak to you (all) (λαλεῖν: to speak)
σ, ς s
sigma Greek uses the dative to say the place where one is (ἐν: in, at) and the person that one meets:
συντυγχάνω φίλῳ ἐν τῇ ἀγορᾷ / ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ I meet (with) a friend in the square / in the street
τt (ἡ ἀγορά f: the market square) (ἡ ὁδός f: the road, street. Feminine word in -ός declined like φίλος)
tau
Some frequent orders:
υ u, y
upsilon I give δί-δω-μι  δό-ς “dós” give!
I send, let go, throw ἵ-η-μι  ἕ-ς “hés” send! throw! let it go!
φ ph I bring, carry φέρ-ω  ἔνεγκ-ε “énengke” bring!
phi
I say, tell λέγ-ω  εἰπ-έ “eïpé” say! tell!
χ ch δός μοι τὴν σφαῖραν ! give me the ball!
chi
ἓς ἡμῖν τὴν σφαῖραν ! send us the ball!
ἔνεγκε τὴν σφαῖραν τοῖς φίλοις σου bring the ball to your friends
ψ ps εἰπέ μοι τὸν μῦθον ! tell me this story! (ὁ μῦθος : the tale, story)
psi

ωô
ômega 12
13
῾h How to say "with (among), together, at the same time"
αa "With, among, in the company of" is said "σύν +dat" or "μετά +gen"
alpha The signs "+dat" and "+gen" mean that σύν is followed by the dative while μετά by the genitive.
I play ball with friends  παίζω σφαῖρᾳ σὺν φίλοις or παίζω σφαῖρᾳ μετὰ φίλων
βb μεθ’ ἡμῶν: with us, among us (μετὰ ἡμῶν [meta hêmôn]  μεθ’ ἡμῶν [meth’ hêmôn])
bêta
μετά, which loses its ά before a vowel (μετ’), becomes μεθ’ because of the rough breathing (h)
γg "Together" is said "ὁμοῦ", at the same time "ἅμα"
gamma
We play together  ὁμοῦ παίζομεν or παίζομεν ὁμοῦ
δd How to say “the … who/which, the one who, the one that etc… »
delta
We use the relative pronoun ὅς [hós] m, ἥ [hê] f, ὅ [hó] n. (note the accent! ≠ the article ὁ, ἡ…)
εe m n f
epsilon Nom sg ὅς ὅ ἥ
(The one) who, which, that, what
Acc sg ὅν ὅ ἥν
ζz Gen sg οὗ ἧς Whose, of/from whom/which
zêta Dat sg ᾧ ᾗ (To/with) which, whom
Nom pl οἵ ἅ αἵ
ηê Acc pl οὕς ἅ ἅς
(Those) who, which, that, what
êta
Gen pl ὧν Whose, of/from whom/which
θ th Dat pl οἷς αἷς (To/with) which, whom
thêta
ὁ ἵππος ὃς τρέχει The horse who/that is running
ιi οἱ ἄνθρωποι οἷς λαλῶ The men to whom I talk, The men I'm talking to
iôta οὐ συνίημι ἅ μοι λέγουσῐν I don't understand what they tell me
ἡ σφαῖρα ᾗ παίζομεν The ball with which we play, The ball we play with
κk How to say "who?" "what?"
kappa
We use the interrogative τίς m f, τί n.
λl mf n
lambda Nom sg τίς τί who? what?
Acc sg τίνα τί who(m)? what?
μm Gen sg τίνος / τοῦ whose?
mu
Dat sg τίνι / τῷ (to) who(m)? with which?
νn Nom pl τίνες τίνα who? what?
nu Acc pl τίνας τίνα who(m)? what?
Gen pl τίνων whose?
ξx Dat pl τίσι(ν) (to) who(m)? with which?
xi
τίς σὺ εἶ; who are you?
οo τί ἐστιν; what is it? τί (δὴ) ποιεῖς; (so) what do you do? what are you doing?
omicron τίνος ἡ σφαῖρα; whose ball (is it)? ( or: τοῦ ἡ σφαῖρα; )
τίνι λαλεῖς; who are you talking to? (or: τῷ λαλεῖς; )
πp τις (without accent) also means "someone, a(n)" and τι "something, a(n)" (see page 2: “τι δένδρον”)
pi we sometimes add -ποτε to say "something": λέγει τίποτε he says something
This (one), that (one), these, those…
ρr
rhô We can form a demonstrative by appending -δε to the article: ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε, … this one, this.
We can also use the demonstratives ἐκεῖνος m, ἐκείνη f, ἐκεῖνο n (that one, that…. there)
σ, ς s or οὗτος [hoùtos] m, αὕτη [hàwtê] f, τοῦτο [toùto] n. (this one, this)
sigma
m n f
τt Nom sg οὗτος τοῦτο αὕτη
tau When showing someone or something
Acc sg τοῦτον τοῦτο ταύτην
with the finger, we sometimes add a ί after οὗτος or
υ u, y Gen sg τούτου ταύτης ὅδε to mean “just here”:
upsilon Dat sg τούτῳ ταύτῃ
Nom pl οὗτοι ταῦτα αὗται οὗτος, τοῦτο + ί  οὑτοσί, τουτί, … this (one) here
φ ph Acc pl τούτους ταῦτα ταύτας ὅδε, τόδε + ί  ὁδί, τοδί, …
phi Gen pl τούτων
(the ί makes the final vowels ο / ε disappear)
Dat pl τούτοις ταύταις
χ ch
chi When used as adjectives (this, these ...), they are placed before the article (kept!) or after the noun:
“this man” = “οὗτος ὁ ἄνθρωπος” or “ὁ ἄνθρωπος οὗτος”
ψ ps ἐκεῖνος ὁ φίλος μου ἐστίν This one is my friend
psi ταῦτα οἶδα I know these (things), I know this/that
τουτί τί ἐστιν; This here, what is it?
ωô
ômega
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15
῾h How to indicate a position
The three cases dat, acc and gen are used to indicate, with the words ἐν, εἰς, πρός, ἀπό and διά:
αa
alpha the place where one is (ἐν +dat “at, in”), to which one goes (εἰς, πρός +acc “to, towards, into”), whence
one comes (ἀπό +gen “from”) and through which one passes (διά +gen “through”).
βb πορεύομαι διὰ τοῦ πάτου I go/pass through the path (πορεύ-ομαι I go/pass, ὁ πάτος the path)
bêta
ἐρχόμεθα ἀπὸ τῆς ἀγοράς we come from the market square (ἔρχ-ομαι: I come, go)
βαίνομεν εἰς (πρὸς) τὴν κώμην we walk to the village (βαίν-ω: I walk, go)
γg
gamma εἰς +acc also has the meaning of "for": εἰς τὸ ἄριστον: for (the) lunch (τὸ ἄρῑστον: the lunch)
ἡμᾶς μένει ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ he (/she) is waiting for us in the house (μέν-ω: I wait for, remain)
δd But the word for home/house (ὁ οἶκος/ἡ οἰκία) has also special forms to say “at, in, from home”:
delta
οἴκ-οι at home, οἴκ-αδε (to) home, homewards, οἴκ-οθεν from home:
ἡμᾶς μένει οἴκοι: he (/she) is waiting for us at home, ἐρχόμεθα οἴκαδε: we’re going home
εe
epsilon The word to say "where?" changes depending on whether there is movement or not:
ποῦ; (where? without movement), ποῖ; (whither? to where?), πόθεν; (whence?), πῇ; (through where?)
ζz ποῦ ἐστιν; where is (it)? ποῖ ὑπάγομεν; where are we going? (ὑπάγ-ω: I go away/bring under)
zêta
To these four interrogatives correspond the following answers (the rough breathing replaces the π-):
ηê οὗ ἐστιν (where it is), οἷ βαίνει (where it goes), ὅθεν ἔρχεται (whence it comes), ᾗ πορεύεται (where it passes)
êta
We can also use ἔνθα or ὅπου / ὅποι (ὅ + ποῦ / ποῖ) instead of οὗ or οἷ :
θ th ἔρχεται ἔνθα οἰκῶ he comes where I live ἡ οἰκία ὅπου οἰκῶ the house where I live
thêta
To say "here", "there", "over there":
ιi here there (over) there ἐκεῖ
iôta
(Without movement) ἐν-θά-δε, ὧ-δε ἐν-ταῦ-θα ἐκεῖ
κk To, towards… ἐν-θά-δε, δεῦρο ἐν-ταῦ-θα ἐκεῖ-σε
kappa From… ἐν-θέν-δε ἐν-τεῦ-θεν ἐκεῖ-θεν
Through… τῇ-δε ταύ-τῃ ἐκεί-νῃ
λl
lambda ἐλθὲ δεῦρο ! come here! ἐλθέ!: come!
ὧδε μένει he’s waiting here (ὧδε also means "thus") ἐνθά-δε ἐνταῦθα
ἐνταῦθα ἐστίν ! ὧδε
μm he is there!
mu ἐνθάδε ἔρχεται he comes here
ἐκεῖθεν ἐρχόμεθα we come from (over) there
νn τῇδε ! this way!
nu ἐνθένδε ἐκεῖσε δέκα στάδια ἔχει from here to there, there are ten stadia. (τὸ στάδιον: ≈ 160 to 185 m)

ξx On, over, in front of, on the right, up etc…

xi ὑπέρ
at, near, next to παρά +dat, +gen (from near), +acc (to near, at)
οo in, inside, within ἐν, ἔνδον +dat ἐπί
omicron out of, from ἐκ, ἐξ +gen (ἐξ before a vowel) ἄν-ω
outside ἔξω +gen
πp before, in front πρόσθεν, πρό +gen
pi behind ὄπισθεν +gen ἔξ-ω ἔν-δον
on the right εἰς τὰ δεξιά
ρr on the left εἰς τὰ ἀριστερά
rhô under ὑπό +gen κάτ-ω
on ἐπί +gen (position), +acc (movement) ὑπό
σ, ς s over ὑπέρ +gen
sigma
down κάτω up, upwards ἄνω
near, nearby ἐγγύς, πλησίον +gen far (away) μακράν, τῆλε +gen
τt
tau ἀναβαίνω ἐπὶ τὸ δένδρον I climb (on) the tree (ἀνα-βαίνω: I climb, I go up / κατα-βαίνω: I go down)
υ u, y Adverbs
upsilon
Adverbs are formed from adjectives with the ending "-ῶς" which corresponds to "-ly" in English or, less
φ ph frequently, with the endings "-α" and "-ον"
phi
οὗτος this  οὕτως, οὕτω in this manner, thus πῶς ; how?
καλός beautiful  καλῶς well, nicely, all right κακός bad  κακῶς badly
χ ch ἀληθής true  ἀληθῶς truly
chi
μόνος alone  μόνον only ὀλίγος little, few  ὀλίγον a bit, a little
ψ ps ταχύς quick  ταχέως / τάχα quickly, fast, soon
psi
πρόσθεν ἐσμέν, ταχέως γὰρ βαίνομεν we are in the front because we are walking fast (γάρ: because)
ωô
ômega
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17
῾h Contracted verbs

αa We saw in the -ω verbs that ποιῶ "to do, make" had endings marked with the "~" accent. This accent
alpha indicates a contracted vowel. The verb was first ποιέω and then contracted into ποιῶ. These verbs are
numerous in Greek, both among verbs in -ω and verbs in -ομαι.
βb Contractions occur when the endings are added to έ, ό or ά.
bêta We will indicate them thus: -(έ)ῶ, -(ό)ῶ, -(ά)ῶ

γg Here is how contractions are done:

gamma
-έ, -ό, -ά + ω  ῶ ποιέ-ω ποιῶ "I do/make", κενό-ω  κενῶ “I empty”, ὁρά-ω  ὁρῶ “I see”
δd -έ + ο or ου  οῦ ποιέ-ομεν  ποιοῦμεν “we do/make”, ποιέ-ουσι(ν)  ποιοῦσι(ν) “they do/make”
delta -έ + ε or ει  εῖ ποιέ-ετε  ποιεῖτε “you (all) do/make”, ποιέ-ει  ποιεῖ “he/she/it does/makes”
εe -ό + ε, ο or ου  οῦ κενό-ετε  κενοῦτε “you (all) empty”, κενό-ομεν  κενοῦμεν “we empty”
epsilon -ό + ει  οῖ κενό-ει  κενοῖ "he/she empties", κενό-εις  κενοῖς "you empty, thou emptiest"

ζz -ά + ο or ου  ῶ ὁρά-ομεν  ὁρῶμεν “we see”, ὁρά-ουσι(ν)  ὁρῶσι(ν) “they see”

zêta -ά + ε  ᾶ ὁρά-ετε  ὁρᾶτε “you (all) see”
-ά + ει  ᾷ ὁρά-ει  ὁρᾷ "he/she/it sees", ὁρά-εις  ὁρᾷς “you see, thou seest”
ηê
êta
But πεινά-ω I'm hungry, διψά-ω, I’m thirsty and ζά-ω  ζῶ "I live" do the contractions with ε in ῆ :
-ά + ε  ῆ ζά-ετε  ζῆτε "you (all) live"
θ th -ά + ει  ῇ ζά-ει  ζῇ "he/she/it lives", ζά-εις  ζῇς "you live, thou livest"
thêta
Examples of other verbs ending in -ω:
ιi ἀγαπά-ω  ἀγαπῶ "I love"
iôta καλέ-ει  καλεῖ "he/she calls"
οἰκέ-ει  οἰκεῖ "he/she dwells"
κk πωλέ-ει  πωλεῖ "he/she sells" hence the suffix -πωλεῖον shop, e.g.: ἀρτοπωλεῖον baker's shop
kappa ζητέ-ω  ζητῶ "I’m looking for"
περιπατέ-ω  περιπατῶ "I’m walking (about)"
λl εὐχαριστέ-ω  εὐχαριστῶ "I thank"
lambda λαλέ-ει  λαλεῖ "he/she speaks"
ἆρα λαλεῖς Ἑλληνιστί ; : Do you speak (in) Greek? ὀλίγον λαλῶ : I speak a little
μm διὰ τί κενοῖς τὴν κιβωτόν : Why do you empty the coffer?
mu
(διὰ τί ; : why? ; ἡ κιβωτός the trunk, coffer : feminine word in -ός like ἡ ὁδός : the road, street)
νn Here are examples with verbs in -ομαι:
nu
ὠνέ-ομαι  ὠνοῦμαι "I’m buying" ὠνέ-εσθαι  ὠνεῖσθαι "to buy" (≈ ἀγοράζ-ω make purchases)
ἀφικνέ-ομεθα  ἀφικνούμεθα "we arrive"
ξx
xi
How to form the passive, the "middle voice" and talk about money
οo Instead of saying "the father leads his child" we can say "the child is led by his father".
omicron
"he leads" is the active or the “active voice”, "he is led" is the passive or the “passive voice”.
πp To form the passive, we replace the endings of a verb in -ω by those of a verb in -ομαι
pi
(or those of a verb in -μι by those of a verb in -μαι) and “by…” is translated by “ὑπό…” +gen:
ρr the man leads the horse ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἄγει τὸν ἵππον
rhô
 the horse is led by the man ὁ ἵππος ἄγεται ὑπὸ τοῦ ἄνθρωπου
σ, ς s ὁ σκυτεὺς ποιεῖ τὰ ὑποδήματα "The cobbler makes the shoes"
sigma  τὰ ὑποδήματα ποιεῖται ὑπὸ τοῦ σκυτέως "The shoes are made by the cobbler"

τt Switching a verb in -ω to -ομαι can also mean that one is doing an action on oneself or for oneself.
tau This is the “middle” (between active and passive) which has the same form as the passive (medio-passive):
ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἄγεται τὸν ἵππον = the man leads the horse to him/for him
υ u, y
upsilon καλεῖ "he/she calls"  καλεῖται "he/she is called"
ὀνομάζει "he/she names"  ὀνομάζεται "he/she is named"
φ ph πωλεῖ "he/she sells"  πωλεῖται "it is sold, it costs"
phi
when someone talks about prices he uses the genitive:
χ ch πόσου τοῦτο πωλεῖται; (of) how much does it/this costs?
chi
μίας δραχμῆς πωλεῖται it costs (of) one drachma (ἡ δραχμή : the silver drachma)
τριῶν χαλκῶν τοῦτο πωλεῖ he sells this (of) three “coppers” (ὁ χαλκός : the chalkos, copper coin)
ψ ps
psi
Currencies: ἡ δραχμή (the drachma) = 6 obols, ὁ ὀβολός (the obol) = 8 coppers, ὁ χαλκός (the copper)
ωô
ômega
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19
῾h Talking to someone

αa To address someone we use a fifth case: the vocative which has no article.
alpha It is always identical to the nominative in the plural but also in the singular for neuter nouns and for
feminine nouns in -η or -α:
βb e.g.: στρατιώται ! κόρη ! τέκνον ! soldiers! girl! (my) child!
bêta
Otherwise, it is formed by removing the eventual -ς ending and / or abbreviating the final vowel. It can
γg be preceded by the particle “ὦ” = “O!, hey!"
gamma
In the singular m and f:
δd
delta Nouns m (or f) in -ος make -ε ὦ ἄνθρωπε ! hey man!
Nouns m in -ης, -ας make -α στρατιῶτα ! soldier! νεανία! young man!
εe Nouns m in -εύς make -εῦ σκυτεῦ ! cobbler! shoemaker!
epsilon Nouns in -ήρ make -ερ πάτερ ! father!

ζz Get to know:
zêta
Hi! Hello! Good day χαῖρε ! = “rejoice!”(to one person), χαίρετε ! (to several people), καλήμερον
ηê By Zeus ! μὰ τὸν Δία ! (Ζεύς, voc. Ζεῦ, acc. Δία, gen. Διός, dat. Διί)
êta You as well! You too! τοῦτο/ταῦτα καί σοι εὔχοµαι ! (I wish you that too)
Welcome ἀσπάζομαι (="I greet, I salute")
θ th How are you? πῶς ἔχεις ; (="how do you have?”)
thêta It's going well (very well) καλῶς ἔχω (καλῶς σφόδρα)
What is your name? τί ὄνομα σοί ἐστιν; (τὸ ὄνομα: the name)
ιi My name is … τὸ ὄνομά μου / ὄνομά μοι… ἐστιν (gen. if “τὸ ὄνομα”, dat. If “ὄνομα” without τὸ)
iôta How old are you? πηλίκ(-ος, -η) εἶ ;
I am … years old … ἐτῶν εἰμι (τὸ ἔτος : the year) (="I am of… years")
κk Thank you εὐχαριστ(έ)ῶ (σοι) / χάριν σοι οἶδα (I give you thanks)
kappa
Goodbye, farewell ἔρρωσο (to one pers.), ἔρρωσθε (to several) (=”be strengthened, in good health”)
λl Common words:
lambda
Yes, surely ναί, τοι (τοι is always placed after another word)
μm Certainly ! πάνυ γε ! OK ! (so be it!) εἶεν !
mu No, don’t! οὐ, οὐχί, μή οὐ(χί) answers a question, μή! indicates a ban / a forbiddance
Here is, this is ἰδού
νn Therefore, then οὖν, δή
nu
But ἀλλά, ἀλλ’
Now νῦν
ξx After ἔπειτα, εἶτα
xi
And καί, τε, δέ / δ’ (δέ also means “but”). καί rather means “also”. “τε καί” = “and also”
οo δέ, οὖν, δή and γάρ (= because, for, indeed) always come after the first word of the sentence they
omicron
introduce (they are “post-positive” words): “because I don’t understand”  “οὐ γὰρ συνίημι”
πp The answer to a sentence containing δὲ will often contain the word μέν (= really, indeed, on the one
pi
hand) which does not necessarily translate and is also placed after the first word:
ρr “τίς δέ με καλεῖ ;”-“ἐγὼ μὲν καλῶ” "But who is calling me?"-“I do call (you)”/“It’s me who’s calling (you)"
rhô
μέν and δέ are mainly used to punctuate the sentences, by putting two things in parallel or opposition:
σ, ς s “ὁ μὲν ἄνθρωπος ἐργάζεται, τὸ δὲ τέκνον παίζει” "The man is working, (and / but) the child is playing"
sigma
It’s necessary χρή / δεῖ +inf & acc δεῖ ἡμᾶς ἀπελθεῖν we must leave “It’s necessary for us to leave”
τt It’s allowed ἔξεστι(ν) +inf & dat ὧδε ἔξεστιν ἡμῖν παίζειν ; is it allowed for us to play here?
tau I must ὀφείλω +inf./acc ὀφείλω ἐργάζεσθαι I must work
I want (ἐ)θέλω / βούλομαι +inf./acc θέλω ἐσθίειν τίποτε I want to eat something
υ u, y If you want εἰ θέλεις (εἰ : if)
upsilon
A few words before starting the first comic book story (the lexicon is at the end, page 27):
φ ph ἡ συντυχία f the encounter, meeting
phi
οἶος, οἶα, οἶον ! what a… ! (exclamation) οἶα καλὴ κόρη ! what a beautiful girl !
χ ch παλαι-ός, ά, όν ancient, old παλαιὸς φίλος an old friend
chi νέ-ος, α, ον new, young
ὅμοι-ος, α, ον same, identical ὅμοιας ἡλικίας εἰσίν they are the same age (ἡ ἡλικία the age)
ψ ps ὥσπερ as, like
psi τεύχ-ω to make ὁ σκυτεὺς τεύχει ὑποδήματα, σάκκους καὶ ζώνας (ἡ ζώνη the belt)
πάντες m, πάσαι f, πάντα n all, every πάντα ταῦτα all these things, all this
ωô
ômega
20
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ΤΕΛΟΣ ΤΟΥ ∆ΙΗΓΗΜΑΤΟΣ

