Article

Leadership Effectiveness and Journal of Human Values

1–17
Psychological Well-being: The Role © 2020 Management Centre
for Human Values
of Workplace Spirituality Reprints and permissions:
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DOI: 10.1177/0971685820947334
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S. Riasudeen1 and Pankaj Singh2

Abstract
The purpose of this article is to examine the relationship of leadership effectiveness and psychological
well-being with the work outcomes of intention to quit, job involvement and organization-based
self-esteem (OBSE), and whether workplace spirituality plays a role in mediating the associations of
leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being with work outcomes. The study is cross-sectional
and non-experimental. Data were obtained from 630 information technology (IT) employees from
South India, adopting ‘power calculations’. The analysis was performed using SPSS version 20 for
Windows and LISREL version 8.72. Results reveal that leadership effectiveness and psychological well-
being have a significant positive association with workplace spirituality, and this, in turn, has an impact
on the work outcomes of intention to quit, job involvement and OBSE. Workplace spirituality can limit
any negative associations of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being with work outcomes.
This research adds to the existing body of knowledge in the spirituality literature by drawing attention
to the positive aspects of the interplay between spirituality, leadership transformation and well-being
at work. The article concludes that building core values anchoring spirituality would lead to greater
connectedness and healthier employee outcomes.

Keywords
Workplace spirituality, leadership, psychological well-being, job involvement, organization-based self-
esteem, India

Introduction
Spirituality is an inner science to create a conducive inner atmosphere. It is widely recognized as essential
to human flourishing. The application and relevance of spirituality have become increasingly acceptable
aspects in the workplace, including among leaders (Pawar, 2009). Spirituality generates and reinforces

1
Department of Management Studies, Pondicherry University (A Central University), Pondicherry, India.
2
Indian Institute of Management Raipur, Atal Nagar, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India.

Corresponding author:
Pankaj Singh, Indian Institute of Management Raipur, Atal Nagar, P. O. Kurru (Abhanpur), Raipur, Chhattisgarh 493661, India.
E-mail: psingh@iimraipur.ac.in
2 Journal of Human Values

values that are reflected in an organization’s vision and culture. Spirituality in the workplace can exist
without pressurizing individuals to buy into a particular belief or opinion; however, with reference to
effective leadership, it involves experiencing and expressing spiritual values, such as integrity, and
demonstrating spiritual behavior, such as expressing greater sensitivity towards individuals (Reave,
2005). Spirituality enables leaders to develop competence for dealing with challenges in the workplace.
Those who long for greater purpose, typically described as leading with soul, can find fulfillment from
spiritual sources (Ledbetter, 2017). Spirituality in the workplace, as an impetus for achieving
organizational and individual outcomes, has gained momentum recently. As such, its antecedents and
precedents have been extensively researched in combination, to measure individuals’ outcomes as a
result of their work (for a review, see Jurkiewicz & Giacalone, 2004; Kolodinsky et al., 2008; Milliman
et al., 2003). This article adopts the connotations and implications of spirituality, in the context of the
workplace, of Ashmos and Duchon (2000), who defined ‘workplace spirituality as the recognition that
employees have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the
context community’, and Mitroff and Denton (1999), who asserted that ‘workplace spirituality involves
the effort to find one’s ultimate purpose in life, to develop a strong connection to co-workers and other
people associated with work, and to have consistency (or alignment) between one’s core beliefs and the
values of their organization’. As the individual needs to be connected with work and others at work,
workplace spirituality is increasingly seen as essential (Khanna & Srinivas, 2000); therefore, the concept
of workplace spirituality has received substantial attention in the literature. Some researchers opined that
the notion has not yet been fully examined (Duchon & Plowman, 2005) and that it is still in the initial
phase of rigorous investigation (Dent et al., 2005; Moore & Casper, 2006).
However, the concept of spirituality as a researchable area has gained importance and momentum
in recent years. For example, Brown (2003) and Luis Daniel (2010) considered that the presence of
spirituality makes an organization humanistic. It also improves wellness and meaningfulness (Schaufeli
et al., 2006). Karakas (2010), meanwhile, found that spirituality enhances empowerment and makes
individuals more complete. Schutte (2016) asserted that workplace spirituality has a plausible effect on
leadership, which, in turn, increases job satisfaction, job involvement (Malik et al., 2017) and work
engagement (Petchsawang & McLean, 2017). Moreover, spirituality enriches learning and innovative
behaviour (Pandey et al., 2016, 2019).
Whilst contemporary notions of workplace spirituality are leading to positive, pragmatic effects on
work outcomes, this topic remains less studied in India. There is an absence of serious attention and
systematic treatment of the importance of human experience and spirituality. Moreover, observed
evidence is seldom in the context of information technology (IT) employees, wherein a diversified
workforce and culture are eminent. IT firms witness higher attrition, with the conditional and limited
loyalty, and the lack of a sense of community, of most employees being viewed as the main reasons
(Milliman et al., 1999). In the prevailing circumstances of the Indian IT industry, Sreeja and Mukherjee
(2018) concluded that developing workplace spirituality generates strong belief systems and cultivates
constructive employee behaviour. They also asserted that leadership, with necessary organizational
support, will foster self-esteem and improve their alignment with the organization. Thus, this article
considers that research and practice in the IT industry must be enriched for a better understanding of
workplace spirituality and its implications.
Workplace spirituality is a critical dimension for IT employees due to the demanding nature of their
work, entailing: creativity, an extremely important attribute for achieving team effectiveness (Luis
Daniel, 2010); the need to interact with each other to share ideas and information (Srivastava et al., 2006;
Riasudeen and Singh 3

