Engineering Encyclopedia

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Adaptive Control

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Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
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Chapter : Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: PCI10210 E.W. Reah on 875-0426
Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Adaptive Control

CONTENTS PAGE

DESCRIBE ADAPTIVE CONTROL AND ITS USES ........................................................ 1

DESCRIBE APPROACHES TO ADAPTATION................................................................. 5
Programmed Adaptation ............................................................................................ 5
Example of Programmed Adaptation Using Process Variable
Information..................................................................................................... 5
Feedforward Adaptation ............................................................................................ 8
Feedback Adaptation ................................................................................................. 13
IMPLEMENT ADAPTIVE CONTROLLERS ...................................................................... 15
Adaptive Hardware .................................................................................................... 15
GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................... 16

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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Adaptive Control

DESCRIBE ADAPTIVE CONTROL AND ITS USES

The word adapt means to change or fit by modification to new conditions. An adaptive
control system may be defined as a system whose parameters automatically change in
response to changing process characteristics. The automatic change of the control parameters
allows compensation for the changes in the process characteristics and the maintenance of a
constant loop gain. The benefit of this adaptation is the ability of the loop to maintain
stability and an optimum response of the controlled variable while being subjected to load
upsets. We have effectively forced the control system to change its parameters to satisfy the
process requirements through adaptation.
Adaptation goes beyond the steady state gain linearization or compensations in analyzing
steady state gains that we discussed in PCI 102.05.
A simple linearization to achieve constant steady state is not considered adaptation since all
the controller functions remain the same. This is no more than linearization of a loop element
such as in an orifice plate application, where a square root extractor is used to linearize.

LINEARIZED
²P

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A nonlinear controller typically used in a pH application operates at different gains based on

the loop operating point. This controller, even with its gain a function of the pH measurement
input, is not considered adaptive since its controller functions are fixed.
Consider a pH process controlled by a nonlinear controller.

14

11
DEAD
BAND
pH 7 m
( OUT )
4

0
REAGENT ( IN ) pH ( C )

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Applying the controller to the process in some cases linearizes the loop for constant gain. The
intent here is to get a linear overall response by compensating the nonlinearity of the process
with the nonlinearity of the controller. This works for well-behaved titration curves, where
the high gain portion of the pH curve coincides with the dead band of the controller.

CONTROLLER
DEAD BAND

NON - LINEAR OUTPUT

NORMAL CONTROLLER
m GAIN OVERALL
LOW GAIN LINEAR

PROCESS

pH INPUT

If the titration curve drifts (changes shape) the linearization loses its effectiveness and there is
nothing the controller can do to take care of the problem. Therefore, this is strictly nonlinear
control. Remember, to be adaptive, the controller must change its parameters in order to
accommodate the changing process parameters. To accomplish this requires a more capable
controller as well as additional communication between the process and the controller.

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Adaptive Control

DESCRIBE APPROACHES TO ADAPTATION

A few approaches have been used to implement adaptive control strategies. The following is
a summary of some of these approaches.
• Gain scheduling or programmed adaptation - based on a change in a process variable
i.e. the set point.

• Feedforward adaptation - based on a change in load.

• Feedback adaptation - based on a change in the controlled variable (measurement.)

BASED
ON ∆ r

PROGRAMMED
ADAPTATION

BASED
ON ∆q

FEEDFORWARD FF / FB r
ADAPTATION CONTROL

BASED
ON ∆ C
FEEDBACK
ADAPTATION
LOADS
q

PROCESS
OUTPUT

SUMMARY OF ADAPTIVE APPROACHES

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Programmed Adaptation
If it is possible to determine a relationship in a given process between a process variable and
its effect on the gain of that process than a program can be set up to adapt the controller
adjustments (tuning settings) to accommodate the particular process gain. Large capacity
processes such as a heat exchanger or a critical level application are examples of this
approach. Both of these processes have dynamic gains that vary with load. They are also in
most cases a once through-process which may be difficult to control with a simple feedback
loop.
Example of Programmed Adaptation Using Process Variable Information
Let us proceed to investigate the level application for programmed adaptation.

LC

SUPPLY FIN INPUT OF

PROCESS
LT

OUTPUT OF
PROCESS

FO LOAD

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A test of this process shows that the gain of the process is a function of the load as well as the
set point or operating point.

STEADY STATE

r3
f3
f2
h r2 f1
r1

Fi

Where loads: f3 < f2 < f1

Notice that for a given load (f1, f2, or f3) the gain of the process is a function of the set point.
G = d out d in
∆h
G =
i.e. ∆fi
and for a given load as r ↑ G ↓

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If we could analytically define the load curves for the process, we could define the gain of the
process for various set points at the particular load. A computer is programmed to schedule
various controller gains, PID as a function of the set point and the particular load. The tuning
constants of the controller are thus modified to compensate for the changing process gain and
to maintain optimum response.

GAIN SCHEDULE CONTROLLER

r > 75%
OPERATION P1 Ι1 D1
CONDITIONS P r > 50%
i. e SET POINT
R
O
P2 Ι2 D2 OUTPUT
r > 25%
G
R P3 Ι3 D3
A r > 0%
M P4 Ι4 D4

m
C

m SUPPLY
PROCESS
PRODUCT
C = f (LOAD, m )

LOAD

Gain scheduling as seen above is designed to handle changes in process gain.