TELOS TOU DIHGHMATOS

25
Συντυχία : ὁ Νίκανδρος συντυγχάνει παλαιῷ φίλῳ καὶ
ἀσπάζεται αὐτὸν ἐν τῇ τῆς κώμης ἀγορᾷ.
ὦ Αρτέμα ! - τίς δέ με καλεῖ ;
ἐγὼ μὲν καλῶ. οὐκ ἐμὲ ἀναγνωρίζεις ;
ἆρα σὺ εἶ Νίκανδρος ;
ναί ! ἐγὼ δή εἰμι οὗτος !
Νίκανδρε ! ἐμὲ φίλε ! ἐντυγχάνω σοι, μὰ τὸν Δία !
χαῖρε, ὦ φίλε ! πῶς ἔχεις ;
καλῶς σφόδρα. χάριν σοι οἶδα
ἀλλὰ τί δὴ ποιεῖς ἐνθάδε ;
ἐργάζομαι ἐν τῇ κώμῃ. λέγω σοι, ὦ φίλε· νῦν εἰμι σκυτεύς,
ὥσπερ ὁ πατήρ μου. καὶ σὺ τί ποιεῖς ἐν τῇ ἀγορᾷ;
ἀγοράζω καὶ περιπατῶ μετὰ τῶν τέκνων.
ἰδοὺ ἡ θυγάτηρ μου.
οἶα καλὴ κόρη ! ἀσπάζομαι ! τί ὄνομα σοί ἐστιν ;
ὄνομά μοι Εὐτυχία ἐστι. καλήμερον, κύριε !
τοῦτο καί σοι εὔχοµαι !
ὁ δὲ ἀδελφὸς αὐτῆς Ἀλέξανδρος ὀνομάζεται.
ὁ υἱός μού ἐστι τὸ νεώτερον τέκνον.
χαῖρε παῖ ! πηλικὸς εἶ ; - δέκα ἐτῶν εἰμι.
σὺ καὶ ἔχεις τέκνα ;
οὐκ ἔχω. ἄγαμός εἰμι. ἀλλ’ ὁ ἄνθρωπος ὅς μοι τὸ σκῦτος
φέρει, ἓν τέκνον ὅμοιας ἡλικίας ἔχει.
ἆρ’ οἰκεῖ ὁ παῖς αὐτοῦ ἐν τῇ κώμῃ ;
οὐχί, τῆλε ζῇ ἐν τῇ Θρᾴκῃ
τὸν δὲ ἄνθρωπον τοὗτον συνίης ;
ναί, καλῶς γὰρ Ἑλληνιστὶ λαλεῖ, ἀλλ’ ὅτε Θρᾳκιστὶ λαλεῖ,
οὐδὲν συνίημι.
πόθεν δὴ ἔρχεται ;
ἀπὸ Ἀβδήρων. ἐκεῖ γὰρ καλὸν σκῦτος μόσχου ποιοῦσιν.
βούλομαι νέαν ζώνην ὠνεῖσθαι. ἆρα ζώνας τεύχεις ;
πάνυ γε ! ζώνας τεύχω καὶ σάκκους καὶ ὑποδήματα·
πάντα ταῦτα.
ποῦ δὲ πωλεῖς τὰ ἔργα σου ;
τὸ οἴκημα πλησίον ἐστιν.
ἐλθὲ σύν μοι ! ὑμᾶς ἄγω.
ποῖ δεῖ ἡμᾶς βαίνειν ;
διὰ μὲν τῆς πρώτης ὁδοῦ εἰς τὰ ἀριστερά, ἔπειτα δὲ εἰς
τὴν τρίτην θύραν ἐπὶ δεξιά.
ἔξεστι τρέχειν ;
εἶεν · εἰ θέλεις ἅμα τρέχομεν.
ἔα ! ταχέως τρέχεις. ἤδη ἀφικνούμεθα.
νῦν δ’ ὀφείλομεν μένειν τοὺς ἄλλους.
ἆρα δύναμαι βλέπειν τὸ ἐργαστήριον ;
δύνασαί τοι. εἴσελθε ! ἐνταῦθα μέν ἐστι τὸ σκῦτος,
ἐνθάδε ἡ τράπεζα καὶ ἡ ψαλὶς ᾗ ἐργάζομαι.
ποῦ δ’ ἐστὶν ἡ οἰκία σου ;
ἐνθάδε ἐστίν. οἰκῶ ἄνω, ἐργάζομαι δὲ κάτω.
Ἀλέξανδρε, ἰδοὺ ἀφικνοῦνται ὁ πατὴρ καὶ ἡ ἀδελφή σου.
τέλος ὁρῶμεν τὸ οἴκημά σου.
μικρόν ἐστιν.
ἀλλὰ μεστὸν πολλῶν καλῶν χρημάτων.
καλὴν ζώνην ἔχω ὧδε.
νομίζω ὅτι τίμια πωλεῖται. πόσου ἡ τιμή ;
ὀκτὼ δραχμῶν. ἀλλὰ μόνον δός μοι πέντε.
ἄγαν εὔωνος, φίλε. σὺ οὐκ εἶ πλούσιος. δίδωμί σοι ἑπτὰ
δραχμῶν.
δίδωμι δὴ μικρὸν δώρον τῷ Ἀλεξάνδρῳ.
τί δ’ ἐστίν ;
σφαῖρα ᾗ σὺ καὶ οἱ φίλοι δύνασθε ἐπίσκυρον παίζειν.
βαβαί ! σοὶ εὐχαριστῶ.
ἆρα θέλετε ἐσθίειν τίποτε ἐν καπηλεῖῳ ἐγγὺς τοῦ
οἰκήματος ;
ἀλλὰ πάτερ, μήτηρ μένει ἡμᾶς οἴκοι εἰς τὸ ἄριστον
ἀληθές ἐστιν. δεῖ ἡμᾶς ἀπελθεῖν.
ἀλλὰ νῦν οἶδα οὗ ζῇς. ἔρρωσο φίλε ! καὶ εἰς αὔριον !
ἔρρωσθε φίλοι !
( τέλος τοῦ διηγήματος )
A meeting: Nikandros meets an old friend and greets him in the
village square
Hey! Artemas! - Who's calling me?
Hey, it's me calling you. You don’t recognize me?
Are you Nikandros?
Yes! It's me!
Nikandros! My friend ! Here I come across you, by Zeus!
Hi friend! How are you?
Very well ; I thank you
But what are you doing here?
I work in the village. I'm telling you, friend, now I'm a cobbler, just
like my father. And you, what are you doing in the square?
I go shopping and take a walk with my children.
Here's my daughter.
Oh! What a beautiful girl! Welcome! What's your name?
My name is Eutychia. Good morning, sir.
And to you too!
And his brother is named Alexander.
My son is the youngest child.
Hi kid! How old are you? - I am ten years old.
And you have children too?
No I do not have. I am single. But the man who supplies me with
the leather has a child of the same age.
Does his child dwell in the village?
Oh no, he lives far away in Thrace.
But you understand this man?
Yes, because he speaks Greek well, but when he speaks
Thracian, I don't understand anything.
Where exactly does he come from?
From Abdera. For, there they produce beautiful calfskin.
I would like to buy a new belt. Do you make belts?
Absolutely! I make belts and also bags and shoes; all that.
And where do you sell your works?
My shop (the housing) is nearby.
Come with me! I lead you.
Where do we have to go?
Through the first street on the left and then to the third door on
the right.
We may run?
OK: If you want, we run together.
Hey! You run fast. We already arrive.
Now we have to wait for the others.
Can I take a look at the workshop?
Yes you can. Come in! So, there is the leather, here is the table
and the pair of scissors I work with.
And where is your house?
It is here. I live upstairs and work downstairs.
Alexander, here are your father and your sister arriving.
Finally we see your shop (your housing).
It is small.
But full of many beautiful things.
I have a nice belt here.
I guess it's expensive. What is the price?
Eight drachmas. But give me only five.
It's too cheap, my friend. You are not rich. I'll give you seven
drachmas.
So I give Alexander a little gift.
What is it?
A ball with which you and your friends can play episkyros
(≈handball)
Great ! Thank you very much
Do you want to eat something in a tavern near the shop (the
housing)?
But dad, mum is awaiting us at home for lunch.
It is true. We have to go. But now I know where you live.
Goodbye friend and see you tomorrow!
Goodbye my friends!
(End of the story)
26
 Vocabulary
Ἄϐδηρα (τά) n pl Abdera (city of Thrace) ἐργάζ-ομαι I work οὐ, οὐκ, οὐχι don't, no, not
ἄ-γαμ-ος, η, ον single, unmarried ἐργαστήριον (τό) the workshop οὗτος this, this one
ἄγαν too much ἔργον (τό) n the work ὀφείλ-ω + inf/acc I have to, owe
ἀγορά (ἡ) f the market square ἔρρω-σο, -σθε ! goodbye! παίζ-ω I play
ἀγοράζ-ω I purchase, go shopping ἔρχ-ομαι I come, go παῖς (ὁ) m παῖ ! the child, boy!
ἄγ-ω I lead ἐσθί-ω I eat παλαι-ός, ά, όν old, ancient
ἀδελφή (ἡ) f the sister εὔ-ων-ος, ος, ον cheap πάντα ταῦτᾰ all that
ἀδελφός (ὁ) m the brother ἔχ-ω I have πάνυ γε ! absolutely!
ἀληθ-ής, ής, ές true ζά-ω I live πατήρ (ὁ) m the father, dad
ἀλλά but ζώνη (ἡ) f the belt περι-πατέ-ω I walk around
ἄλλ-ος, η, ο other ἤδη already πηλίκ-ος, η, ον ; what age? how old?
ἅμα at the same time ἡλικία (ἡ) f the age πλησίον near(by)
ἀνα-γνωρίζ-ω I recognize θέλ-ω I want πλούσι-ος, α, ον rich
ἄνθρωπος (ὁ) m the man, person Θρᾴκη Thrace πόθεν ; from where? whence?
ἄνω up(stairs) Θρᾳκιστί in Thracian (tongue) ποῖ ; to where? whither?
ἀπό + gen from, since θυγάτηρ (ἡ) f the daughter ποιέ-ω I make
ἀπ-ελθ-εῖν to go away θύρα (ἡ) f the door πολλ-όι, άι, ά many, numerous
ἆρα ; is/are? do(es)? ἰδού here's, behold! πόσ-ος, α, ον ; how much?
ἀριστερά the left καί and also ποῦ ; where?
ἄριστον (τό) n the lunch καλέ-ω I call πρώτ-ος, η, ον first
ἀσπάζ-ομαι I greet, welcome! καλήμερον good morning/day! πωλέ-ομαι I cost, am sold
αὔριον tomorrow καλ-ὸς, ή, ὸν beautiful, pretty πωλέ-ω I sell
ἀφ-ικνέ-ομαι I arrive, reach καλ-ῶς well, nicely πῶς ἔχεις ; how are you?
βαβαί ! wow! Oh! Great! καπηλεῖον (τό) n the tavern, food shop σάκκος (ὁ) m the bag
βαίν-ω I walk, go κάτω below, down(stairs) σκῦτος (τό) n the leather
βλέπ-ω I watch, look κόρη (ἡ) f the girl σκυτεύς (ὁ) m the cobbler, shoemaker
βούλ-ομαι I want, wish κύριος (ὁ) m sir, the lord σοι εὐχαριστέ-ω I thank you
γάρ because κώμη (ἡ) f the town σύ you, thou
δέ, δ’ and, but λαλέ-ω I talk, speak σύν + dat with
δεῖ + inf It’s necessary, have to λέγ-ω I say, tell συν-ίη-μι I understand
δέκα ten με, ἐμέ me συν-τυγχάν-ω I meet with
δεξιά the right μέν certainly συν-τυχία (ἡ) f the meeting
δεῦρο here, hither μέν-ω I (a)wait, remain σφαῖρα (ἡ) f the ball, sphere
δή so, precisely μεστ-ος, η, ον full σφόδρα very, strongly
διά + gen through μετά, μεθ + gen with τοῦτο καὶ σοι εὔχοµαι same to you! you too!
διηγήμα (τό) n the story μήτηρ (ἡ) f the mother ταχε-ώς quickly, fast
δίδω-μι, δός ! I give, give! μικρ-ός, ά, όν little, small τέκνον (τό) n the child, offspring
δραχμή (ἡ) f the silver drachma μόνον only τέλος (τό) n the end, finally
δύνα-μαι I am able, can μόσχος (ὁ) m the calf, veal τεύχ-ω I make, fabricate
δώρον (τό) n the gift ναί yes τῆλε far away
ἐγώ I, me νέ-ος, α, ον new, young τί ; , τι, τίποτε what?, something
ἐγγύς near(by), close to νεώτερ-ος, α, ον newer, younger τιμή (ἡ) f the price
εἰ if νομίζ-ω I think, consider τίμι-ος, α, ον expensive, precious
εἶεν OK! (let it be! good!) νῦν now τίς ; , τις who? someone
εἰ-μί I am ὁδός (ἡ) f the street, road τοι yes, certainly
εἰς + acc to, in(to), for οἶ-ος, α, ον ! what a … ! so … ! τράπεζα (ἡ) f the table
εἴσ-ελθ-ε ! come in! enter! οἶδα I know τρέχ-ω I run
ἐκεῖ ! over there οἰκέ-ω I dwell, live τρίτ-ος, η, ον third
Ἑλληνιστί in Greek οἴκημα (τό) n the housing, shop υἱός (ὁ) m the son
ἐλθ-έ ! come! οἰκία/οἶκος, οἴκοι the house, at home ὑπό-δημα (τό) n the shoe
ἐν + dat in ὀκτώ eight φέρ-ω I bring
ἐνθάδε here ὅμοι-ος, α, ον same, identical φίλος (ὁ) m the friend
ἐνταῦθα there ὄνομα (τό) n the name χαῖρε ! Hi! hello! rejoice!
ἐν-τυγχάν-ω I meet by chance ὀνομάζ-ομαι I name χάριν σοι οἶδα ! thanks to you!
ἐξ, ἐκ + gen out of ὁρά-ω I see χρῆμα (τό) n the thing, object
ἔξ-εστι + inf it's allowed, we can ὅτε when, then ψαλίς (ἡ) f the scissors
ἔπειτα after, then ὅτι that (subordination) ὧδε here, thus
ἐπί-σκυρος (ὁ) m episcyre (≈handball) οὗ where ὠνέ-οµαι I buy
ἑπτά seven οὐδέν nothing ὥσπερ as, like, just as

27
The numbers from 10 to 20 (for the following ones see p. 42)

For numbers 11 to 19, add the number ten (δέκα) after the corresponding number.

- For 11 and 12, the two merge and the result is an invariable word:
ἕν + δέκα  ἕνδεκα [hén-deka] eleven
δύο + δέκα  δώδεκα [dô-deka] twelve

- For 13 and 14, the two words are separated, coordinated by καί (= and, also) and 3 and 4 are declined:
τρία (n) / τρεῖς (m, f) καὶ δέκα thirteen (gen. τριῶν, dat. τρισὶ) καὶ δέκα
τέτσαρ-α (n) /-ες (m, f) καὶ δέκα fourteen (acc. τέτσαρας, gen. τετσάρων, dat. τέτσαρσι) καὶ δέκα

- For the other numbers (15 to 19), the whole is merged and invariable:
πεντεκαίδεκα [pente-kaï-deka] fifteen
ἑκκαίδεκα [hek-kaï-deka] sixteen
ἑπτακαίδεκα [hepta-kaï-deka] seventeen
ὀκτωκαίδεκα [oktô-kaï-deka] eighteen
ἐννεακαίδεκα [ennea-kaï-deka] nineteen

Twenty is said: εἴκοσι(ν) [éïkosi-(n)]

- For numbers from 21 to 29 we can put the unit before or after (with or without "καὶ"):
21 : ἕν καὶ εἴκοσι, εἴκοσι καὶ ἕν, εἴκοσιν ἕν (gen. ἑνός, dat. ἑνί)

 I am twenty three years old: εἴκοσι (καὶ) τριῶν ἐτῶν εἰμι ("I am of 23 years")

Some chat:

Now you know enough to be able to speak directly with Alexander.

It's up to you ! (try to answer before reading the proposed examples ...)
Remember to use the appropriate case (gen., acc. etc….) and remember that usually a Greek doesn't just
answer "yes" or "no" but takes the verb of the question and puts it in the positive or the negative.
For example:

Question: ἆρ’ οἶσθα … ; do you know … ?

Reply: ναί, οἶδα / οὐκ οἶδα yes, I know ... / no, I don't know

Ah! I forgot, here are some few words that will come in handy:

οἴ(ο)-μαι I suppose that (+acc and +inf) : Country Inhabitant m, f

 οἶμαί σε … εἶναι I suppose you are … ("you … be") Britain Βρεττανία Βρετταν-ός, -ίς
ὁ ξένος, ἡ ξένη the stranger, foreigner, guest China Σηρική Σήρ, -ίς
ὁ/ἡ βάρβαρος barbarian, foreigner who doesn’t speak Greek Egypt Αἴγυπτος Αἰγύπτι-ος, -α
ποῖ-ος, -α, -ον ; which?, what? France Γαλλία Γάλλ-ος, -ίς
ἡ χώρα the country Germany Γερμανία Γερμαν-ός, -ίς
ἡ Ἑλλάς (-άδος) the Greece (= Hellas) India Ἰνδία Ἰνδικ-ός, -ή
Ἕλλην Greek (= Hellene) Italy Ἰταλία Ἰταλ-ός, -ίς
ἡ παιδιά the game Spain Ἱσπανία Ἱσπαν-ός, -ή
γιγνώσκ-ω I know, have learnt Switz. Ἐλουήτια Ἐλουήτι-ος, -α
διδάσκ-ω I teach (+acc of the person and of the thing) … … …

(For other countries, you can either search for the name in Modern Greek or, for areas of the world known to
the ancient Greeks, in Ptolemy's Geography)

χαῖρε ! πῶς ἔχεις ;
οἶμαί σε ξέν(ο/η)ν εἶναι.
ἆρα λαλεῖς Ἑλληνιστί ;
καλῶς λαλεῖς ! ἐγὼ μὲν Ἕλλην εἰμί.
τὸ δὲ ὄνομά μου Ἀλέξανδρός
ἐστιν. καὶ σύ ;
πόθεν ἔρχει ;
ἀπὸ ποίας χώρας ;
ἐγὼ μὲν δέκα ἐτῶν εἰμι. σὺ δὲ
πηλίκ(ος/η) εἶ ;
ἆρα θέλεις παίζειν σφαῖρᾳ σὺν
ἡμῖν; ποίας παιδιὰς παίζεις ;
ταύτην τὴν παιδιάν οὐ γιγνώσκω.
ἆρ’ οἶσθα ἐπίσκυρον παίζειν ;
ἐλθὲ μεθ’ ἡμῶν, καὶ διδάσκομέν σε ἐπίσκυρον παίζειν.
Hello! How are you? χαῖρε ! καλῶς ἔχω. Hello ! I am well.
I suppose you are a foreigner. ὀλίγον λαλῶ. I speak a little.
Do you speak Greek?
You speak well! I am Greek τὸ ὄνομά μου / My name is …
and my name is Alexander. ὄνομά μοι … ἐστιν
And you? καί εἰμι ... and I am …
Where do you come from? ἔρχομαι ἀπὸ I come from
From which country? (τῆς) ... (the) …
I am ten years old. And you, How … ἐτῶν εἰμι. I am … years old.
old are you? (if your age is 13, 14, 21, 23 or 24 put
the unit in the genitive)
Do you want to play ball with us? παίζω … I play …
What games do you play?
I do not know this game. Do you οὐκ οἶδα I do not know (how to play episkyros)
know how to play episkyros? (ἐπίσκυρον παίζειν)
Come with us, and we'll teach you how to play episkyros