Tombaugh et al., 2011); the need to build strong connections, within one’s inner self and with each other
(Ashmos & Duchon, 2000); the need to identify oneself with the team’s common goal(s) (Duchon &
Plowman, 2005); and a desire to assist other people (Ingersoll, 2003). In this sense, the organization and
individual will benefit in the presence of committed workplace spirituality practices (Fry, 2003), which
evolve in a conducive climate in which employees perceive that how they are managed and how they relate
to one another (Burke & Litwin, 1992) lead to contentment and happiness.
Understanding the intention to quit, which is termed as a cognitive expression or attitudinal direction
(Siong et al., 2006), has been a focus of many studies. In these, ‘turnover intentions’ has been associated
with antecedents like, among others, lack of commitment, poor performance (Ozcelik & Barsade, 2011),
job disengagement (Christian & Ellis, 2014) and working conditions (Abu Raddaha et al., 2012). The
‘intention to quit’ urges an individual to seek alternatives in other organizations, resulting in a dearth of
talent, financial loss and high costs. This issue is systemic among Indian IT industries, resulting in
knowledge-based and pecuniary losses (Khera & Divya, 2018). There is, therefore, a strong need to
comprehend the organizational factors that impinge on the intention to quit, with researchers attempting to
comprehend how to build an environment that stimulates a sense of belongingness and a sense that
employees’ work is meaningful and necessary (DiMeglio et al., 2005).
In this vein, research that recognizes antidotes for the intention to quit is warranted, such as on
organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) (Lapointe et al., 2011; Wei & Albright, 1998), job involvement
(Kim & Hyun, 2017), leadership (Aria et al., 2019; Haque et al., 2019) and psychological well-being
(McInerney et al., 2018; Rana & Javed, 2019). Therefore, this research focuses on the effectiveness of
a leader, as perceived by their followers, and psychological well-being as precedents of work outcomes. In
doing so, this article posits that the workplace spirituality construct will mediate and have an impact on the
three observed work outcomes: capture effect (intention to quit), behavioural intention (job involvement)
and admiration (OBSE).
The remainder of the article is organized as follows. The next section deals with the theoretical
background and formulation of hypotheses. This is followed by a description of the methods used. Following
the presentation and discussion of the results obtained, conclusions are presented, including theoretical and
practical implications, limitations and directions for further study.

Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses

This section explores the relevant literature on the relationship of the constructs under the study, that
is, leadership effectiveness, psychological well-being, workplace spirituality and work outcomes, com-
prising intention to quit, job involvement and OBSE. Based on the discussion, pertinent hypotheses are
developed.

Leadership Effectiveness, Psychological Well-being and Work Outcomes

Leadership is a central component in a work system as it creates a connection between the individuals and
the system (Bolman & Deal, 1991). Leaders build values and enrich individual sprit through their effective
practices, thus creating meaningful work (Pfeffer, 2003). The effectiveness needs to be understood from the
point of view of their followers; therefore, this article uses the definition provided by Lord and Maher
4 Journal of Human Values