The scheme looks like an open-loop compensation that uses process variable information, to
compensate for feedback controller gains.
To design a gain schedule system it is necessary to determine the operating variables that
affect the product being made and to implement the schedule with this information. The
controller PID settings will have to be tuned for the various process conditions in order to
handle the process gain variations and maintain stability at all operating points.
Since the information basically is of the open-loop type, purists may argue whether gain
scheduling or this type of programmed adaptation is truly an adaptive system.

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Feedforward Adaptation
We can improve on gain scheduling type of adaptive open-loop approach by arranging an
adaptive program based directly on load information. This makes the strategy a feedforward
adaptation.

INPUT
FS

FW, T 2
OUTPUT

FW, T 1
LOADS

CONDENSATE

This is also a once through capacity process whose steady state gain:
∆T2
Kp =
∆F s

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The dynamic gain for this process can be evaluated as follows:

FW 1

T2 FW 2

FW 3

t
Where: Fw3 > Fw2 > Fw1
Recognize that as the load, Fw, increases through the heat exchanger, the dead time decreases.
That is, if we set the steam flow, Fs, at a given flow and observe the outlet temperature, T2, at
a given cold water flow Fw3, we would see some dead time and then a steady state outlet
temperature. If we decrease the load to Fw1 where Fw1 < Fw3, then, since the flow through
the process is less, the dead time is longer and the steady state outlet temperature is higher.
The steady state gain for this process
∆T 2
Kp =
∆F s Load = Const

is a function of the load, as in the case of the level tank. As the load, Fw, increases, the
steady state gain decreases. Now considering the dynamic gain, we know:
1 1
τd ∝ ∝ i.e. as load, F w ↑, the Dead Time, τdt ↓
Fw Load

We also know that the period of oscillation and dead time are related:
τo ∝ τd

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The dynamic gain of a self-regulating capacity is given by:

 2 −1 2
 τ1  
G = 1 + 2π 
 τo  

For a given process, with a capacity time constant τ1, as τd changes, τo changes and the
dynamic gain G changes as follows:
1 1
τd ∝ ; τo ∝
i.e. Fw Fw
1
G ∝ τo ; ∴ G ∝
Fw
And as the load increases, τo decreases, the dynamic gain also decreases since G is given
approximately by:
τo
G ≈
2πτ1
Since we established that both the dynamic and steady state gain of the process decrease with
increasing load, we require an increasing controller dynamic as well as steady state gain with
increasing load to maintain an optimum response. The gain of a PID controller is given by:
2
100  2πD τo 
G = 1+ -
PB  τo 2πI 
100
where PB is the controller steady state gain and the remaining terms constitute the dynamic
gain. For optimum response under changing load conditions we require both the steady state
and dynamic gains of the controller to be a function of load. Since the process gain is
inversely related to load
1
Gp ∝
Fw

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we require a controller whose gain is directly related to load

Gc ∝ F w
Steady state gain of the controller will affect damping of the loop, and dynamic gain of the
controller affects the period of response as well as the damping.
Consider steady state gain adaptation:
1
Gp ∝
Fw and Gc ∝ F w
100 1
Gc = or Gc ∝
PB PB
Therefore PB relates to load as follows:
1
PB ∝
Fw
i.e., as the load increases we want the PB to decrease.
Consider the dynamic gain adaptation .
As derivative time, D is increased, τo decreases, and as integral time I in minutes, is increased,
τo decreases.
In order to maintain a constant response period, τo, we must adaptively change the controller
gain setting of D and I.
We have already seen:
1
τo ∝ τd ∝
Fw
1
D ∝ ∝ Fw
τo

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1
I ∝ ∝ Fw
τo
∴ I, D ∝ F w (where I and D are in min)
Thus, as the load increases, we want I and D to increase in order to maintain a constant
damping period.
Putting all the information together we can now synthesize a load adapted PID algorithm.
Consider a PID algorithm:
100  1 dc 
m =
PB 
e + ∫
I
edt - D
dt 
We can convert this to the load adapted algorithm:
100  1 D dc 
m =
PB 
f e +
If ∫ edt -
f dt 
Where f is the normalized (0 to 1) output of a flow transmitter measuring the load Fw.
If we tune the controller at maximum flow (f = 1) the above algorithm is a normal PID
algorithm. At maximum load the process gain is minimum and controller gain is maximum.
As f decreases, the process gain increases and we require the controller gain to decrease and
maintain the damped period, τo constant.
Summary of adaptation:
100
f
PB as f decreases, Gp increases, and Gc decreases.
1 as f decreases τ d in the process increases and τ o increases. The
If effective integral time, I f, increases causing the period to decrease.

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D
as f decreases, effective derivative time increases, decreasing τ o .
f
The proportional term serves to maintain constant damping with the load change while the
integral and derivative adapted terms serve to maintain constant τo with decreasing load.
The gain compensation is accomplished by programming the PID settings of the controller as
functions of load (Fw).
Feedback Adaptation
The titration curve shown below is extremely nonlinear.