28
29
The third declension (see the summary table of declensions on page 65)
Feminine nouns in -η or -α and masculine nouns in -ης or -ας form the first declension
Masculine and feminine nouns in -ος and neuter nouns in -ον form the second declension
All the others form the third declension which has the following endings:
Singular plural
(m, f) (n) (m, f) (n)
Nom. -ς / ~ (ο > ω, ε > η : nouns in ~ν or ~ρ) none -ες (-εις) -α (-η)
Acc. -α / ν (α after a consonant, ν after -ι, -υ ) -ας (-εις)
Gen. -ος becomes -εως (after -ι, -υ) or -ους (contraction) -ων
Dat. -ι (-ει) -σι(ν) (ν before a vowel)
Neuter nouns always has the same form for nominative and accusative
According to the last letter of the root (≈ acc. without -α / ν or gen. w/o -ος) are distinguished nouns:
in -ν, -ντ: ὁ ποιμήν shepherd / ὁ γέρων oldster ποιμέν-α / γέροντ-α, -ος, -ι, -ες, -ας, -ων, ποιμέ-σι / γέρου-σι
in -ρ : ὁ πατήρ father πατέρ-α, πατρ-ός, πατρ-ί, πατέρ-ες, -ας, -ων, πατρ-άσι
in -ς : τὸ ὄρος mountain ὄρ-ους (<οσ-ος), -ει (<εσ-ι), -η (<εσ-α), -ων, -εσι (<εσ-σι)
in -εύ : ὁ ἱερεύ-ς priest ἱερ-έα, ἱερ-έως, -εῖ, -εῖς, -έας, -έων, -εῦσι
in -ι, -υ : ἡ πόλι-ς / τὸ ἄστυ city πόλι-ν, πόλ-εως/ἄστ-εως, -ει, πόλ-εις/ἄστ-η, -εων, -εσι
in -τ : τὸ σῶμα body (τ disappears in nom/acc sg and dat pl) σώματ-ος, -ι, -α, -ων, σώμα-σι
in -θ, -δ: ὁ/ἡ ὄρνις bird / παῖς child ὄρνιθ-α / παῖδ-α, -ος, -ι, -ες, -ας, -ων, ὄρνισι / παῖσι
in -κ, -γ : ὁ κόραξ crow / ἡ αἶξ goat κόρακ-α / αἶγ-α, -ος, -ι, -ες, -ας, -ων, ξι
in -π, -β : ἡ φλέψ vein φλέϐ-α, -ος, -ι, -ες, -ας, -ων, ψι
Few names have a special form in nominative singular (genitive serves as the basis for other cases):
τὸ ὕδωρ (ὕδατ-ος) water, τὸ γάλα (γάλακτ-ος) milk, ὁ/ἡ βοῦς (βο-ός) ox / cow,
ἡ γυνή (γυναικ-ός) woman, ὁ ἀνήρ (ἀνδρ-ός) man (male), ὁ/ἡ κύων (κυν-ός) dog / bitch
To say “some water, bread, noise” etc… we use the genitive: πίνω ὕδατος I drink some water
Time (ὁ χρόνος)
On the same principle as for place (question ποῦ ; ποῖ ; where?  answer: οὗ … οἷ … where….)
we have for time with the ending “-ότε”:
c
π- πότε ; [p-oté] when? - ὅτε … [h-oté] when … τ- τότε … [t-oté] then …
οὔποτε / οὐδέποτε never (οὐ / οὐδέ : no) ἄλλοτε an other time (ἄλλ-ος, -η, -ο : other)
πάντοτε (or ἀεί ) always (πάντες, -α : all, every) ἐνίοτε sometimes (ἔνι-οι, -αι, -α : several)
πότε ἔρχει ; when do you come?
ὅτε ἐνθάδε εἶ, τότε δεῦρο ἔρχομαι when you are here, then I come hither
πάντοτε / ἀεὶ ἐργάζεται he’s working all the time / always
To indicate a date or an hour, we use the dative and the ordinal number (first, second etc ...)
ἐν τίνι ἔτει ; in which year? (τὸ ἔτος year) τῷ τρίτῳ ἔτει in the third year
ἐν τίνι ὥρᾳ ; at what time? (ἡ ὥρα hour) τῇ τρίτῇ ὥρᾳ at three o'clock
ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ταύτῃ that day ἐν τῷ ἀρίστῳ during lunch
To ask or give the time we use the plural
πόσαι εἰσὶν ὧραι; what time is it? (how many hours are?) ἤδη ὀκτώ it's eight o'clock (already eight)
To say "by day", "at night", "in summer" etc ... we use the genitive
ἡμέρας μὲν λάμπει ὁ ἥλιος, νυκτὸς δὲ ἡ σελήνη καὶ οἱ ἀστέρες (ἡ νύξ night, ἡ ἡμέρα day)
the sun shines by day, the moon and the stars at night (ὁ ἥλιος sun, ἡ σελήνη moon, ὁ ἀστήρ star)
ἔαρος in spring (τὸ ἔαρ) θέρους in summer (τὸ θέρος)
φθινοπώρου in autumn (ὁ φθινόπωρος) χειμώνος in winter (ὁ χειμών)
To indicate a duration we use the accusative
δεῖ / χρὴ μένειν μίαν ὥραν (you/we) have to wait (for) an hour

Yesterday, today,…
In the past πάλαι before πρίν, πρό +gen after εἶτα, ἔπειτα, μετά +acc
yesterday (ἐ)χθές today σήμερον, τήμερον tomorow αὔριον
early, in the morning πρωΐ the evening ἡ ἑσπέρα every day καθ’ ἡμέραν
(Note that: μετά +gen = with, among / μετά +acc = after)
Some words: (translations on page 35)
ὁ πάππος : the grandfather, ἡ τήθη : the grandmother, ἡ θεῖα : the aunt, ὁ θεῖος : the uncle,
ὁ ἀγρός : the field, ὁ γεωργός : the farmer, ἡ χώρα : the country(side), τὸ χωρίον : the plot / the farm,
ἥμερ-ος, -α, -ον : domestic / tame / civilized, ἄγρι-ος, -α, -ον : wild, ζητ(έ)ῶ : to search / to look for,
ἀκούω +gen. of person : to hear / to listen, τίκτω / φύω : to beget / to give birth / to produce,
γίγνομαι : to be born / to become, ᾄδω : to sing, ῥ(έ)ῶ : to flow, πίπτω : to fall, λάμπω : to shine

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31
 The elements of the verb

It is made of several elements (optional, except the root) which are assembled like "Lego" bricks:

(prefix)-(reduplication)-root(+/-nasal infix)-(suffix)-(thematic vowel: ο/ε)-desinence (=personal ending)

ἀνα-γι-γνώ-σκ-ο-μεν we read/are reading root = γνω- knowledge, science

συν-τυγχ-άν-ε-τε you en-counter/meet root = τυχ- chance, fate (+nasal infix γ -ng-)

Verbs in -ω and -ο-μαι have a thematic vowel (ο/ε) before the desinence (which lengthens in -ω for
“I”), while verbs in -μι and some verbs in -μαι do not (e.g.: δύνα-μαι I can, I may)

The reduplication is done with the root’s first consonant (without aspiration) or the rough breathing + ι.
It is found in verbs in -σκ-ω or -σκ-ο-μαι and in some verbs in -μι:
γι-γνώ-σκω : know / learn / be aware, μι-μνῄ-σκομαι : remember, δί-δω-μι give, τί-θη-μι put, ἵ-η-μι let go
(if the verb starts with στ, the reduplication is ἱ : ἵ-στη-μι set(up), stand)

Prefixes modify or specify the meaning of the verb:

E.g.: ἀνα- ≈ “up”
γιγνώσκω : know / learn  ἀνα-γιγνώσκω : read
βαίνω : walk / go  ἀνα-βαίνω : climb / go up

to understand can be said either συν-ίημι (with + ἵημι let go) or κατα-λαμβάνω (along + λαμβάνω take)

The imperfect

The imperfect is a past tense that lasts or repeats itself like the past continuous in English “was doing”

It is formed by adding a ἐ- called “augment” at the beginning of the verb.

δίδομεν we give, we are giving  ἐδίδομεν we were giving, we used to give

If the verb has a prefix, the augment goes between the prefix and the rest of the verb and the prefix
loses its eventual final vowel (except the prefix περι).
ἀνα-γιγνώσκετε you read / are reading  ἀν-ε-γιγνώσκετε you were reading
περι-πατοῦμεν we are strolling  περι-ε-πατοῦμεν we were strolling

If the verb begins with a vowel α, ε, ο, the augment merges with it into a lengthening:
α, ε > η and ο > ω (αι (ᾳ), ει > ῃ, οι > ῳ, αυ, ευ > ηυ). ου and the other vowels remain unchanged
ἄγομεν we are leading  ἤγομεν we were leading
ἐργαζόμεθα we are working  ἠργαζόμεθα we were working, we worked
ὁρῶμεν we use to see  ὠρῶμεν we used to see
οἰκοῦμεν we are dwelling  ᾠκοῦμεν we were dwelling, we lived
but: ἔχομεν we use to have becomes εἶχομεν we used to have, we had

For persons other than “us” and “you all”, the desinences are different from the present tense:
For verbs in -ω : -ον instead of -ω for "I" and -ουσι for "they"
For verbs in -μι : -ν instead of -μι for "I" and -σαν instead of -ασι for "they"
For verbs in -μαι : “αι” is replaced by “ο” except for “I” which is in -μην

verbs in -ω verbs in -μι verbs in -μαι

walk, go do, make put be can work
βαίν-ω ποι-ῶ τί-θη-μι εἰ-μί δύνα-μαι ἐργάζ-ο-μαι
I -ο-ν ἔ-βαίν-ο-ν ἐ-ποίου-ν (ε-ο-ν) ~-ν ἐ-τί-θη-ν ἦ -μην ἐ-δυνά-μην ἠργαζ-ό-μην
you sg -ε-ς ἔ-βαίν-ε-ς ἐ-ποίει-ς (ε-ε-ς) ~-ς ἐ-τί-θη-ς ἦ-σθα -σο ἐ-δύνα-σο ἠργάζ-ου  εσο
(s)he, it -ε(ν) ἔ-βαίν-ε(ν) ἐ-ποίει (ε-ε) ~ ἐ-τί-θη ἦ-ν -το ἐ-δύνα-το ἠργάζ-ε-το
we -ο-μεν ἐ-βαίν-ο-μεν ἐ-ποιοῦ-μεν -μεν ἐ-τί-θε-μεν ἦ-μεν -μεθα ἐ-δυνά-μεθα ἠργαζ-όμεθα
you pl -ε-τε ἐ-βαίν-ε-τε ἐ-ποιεῖ-τε (ε-ε-τε) -τε ἐ-τί-θε-τε ἦ-τε -σθε ἐ-δύνα-σθε ἠργάζ-ε-σθε
they -ο-ν ἔ-βαίν-ο-ν ἐ-ποίου-ν (ε-ο-ν) -σαν ἐ-τί-θε-σαν ἦ-σαν -ντο ἐ-δύνα-ντο ἠργάζ-ο-ντο
The contracted verbs (e.g.: ποιέ-ω ποιῶ) follow the rules we have already seen, page 18:
ἐ-ζητέ-ο-ν  ἐ-ζητοῦ-ν I was looking for, ἐ-ζά-ο-ν  ἐ-ζῶ-ν I was living, I lived …

Verbs in -μι have a particular lengthening (~) of their vowel in the singular:
δί-δω-μι I give  ἐ-δί-δου-ν I used to give ἵ-η-μι I send, I let go  ἵ-ει-ν I used to send
ἵ-στη-μι I set (up), I stand  ἵ-στη-ν I was setting / standing τί-θη-μι I put  ἐ-τί-θη-ν I used to put
εἰ-μί (I am) has peculiar forms in the singular: ἦ I was, ἦ-σθα you were / thou wast, ἦ-ν he / she / it was
In the verbs in -ο-μαι, for "you/thou", the form -ε-σο became -ου because the σ dropped (-εο > -ου)

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Page 31
ὁ κύκλος τοῦ ὕδατος· ὁ μὲν ὑετὸς πίπτει τοῦ
νέφους, ὁ δὲ ποταμὸς γίγνεται τῆς πηγῆς, εἶτα δὲ
ῥεῖ εἰς τὴν θάλατσαν. « ἡ γῆ » « ὁ οὐρανός »
ἡμέρας μὲν λάμπει ὁ ἥλιος, νυκτὸς δὲ ἡ σελήνη καὶ
οἱ ἀστέρες
τὰ μὲν ἥμερα ζῷα οἰκεῖ ἐν τῷ χωρίῳ.
τὰ δὲ ἄγρια ζῷα ζῇ ἐν τῇ ὕλῃ
ἔαρος, ὅτε τὰ δένδρα φύει πολλὰ ἄνθη καὶ φύλλα,
τότε ᾄδουσιν οἱ ὄρνιθες ἐν τῇ χώρᾳ.
« ὁ ὄρνις ᾄδει »
ἡ μήτηρ τοῦ ἐμοῦ πατρὸς ἡ τήθη μού ἐστιν, καὶ ἡ
ἀδελφὴ αὐτοῦ ἡ ἐμὴ θεῖα
καθ’ ἡμέραν, πρωῒ ἐργάζομαι πρὸ τοῦ ἀρίστου.
ἔπειτα δὲ, μετὰ τὸ ἄριστον, παίζω σὺν τῷ κυνί.
ἐν τῷ ἀρίστῳ ἐσθίω ἄρτου καὶ πίνω ὕδατος
ὁ ἀνὴρ καὶ ἡ γυνὴ τίκτουσιν παῖδα
= ὁ παῖς γίγνεται τοῦ ἀνδρὸς καὶ τῆς γυναικός
πότε ἔρχεται ὁ ἱερεὺς σήμερον; ἐν τίνι ὥρᾳ;
- τῇ τετάρτῃ ὥρᾳ.
- πόσαι εἰσὶν ὧραι;
- ἤδη τρεῖς.
- χρὴ μένειν μίαν ὥραν.
Page 33 et 34
πάτερ, εἰπέ μοι πῶς ἦν πάλαι, ὅτε σὺ παιδίον ἦσθα
[εἰμί I am]
ὅτε παιδίον ἦ, ἐζῶν [ζ(ά)ῶ I live] ἐν ἀγροῖς. ὁ γὰρ When I was a child I lived in the country (in the
ἐμὸς πατήρ, ὁ πάππος σου, γεωργὸς ἦν
ᾠκοῦμεν [οἰκ(έ)ῶ I dwell] ὁμοῦ ἐν χωρίῳ μικρῷ μετὰ We lived (dwelt) together on (in) a small farm (a plot,
τῆς τήθης καὶ τῆς θείας σου, τῆς ἐμῆς ἀδελφῆς
εἶχομεν [ἔχω I have] πολλὰ ἥμερα ζῷα·
βόες, πρόβατα, αἶγες, χοῖροι καὶ ὄρνιθες ἦσαν
καθ’ ἡμέραν, πρωῒ ἠμέλγομεν [ἀμέλγω I milk] τὰς
βοῦς (/ τὰς βόας) καὶ τὰς αἶγας. « τὴν αἶγα ἀμέλγω; » goats. "I milk the goat?"
ἐπίνομεν [πίνω I drink] τὸ γάλα καὶ ἐκ τοῦ γάλακτος
ἐποιοῦμεν [ποι(έ)ῶ I make] τυρούς. « πίνω γάλακτος » making cheese. "I'm drinking milk"
ἔπειτα δὲ ἐδίδουν [δίδωμι I give] σῖτον ταῖς
ἀλεκτορίσιν. « ὁ σῖτος » « ἡ ἀλεκτορίς »
ἐζητοῦν [ζητ(έ)ῶ I look for] δὲ καὶ ἐλαμβάνον
[λαμβάνω I take] τὰ ᾠὰ αὐτῶν. « τὸ ᾠόν »
ἔαρος ἠροῦμεν [ἀρ(ό)ῶ I plow] τὴν γῆν καὶ
ἐσπείρομεν [σπείρω I sow] τὸν σῖτον. « σπείρω τὰ
σπέρματα » « οἱ βόες » «τὸ ἄροτρον » « τὸ σπέρμα » "The oxen" "the plow" "the seed"
μετὰ τοῦ ποιμένος τε καὶ τοῦ κυνὸς αὐτοῦ ἤγομεν
[ἄγω lead] τὰ πρόβατα καὶ τὰς αἶγας εἰς τὸ ὄρος
ἐκεῖ, νυκτός, παρὰ πυρί, ἠκούον [ἀκούω +gen. of
person: I hear, listen to] τοῦ ποιμένος ὃς ηὔλει
[αὐλ(έ)ω I play the flute]. αὐλῷ γὰρ μικρῷ καλῶς
ἐπαίζε [παίζω I play] « ὁ αὐλός » « τὸ πῦρ »
θέρους ἐθερίζομεν [θερίζω I harvest] τὸν πυρόν
« τὸ δρέπανον » « ὁ πυρός »
ἐν τῷ κήπῳ ἠσθίομεν [ἐσθίω I eat] τοὺς καρποὺς
τῶν δένδρων· σῦκα καὶ κερασούς τε καὶ ἐλαίας
« κερασοὺς δρέπομεν ἐσθίομεν τε »
φθινοπώρου ἐδρέπομεν [δρέπω I pick] σταφυλὰς
ἀπὸ τῆς ἀμπέλου « ἡ ἄμπελος » « ἡ σταφυλή»
ἐνίοτε μὲν ἄνεμος ἦν καὶ ὑετός. τότε δὲ ἐπίπτε
[πίπτω I fall] τὰ φύλλα ἀπὸ τῶν δένδρων
« τὰ φύλλα πίπτει »
χειμώνος ἐμένομεν [μένω I wait, stay, remain] ἐν τῇ
οἰκίᾳ ἐτρέφομεν δὲ τὰ ζῷα « τρέφω τὴν βοῦν »
The cycle (/ the circle) of water: the rain falls from the
cloud, the river arises from (is born of) the source and
then flows to the sea. "The earth" "the sky"
the sun shines during the day, the moon and the stars
at night.
Domestic animals dwell on the farm.
Wild animals live in the forest.
In the spring, when the trees produce a lot of flowers
and leaves, then the birds sing in the country(side).
"the bird is singing".
My father's mother is my grandmother and his sister is
my aunt.
Every day, in the morning, I work before lunch. And
then, after lunch I play with the dog.
At lunch I eat bread and drink water.
Man and woman give birth to a child.
= The child is born to (of the) man and woman.
When is the priest coming today? At what time ?
– At four o'clock (at the fourth hour).
– What time is it (how many hours are)?
– It is three o'clock (Already three).
– You have to wait (for / during) an hour.
Father, tell me how it was once (in the past), when
you were a kid.
fields) because my father, your grandfather, was a
farmer.
a piece of land) with your grandmother and your
aunt, my sister.
We had a lot of domestic animals:
there were cows, sheeps, goats, pigs and poultry
(birds).
Every day, early in the morning, we milked cows and
We used to drink the milk and from the milk we were
And afterwards, I was giving grain to the hens.
"The grain, the cereals, the food" "the hen"
And I was looking for and taking their eggs.
"The egg"
In the spring, we plowed the land and sowed the
grain. "I sow the seeds"
With the shepherd and also his dog, we were
leading the sheeps and the goats in the mountain.
There, at night(fall), by the fire, I was listening to the
shepherd who used to play the flute. For he played a
little flute quite well.
"The flute" "the fire"
In the summer we harvested wheat.
"The sickle, the scythe" "the wheat"
In the garden, we used to eat the fruits of the trees:
figs, cherries and also olives.
"We pick and eat cherries"
In autumn, we were picking the grapes from the
vineyard. "The vine" "the grape"
Sometimes there was wind and rain. Then the
leaves would fall from the trees.
"the leaves fall"
In the winter we were staying at home and feeding
the animals. "I feed the cow"
35
The present participle
The Greek rather says "ὁ ἵππος τρέχων" "the running horse" than "ὁ ἵππος ὃς τρέχει" "the horse that
runs": the participle is frequently used. With the article it becomes a noun: ὁ νικῶν the winner. It can be
used to complete the subject: ἰσχυρὸς ὦν δύνασαι αἴρειν… being strong you can lift …. It is also used,
in the genitive, to indicate a circumstance: εὐδίας οὖσης while the weather is nice (nice weather being)
The present participle has two forms:
- One for the verbs in -ω whose endings are: -ων (m), -ον (n) and -ουσα (f)
- Another for verbs in -μαι and verbs in the passive: -μενος (m), -μενον (n) and -μένη (f)
(verbs in -ομαι add the vowel -ο-: ἐρχ-ό-μαι I come  ἐρχ-ό-μενος coming)
rd nd st
-ων (m), -ον (n) follow the 3 declension, -μενος (m), -μενον (n) the 2 , -ουσα (f) and -μενη (f) the 1 .
masc neut fem masc neut fem
Nom sg -ων -ον -ουσα -μενος -μενον -μένη
Acc sg -οντα -ουσαν -μενον -μένην
Gen sg -οντος -ούσης -μένου -μένης
Dat sg -οντι -ούσῃ -μένῳ -μένῃ
Nom pl -οντες -οντα -ουσαι -μενοι -μενα -μεναι
Acc pl -οντας -ούσας -μένους -μένας
Gen pl -όντων -ουσῶν -μένων
Dat pl -ουσι(ν) -ούσαις -μένοις -μέναις
Verbs in -(έ)ῶ and -(ό)ῶ replace -ο- by οῦ: ποιέ-ον ποιοῦν doing, making (n) ποιούμενον being done
Verbs in -(ά)ῶ replace -ο- and -ου- by ῶ: ὁρά-ον  ὁρῶν seeing (n) ὁρώμενον being seen
Verbs in -μι:
The present participle of εἰμί “I am” reduces to endings: ὦν, ὄν, οὖσα (gen ὄντος, οὖσης) being
δίδωμι I give: διδούς (gen διδό-ντος), διδόν, διδοῦσα giving διδό-μενος being given
τίθημι I put: τιθείς (gen τιθέ-ντος), τιθέν, τιθεῖσα putting τιθέ-μενος being put
ἵημι I let go, throw: ἱείς (gen ἱέ-ντος), ἱέν, ἱεῖσα letting go, throwing ἱέ-μενος being let go, thrown

The future
We can express the future by using the verb μέλλω (to be going to, be about to, intend to) + infinitive
E.g.: τί μέλλεις ποιεῖν ; What are you going to do? What do you intend to do?
But we rather use the future tense which is formed by adding a -σ- between the verb and the ending:
E.g.: ἱππεύ-ω I ride  ἱππεύ-σ-ω I will ride, πορεύ-ομαι I go, I cross  πορεύ-σ-ομαι I’ll go, I’ll cross
When the -σ- is placed after the vowels ά, έ, ό, he lengthens them: ά or έ ή, ό  ώ
E.g.: ποιέ-ω I do  ποιή-σ-ω I will do, δύνα-μαι I can  δυνή-σ-ομαι I will be able
βοηθέ-ω I help  βοηθή-σ-ω I will help, νικά-ω I win, vanquish  νική-σ-ω I will win, vanquish
But if the ά is preceded by ε, ι or ρ, it remains ά: πειρά-ω I try  πειρά-σ-ω i will try
rd
When the -σ- comes after a consonant, it combines with, as in the 3 declension:
β, π, φ, πτ + σ ψ γράφ-ω I write  γράψ-ω I will write
γ, κ, χ, τσ (ττ/σσ) + σ  ξ ἔχ-ω I have  ἕξ-ω I’ll have, ἀλλάτσ-ω I change  ἀλλάξ-ω I’ll change
(ἕξ-ω: note the transfer of aspiration from χ, becoming ξ, to ἔ  ἕ with a rough breathing)
δ, τ, θ, ζ + σ σ ἐργάζ-ομαι I work  ἐργάσ-ομαι I shall work
Verbs in -ίζ-ω /-ομαι make -ι-ῶ / -ι-οῦμαι : ἀγωνίζ-ομαι I compete  ἀγωνι-οῦμαι I will compete
After λ, μ, ν and ρ the future is done by replacing the endings -ω/-ομαι by those of the verbs in -(έ)ῶ /
-οῦμαι and by modifying the root: λλ-  λ-, εί-  ε-, αί-  α- : αἴρω  ἀρῶ I will lift βαλῶ I will throw
Verbs in -μι lose their reduplication and -σω is added to the lengthened last vowel of the root:
τί-θη-μι  θή-σ-ω I will put, δί-δω-μι  δώ-σ-ω I will give, ἵ-η-μι  ἥ-σ-ω I will let go, I will throw
they are then conjugated like the present tense of verbs in -ω
In the future, passive has a different form from middle voice, with a suffix -θήσ- which replaces the -σ-:
τιμά-ω I honor  τιμή-σ-ω I will honor, τιμη-σ-ομαι I will honor myself  τιμη-θήσ-ομαι I will be honored

Some special cases:

The verb to be becomes: ἔσομαι I’ll be, ἔσει you’ll be, ἔσται he’ll be, ἐσόμεθα, ἔσεσθε, ἔσονται they’ll be
The future of verb to go: εἶμι I’ll go, εἶ you’ll go, εἶσι(ν) he’ll go, ἴμεν we’ll go, ἴτε you’ll go, ἴασι(ν) they’ll go
( ! εἶμι I’ll go, εἶ you’ll go, εἶσι he’ll go look like εἰμί I am, εἶ you are, εἰσί they are, except for the accent)
(infinitive: ἰέναι to go) it can replace ἔρχομαι e.g.: ἐπαν-έρχομαι I come back  ἐπάν-ειμι I’ll come back
ἐσθί-ω I eat  ἔδ-ομαι I will eat πίν-ω I drink  πί-ομαι I will drink
ἀκού-ω I hear  ἀκού-σ-ομαι I will hear ὁρά-ω I see  ὄψ-ομαι I will see
βαίν-ω I walk, go  βή-σ-ομαι I’ll walk, I’ll go τρέχ-ω I run  δραμ-οῦμαι I will run
λαμβ-άν-ω I take  λήψ-ομαι I will take φέρ-ω I carry  οἴσ-ω I will carry
λέγ-ω I say  ἐρ-(έ)ῶ I will say γίγν-ομαι I become, am born  γενήσ-ομαι I’ll become
(see also the vocabulary page 41)

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39
δύο ὁδοιπόροι βαίνουσιν ἐπὶ τῆς ὁδοῦ
ἀγούσης ἐκ τῆς πόλεως
πάππα ! ὁρῶ δύο ἄνδρας ἐρχομένους πρὸς
τὴν οἰκίαν
χαίρετε ὦ νεανίαι !
τί μέλλειτε ποιεῖν δεῦρο ἐρχόμενοι;
χαῖρε οἰκοδέσποτα ! ἐμέλλομεν τροφήν σε
αἰτεῖν ἀνθ’ ἧς ἐργασόμεθα, εἰ ὁμολογεῖς.
πόθεν ἔρχεσθε καὶ ποῖ βαίνετε;
ἐρχόμεθα ἀπὸ τῆς πόλεως Πλαταιῶν καὶ ἴμεν
εἰς Ὀλυμπίαν πόλιν
εὐτυχεῖς ἔσεσθε ὁρῶντες τοὺς Ὀλυμπιακοὺς
ἀγῶνας !
οὐ μόνον ὀψόμεθα ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀγωνιούμεθα
ὑμεῖς ἀθληταί ἐστε !
ναί, ἐσμέν
ἔδεσθε τὸ ἄριστον μεθ’ ἡμῶν. ἐρεῖτε ἡμῖν ὅπερ
ἀγωνιεῖσθε καὶ ὑμῶν ἀκουσόμεθα
οὐκ ἐργάσεσθε ἀλλ’ ἰσχυροὶ ὄντες βοηθήσετέ
μοι αἴρειν τὴν ἐμὴν ἅμαξαν
εἶεν ! ἀροῦμεν αὐτήν αὐτίκα
καὶ νῦν δυνήσομαι τὸν τροχὸν ἀλλάτσειν.
ὕστερον αὐτὸν ἀλλάξω
εὐδίας οὖσης σήμερον,
ἀριστήσομεν ἐν τῷ κήπῳ
ἕξομεν μᾶζας καὶ λάχανα σὺν τυρῷ καὶ ἐλαίῳ
πίεσθε οἶνου, εἰ θέλετε
χάριν σοι ἴσμεν οἰκοδέσποινα !
εἰπέ μοι, ποῖον ἆθλον ἀγωνιεῖσθε ἐν τῇ
Ὀλυμπίᾳ ;
ἀγωνιούμεθα τὸ πένταθλον
τί ἐστιν ; τί ποιήσετε ;
πέντε ἆθλα·
πρώτον δραμούμεθα τὸν δρόμον, εἶτα
βαλοῦμεν τὸν ἄκοντα, καὶ τὸν δίσκον
ὕστατον δὲ ἁλούμεθά τε καὶ παλαίσομεν
τί δὲ κερδανεῖ ὁ νικῶν ; - τὸν κότινον - τί ἐστιν ;
τί σημαίνει ; - στέφανος ἐλαίας
μόνον ἐλαίας ! – μόνον –
καὶ δὴ καὶ μέγα κλέος !
τιμηθήσεται ὑπὸ πάντων
ἆρα νικήσετε ;
μόνον ἴσασιν οἱ θεοί. - ἀλλὰ πειράσομεν !
ὥρα ἐστὶ νῦν ἡμῖν ἀπ-ιέναι, μακρὰν γὰρ ὁδὸν
βησόμεθα σήμερον.
πορευσόμεθα διὰ τοῦ ὄρους πρὸ νυκτός.
δώσω ὑμῖν ἐλαίας καὶ λήψεσθε σῦκα τοῦ
κήπου. πάντα θήσετε ἐν τῇ πήρᾳ καὶ ἔδεσθε
βαίνοντες
ἐπάν-ιμεν δεῦρο μετὰ τοὺς ἀγῶνας καὶ
οἴσομεν ὑμῖν τὸν ‘κότινον’ εἰ Ζεὺς βούλεται.
ἔρρωσθε ! - ἀγαθῇ τύχῃ. θεοὶ ἵλεοι !
ὅτε ἀνὴρ ἔσομαι, ἐγὼ καὶ γενήσομαι ἀθλητὴς
ἐν τῇ Ὀλυμπίᾳ !
Two travelers walk on the road leading out of the city
Dad! I see two men coming to the house
Hello, young people!
What do you intend to do while coming here?
Hello sir (householder)! We were going to ask you for food
that we will work against, if you agree.
Where are you from and where are you going?
We come from the city of Plataea and we will go to Olympia
city
You will be lucky to see (seeing) the Olympic games!
Not only will we see (them) but also we will compete
You, you are athletes!
Yes we are
You will eat lunch with us. You will tell us what exactly you will
compete in and we will listen to you
You will not work but since you are (being) strong you will help
me lift my cart
Okay ! We'll lift it up right away
And now I'll be able to change the wheel.
I will change it later
As the weather is fine (fine weather being) today, we will have
lunch in the garden.
We will have barley pancakes and vegetables with cheese
and olive oil.
You will drink wine, if you want
Thank you (we “know” you thanks) madam (housewife)!
Tell me, (in) what sport are you going to compete in Olympia?
We will compete (in) the pentathlon
What is it? What are you going to do?
Five events / sports / competitions:
First we will run the race, then we will throw the javelin and the
discus
Finally (last) we will jump and we will wrestle
And what will the winner gain? - The “kotinos” - What's this?
What does it mean? - An olive wreath / crown
Only of olive tree! – Only –
And also great glory / fame!
He will be honored / admired by all.
Are you going to win?
Only the gods know. - But we will try!
Now is the time (hour) for us to go, for we will be walking (on)
a long road today
We will pass through the mountain before nightfall.
I will give you olives and you will take figs from the garden.
You will put it all in your pouch and eat while walking.
We will come back here after the competitions and bring you
the "kotinos" if Zeus wants (it).
Farewell! - Good luck. Propitious (be the) gods!
When I am (I’ll be) a man, I too will become an athlete in
Olympia!
40
Vocabulary (the forms of verbs are in the paragraph “present participle and future” on page 36)
ἡ πόλις, -εως the town, city
ἡ ὁδός the road  ὁ ὁδοι-πόρος the traveler
ὁ οἰκο-δεσπότης the householder / sir / mister ἡ οἰκο-δέσποινα the housewife / madam / mistress
ἡ τροφή the food
αἰτ(έ)ῶ I ask for / beg / demand (+acc of person addressed to, +acc of thing requested)
ἀντί / ἀνθ’ +gen against / in exchange for / instead of
ὁμολογ(έ)ῶ I agree
αἱ Πλαταιαί Plataea, city of Beotia (plural noun) ἡ Ὀλυμπία Olympia (sanctuary city of Zeus)
εὐτυχής lucky / fortunate (plural εὐτυχεῖς)
ὁ ἀγών, -ῶνος the gathering / contest / competition / game
ὁ ἀθλητής the athlete / sportsman
ὅπερ what precisely = ὅ rel. what, which + περ precisely (likewise: ὅσπερ ὅς who + περ, etc.)
ἀκούω I hear / listen (+gen of a person, +acc of a sound or +gen for “some noise”)
ἰσχυρός strong
βοηθ(έ)ῶ I help / aid (+dat of a person)
αἴρω I lift (up)
ἡ ἅμαξα the chariot / cart / wagon
εἶεν ! okay / OK ! (quite so! well!)
αὐτίκα at once / immediately / right away
ὁ τροχός the wheel
ἀλλάτσω I change / exchange
ὕστερον later
ἡ εὐδία the fine weather
σήμερον today
ἀριστ(ά)ῶ I have lunch
ἡ μᾶζα the barley pancake
τὸ λάχανον the vegetable
τὸ ἐλαίον the olive oil
ὁ οἶνος the wine
θέλω I consent / want / wish
χάριν σοι ἔχω thank you / I give you thanks
ποῖος ? which? what?
τὸ ἆθλον the sport / the event
μόνον only οὐ μόνον … ἀλλὰ καί not only … but also
πρώτον first
ὁ δρόμος the race / running
εἶτα then, thereafter
ὕστατον finally / (at) last
ὁ ἄκων, -οντος the javelin
ὁ δίσκος the discus
ἅλλομαι I jump
τὸ ἅλμα, -ατος the jump / leap
παλαίω I wrestle
ἡ πάλῃ the wrestle / wrestling
κερδαίνω I gain
νικ(ά)ῶ I win / vanquish
σημαίνω I mean
ὁ στέφανος the crown / wreath
ἡ ἐλαία the olive / olive tree
καὶ δὴ καί and also / and in addition / and in particular
μέγας (n. μέγα) big / tall / great
τὸ κλέος, -έους the glory / fame
ὁ θεός the god
ἡ ὥρα the hour / time
ἀπ-ιέναι to go away (= ἀπό away + ἰέναι to go)
πορεύομαι I cross / pass / go
πρό +gen before
μετά +acc after
τίθημι I put (with ἐν in +dat or εἰς into +acc or ἐπὶ on +acc or +gen)
ἡ πήρα the pouch / bag
Ζεύς (gen Διός) Zeus (god of the sky, venerated in Olympia)
βούλομαι I want / wish
ἔρρωσθε ! goodbye! / farewell!
ἡ τύχη the chance / fate / fortune
ἵλ(ε/α)ος / ἵλεωςpropitious

41
Light and colors

The light τὸ φῶς (gen φωτός) photo-graphy, photon

Clear σαφ(ην)-ής saphena (a vein)
The shadow ὁ σκότος scotoma (visual blind spot)
Dark σκοτειν-ός
Shine, gleam λάμπ-ω lamp

█ the color τὸ χρώμα chrome, chromat-ic

█ white λευκ-ός leuko-cyte (white blood cell), leuk-emia
█ black μέλ-ας, -αινα, -αν melan-oma, melan-in, melan-cholia, Melania
█ grey πολι-ός polio-myel-itis "Inflammation of the gray marrow"
█ red ἐρυθρ-ός erythro-cyte (red blood cell), erythro-derma (skin redness)
█ brown φαι-ός pheo-chromo-cyt-oma (adrenal gland tumor)
█ yellow, blondξανθ-ός xantho-phyll (yellow leaf pigment), xanth-oma
█ green χλωρ-ός chlor, chloro-phyll….
█ blue κυάνε-ος (οῦς) cyan, cyan-osis, cyan-ide

Counting (continued):

The multiples are formed with -ίς or -κις except "once": ἅπαξ [hapax]
(see also: πολλακις many times, ὀλίγακις seldom)
The tens are formed with -κοντα except "ten": δέκα and "twenty": εἴκοσι [éïkosi]
For ordinals we replace -κοντα by -κοστ-ός, -ή, -όν: πεντη-κοστός fif-ti-eth
The hundreds are formed with -κόσι-οι, -αι, -α except "hundred": ἑκατόν [hékaton]

Once ἅπαξ 10 ten δέκα 100 ἑκατόν

Twice δ-ίς 20 twenty εἴκοσι 200 δια-κόσιοι
Thrice τρ-ίς 30 thirty τριά-κοντα 300 τρια-κόσιοι
Four times τετρά-κις 40 forty τετσαρά-κοντα 400 τετρα-κόσιοι
Five times πεντά-κις 50 fifty πεντή-κοντα 500 πεντα-κόσιοι
Six times ἑξά-κις 60 sixty ἑξή-κοντα 600 ἑξα-κόσιοι
Seven times ἑπτά-κις 70 seventy ἑβδομή-κοντα 700 ἑπτα-κόσιοι
Eight times ὀκτά-κις 80 eighty ὀγδοή-κοντα 800 ὀκτα-κόσιοι
Nine times ἐνά-κις 90 ninety ἐνενή-κοντα 900 ἐνα-κόσιοι
Ten times δεκά-κις 1000 χίλιοι, -αι, α

Two thousand: δὶς χίλιοι (= “twice thousands”)

Three thousand: τρὶς χίλιοι, four thousand: τετράκις χίλιοι,…
etc…
Ten thousand: μύριοι, -αι, α  twenty thousand: δίς μύριοι, etc….

From Greek to English:

• ἅπαξ “once”  a hapax = A word occurring only once in only one text
• δια, τρια, τετρα, πεντα, ἑξα, ἑπτα  di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, hepta- : diglossia (coexistence
of two languages), diptych (δί-πτυχος = two flaps), trilogy, pentagon, hexagon, heptathlon…
• μόνος, μόνον “alone, lonely”  mono- (monologue, monoski, monopoly…)
• δέκα “ten”  deca- (decaliter, decalogue)
• εἴκοσι “twenty”  icosa- (icosahedron: see the twenty-sided die in role-playing games)
• ἑκατόν “hundred”  hecto-liter, hecatomb (ἑκατόμβη  sacrifice of a hundred oxen = ἑκατὸν βοές)
• χίλιοι “thousand”  kilo- (kilometer, kilogram)
• μύριοι “ten thousand” a myriad, myriapod (= milli-pede / centi-pede)
• πεντη-κοστή (ἡμέρα) “fiftieth (day)”  Pentecost (Whitsun holiday occurring fifty days after Easter)

The "infinitive proposition"

You have seen that after some verbs (οἶμαί / νομίζω I think, λέγω I say, δεῖ it’s necessary), the Greek
often uses the infinitive: it is the "infinitive proposition" whose "subject" is accusative (acc. / inf.) as
when we say "I hear the birds sing". e.g.:
δεῖ ἡμᾶς ἀπ-ελθεῖν / ἀπ-ιέναι it’s needed us to go/leave/depart (= we have to go/leave)
οἶμαί / νομίζω σε εἶναι ξένον I think you to be a stranger (= I think that you are a stranger)
But sometimes it uses, instead, the construction with ὅτι "that": νομίζω ὅτι σὺ εἶ ξένος