TITRATION CURVE

14

11

pH 7

0
REAGENT

The gain of this process varies significantly and is quite high between 4 < pH < 11.
A nonlinear-controller has some possibilities regarding control of this process if the titration
curve is stable and of a fixed shape. The titration curve however can change its shape or drift
which make the nonlinear solution ineffective. Other solutions became available as electronic
hardware was introduced to the process industries. Electronic solutions became available in
the early 1970's prior to the microprocessor age.

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One of the earliest industrial adaptive control strategies used electronic hardware in a
feedback type adaptation using two controllers. One of these controllers had a nonlinear
algorithm with a dead band while the other controller performed the adaptation by varying the
dead band on the nonlinear controller.
SET POINT

ADAPTIVE DEAD BAND NON - LINEAR

CONTROLLER WIDTH CONTROLLER

pHT

PROCESS

The adaptive controller senses the period of the pH measurement and changes the dead band
as required to bring measurement to the set point. The adaptive control strategy involved the
widening of the dead band if oscillations persisted and the narrowing of the dead band when
the response was sluggish.

SLOW DRIFT, NARROW THE DB.

OSCILLATION, WIDEN THE DB.

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IMPLEMENT ADAPTIVE CONTROLLERS

In the 1980s adaptive feedback-type controllers with self-tuning capabilities attained
significance in the process control industry. Several commercial microprocessor-based
products with adaptive capabilities are available today.
Several hundred thousand industrial loops have some adaptive strategy applied with varying
degrees of success.
The adaptation capability offered by the adaptive controller, with PID changing capabilities,
still requires the control engineer to have a good knowledge of the process and of the
application of this basic knowledge in setting up the loop for better control. Linearization,
process noise filtering, minimization of dead time and lag in the instrumentation must be
considered for proper control.
The implementation of an industrial adaptive control strategy requires more time and effort
than a conventional PID controller. Obviously, the adaptive strategies involve more difficult
processes.
An adaptive self-tuning type controller should not be used arbitrarily on any process. If the
process gain is fixed, even if it is nonlinear, there may be other ways to handle the loop. For
example, as we saw in PCI 102.06, Tuning Feedback Control Loops, we may only add some
robustness to the tuning settings. Also, it is not good practice to rely on adaptive control to
take care of an improperly designed loop. It is better to solve the problem and apply
conventional control.
Adaptive Hardware
There is a variety of adaptive or self-tuning controller hardware available today. Each
controller has a different implementation requirement. Some of these controllers induce a
load upset to get information. Others wait for natural disturbance to make PID changes.
The products relate to tuning much like we did in PCI 102.06 with varying results as we did.
One particular product uses a pretune mode to get Ziegler Nichols type of information, than
through pattern recognition deals with gain or damping as well as period adjustments. The
likelihood of more advanced easier to use hardware should enhance the adaptive control
capabilities in the future.

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GLOSSARY
adaptive control Control in which automatic means are used to change the type
and/or influence of control parameters in such a way as to improve
the performance of the control system.
characteristic curve A graph (curve) which shows the ideal values at steady-state, or an
output variable of a system as a function of an input variable, the
other input variables being maintained at specified constant values.
compensation Provision of a special construction, a supplemental device, circuit, or
special materials to counteract sources or error due to variations in
specified operating conditions.
compensator A device which converts a signal into some function which, either
alone or in combination with other signals, directs the final
controlling element to reduce deviations in the directly controlled
variable.
dead band The range through which an input can be varied without initiating
observable change in output. (There are separate and distinct input-
output relationships for increasing and decreasing signals.)
dead zone A predetermined range of input through which the output remains
unchanged, irrespective of the direction of change of the input
signal.
drift An undesired change in the output-input relationship over a period
of time.
feedforward control Control in which information concerning one or more conditions
that can disturb the controlled variable is converted, outside of any
feedback loop, into corrective action to minimize deviations of the
controlled variable.
linear The type of relationship that exists between two variables when the
ratio of the value of one variable to the corresponding value of the
other is constant over the entire range of possible values.

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linearity The closeness to which the curve relating two variables

approximates a straight line. It is usually expressed as the maximum
deviation between the actual curve and the best fit straight line.
linearization The process of converting a nonlinear (nonstraight-line) response
into a linear response.
microprocessor A large-scale integrated circuit that has all the functions of a
computer, except memory and input/output systems. The IC thus
includes the instruction set, ALU, registers and control functions.
pH The symbol for the measurement of acidity or alkalinity. Solutions
with a pH reading of less than 7 are acid; solutions with a pH
reading of more than 7 are alkaline on the pH scale of 0 to 14, where
the midpoint of 7 is neutral.
robust control loop A robust control loop is one whose controller tuning settings can
accommodate moderate changes in the process parameters and
perform well even in the presence of these changes.
self-tuning controllers Controllers with the ability to change their control parameters (PID)
based on process information.
titration curve A plot with pH as the ordinate and units of reagent added per unit of
sample as the abscissa.

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