42
The adjective, the comparative and the superlative
Most adjectives have the endings of : ἀγαθ-ός m, ἀγαθ-ή f, ἀγαθ-όν n good
After ε, ι and ρ: feminine ending η  α, e.g.: νέ-ος m, νέ-α f, νέ-ον n new, young
nd st
 the m and n follow the 2 decl. And the f the 1 decl. (but sometimes the f is in -ος like the m)
Some other adjectives have endings in ων/ον, in ής/ές or in ύς/εῖα/ύ:
• εὐδαίμ-ων m/f, εὐδαίμ-ον n, gen. εὐδαίμ-ον-ος fortunate, happy
• ἀληθ-ής m/f, ἀληθ-ές n, gen. ἀληθ-οῦς (<-έσ-ος) acc. m/f /pl. n ἀληθ-ῆ (<-έσ-α) true
• ἡδ-ύς m, ἡδ-εῖα f, ἡδ-ύ n gen. ἡδ-έως m/n , ἡδ-είας f sweet, pleasant, fine
rd st
 they follow the 3 decl. except the f in -εῖα which follows the 1 decl.
Special cases:
- πολύς m, πολλή f, πολύ n many, much, a lot
- μέγας m, μεγάλη f, μέγα n big, great
they become πολύ-ν and μέγα-ν at the acc masc sg but all other forms are based on the classical
model: gen. m/n: πολλ-οῦ and μεγάλ-ου ; nom. plur. : πολλ-οί, -αί, -ά etc…
Comparison:
To form the comparative add the suffix -τερος, -τέρα, -τερον
τολμηρός courageous, daring, bold  τολμηρότερος more courageous/daring, bolder
To form the superlative add the suffix -τατος, -τάτη, -τατον
 τολμηρότατος the most courageous, very courageous
These suffixes cause the ό to lengthen into ώ if the preceding vowel is short, e.g.:
σοφός wise, clever: σοφώ-τερος, -α, ον wiser, more clever σοφώ-τατος, -η, -ον the wisest, very wise…
Some common adjectives have a comparative in -(ί)ων and a superlative in -ιστος :
ἡδύς, -εῖα, -ύ sweet, pleasant, fine ἡδίων, -ίων, -ιον ἥδιστος, -η, -ον
κακός, -ή, -όν bad  worse κακίων, -ίων, -ιον κάκιστος, -η, -ον
καλός, -ή, -όν beautiful, nice, fine καλλίων, -ίων, -ιον κάλλιστος, -η, -ον
μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα big, great μείζων, -ων, -ον μέγιστος, -η, -ον
ῥᾴδιος, -α, -ον easy ῥᾴων, -ων, -ον ῥᾴστος, -η, -ον
ταχύς, -εῖα, -ύ fast, quick θάτσων, -ων, -ον τάχιστος, -η, -ον
πολύς, πολλή, πολύ many, much  more πλείων, -ίων, -ιον πλεῖστος, -η, -ον
ἀγαθός, -ή, -όν good  better (more pleasant) βελτίων, -ίων, -ιον βέλτιστος, -η, -ον
(more efficient) ἀμείνων, -ων, -ον ἄριστος, -η, -ον
ὀλίγος, -η, -ον few  less ἐλάτσων, -ων, -ον ἐλάχιστος, -η, -ον
In nominative and accusative plural the ending -(ί)ων may become -(ί)ους in m/f and -(ί)ω in n :
Better : m/f βελτίονες or βελτίους, n βελτίονα or βελτίω (the 2nd forms are more frequent)
the comparive is built with ἢ (= than …) or with the genitive
μείζων ἐστὶν ἢ οἱ ἄλλοι : he/she/it is bigger/taller than the others (or: μείζων ἐστὶ τῶν ἄλλων)
the superlative is built with the genitive plural:
μέγιστος τῶν ἀνθρώπων : the tallest/greatest of men
When comparing 2 objects or people, the suffix -τερος translates to "the most ... (of the two)"
πρεσβύτερος / νεώτερος τῶν (δύο) παῖδων : the oldest / the youngest of the (two) children
(πρέσβυς: old, elder(ly), aged and also “ambassador” ; νεός new, young)
Is also used: μάλα very  comparative: μᾶλλον more  superlative: μάλιστα (γε) the most, absolutely!
To give an order, an instruction: the imperative
nd
The present imperative is formed in the singular (2 person) by replacing -ω or -μι by -ε (plur. -(ε)τε)
and -ομαι by -ου / -ο or -μαι by -σο (plur. -(ε)σθε) (with contractions if a vowel precedes):
ἀκού-ω ἀκοῦ-ε listen!, δί-δω-μι  δί-δου (ο-ε) give!, ἀπο-κρίν-ομαι  ἀπό-κριν-ου answer!.
It corresponds to a general order, an instruction:
« ἀκοῦε τοῦ διδάσκαλου » = “listen (always, usually) to your teacher” (= advice)
But to give a punctual, immediate order, the Greek uses the aorist imperative:
« ἀκοῦσον τοῦ διδάσκαλου ! » = “listen (now!) to your teacher!” (= order)
nd
To form the aorist imperative in the singular (2 person) we usually replace -ω by -σ-ον (plur. -σ-ατε)
and -ομαι by -σ-αι (plur. -σ-ασθε). This is the regular aorist or "first aorist".
The -σ- causes the same modifications that we have seen for the future:
• Lengthening of vowels ε, α, ο: ε, α  η, ο  ω : βοηθ(έ)ῶ  βοηθή-σ-ον μοι help me!
ποι(έ)ῶ ποίη-σ-ον do! κολυμβ(ά)ῶ κολυμβή-σ-ον dive! ἀκολουθ(έ)ῶ ἀκολουθή-σ-ον μοι follow me!
but after ε, ι and ρ, α remains α: θεῶμαι (θεά-ομαι) I look at  θέα-σ-αι look!
• Fusion with consonants: β, π, φ, πτ  ψ ; γ, κ, χ, τσ (ττ/σσ)  ξ ; δ, τ, θ, ζ  σ
σπεύδ-ω I hurry  σπεύσ-ον hurry up!; δείκ-νυ-μι I show  δεῖξ-ον μοι show me! (future δείξ-ω I’ll show)
• Disappearance of -σ- after λ, ν, μ, ρ:
νέμ-ω I deal, distribute  νεῖμ-ον deal! distribute! ; ἀπο-κρίν-ομαι I answer  ἀπό-κριν-αι answer!

43
But some verbs in -μι, in -σκω and some frequent verbs (to eat, to see, to give etc ...) have irregular
forms which are called "second aorist". We have already seen a few
(θέ-ς put! δό-ς give! ἕ-ς send/throw! εἰπ-έ tell/say! ἔνεγκ-ε bring/carry! ἐλθ-έ come/go!)
The verbs εἶ-μι I will go (future), εἰ-μί I am and οἶδ-α I know do not have an aorist and the last 2 have
the same imperative form: ἴσ-θι ! (= "be!" or "know!")
nd
Here is a summary of the main verbs in the present and aorist imperative (2 pers sing.) :
present ind. 1sg present 2sg aorist 1st / 2nd 2sg
I listen, hear ἀκού-ω ἀκοῦ-ε ἀκοῦ-σ-ον listen! hear!
I do, make ποιῶ (έ-ω) ποίει (ε-ε) ποίη-σ-ον do (it)! make!
I hush, shut up σιγῶ (ά-ω) σίγα (α-ε) σίγη-σ-ον silence! (shut up!)
I distribute, deal νέμ-ω νέμ-ε νεῖμ-ον distribute! deal!
I look, watch θεῶμαι (ά-ομαι) θεᾶ-ο θέα-σ-αι look! watch!
I wake up, get up ἐγ(εί)ρ-ομαι ἐγ(εί)ρ-ου (ε-ο) ἔγειρ-αι wake up! get up!
I answer ἀπο-κρίν-ομαι ἀπό-κριν-ου (ε-ο) ἀπό-κριν-αι answer !
I show δείκ-νυ -μι / -ω δείκ-νυ δεῖξ-ον show!
I set, place, stand ἵ-στη-μι ἵ-στη (α-ε) στῆ-σ-ον set! place! stand!
I put τί-θη-μι τί-θει (ε-ε) θέ-ς put!
I give δί-δω-μι δί-δου (ο-ε) δό-ς give!
I send, throw, let go ἵ-η-μι ἵ-ει (ε-ε) ἕ-ς send! throw! let (it) go!
I know γι-γνώ-σκ-ω γί-γνω-σκ-ε γνῶ-θι know!
I go, walk βα-ίν-ω βα-ῖν-ε βῆ-θι go! walk!
I take care, hold προσ-έχ-ω πρόσ-εχ-ε πρόσ-σχ-ε be careful! beware!
I drink πί-ν-ω πί-ν-ε πι-έ drink!
I cut τέμ-ν-ω τέμ-ν-ε τέμ-ε cut!
I take λα(μ)β-άν-ω λα(μ)β-άν-ε λαβ-έ take!
I leave λείπ-ω λείπ-ε λίπ-ε leave!
I lead, advance ἄγ-ω ἄγ-ε ἄγ-αγ-ε (rare) lead! come on!
I see ὁρῶ (ά-ω) ὁρά (α-ε) ἶδ-ε see!
I say, tell λέγ-ω λέγ-ε εἰπ-έ say! tell!
I carry, bring φέρ-ω φέρ-ε ἔνεγκ-ε carry! bring!
I seize, catch αἱρῶ (έ-ω) αἱρεῖ (έ-ε) ἕλ-ε seize! catch!
I eat ἐσθί-ω ἐσθί-ε φάγ-ε eat!
I run τρέχ-ω τρέχ-ε δράμ-ε run!
I come ἔρχ-ομαι ἔρχ-ου (ε-ο) ἐλθ-έ come!
I am εἰ-μί ἴσ-θι (pl. ἔσ-τε) be!
I go εἶ-μι ἴ-θι (pl. ἴ-τε) go!
I know οἶδ-α ἴσ-θι (pl. ἴσ-τε) know!
Derived from “ἄγω” : ἀπ-άγω, ὑπ-άγω take away, lead away, go away ὕπ-αγε ! ἄπ-αγε ! go away!
Derived from “ἵημι” : ἀφ-ίημι release, let go, give up ἄφ-ες ! give up! drop it!
nd nd
To form the 2 person plural (from the 2 person singular) : ἀκοῦσατε listen (all)! ἴτε go (everybody)!
Active (-ω or -μι) : -τε -ε, -ει -ε-τε ; -ου  -ο-τε ; -α, -η  -α-τε ; -ς, -θι, -  -τε ; -(σ)-ον  -(σ)-α-τε
Middle (-μαι) : -σθε -ου  -ε-σθε ; -σο  -σθε ; -(σ)-αι  -(σ)-α-σθε
rd
In Greek there is also a 3 person imperative: ἀκουσάτω let him listen!
nd rd rd
It is formed from the 2 person plural by replacing -ε by -ω (3 sing.), -ωσαν (3 plur.)
st
To express the 1 person plural we use the subjunctive (p. 57) : ἀκουσῶμεν let's listen! ἴωμεν let's go!
Active: -ε, -ει, -ου, -α, -ός, -ές, -θι, -, -ον  -ωμεν
Middle: -ου, -αο, -σο, -αι  -ωμεθα
Negation is done with μή and the present imperative or the aorist subjunctive: μὴ φάγητε ! do not eat!
How to say "I'm hungry, I'm thirsty, I'm tired ..."
πειν(ά)ῶ I'm hungry διψ(ά)ῶ I'm thirsty κοπι(ά)ῶ I get tired, I’m toiling, I'm tired
δέομαι +gen / χρείαν ἔχω +gen I need, I lack
Some words
ὅπως how, ἁλιεύ-ω I fish, ὁ ἰχθύς (acc pl. ἰχθῦς/ἰχθύας) the fish, θαυμαστός amazing
φαίνομαι I seem, appear, τὸ ξύλον wood, τὸ μέρος the part/piece, ζητ(έ)ῶ I look for, ἀνα-βαίνω I climb
ἀκολουθ(έ)ῶ +dat I follow, go with, ἡ πέτρα the rock, ἀρέσκ-ω +dat I please, ὁ ἦχος the sound/noise,
τὸ σπήλαιον the cave/grotto, ἵσως maybe, εἶεν ! OK ! ἐπι-κίνδυνος dangerous, ἐπειδὴ after/since
προσ-έχ-ω ἀπό +gen I beware of, πάρ-ειμι (= παρά + εἰμί) I’m there, ὁ λίθος the stone, σκοτεινός dark
ὅμοιος +dat like/similar to, τὸ πνεύμα the breath, ὁ γίγας (-αντος) the giant, καθεύδ-ω I sleep
φεῦ ! οἴμοι ! phew! damn! alas!, ὁ κλέπτης the thief, ὁ γέρων (-οντος) the old man, μανικός mad

44
45
46
47
κολυμβήσον εἰς τὸν ποταμόν ! ἡδύ ἐστι τὸ
ὕδωρ. - κολυμβῶ
νῦν θέασαι ὅπως ἁλιεύω ! - δεῖξόν μοι !
- δείξω σοι
οὕτω ποιῶ· « ἐλθὲ δεῦρο ἰχθύ ! » - ὁ ἰχθύς
ἶδε· ἔχω ! μείζων ἐστὶν ἢ οἱ ἄλλοι -
θαυμαστὸν φαίνεται ! σὺ εἶ ὁ ἄριστος !
ἕλε τὸν ἰχθὺν καὶ θὲς αὐτὸν εἰς τὸν σάκκον
ἰχθῦς (/ ἰχθύας) ἔχομεν εἰς ἄριστον ! -
ἔγειραι καὶ ποίησον πῦρ ! - εἶεν !
βοηθήσατέ μοι. ἐνέγκετε ξύλον ! - στῆσον ὧδε ! Help me. Bring wood! - Place (it) here!
τέμε ἄρτον καὶ νεῖμον τὰ μέρη ! -
ἤδη πεινῶ !
ἀλλὰ καρπῶν δεόμεθα
οἶδα ὅπου ζητεῖν, ἀκολουθήσατέ μοι ! - ἴωμεν !
ἀνα-βῆθι τῇδε ! ἐπὶ τὰς πέτρας
ἶδετε ! σῦκα, κερασοί ! πολλοὶ καὶ μεγάλοι -
πλείονές ( / πλείους) εἰσιν ἢ ἐν τῷ κήπῳ !
βελτίους ( / βελτίονες) δὲ καὶ. φάγε αὐτούς ! -
δός μοι ! - μᾶλλόν μοι ἀρέσκουσιν. μάλιστά γε !
ἀκούσατε ! τίς ὁ ἦχος οὗτος; -
ἔρχεται ἀπὸ τοῦ σπηλαίου
ἴθι καὶ γνῶθι τί ἐστιν ! -
ἀλλ’ ἵσως ἐστὶν ἐπι-κίνδυνον !
ὄψομαι οὖν ἐπειδὴ τολμηρότατός εἰμι. -
ἀκολουθῶ σοι
πρόσεχε ἀπὸ τῶν λίθων, σκοτεινὸν γὰρ ἐστιν
σίγα ! ἀκούω ἦχον ὅμοιον πνεύματι γίγαντος
καθεύδοντος
ὁ γίγας καθεύδει
ἵσως πάρ-εστί τις ἄρκτος ! τί ὁρᾷς ; ἀπό-κριναι ! Maybe there is a bear! What do you see ? Answer!
οἴμοι ! ὁρῶ τὸν κύκλωπα ! - τί ; κύκλωψ ζῇ
ἐνθάδε !
ἄφ-ες ! ἐλθέ ! ὑπ-άγωμεν ! -
πρόσ-σχε ! ἐγείρεται ! -
τίς ἐστιν ἐνταῦθα;
ἀπ-άγετε κλέπται ! λίπετε τοὺς ἐμοὺς καρπούς ! Go away thieves! Leave my fruits!
μὴ φάγητε αὐτούς ! - σπεύσατε ! - δράμετε ! Don't eat them! - Hurry up! - Run!
φεῦ ! κοπιῶ ! - μάλα διψῶ !
- λαβὲ καὶ πιὲ ὕδατος !
ἀλλ’ εἰπέ μοι ! τίς ἐστιν ὁ κύκλωψ ;
μανικὸς γέρων ἐστὶ ζῶν ἐν τῇ ὕλῃ ὧσπερ
ἄγριον ζῷον
Dive into the river! The water is fine (pleasant, sweet).
- I dive
Now look how I fish - Show me!
- I will show you
I do like this: “Come here fish! " – The fish
See: I have (it)! He is bigger than the others. -
It seems amazing! You are the best!
Catch the fish and put it into the bag
We have fishes for lunch! -
Get up and make a fire! - OK!
Cut bread and distribute the pieces! -
I'm already hungry!
But we need/lack fruits
I know where to look/search, follow me! - Let's go!
climb this way! on the rocks
See! Figs, cherries! many and big. - They are more
numerous than in the garden!
And also better. Eat them! - Give me ! - I like them
more. Yeah, absolutely (the most)!
Listen ! What is this noise ? -
It comes from the cave
Go and find out (know) what it is! -
But maybe it’s dangerous!
So I will see since I am the most daring. -
I come with you
Beware of stones because it is dark
Shhh (shut up)! I hear a sound like the breath of a
sleeping giant
The giant sleeps
Damn ! I see the Cyclops! - What? A cyclops lives
here!
Drop it! Come! let's leave! -
Be careful! He’s waking up! -
Who is there?
Phew! I'm tired! - I'm very thirsty!
- Take and drink some water!
But tell me ! Who is the 'Cyclops'?
He’s a crazy old man living in the forest just like a wild
animal
48
Telling a story, the time of narration: the aorist

In the indicative, the aorist is a tense which corresponds to the simple past tense (preterit) of English.
It then takes (and only in the indicative) the same augment ἐ- as the imperfect, with the same rules
(insertion between the prefix and the verb and lengthening of the initial vowels).
It uses the endings of the imperfect (active: (ν), ς, -, μεν, τε, ν / middle: μην, σο, το, μεθα, σθε, ντο)

We have seen, in the "imperative" chapter, that there were two types of aorist:
The regular or 'first' aorist which is formed by adding an -σ- and an irregular aorist: the second aorist.
rd
In the indicative the first aorist adds an α after the -σ-, replaced by ε in the 3 pers. sing. (he, she, it):
(and: β, π, φ, πτ + σ  ψ ; γ, κ, χ, τσ (ττ/σσ) + σ  ξ ; δ, τ, θ, ζ + σ  σ ; no -σ- after λ, ν, μ, ρ)
λύ-ω I loose, untie  ἔ-λυ-σ-α I loosed, untied
κλέπτ-ω I steal  ἔ-κλεψ-α I stole
κρύπτ-ω I hide, conceal  ἔ-κρυψ-α I hid, concealed
πράτσ-ω I do, act, practice  ἔ-πραξ-α I did, acted, practiced
νομίζ-ω ὅτι I think that  ἐ-νόμισ-α ὅτι I thought that
μέν-ω I stay, wait  ἔ-μειν-α I stayed, waited
ἐγ(εί)ρ-ω I awake, rouse  (ἐ+ε ) ἤγειρ-α I awoke, roused
ἀκού-ω I hear, listen  (ἐ+α ) ἤκου-σ-α I heard, listened (active) (+gen)
ἀκού-ο-μαι I hear myself  ἠκου-σ-ά-μην I heard myself, listened for me (middle)

But in the aorist, the passive has a different form from the middle voice with the suffix -θ-η-
ἀκού-ο-μαι I am heard  ἠκού-σ-θ-η-ν I was heard (passive)
λύ-ο-μαι I am untied  ἐ-λύ-θ-η-ν I was untied (passive)
This suffix causes the aspiration or attenuation of the preceding consonants:
β, π, φ, πτ + θ-η > φθ-η γ, κ, χ, τσ (ττ/σσ) + θ-η > χθ-η δ, τ, θ, ζ + θ-η > σθ-η
λείπ-ο-μαι I am left  ἐ-λεί-φθ-η-ν I was left (passive)

Some verbs in -μαι make their aorist with this suffix:

δύνα-μαι I can  ἐ-δυνή-θ-η-ν I could, was able to
βούλ-ο-μαι I want, wish  ἐ-βουλ-ή-θ-η-ν I wanted, wished
ἐγ(εί)ρ-ο-μαι I wake up, get up  ἠγέρ-θ-η-ν I woke up, got up

In the indicative, the second aorist is conjugated as the imperfect but with a different form of the verb
(seen in previous chapter “imperative”) to which ἔ- is added (this form is indicated in the dictionaries):
I drink πί-ν-ω πι-έ ! ἔ-πι-ο-ν I(/they) drank
I leave, let λείπ-ω λίπ-ε ! ἔ-λιπ-ο-ν I(/they) left, let
I lead, advance ἄγ-ω ἄγ(αγ)-ε ! ἤγαγ-ο-ν I(/they) led, advanced
I find εὑρ-íσκ-ω εὗρ-ε ! ηὗρ-ο-ν I(/they) found
I see ὁρῶ (ά-ω) ἶδ-ε ! εἶδ-ο-ν I(/they) saw
I say, tell λέγ-ω εἰπ-έ ! εἶπ-ο-ν I(/they) said, told
I bring, carry φέρ-ω ἔνεγκ-ε ! ἤνεγκ-ο-ν I(/they) brought, carried
I eat ἐσθί-ω φάγ-ε ! ἔ-φαγ-ο-ν I(/they) ate
I run τρέχ-ω δραμ-έ ! ἔ-δραμ-ο-ν I(/they) ran
I come ἔρχ-ο-μαι ἐλθ-έ ! ἤλθ-ο-ν I(/they) came
I flee φεúγ-ω φυγ-έ ! ἔ-φυγ-ο-ν I(/they) fled
I arrive ἀφ-ικνέ-ο-μαι ἀφ-ικ-ό-μην I arrived
I become, happen γi-γν-ο-μαι ἐ-γεν-ό-μην I became, happened
I have, hold ἔχ-ω ἔ-σχ-ο-ν I(/they) had, held
st
I buy ὠνέ-ο-μαι ἐ-πρι-ά-μην, ἐ-πρí-ω, ἐ-πρí-α-το,... (conjugated as a 1 aorist)

Verbs in -άν-ω with nasal infix (ν, μ, γ) form their aorist by losing both the infix and the suffix άν:
I take λαμβ-άν-ω λαβ-έ ! ἔ-λαβ-ο-ν I(/they) took
I escape notice λανθ-άν-ω λαθ-έ ! ἔ-λαθ-ο-ν I(/they) escaped the attention of (+acc)
I encounter ἐν-τυγχ-άν-ω ἐν-τυχ-έ ! ἐν-έ-τυχ-ο-ν I(/they) encountered (+dat)

Verbs in -μι with a reduplication append a suffix -κ-α in the singular which lengthens the vowel:
I give δὶ-δω-μι δό-ς ! ἔ-δω-κ-α (plur : ἔ-δο-μεν ) I gave
I put, place τί-θη-μι θέ-ς ! ἔ-θη-κ-α (plur : ἔ-θε-μεν ) I put, placed
(sometimes plurals are also in -κ-α : ἐ-δώ-κ-αμεν for ἔ-δο-μεν )

Special cases (see imperatives in -θι): athematic aorist without -κ-α

I know, learn γι-γνώ-σκ-ω γνῶ-θι ! ἔ-γνω-ν I knew, learnt
I walk, go βα-ίν-ω βῆ-θι ! ἔ-βη-ν I walked, went
And also: to rejoice χαίρ-ω (cf : χαῖρε ! hello!) ἐ-χάρη-ν I rejoiced

49
The aorist participle and the infinitive do not have an augment (like the imperative):
I have, I hold ἔχ-ω  ἔ-σχ-ο-ν I had, I held  part.: σχ-ών having had/held, having, holding
The aorist participles are declined like the present participles.
I steal, I rob κλέπτ-ω  ἔ-κλεψ-α I stole  part : κλέψ-α-ς, gen. -α-ντ-ος having stolen.

The endings are:

first aorist (thematic ο/ε) second aorist (athematic)
active middle passive active middle in -κ-α basic
(short vowel
in plural)
ἔ-λυ-σα ἐ-λυ-σά-μην ἐ-λύ-θη-ν ἔ-λιπ-ο-ν ἐ-λιπ-ό-μην ἔ-θη-κ-α ἔ-γνω-ν
I untied I untied myself, I was untied I leave, let I left myself I put, placed I knew
for myself
ἐ-λείφθη-ν ἔ-δω-κ-α ἔ-βη-ν
I was left I gave I walked
I …ed ἐ-σα ἐ-σά-μην ἐ-θη-ν ἐ-ο-ν ἐ-ό-μην ἐ-η/ω-κ-α ἐ-ν
thou …edst ἐ-σας ἐ-σω ( σα-σο) ἐ-θη-ς ἐ-ε-ς ἐ-ου ( ε-σο) ἐ-η/ω-κ-ας ἐ-ς
he,she,it …ed ἐ-σε(ν) ἐ-σα-το ἐ-θη ἐ-ε ἐ-ε-το ἐ-η/ω-κ-ε ἐ-
we …ed ἐ-σα-μεν ἐ-σά-μεθα ἐ-θη-μεν ἐ-ο-μεν ἐ-ό-μεθα ἐ-ε/ο-μεν ἐ-μεν
you (all) …ed ἐ-σα-τε ἐ-σα-σθε ἐ-θη-τε ἐ-ε-τε ἐ-ε-σθε ἐ-ε/ο-τε ἐ-τε
they …ed ἐ-σα-ν ἐ-σα-ντο ἐ-θη-σαν ἐ-ο-ν ἐ-ο-ντο ἐ-ε/ο-σαν ἐ-σαν
Infinitive: λύ-σ-αι λύ-σ-α-σθαι λυ-θῆ-ναι λιπ-εῖν λιπ-έ-σθαι θεῖ-ναι γνῶ-ναι
to have …ed δοῦ-ναι βῆ-ναι
λύ-σα-ς (m) -σά-μενος (m) λυ-θείς (m) λιπ-ών (m) -ό-μενος (m) θείς (m) γνούς (m)
Participle: -σα-σα (f) -σα-μένη (f) -θεῖσα (f) -οῦσα (f) -ο-μένη (f) θεῖσα (f) γνοῦσα (f)
having …ed -σα-ν (n) -σά-μενον (n) -θέν (n) -όν (n) -ό-μενον (n) θέν (n) γνόν (n)
gen. (m, n): gen. (m, n): gen. (m, n):
-σα-ντος -θέντος -όντος δούς (m) βάς (m)
gen. (f): gen. (f): gen. (f): δοῦσα (f) βᾶσα (f)
-σά-σης -θεῖσης -ούσης δόν (n) βάν (n)

As with the imperfect, the augment is inserted after the prefix if there is one:
ἀνα-γνωρίζ-ω I recognize  ἀν-ε-γνώρισ-α I recognized
ἀν-οίγ-ω I open  ἀν-έ-ῳξ-α I opened (imp: ἄνοιξον ! part: ἀνοίξα-ς, -ντος)
ἐν-δú-ο-μαι I'm dressing up  ἐν-ε-δυ-σά-μην I dressed
κατα-βαίν-ω I go down  κατ-έ-βη-ν I went down (second athematic aorist)
ἐξ-έρχ-ο-μαι I go out  ἐξ-ήλθ-ο-ν I(/they) went out (part: ἐξ-ελθ-ών)
ἐπ-αν-έρχ-ο-μαιI come back  ἐπ-αν-ήλθ-ο-ν I(/they) came back
As in the future, in contracted verbs, σ and θ cause the lengthening of the vowels α, ε into η
ποιῶ (έ-ω) I do, make  ἐ-ποίη-σ-α I did, made
ζητῶ (έ-ω) I look for  ἐ-ζήτη-σ-α I looked for
φοβοῦμαι (έ-ο) I fear, I’m scared  ἐ-φοβή-θ-η-ν I feared, was scared
νικῶ (ά-ω) I win, vanquish  ἐ-νική-σ-α I won, vanquished
βοῶ (ά-ω) I scream, shout  ἐ-βοή-σ-α I shouted  (part: βοή-σ-ας, -ντος having shouted)
but sometimes the α is kept:
γελῶ (ά-ω) I laugh  ἐ-γέλα-σ-α I laughed
some first aorists present irregularities or variants:
μάχ-ο-μαι I fight  ἐ-μαχ-ε-σ-ά-μην I fought
κερδαίν-ω I gain, earn  ἐ-κέρδαν-α or ἐ-κέρδη-σ-α I gained, earned

Some verbs do not have an aorist and are then replaced by other verbs of close meaning:
I am εἰ-μί  I become γiγνομαι  ἐγενόμην I became, was ἐγένετο there was
I’ll go εἶ-μι  I come, go ἔρχομαι  ἤλθον I(/they) came, went
I know οἶδ-α  I know, learn γιγνώσκω  ἔγνων I knew, learnt

A few words of vocabulary ...

ὁ λῃστής the robber, ὁ κλέπτης the thief, ὁ θόρυβος noise/tumult, ἡ φωνή the voice, ἡ κλίνη the bed,
ὁ κοιτῶν the bedroom, ἡ κιβωτός the coffer, τὸ μαγειρεῖον the kitchen, ὁ στρεπτός the necklace,
ὁ οἶνος the wine, ἡ τροφή the food, ὅπου where, τὸ ξίφ-ος -ους the sword, τηρ(έ)ῶ I watch over,
κωλύ-ω I prevent, ὁ οἰκέτης house/farm-worker, ὁ ὕπνος the sleep, εὐθύς straigh / directly / at once
ἡ ῥάβδος / ἡ βακτηρία the rod / stick, ὁ ἔπαυλος the stable, τὸ ὅπλον weapon, ἡ ἀσπί-ς -δος shield,
τὸ δόρ-υ -ατος the spear, τὸ κράν-ος -ους the helmet, ἡ κεφαλή the head, ὁ πολέμιος the enemy,
ἡ μάχη the fight, σφόδρα very much, ἀλαλά ! war cry, φυλάτσ-ου / -εσθε ! on your guard! watch out!
εὖγε ! bravo! well (done)! viva! hurrah! ὁ στρατηγός the general, ἡ κλίμα-ξ, -κος the ladder / stair

50
51
52
53
ἐπ-αν-ελθόντες οἴκαδε, ἀφ-ίκοντο εἰς τὸν κῆπον
- χαῖρε ! - χαίρετε πάντες !
ἀλλὰ τί ἐποίησας ; διὰ τί ἔθηκας πάντα ταῦτα ἐν
τῷ κήπῳ ;
οὐκ ἐγὼ ἀλλὰ λῃσταὶ ἔθεσαν
τί εἶπες ; λῃσταὶ δεῦρο ἦλθον !
εἰπέ μοι· τί ἐγένετο ;
ταύτῃ τῇ νυκτὶ ἠγέρθην, θορύβου γὰρ ἤκουσα
πρώτον ἐνόμισα ὅτι ἐπαν-ήλθετε ἀλλ’ οὐκ ἀν-
εγνώρισα τὰς φωνὰς ὑμῶν
ἄν-οιξον τὴν κιβωτόν !
ἐν-εδυσάμην ἔπειτα κατ-έβην ἐκ τοῦ κοιτῶνος
εἰς τὸ μαγειρεῖον
ἐνταῦθα δὲ ἐν-έτυχον δύο ἀνδράσι κιβωτὸν
ἀν-οίξασι (=dat pl part aor)
ἐζήτησαν καὶ ηὗρον στρεπτοὺς οὓς μητρὶ ἐπρίω
κλέψαντες ἔφαγον τὴν τροφὴν καὶ οἶνου ἔπιον
τρίτος δὲ λῃστὴς ξίφος σχὼν ἔμεινεν ἐν τῷ
κήπῳ ὅπου ἐτηρεῖ
αὐτοὺς κωλύειν ἐβουλήθην ἀλλὰ μόνος οὐκ
ἐδυνήθην
τότε αὐτοὺς ἔλαθον ἐξελθών.
εἶτα δ’ ἔβην παρὰ τοὺς οἰκέτας
αὐτοὺς ἤγειρα ἐξ ὕπνου καὶ εἶπον
ὅτι λῃσταὶ ἦσαν ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ.
« ἐγείρου ! » -
« πόσαι εἰσὶν ὧραι ; »
εὐθὺς ἠγέρθησαν ἐκ τῆς κλίνης, βακτηρίας
ἔλαβον καὶ ἐξ-έδραμον - « ἐλθέ ! »
ἀλλ’ ἐγὼ αὐτοὺς ἤγαγον εἰς τὸν ἔπαυλον ἐν ᾧ
ἔγνων ὅτι ἔκρυψας τὰ ὅπλα σου
αὐτοῖς μὲν ἔδωκα ἀσπίδας καὶ δόρυ καὶ ξίφος,
ἐγὼ δ’ ἔθηκα τὸ κράνος σου περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν
καὶ ξίφος ἔλαβον
ἔπειτα δὲ τὸν ἵππον ἔλυσα καὶ ἵππευσα
τότε βοήσαντες ἠγάγομεν δρόμῳ ἐπὶ τοὺς
πολέμιους.
« πρὸς τὴν μάχην ! » « ἴωμεν ! »
ὅτε ἡμᾶς εἶδον οἱ λῃσταί,
ἐφοβήθησαν σφόδρα
« φυλάτσεσθε ! » « στρατιώται ! »
οὐκ ἐμαχεσάντο ἀλλ’ ἔφυγον
« ἀλαλά ! »
« ἀπ-άγετε κλέπται ! » « ταχέως! »
τότε δὲ ἡμεῖς ἐχάρημεν καὶ ἐγελάσαμεν
« εὖγε Ἀλέξανδρε μεγάλε, στρατηγέ ἡμῶν ! » –
« ἐνικήσαμεν ! »
εὖ ἔπραξας υἱέ !
νῦν δὲ τί ἔκλεψαν οἱ λῃσταί ;
οὐδέν. οὐ μόνον πάντα ἔλιπον ἀλλὰ καὶ
ἐκερδήσαμεν κλίμακα ἣν ἤνεγκον
Having come back home, they arrived in the
garden - Hello! - Hello everybody!
But what did you do? why did you put all those
(things) in the garden?
(It’s) not me but robbers (who) put (them here)
What did you say? Robbers came here! Tell me:
what happened (/was there)?
This night I woke up, because I heard some noise
At first I thought that you came back but I didn’t
recognize your voices
“open the coffer!”
I got dressed then I went down from the bedroom
to the kitchen
And there I encountered two men who had opened
(“having opened”) a coffer.
They looked for and found necklaces that you
bought for mom
After having robbed, they ate the food and drank
some wine.
A third robber holding a sword stayed in the garden
where he was watching.
I wanted to prevent them but alone I could not
Then I escaped their sight on my way out (going out)
And after that I walked/went to the farmworkers
I awoke them from sleep and told them that there
were robbers in the house.
“wake up!” -
“what time is it? (how many hours are there?)”
They got up from bed at once, took sticks and ran
outside – “come!”
But I led them into the stable where I knew that you
hid your weapons.
I gave them shields, a spear and a sword
And as for me, I put your helmet on(around) my
head and took a sword
And after that I untied the horse and I rode it
Then having shouted we attacked (advanced on)
the enemies at a run.
“To the fight!” “Let’s go!”
When the robbers saw us,
they were very scared
“Watch out!” “Soldiers!”
They didn’t fight but they fled
“Alala!” (war cry)
“Go away thieves!” “Quickly!”
Then we rejoiced and laughed
“Hurrah! for Alexander the great, our general!” –
“We won!”
You did well son!
And now what did the robbers steal?
Nothing. Not only did they leave everything behind
but we also gained a ladder that they brought
54
 Medicine and the body

The vocabulary of medicine and science uses many Greek words and combine them to form new
words (ex : psych-iatr-ist  ψυχή soul, spirit - ἰατρός physician)

physician ὁ ἰατρός  iatro-, -iatr- fever ὁ πυρετός  pyrexia, -pyretic

weak, sick ἀσθενής  asthenia front τὸ μέτωπον  metope (fronton)
I am ill, sick νοσ(έ)ῶ  noso- warm, hot θερμός  thermo-
disease ἡ νόσος cold ψυχρός, κρύος  psychro-, cryo-
I feel, perceive αἰσθάν-ομαι  -(a)esthesia I cough, the cough βήτσ-ω, βή-ξ -χός  “bechic” syrup
I suffer, πάσχ-ω +acc,  -pathy, sound, healthy ὑγιής  hygiene
undergo aor. ἔπαθ-ον -pathic
I feel pain, ache ἀλγέ-ω +acc  algia, algo- I cure, heal θεραπεύ-ω, ἰά-ομαι  therapeutic
pain, trouble τὸ ἄλγος medicine, poison τὸ φάρμακον  pharmac-y, -o-

ὁ παῖς ἐμοῦ νοσεῖ, κύριε ἰατρέ, πολὺ βήτσει
ἔχει θερμὸν μέτωπον. εἰπέ μοι, παῖ, τί πάσχεις;
ἀσθενὴς ὦν αἰσθάνομαι καὶ ἀλγῶ τὴν κεφαλήν
τὴν νόσον θεραπεύσω καὶ ταχέως ὑγιὴς γενήσει,
δώσω γάρ σοι φάρμακον ἀντὶ πυρετοῦ καὶ ἄλγους
my child is sick, mister doctor, he coughs a lot
he has a warm front. Tell me, boy (child), what are you suffering from?
I feel (being) weak and I have a head-ache
I will cure the disease and you will quickly become healthy, because I
will give you medicine for/against fever and pain

κεφαλή f head cephal-

com(et) head of hair

κόμη f πρόσωπον n face prosopo
tricho θρίξ, τρίχος f
hair μέτωπον n forehead
ὄψις f visage, view opt-ic
βλέφαρον n eyelid blepharo
oto ear ὀφθαλμός m eye ophthalmo
οὖς, ὠτός n
ῥίς, ῥίνος f nose rhino
gnatho jaw χεῖλος n lip cheil-
γνάθος f
ὀδούς, ὀδόντος m tooth odonto
stomato mouth
στόμα, -ματος n γλῶτσα f tongue gloss-
trachea neck φάρυγξ, -υγγος f throat pharynx
τραχηλός m

55
 ὄνυξ, ὄνυχος m nail onycho
The body: δάκτυλος m finger dactylo
κεφαλή f head
cephalo
τὸ σῶμα, -τος χείρ, χειρός f hand chir
somato
ὦμος m shoulder omo βραχίων, -ονος m
arm brachio
νῶτον n back noto ὠλένη f elbow ole-, ulna
μαστός m breast masto
ῥάχις f spine rachis
στέρνον n chest sternum, sterno
ὀμφαλός m navel omphalo
γαστήρ, -τέρος f, κοιλία f belly
gastro, c(o)elio
ἰσχίον n hip ischio
πυγή f
rump, buttock pyg- μηρóς m thigh mero

Anatomy: γόνυ, -ατος n knee gon-

σκέλος , -ους n leg

ἀνα-τέμνω dissect scele (triscele)
ἀνά “up”
τέμνω “cut” πούς, ποδóς m foot podo

splanchno bowels
σπλάγχνον n

pneumo lung καρδία f heart cardi-a/o

πνεύμων, -ονος m

hepato liver
ἧπαρ, ἤπατος n σπλήν, -ος m spleen spleno
stomacho stomach
στόμαχος m νεφρός m kidney nephro

entero gut ἔντερον n

procto ass, anus πρωκτός

m
skeleton σκελετός “dried” dermato skin δέρμα, -τος n
crâne κρανίον n
phlebo vein φλέψ, φλεβός f
pleuro, rib, side, πλευρά f
h(a)emato blood αἷμα, -τος n
osteo bone
ὀστέον (ὀστοῦν) n μῦς, μύος m muscle or rat, mouse!
myo
arthro joint
ἄρθρον n

56
 Wishes, fears and hypotheses: the subjunctive and the optative
The indicative notes reality while the subjunctive and optative express possibilities or desires.
The subjunctive is formed in the present and aorist (without ἐ-) by replacing the desinences by:
-ω -ῃς -ῃ -ωμεν -ητε -ωσι(ν) in the active voice and in aorist passive after -θ-
-ωμαι -ῃ -ηται -ώμεθα -ησθε -ωνται in the mediopassive voice
λύ-εις  λύ-ῃς, τίθη-μι  τιθ-ῶ, ἔ-λυσ-α  λύσ-ω, ἐ-λιπ-όμην  λίπ-ωμαι, ἐ-λύ-θ-ην  λυ-θ-ῶ
The verb “to be” in the present tense simply becomes: ὦ, ᾖς, ᾖ, ὦμεν, ἦτε, ὦσι(ν) and “to go”: ἴ-ω, etc…
st
The subjunctive is used to exhort and supplements the imperative in the 1 person: ἄγωμεν ! let’s go!
It indicates a goal after ἵνα "so that": ἐργάζομαι ἵνα ἐσθίωμεν I work so that we (may) eat
The aorist subjunctive is used to express a prohibition with μή "do ... not": μὴ ἀπ-έλθῃς ! don’t go away!
or also a fear in the future: μή “that”: φοβοῦμαι μὴ ἀπ-έλθῃς I'm afraid (that) you will/might go away.
The optative (in -ι-) is formed in the present and aorist (without ἐ-) by replacing the desinences by:
(ο)-ι-ην /-μι (ο)-ι-ης /-ς (ο)-ι-η /- (ο)-ι-μεν (ο)-ι-τε (ο)-ι-εν in active and aorist passive after -θε-
(ο)-ί-μην (ο)-ι-ο (ο)-ι-το (ο)-ῖ-μεθα (ο)-ι-σθε (ο)-ι-ντο in the mediopassive voice
The thematic vowel, if it exists, becomes ο in all persons: ἐ-γέν-ε-το  γέν-ο-ιτο “may become/happen”
In the active sing., uncontracted verbs in -ω have the desinences -ο-ι-μι, -ο-ι-ς, -ο-ι. λύ-ω  λύ-οιμι
st
In the 1 aorist the thematic vowel is α and the desinences in -μι, etc… ἔ-λυ-σ-α  λύ-σ-αιμι
rd
(but in the 3 person we may have either λύ-σ-αι or λύ-σ-ειε in sg, λύ-σ-αιεν or λύ-σ-ειαν in pl.)
The verb “to be” in the present tense is: ε-ἴην, ε-ἴης, ε-ἴη, ε-ἶμεν, ε-ἶτε, ε-ἶεν “may be / might be / would be”
The optative can express a wish, often after “εἴθε”: εἴθε (μὴ) γένοιτο… may there be (no)…
It is also used as the English conditional with the particle “ἄν”: βουλ-οίμην ἄν… I would like…
Subjunctive and optative express a possibility in conditional clauses (if = εἰ), with ἄν (εἰ + ἄν = ἐὰν),
depending on the condition (if …, then …) (to say “when …”, εἰ is replaced by ὅτε and ἐὰν by ὅταν):
1- The condition is met or achievable: εἰ (μή) + indicative, (οὐ) + indicative
εἰ (ἐ)θέλεις, παίζομεν if you want, we play
2- The condition is likely in the future: ἐὰν (/ ὅταν) (μή) + subjunctive, (οὐκ) + future indic.
ἐὰν (ἐ)θέλῃς, παίξόμεθα if (ever) you come to want (/ when you want), we will play
3- The condition is hypothetical: εἰ (μή) + optative, (οὐκ) ἄν + optative
εἰ (ἐ)θέλοις, παίζοιμεν ἄν if you were to want, we could play
4- The condition is not fulfilled in the present: εἰ (μή) + imperfect indic., (οὐκ) ἄν + imperfect indic.
εἰ ἤθελες, ἐπαίζομεν ἄν if you wanted it (but you don't), we would play (/ we would be playing)
5- The condition is not fulfilled in the past: εἰ (μή) + aorist indic., (οὐκ) ἄν + aorist indic.
εἰ ἠθέλησας, ἐπαίξαμεν ἄν if you had wanted, we would have played
Vocabulary:
ὁ ἔρως / ἡ ἀγάπη the love, κατα-δύομαι I sink, ἡ ναῦς the ship, (ἀπο)-θνῄσκω (future θανούμαι) I die,
ἡ λύπη the sorrow / the grief, ὑπο-στρέφω I return / I turn back, θάρρει ! courage!, ὁ ναύτης the sailor,
(ἀπο)-πλέω I sail (away), ἡ ζάλη the storm, γαλην-ός calm, ὁ χρυσὸς the gold, ὁ ἄργυρος the silver.
ἔρω μου, μὴ ἀπ-έλθῃς. φοβοῦμαι μὴ κατα-δύσηται ἡ ναῦς. My love, don’t go away: I fear that the ship might sink.
ἀπο-θνῄσκοιμι ἂν λύπῃ, εἰ μὴ ὑπο-στρέφοις. I would die of grief if you were not to return.
θάρρει ἀγάπη μου ! ναύτης εἰμι ἵνα ἐσθίωμεν. Courage my love! I am a sailor so that we may eat.
θανούμεθα πείνῃ, ἐάν μὴ ἀπο-πλέω. We'll starve (die of hunger) if I don't sail away.
εἴθε ζάλη μὴ γένοιτο ! May the storm not happen!
βουλοίμην ἄν γαληνὸν ἀεὶ εἶναι τὴν θάλατσαν. I would like the sea to be always calm.
ὅταν ὑπο-στρέφωμεν, οἴσω χρυσὸν καὶ ἄργυρον. When(ever) we return, I’ll bring gold and silver.
ἄγωμεν ! Let’s go forward!

57
It's over, it's done, it's the perfect
The perfect tense indicates that an action is completed, accomplished.
Thus: εὑρ-íσκ-ω I find, aorist ηὗρ-ον I found, perfect ηὕρ-η-κ-α I have found, I ended up finding.
It is usually formed with:
st
1- a reduplication made with the 1 consonant without aspiration + ε, or a lengthening ↑ of the initial
vowel of the verb: (θ-  τε-θ-, φ-  πε-φ-, χ-  κε-χ-) φεύγ-ω I flee  pf. πέ-φευγ-α I have fled
2- in the active voice often a suffix -κ- followed by the endings -α, -ας, -ε(ν), -αμεν, -ατε, -ασι(ν)
3- in the mediopassive voice the endings -μαι, -σαι, -ται, -μεθα, -(σ)θε, -νται. (σ) disappears after a consonant.
E.g.: active λύ-ω I untie  λέ-λυ-κ-α I have untied / mediopassive λύ-ομαι  λέ-λυ-μαι I have been untied
In verbs with a final vowel this lengthens (ε, α  η, ο  ω)
ποιέ-ω I do  πε-ποίη-κ-α I have done, πε-ποίη-μαι I have been done, I have done to myself
δύνα-μαι I can, I’m able  δε-δύνη-μαι I’ve been able
In verbs ending in consonants -δ-, -τ-, -θ-, these disappear before -κ- :
πείθ-ω I persuade  πέ-πει-κ-α I have persuaded
Some consonants become aspirated, like before the suffix -θη of the passive aorist, and -κ- disappears:
-β-, -π-, -φ-, -πτ-  -φ- and -γ-, -κ-, -χ-, -τσ (ττ/σσ)-  -χ- E.g.: ἀγ-ω I lead  ἦχ-α I have led
In the mediopassive voice, these final consonants change before the desinences:
β, π, φ, (πτ) + μ  μμ, + σ  ψ, + τ  πτ. γ, κ, χ, τσ (ττ/σσ) + μ  γμ, + σ  ξ, + τ  κτ. δ, τ, θ  σ
And "they have been…" is expressed by εἶσι (they are) + the perfect passive participle plural in -μεν-οι, -αι
-μαι -σαι -ται -μεθα -(σ)θε -μεν-οι εἶσι(ν)
-β-, -π-, -φ-, -πτ- -μ-μαι -ψαι -π-ται -μ-μεθα -φ-θε -μ-μεν-οι …
-γ-, -κ-, -χ-, -ττ/σσ- -γ-μαι -ξαι -κ-ται -γ-μεθα -χ-θε -γ-μεν-οι …
-δ-, -τ-, -θ- -σ-μαι -σαι -σ-ται -σ-μεθα -σ-θε -σ-μεν-οι …
γράφ-ω I write, γέ-γραφ-α I’ve written, γέ-γραπ-ται it has been w., γέ-γραμ-μεν-οι εἶσιν they’ve been w.
When the initial consonant is a ῥ-, the reduplication becomes ἔρ-ρ-: ῥίπτ-ω I cast, ἔρ-ριφ-α I have cast.
And if the root begins with a σ, ζ, ψ or ξ, the reduplication becomes ἕ- : ἕ-στη-κ-α I stand.
Verbs in -μι lengthen their final vowel before the suffix κ of the active but not in the mediopassive voice:
δί-δω-μι I give, δέ-δω-κ-α I have given, δέ-δο-μαι I have been given
τί-θη-μι I put, τέ-θη-κ-α I have put. It is replaced in the passive by the verb κεῖ-μαι I’ve been put, I lie.
A few frequent verbs have irregular forms in the perfect (sometimes with the alternation ε/-  ο in the active):
ἀκού-ω I hear, listen  ἀκήκο-α, ἤκουσ-μαι ἁμαρτ-άν-ω I miss, mistake  ἡμάρτη-κ-α
γί-γν-ομαι I’m born, become  γέγον-α I was born, γεγένη-μαι I’ve become ὁρά-ω I see  ἑόρα-κ-α
ἔρχ-ομαι I come  ἐλήλυθ-α ἔχω I have  ἐσχήκ-α
λάμβ-αν-ω I take  εἴληφ-α, εἴλημ-μαι λέγ-ω I say, tell  εἴρη-κ-α, εἴρη-μαι
λείπ-ω I let, leave  λέλοιπ-α, λέλειμ-μαι πείθ-ομαι I believe, obey  πέποιθ-α
πί-ν-ω I drink  πέπω-κ-α έρ-ω I carry, bring  ἐνήνοχ-α, ἐνήνεγ-μαι
Some verbs with a form of perfect have a present meaning:
τέθνηκα I’m dead, ἕστηκα I stand, κέκραγα I scream, δέδοικα I’m afraid, οἶδα I know (p. 6)
μέμνημαι I remember, κέκτημαι I own, ἔρρωμαι I’m strengthened - I’m well
In these verbs we form a future in σ (τε-θνήξ-ω I shall be dead, με-μνή-σ-ομαι I will remember) and a
past tense (pluperfect) with ἐ- (ἐ-κε-κράγ-ειν I screamed, ἐ-με-μνή-μην I remembered) which has its
own endings in the active voice: -ειν / η, -εις / ης, -ει, -ε(ι)μεν, -ε(ι)τε, -ε(ι)σαν.
Thus is formed the imperfect of οἶδ-α I know: ᾖδ-ειν / ᾖδ-η I knew, and its future: εἴσ-ομαι I will know
The perfect infinitive is formed with the endings: -έναι (active) and -(σ)θαι (mediopassive).
λελυ-κ-έναι / γεγραφ-έναι to have ended up untying / writing, λελύ-σθαι / γεγράφ-θαι to have been untied / written
The perfect imperative is only used in the mediopassive voice with endings: -(σ)ο, -(σ)θω, -(σ)θε, -(σ)θων
ἀν-εῴχθω let … be open ! ἐρρίφθω let … be cast ! ἔρρωμαι  ἔρρω-σο/-σθε ! be well, goodbye/farewell !
The perfect active participle is formed with: -ώς (m), -ός (n) (gen -ότος 3rd decl.), -υῖα (f) (gen -υίας 1st decl.).
λελυκ-ώς, -ός (n) (-ότος), -υῖα (f) having finished untying, ἑστηκ-ώς standing, οἶδ-α I know  εἰδ-ώς knowing
The perfect mediopassive participle has the same endings as the present participle in -μένος, -η, -ον.
It is translated by the English past participle, as well as the verbal adjective in -τος, -τη, -τον:
λελυ-μένος / λυ-τός untied, ἀν-εῳγ-μένος / ἀν-οικ-τός open, κεκλῃ-μένος / κλεισ-τός closed
Whilst the verbal adjective in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον translates an obligation (requiring to be done) :
λυ-τέος to be untied, κλεισ-τέος to be closed, τελεσ-τέος to be finished, πρακ-τέον (ἐστίν) it’s to be done
The perfect optative and subjunctive are formed in the active voice by appending their desinences (see
p. 57), and in the mediopassive and verbs in -μαι by use of the verb “to be” with the perfect participle.
e.g. for subj.: ἐὰν ἑστήκ-ῃ if (ever) it stand(s), ἐὰν κεκλῃ-μένον ᾖ if (ever) it be/is closed.
(see vocabulary and translations on page 61)

58
59
60
Vocabulary:
τελέ(σ)-ω (pf τετελέ-κ-α) I complete/I finish (aor. passivef ἐτελέσ-θη, verbal adj τελεσ-τέος),
ὁ ναός / νεώς temple, δέμ-ω (pf δέδμη-κ-α) I build, ἐπαινέ-ω I congratulate, πάντ-ως completely,
κυκλοτερ-ής round/circular, ὡς as, βούλ-ομαι (pf βεβούλη-μαι) I want, ὁ ἀρχιτέκτ-ων -ονος the
architect, ὁ ἱερεύς the priest, ἀκριβ-ως exactly, πρέπει it is fit, it shoud be, πράτσω (pf πέπραχ-α) I do,
δοκεῖ +acc. / inf. it seems (well) that, ὁ θόλος the tholos/rotunda, ὁ μήν -ός the month, ὁ λιθουργός the
stone-mason, τὸ τοῖχος the wall, ἐργάζομαι (aor. εἰργασάμην) to work, ὁ στῦλος the column/pillar,
λευκ-ός white, ὁ μάρμαρος the marble, ἡ κεραμί-ς -δος the (roof-)tile, κεῖ-μαι I’ve been laid/I lie,
ἡ στέγη the roof, ἡ θεά the goddess, τὸ εἴδωλόν the figure/statue/ghost/idol, χρυσέ-ος  χρυσοῦς
golden, κελεύ-ω I urge/order/command, ἐλεφάντιν-ος (made of) ivory (ὁ ἐλέφα-ς -ντος the
ivory/elephant), γλύφ-ω (pf γέγλυφ-α) I sculpt/I carve, τὸ ἄγαλμα the statue, εἰσ-φέρ-ω (pf εἰσ-ενηνόχ-α)
I carry inside/I introduce, ἐρωτά-ω I ask/I question, ὁ δοῦλος the slave/laborer ἡ εἴσ-οδος the
entrance/way in, φη-μί I say, ἀ-νόητ-ος foolish/senseless, ἀν-ίκαν-ος incapable (ἱκαν-ός competent),
χείριστ-ος the worst/most mediocre, μωρ-ός dull/stupid, ἐλεέ-ω I have pity on (imper. aor. ἐλέησον !
please have mercy!), παί-ω I strike, λοιδορέ-ω I insult, δια-γράφ-ω (inf aor. δια-γράψαι) I draw (a
plan/a line), ἐπι-λανθ-αν-ομαι (pf. ἐπι-λελήσ-μαι) I forget, ἡ πύλη the wing of a gate (pl. the gate),
Ἄρτεμις Artemis/Diana (goddess of the hunt and the moon), τὸ δια-γράμμα outline/plan/diagram,
ἡ συγ-γνώμη the pardon, συγ-χωρέ-ω +dat I forgive/I assent, ἁμαρτά-ν-ω (pf ἡμάρτη-κ-α) I
miss/err/fail/do wrong, τὸ ἱερὸν the shrine/sanctuary, οὐδέποτε never, ἅγι-ος sacred/holy, τὸ
μυστήριον the mystery/secret rite, λέγεται +acc. / inf it is said that, μαίν-ομαι I am mad/crazy,
τοιούτως that much, ῥᾳδίως easily, ληφ-θήσ-ομαι fut. passive of λαμϐάνω I take/I seize, ὁ ἐργάτης
the worker, ὁ μισθός the wages/salary, άπο-δί-δω-μι (fut. ἀπο-δώσω) I give back/out / I pay,
τὸ ὀφείλημα the debt, ὁ προ-αγοραστής the supplier / forestaller, τὸ οἰκο-δόμημα the building, τίνω
(fut. τίσω, aor. ἔτισα) to pay (a debt), ἥδιστα very gladly (ἡδέως gladly), ἔτι yet/still.
κύριε, τετελέκαμεν· ὁ ναὸς δέδμηται. Sir (my lord), we have finished: The temple is built.
πάντως κυκλοτερής ὡς βεβούλησαι. Completely circular, as you finally wanted.
ἐλήλυθα καὶ ἑόρακα. σὲ ἐπαινῶ, ἀρχιτέκτον. I’ve come and seen. I congratulate you, architect.
ἀκριβῶς ὡς πρέπει πέπραχας. δοκεῖ μοι νῦν You have done (it) exactly as it should. It seems to
ἡμᾶς κεκτήσθαι (= inf. pf) τὸν κάλλιστον θόλον me that we now own the most beautiful tholos.
δέκα μήνας εἰργάσαντο οἱ λιθουργοί. The masons have worked (for) ten months.
τὸ τοῖχος καὶ οἱ δώδεκα στῦλοὶ λευκῷ μαρμάρῳ The wall and the twelve columns have been made
πεποίηνται. of white marble.
χίλιαι δὲ κεραμίδες κεῖνται ἐπὶ τῆς στέγης. And a thousand tiles have been laid on the roof.
τὸ τῆς θεᾶς εἴδωλόν χρυσοῦν καὶ ἐλεφάντινον The figure (idol) of the goddess in gold and ivory
γέγλυπται ὡς ἐκέλευσας. has been carved as you ordered.
ἀλλὰ διὰ τί λελοίπατε τὸ ἄγαλμα ἑστηκὸς But why have you left the statue standing here and
ἐνταῦθα καὶ οὐκ εἰσ-ενηνόχατε ; have not carried (it) inside?
οὐκ οἶδα κύριε. ἐρώτησον τοὺς δούλους. I don't know, sir. Ask the slaves.
αὐτὸ εἰσ-φέρειν οὐ δεδυνήμεθα. - εἴσ-οδον γὰρ We haven’t been able to carry it inside. - because we
οὐκ ηὑρήκαμεν. - τί φῄς; ! have not found any way in. - What are you saying?!
ἀνόητε ! ἀν-ίκανε ! χείριστε τῶν μωρῶν ! Foolish! In-capable! The most crappy of idiots!
κύριε, ἐλέησον ! μή με παῖσῃς ! Sir, please have mercy! Do not strike me!
διὰ τί ἐκεκράγεις καὶ λοιδορεῖς με ; Why did you scream and are you insulting me?
ποῖον οἶνον πέπωκας πρὶν δια-γράψαι ; What wine have you drunk before drawing the
ποῦ εἰσιν αἱ πύλαι ; plans? Where are the gates?
μὰ τὴν Ἄρτεμιν ! δέδοικα μὴ αὐτῶν ἐπιλελήσμεθα. By Artemis ! I’m affraid that we have forgotten them.
μέμνημαι οὐδεμίαν πύλην ἰδών ἐν τῷ I remember not seeing any gate on the plan (the
δια-γράμματι. dia-gram).
συγ-γνώμην ἔχε, κύριε. συγ-χώρησόν μοι ὅτι Your pardon, sir. Forgive me that I was wrong.
ἡμάρτηκα.
ἀλλ’ ἐὰν ἀεί κεκλῃμένον ᾖ τὸ ἱερὸν οὐδείς εἴσεται But if the shrine is closed forever, no one will ever
οὐδέποτε ποῖον ἅγιον μυστήριον ἔνδον γεγένηται know what sacred mystery has happened inside.
λέγεται ἀρχιτέκτονας ὀλίγον μαίνεσθαι (=pres inf.), It is said that architects are (to be) a bit crazy, but
ἀλλὰ τοιούτως οὐκ ᾖδειν. that much, I didn't know.
ἐὰν ἔξω ἑστήκῃ τὸ χρυσοῦν ἄγαλμα, ῥᾳδίως If the golden statue is left standing outside, it will be
ληφθήσεται ὑπὸ κλέπτων. easily taken by thieves.
δεσπότα, εἴρηκα τοῖς ἐργάταις σὲ τοὺς μισθοὺς Master, I’ve told the workers you will pay (thee … to
αὐτῶν ἀπο-δώσειν (=future inf.) σήμερον. give out future infinitive) their wages today.
καὶ ἐσχήκαμεν πολλὰ ὀφειλήματα παρὰ τοῖς And we have had a lot of debts to the suppliers.
προαγορασταῖς.
εἰ ἐτελέσθη τὸ οἰκοδόμημα ἔτισα ἂν ἥδιστα. If the building was completed, I would have paid
ἀλλ’ ἔτι τελεστέον ἐστίν. very gladly. But it’s still to be finished.
ἀν-εῴχθω ὁ ναός καὶ εἰσ-ενηνέχθω ἡ θεά ! Let the temple be open and the goddess be carried
ὅταν ἔνδον ἑστήκῃ τότε δὴ ὑμῖν τίσω. in it! When she’s standing inside, then I’ll pay you.

61
Famous historical phrases

Heroes, rulers, scholars and ancient philosophers uttered famous phrases in Greek that we know from
their English or Latin translations. We have already seen, on page 6, the “ἕν οἶδα ὅτι οὐδὲν οἶδα” of
1
Socrates (Σωκράτης) . Here are a few more.

Everyone knows the exclamation "eureka!" of the brilliant Archimedes (Ἀρχιμήδης) when he discovered,
in his bath according to legend, that a floating object displaces a weight of fluid equal to its own weight.
nd st
“εὕρη-κ-α” or “ηὕρη-κ-α”: “I have found” (perfect of εὑρ-íσκ-ω I find, aor. 2 ηὗρ-ον / 1 εὗρ-α).

He was so "immersed" in his calculations that, during the capture of Syracuse by the Romans, when a
soldier came to call him out, he rebuffed him aside and he is supposed to have said:
“μή μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε !”: “Do not disturb my circles!”
(μή do not ! - ὁ κύκλος the circle - τάρατσ-ε: present imperative of τάρατσ-ω I disturb)
The soldier then killed him with a sword. His general was so dismayed by this blunder that he
organized a grandiose funeral in honor of the scholar.

In the Odyssey, the cunning Odysseus (Ὀδυσσεύς) replies to the cyclops Polyphemus (Πολύφημος =
πολύ a lot - φη-μί I say, speak) who asked him his name:
“οὖτις ἐμοί γ' ὄνομα”: “My name (is) nobody”
(οὖ-τις no one, nobody - ἐμοί to me dative - γε yea, in fact, only - τὸ ὄνομα the name)
And the cyclops, blinded by Odysseus, complains to his fellows who don’t understand anything:
“Ὦ φίλοι, οὖτις με κτείνει !”: “O friends, nobody is killing me!” (κτείν-ω I kill)
But Odysseus ends up saying his real name and the cyclops will ask revenge from his father Poseïdon...

On the portico of Apollo’s temple in Delphi (Δελφοί) was inscribed this enigmatic sentence:
nd
“γνῶθι σεαυτόν”: “Know thyself” (γνῶ-θι imperative of the 2 aor. ἔγνω-ν of γι-γνώ-σκ-ω I know
– σε-αυτόν thy-self, ἐμ-αυτόν my-self, ἑ-αυτὸν him-self etc.…)

In the temple the Pythia (Πυθία) delivered mysterious oracles. This priestess got her name from the
Python (Πύθων), a monstrous serpent killed by Apollo. When the Athenians asked her what would
protect their city from the Persian army of king Xerxes, she replied: “ξύλινον τείχος” : “A wooden wall”.
They understood that this was their war fleet and achieved victory in the strait of Salamis.

They succeeded thanks to the sacrifice of Spartans, at the battle of Thermopylae (αἱ Θερμο-πύλαι:
the hot gates), where their king Leonidas replied to Xerxes who asked him to surrender his weapons:
“μολὼν λαβέ”: "Come and take" (literally: having come, take)
nd
• μολ-ὼν : participle of the 2 aor. ἔμολ-ον of the rare verb (μ)βλώ-σκ-ω I come
nd
• λαβ-έ : imperative of the 2 aor. ἔλαβ-ον of λαμβ-άν-ω I take
This is an example of 'laconism' (= to speak in a few words), from the name of Laconia (Λακωνική),
the region of Sparta also called Lacedaemon (Λακεδαίμων), hence the Λ on Spartan shields.

The Spartan mothers gave this shield to their son while ordering him to return (in Dorian dialect):
“ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς” = “ἢ αὐτὴν (ἔχων), ἢ ἐπὶ αὐτῆς”: “either (holding) it, or on it (= ie dead)”
Because it was so large that in order to flee one had to leave it on the battlefield. But the Spartan
2
soldiers used to obey the precept “ἐλευθερία ἢ θάνατος”: “Freedom or death” .

Diogenes was a hermit philosopher who lived half-naked in Athens and Corinth, sleeping in a "πίθος",
a large wheat jar, among stray dogs. He was a follower of cynicism (from κύων gen. κυν-ός, dog). He
indulged in all manner of provocations and eccentricities, walking in broad daylight with a lighted lamp
through the crowd saying “ἄνθρωπον ζητῶ”: “I'm looking for a man”.

When Alexander the Great came to him and asked what he could do to be useful to him, he was
answered “μικρὸν ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου μετάστηθι”: “stand aside a little bit from the sun”.
nd
(μετά-στη-θι imperative of the 2 aor. μετ-έστη-ν of μεθ-ί-στη-μι I change place, stand aside)
Alexander, amused, said later that if he was not Alexander, he would be Diogenes.

Julius Caesar, like any Roman aristocrat, used to speak in Greek and so he said two famous phrases:

Crossing the Rubicon River, which sparked civil war against his rival Pompey:
“ἀνερρίφθω κύϐος”: “Let the die be cast” Greek proverb poorly translated into Latin as: alea jacta est.
rd
(ἀν-ερ-ρίφ-θω 3 pers. sg. perfect passive imperative of ἀνα-ρίπτω I cast, throw up - ὁ κύϐος the die, cube)

And during his assassination in the Senate of Rome, to Brutus whom he had loved and favored:
“καὶ σὺ τέκνον”: “You too my son/child” (in Latin: “tu quoque fili”, quoted “et tu Brute” by Shakespeare).
After these last words, he died at the feet of the statue of Pompey…
1
Socrates says rather “ἃ μὴ οἶδα οὐδὲ οἴομαι εἰδέναι” “what I don’t know I don’t suppose to know”. 2Motto of modern Greece.

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63
The Fox and the Crow, by Aesop

Finally here is a famous fable of the poet Aesop (Αἴσωπος) composed around - 550. What?!
Jean de La Fontaine would have plagiarized? ! No, because he adapted it to beautiful French rhymes.
In this original version, the crow is holding a piece of meat, which makes more sense than a cheese ...
(note that the fox is feminine in Greek: ἡ ἀλώπηξ. Hence "alopecia" because it loses its winter hair)
(Analyze the endings in bold: N nominative/vocative, A accusative, G genitive, D dative, S singular, P plural, m masculine, f feminine,
n neuter, ° person or d declension, inf infinitive, part participle, pres present, aor aorist, imperf imperfect, adv adverb)

ἡ ἀλώπηξ τὸ κρέας ὁ κόραξ

Κόραξ κρέας ἁρπάσας

NSm3°d ὁ κόραξ “the crow” - ASn3°d τὸ κρέας “the meat” - NSm part aor ἁρπάζ-ω “I snatch”
A crow, having snatched a meat,
ἐπί τινος δένδρου ἐκάθισεν.
ἐπί +gen. “on” - GSn τι “a, some” - GSn2°d τό δένδρον “the tree” - 3°S aor κάθιζ-ω “I sit down, settle”
settled on a tree.
Ἀλώπηξ δὲ θεασαμένη αὐτὸν
NSf3°d ἡ ἀλώπηξ “the fox” - NSf part aor θεά-ομαι “I watch” - ASm αὐτός “him, it”
But a (she-)fox having watched him
καὶ βουλομένη τοῦ κρέατος,
NSf part pres βούλ-ομαι “I want, desire” - GSn3°d τὸ κρέας “the meat”
and desiring the meat,
περιγενέσθαι στᾶσα,
inf aor περι-γί-γν-ομαι “I prevail, impose” - NSf part aor ἵ-στη-μι “I stand”
having stood to impose (herself),
ἐπῄνει αὐτὸν ὡς εὐμεγέθη τε καὶ καλόν,
3°S imperf ἐπ-αινέ-ω “I congratulate” - ASm3°d εὐ-μεγέθης “of good size” - ASm2°d καλός “beautiful”
congratulated him as (being) of good size and also beautiful,
λέγουσα καὶ ὡς πρέπει αὐτῷ μάλιστα
NSf part pres λέγ-ω “I say” - 3°S pres πρέπ-ω “I suit, fit” - DSm αὐτός “him, it” - superlative of μάλα "many"
saying also that it suits him the most
τῶν ὀρνέων βασιλεύειν,
GPn2°d τό ὄρνεον “the bird” (≡ ὁ ὄρνῑς) - inf pres βασιλεύ-ω +gen. “I rule over”
to rule over the birds,
καὶ τοῦτο πάντως ἂν ἐγένετο, εἰ φωνὴν εἶχεν.
NSn τοῦτο “this” - adv πάντως “completely” - ἂν (conditional) - 3°S aor γί-γν-ομαι “I am, become, happen” - εἰ “if” -
ASf1°d ἡ φωνή “the voice” - 3°S imperf ἔχ-ω “I have”
and this would have been complete if he had a voice.
Ὁ δὲ παραστῆσαι αὐτῇ θέλων ὅτι καὶ φωνὴν ἔχει,
NSm ὁ-δὲ “this one” - inf aor παρ-ἵ-στη-μι “I show, prove” - DSf αὐτὸς “him, it” -
NSm part pres θέλ-ω “I want” - 3°S pres ἔχ-ω “I have”
This one wanting to show her that he also has a voice,
ἀποβαλὼν τὸ κρέας μεγάλα ἐκεκράγει.
NSm part aor ἀπο-βαλλ-ὼ “I drop” - adv. μεγάλα “largely, broadly” - pluperfect κε-κράγ-α “I croak, scream”
having dropped the meat, croaked broadly.
Ἐκείνη δὲ προσ-δραμοῦσα καὶ τὸ κρέας ἁρπάσασα ἔφη·
NSf ἐκεῖνος “that one” - NSf part aor προσ-τρέχ-ω “I rush over” - NSf part aor ἁρπάζ-ω “I snatch” -
3°S imperf/past φη-μί “I say, speak”
And that one having rushed over and snatched the meat said:
" Ὦ κόραξ, καὶ φρένας εἰ εἶχες,
APf3°d ἡ φρήν “the midriff, wits” - 2°S imperf ἔχ-ω “I have”
Hey! crow, if you had also some wits,
οὐδὲν ἂν ἐδέησας εἰς τὸ πάντων σε βασιλεῦσαι."
ASn οὐδὲν “nothing” - 2°S aor. δέ-ω “I lack” - εἰς “to, for” - τὸ : neuter article substantiating the infinitive that
follows - GPm πάντες “all, everyone” - AS σύ “you, thou” - inf aor. βασιλεύ-ω +gen. “I rule over”
you would lack nothing to rule over everyone. (literally: …for the “thee to rule over all”)
Πρὸς ἄνδρα ἀνόητον ὁ λόγος εὔκαιρος.
πρὸς +acc “toward, in front of” - ASm3°d ὁ ἀνήρ “the man” - ASm ἀνόητος “foolish” -
NSm2°d ὁ λόγος “the speech” - NSm εὔκαιρος “opportune, timely”
In front of a foolish man, the speech (is) opportune.

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Declensions (nouns, adjectives, pronouns αὐτ-ός "him", ἐκεῖν-ος "that one") (3°d +ς / +σ  ς / σ, ψ, ξ )
type nom sg acc sg gen sg dat sg nom pl acc pl gen pl dat pl (voc sg)
f in -α / -η α/η ας / ης
1°d αν / ην ᾳ/ῃ αι ας αις
m in -ας / -ης ας / ης (α)
ων
m, f in -ος ος ον ου οι ους (ε)
2°d ῳ οις
n in -ον / ο ον / ο α
n in -ος / ες ος / ες η
ους ων
m, f in -ης ης η (ες)
ει εις εσι-ν
m, f in -ις ις ιν
εως εων
3°d m in -ευς ευς εα εις εας (ευ)
m, f in -ηρ ηρ ερα ρος ρι ερες ερας ερων ρασι-ν (ερ)
n in -μα μα ματ-ος ματ-ι ματ-α ματ-ων μα-σι-ν
m, f cons. +ς α ος ι ες ας ων +σι-ν
Pronouns/adjectives (personal, interrogative/indefinite, demonstrative, relative) and article:
nom sg acc sg gen sg dat sg nom pl acc pl gen pl dat pl
1° pers. I, we ἐγώ ἐμέ, με ἐμοῦ, μου ἐμοί, μοι ἡμεῖς ἡμᾶς ἡμῶν ἡμῖν
2° pers. thou, you σύ σέ, σε σοῦ, σου σοί, σοι ὑμεῖς ὑμᾶς ὐμῶν ὑμῖν
int/ind m, f who?, a(n) τις τινα τινες τινας
τινος / τοῦ τινι / τῷ τινων τισιν
n what?, a(n) τι τινα
dem. m οὗτος τούτον οὗτοι τούτους
τούτου τούτῳ τούτοις
n this (one) τοῦτο ταῦτα τούτων
f αὕτη ταύτην ταύτης ταύτῃ αὗται ταύτας ταύταις
relative m ὅς ὅν οἵ οὕς
who, οὗ ᾧ οἷς
n ὅ ἅ ὧν
which, that
f ἥ ἥν ἧς ᾗ αἵ ἅς αἷς
article m ὁ τόν οἱ τούς
τοῦ τῷ τοῖς
n the τό τά τῶν
f ἡ τήν τῆς τῇ αἱ τάς ταῖς
Verbal endings
(subjunctive, optative, perfect: see p. 57-58, vowel contractions: p.18)
I thou (s)he, it we you pl they imper. Infinit. participle m, f, n, gen m/n
Present (act=active, m=middle, p=passive)
-ω act ω εις ει ομεν ετε ουσι(ν) ε ειν ων, ουσα, ον, οντος
m/p ομαι ει / ῃ εται όμεθα εσθε ονται ου εσθαι όμενος, η, ον
-μι act ~μι ~ς ~σι μεν τε ασι(ν) ~ ναι ~ς, ~σα, ν, ντος
m/p μαι σαι ται μεθα σθε νται σο σθαι μενος, η, ον
nd
Aorist 2 thematic in -ον and imperfect
-ον act ον ες ε(ν) ομεν ετε ον ε ειν ων, ουσα, ον, οντος
m/p όμην ου ετο όμεθα εσθε οντο ου εσθαι όμενος, η, ον
er
Aorist 1 (sigmatic)
act σα σας σε(ν) σαμεν σατε σαν σον σαι σας, σασα, σαν, σαντος
m σάμην σω σατο σάμεθα σασθε σαντο σαι σασθαι σάμενος, η, ον
Aorist passive
p θην θης θη θημεν θητε θησαν θητι θῆναι θείς, θεῖσα, θέν, θέντος
nd
Aorist 2 athematic and imperfect
act ~ν ~ς ~ ~μεν ~τε ~σαν ~θι ~ναι ς, σα, ν, ντος
nd
Aorist 2 in κα
act ~κα ~κας ~κε(ν) μεν τε σαν ς ~ναι ~ς, ~σα, ν, ντος
m μην ου / σο το μεθα σθε ντο οῦ / σο σθαι μενος, η, ον
~ lengthening of the vowel: ~ (α / ε  η, ο  ω) ~ (ε  ει, ο  ου) (υ unchanged)
Verb οἶδα « to know » present / imperfect (impf)
pres οἶδα οἶσθα οἶδε(ν) ἴσμεν ἴστε ἴσασι(ν) ἴσθι εἰδέναι εἰδ-ώς, -υῖα, -ός, -ότος
impf ᾔδειν ᾔδεις ᾔδει ᾔδειμεν ᾔδειτε ᾔδεισαν
Verb εἰμί « to be » present / imperfect
pres εἰμί εἶ ἐστί(ν) ἐσμέν ἐστέ εἰσί(ν) ἴσθι εἶναι ὤν, οὖσα, ὄν, ὄντος
impf ἤ ἦσθα ἦν ἦμεν ἦτε ἦσαν
nd
Verb φημί « to say » present (imperfect/aorist 2 athematic: ἔ-φη-ν)
pres φημί φῄς φησί(ν) φαμέν φατέ φασί(ν) φάθι φάναι φ-άς, -ᾶσα, -ᾶν, -ᾶντος

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Verbal forms (indicative active)

Present Future Aorist Perfect Meaning

verbs in -ω, -ῶ
λύ-ω λύ-σ-ω ἔ-λυ-σ-α λέ-λυ-κ-α free, untie, dissolve
φιλ(έ)-ῶ φιλή-σ-ω ἐ-φίλη-σ-α πε-φίλη-κ-α love, like, kiss
τιμ(ά)-ῶ τιμή-σ-ω ἐ-τίμη-σ-α τε-τίμη-κ-α honor
δηλ(ό)-ῶ δηλώ-σ-ω ἐ-δήλω-σ-α δε-δήλω-κα clarify, display
irregular verbs
ἄγ-ω ἄξ-ω ἤγαγ-ον ἦχ-α lead, guide, march
αἴρ-ω ἀρ-(έ)-ῶ ἦρ-α ἦρ-κ-α lift, remove, take up
ἀκού-ω ἀκού-σ-ω ἤκου-σ-α ἀκήκο-α hear, listen
ἀν-οίγ-ω ἀν-οίξ-ω ἀν-έῳξ-α ἀν-έῳγ-α open
ἀφ-ικνέ-ομαι ἀφ-ίξ-ομαι ἀφ-ικ-όμην ἀφ-ίγ-μαι arrive
βα-ίν-ω βή-σ-ομαι ἔ-βη-ν βέ-βη-κ-α go, walk
βάλλ-ω βαλ-(έ)-ῶ ἔ-βαλ-ον βέ-βλη-κ-α throw
γί-γν-ομαι γεν-ή-σ-ομαι ἐ-γεν-όμην γέ-γον-α become, be born, occur
γι-γνώ-σκ-ω γνώ-σ-ομαι ἔ-γνω-ν ἔ-γνω-κ-α know
ἔρχ-ομαι εἶ-μι / ἐλεύ-σ-ομαι ἦλθ-ον ἐλήλυθ-α come, go
ἐσθί-ω ἔδ-ομαι / φάγ-ομαι ἔ-φαγ-ον ἐδήδο-κ-α eat
εὑρ-ί-σκ-ω εὑρ-ή-σ-ω εὗρ-ον εὕρ-η-κ-α find
ἔχ-ω ἕξ-ω ἔ-σχ-ον ἔ-σχ-η-κ-α have, hold
θνῄ-σκ-ω θαν-(έ)-οῦμαι ἔ-θαν-ον τέ-θνη-κ-α die
λαμβ-άν-ω λήψ-ομαι ἔ-λαβ-ον εἴ-ληφ-α take
λανθ-άν-ω λήσ-ω ἔ-λαθ-ον λέ-ληθ-α escape notice *
λέγ-ω ἐρ-(έ)-ῶ εἶπ-ον εἴρη-κ-α say
λείπ-ω λείψ-ω ἔ-λιπ-ον λέ-λοιπ-α leave
μανθ-άν-ω μαθ-ή-σ-ω / -ομαι ἔ-μαθ-ον με-μάθ-η-κ-α learn, understand
μι-μνῄ-σκ-ω μνή-σ-ω ἔ-μνη-σ-α μέ-μνη-κ-α remind, recall *
ὁρ(ά)-ω ὄψ-ομαι ε-ἶδ-ον ἑώρα-κ-α / ἑόρα-κ-α see
πάσχ-ω πείσ-ομαι ἔ-παθ-ον πέ-πονθ-α suffer, undergo, feel
πί-ν-ω πί-ομαι ἔ-πι-ον πέ-πω-κ-α drink
πί-πτ-ω πεσ-(έ)-οῦμαι ἔ-πεσ-ον πέ-πτω-κ-α fall
πράτσ-ω πράξ-ω ἔ-πραξ-α πέ-πραχ-α do, practice
στέλλ-ω στελ-(έ)-ῶ ἔ-στειλ-α ἔ-σταλ-κ-α send
τρέχ-ω δραμ-(έ)-οῦμαι ἔ-δραμ-ον δε-δράμ-η-κ-α run
φαίν-ω φαν-(έ)-ῶ ἔ-φαν-α / ἔ-φην-α πέ-φαγ-κ-α expound, make shine
φεύγ-ω φεύξ-ομαι ἔ-φυγ-ον πέ-φευγ-α flee
φέρ-ω οἴ-σ-ω ἤνεγκ-ον ἐνήνοχ-α bring, bear, carry
verbs in -μι
τί-θη-μι θή-σ-ω ἔ-θη-κ-α τέ-θει-κ-α put, place, set
δί-δω-μι δώ-σ-ω ἔ-δω-κ-α δέ-δω-κ-α give
ἔ-στη-σ-α make stand, set
ἵ-στη-μι στή-σ-ω
ἔ-στη-ν ἕ-στη-κ-α stand
ἀφ-ί-η-μι ἀφ-ή-σ-ω ἀφ-ῆ-κ-α ἀφ-εῖ-κ-α let go, give up
ἀπ-όλ-λυ-μι ἀπ-ολέ-σ-ω / -ολῶ ἀπ-ώλε-σ-α ἀπ-ολώλε-κ-α destroy, lose
δείκ-νυ-μι δείξ-ω ἔ-δειξ-α δέ-δειχ-α show

* in mediopassive: (ἐπι)-λανθ-άν-ομαι = forget, μέ-μνη-μαι (perfect with present meaning) +gen = remember

The dual
To talk about two things or two people, ancient Greek sometimes uses the dual instead of the plural.
The dual has only 2 cases: nominative-vocative-accusative (NA) and genitive-dative (GD), and one form
of the article for the 3 genders (NA τὼ, GD τοῖν). If the dual is used, “two” (δύο) becomes δυοῖν in GD:
article two 1°d 2°d 3°d we both you both
NA τὼ δύο -α -ω -ε νώ σφώ τὼ (δύο) φίλω ἀκού-ετον τοῖν (δυοῖν) κόραιν
GD τοῖν δυοῖν -αιν -οιν -οιν νῷν σφῷν the two friends listen to the two girls
nd rd nd
The verb (2 and 3 pers.) replaces the -ε of the 2 pers plural (-τε / -σθε) by:
-ον in indicative present, future, perfect, imperative and subjunctive: active -τον / mediopassive -σθον
-ην in indicative aorist, imperfect, pluperfect, and optative: active -την / mediopassive -σθην

66
Table of contents

The alphabet page 1

Nouns, articles and adjectives (the nominative) page 2
Numbers up to 10 page 4
The verb in the present indicative, the negation, the interrogation page 6
The direct object complement (the accusative) page 8
How to say "of" (the genitive) page 10
How to say “to”, “for”, “with” (the dative) page 12
How to say "with (among), together, at the same time" page 14
Relative, interrogative and demonstrative pronouns page 14
How to indicate a position page 16
Adverbs page 16
Contracted verbs page 18
How to form the passive, the "middle voice" and talk about money page 18
Talking to someone (vocative), get to know someone, common words page 20
A meeting between two old friends page 21
Numbers from 10 to 20 page 28
Chat with Alexander page 29
The third declension page 30
Time (date, hour, seasons) page 30
The elements of the verb page 32
The imperfect page 32
My life in the countryside page 33
The present participle page 36
The future page 36
Travelers to Olympia page 37
Light and colors page 42
The numbers (continuation and end) page 42
The "infinitive proposition" page 42
The adjective, the comparative and the superlative page 43
To give an order, an instruction: the imperative page 43
Swimming and explorations page 44
Telling a story, the time of narration: the aorist page 49
The robbers page 51
Medicine and the body page 55
Wishes, fears and hypotheses: the subjunctive and the optative page 57
It's over, it's done, it's the perfect page 58
The temple of mysteries page 59
Famous historical phrases page 62
The Fox and the Crow, by Aesop page 64
Summary table of the main endings page 65
Verbal forms page 66
The dual page 66

67