(1991, p. 11) of leadership ‘as the process of being perceived by others as a leader’, implying that ‘it is not
the leader who acts but how his action is perceived by his followers’. However, while previous studies
have examined leadership’s effectiveness on work outcomes, relatively little attention has been paid to
the followers’ perspective. The rationale for considering followers’ perceptions is that the behaviour
shown by the leaders indicates an individual’s organizational intentions (Levinson, 1965). Further, such
behaviour can stimulate emotions and psychological attachment of the followers to remain in the
organization because of their strong identification with, and perceived care of, their leaders (Herman,
2008).
A study among retail salespeople conducted by Firth et al. (2004) found that leaders providing
emotional support led to enhanced job satisfaction and commitment and significantly controlled the
intention to quit, as they reduced the causes of stressors. Similarly, leadership was inversely associated
with intention to quit among employees of for-profit businesses (Martin & Epitropaki, 2001). Bycio et
al.’s (1995) study among nursing professionals revealed that the intention to leave was reduced when the
followers’ needs were satisfied by their leaders. In a similar vein, a participative management style with
shared decision-making restored willingness to continue among healthcare employees (Angermeyer et
al., 2009). Embracing the views of Shamir et al. (1993, p. 585) that ‘leadership serves as a link of
interpretive orientations such that … followers’ interests, values, and beliefs, and the leader’s activities,
goals, and ideology become congruent and complementary’, followers recognize intellectual stimulation
and support by their leaders to become more proactive and independent, which enriches their job
involvement (Sosik et al., 1997). For instance, if an employee observes that their leaders promote an
exciting vision and high expectations, they also perceive expected active roles and show positive
involvement (Menon, 2001).
The self-evaluation construct, that is, OBSE, is defined as ‘the perceived self-value that individuals
have of themselves as organizational members acting within an organizational context’ (Lindsley et al.,
1995). Thus, it reflects an individual’s understanding of self-competence, importance and worthiness in
the organization (Pierce et al., 1989). In this sense, organizational leaders are in a position to prominently
affect subordinates’ self-evaluation, through their attachment to their subordinates and the trust vested in
them, which enriches OBSE (Lau et al., 2014). Notably, OBSE is mitigated by leader benevolence at
higher levels and strengthened by lower levels of benevolence (Chan et al., 2013). Psychological well-
being is a construct that includes intrapersonal features (Garcia, 2011) and is related to self-actualization
and adoption. As proposed by Ryff (1989), it comprises ‘positive relationship, environmental mastery,
self-acceptance, autonomy, personal growth and purpose in life’. Therefore, it is readily perceived that
an engaging atmosphere cultivating meaningful work will enhance individual involvement with the job.
As observed by Judge and Bono (2001), an individual’s occupational role determines self-esteem: it
creates a pathway for making their work meaningful and more valuable, resulting in higher job
involvement and a reduction in the intention to quit. A clearly defined individual role will diminish
ambiguity, with reduced stress leading to greater involvement. Such engagement will diminish the
propensity to leave the organization. A significant relationship between psychological well-being and
self-esteem has been reported by Moshki and Ashtarian (2010) and supported by the study of Devonish
(2013). A study among mental health professionals conducted by Awan and Sitwat (2014) established the
association of psychological well-being with self-esteem. Based on the above discussion, the following
hypothesis is formulated (see also Figure 1):

H1: Leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being will be negatively related to intention to
quit and positively related to job involvement and OBSE.
Riasudeen and Singh 5

Figure 1.  Leadership Effectiveness, Psychological Well-being and Work Outcomes

Source: The authors.
Note: *OBSE= Organization Based Self-Esteem set properly

Workplace Spirituality and Work Outcomes

Workplace spirituality, as a construct of measuring an individual’s work outcomes, has been studied
extensively by various researchers (e.g., Milliman et al., 2003; Reave, 2005). One of the work outcome
constructs of this study, that is, intention to quit, which is defined as ‘as the extent to which an employee
is planning to leave the organization’ (Igbaria & Greenhaus, 1992) is inversely associated with a sense
of community (Trott, 1996). In line with this, DiMeglio et al. (2005) ascertained the importance of
environment, wherein the sense of community and connectedness reduces turnover intention. Another
dimension of work outcome, that is, job involvement, which is an attitudinal variable, results from
personal alignment with the work and the meaningfulness of life and has been found to be positively
correlated with spirituality at work. On examining this relationship, a positive association between
workplace spirituality and involvement at work has been found, with perceived support also moderating
these constructs. As observed by Milliman et al. (1999), enhanced emotional engagement leads to a
feeling of positivity in employees’ lives, which is further nourished in a spiritual work environment
providing inherent motivation, thus enhancing the engagement of individuals at work (Fry, 2003).
Kolodinsky et al. (2008) revealed that spirituality at work has a constructive relationship with involve-
ment at work. A less assessed construct, but nevertheless an important one, sharing a relationship with
workplace spirituality is OBSE, which makes employees perceive themselves to be an integral element
of the organization. Milliman et al. (2003) found a positive association of spirituality at work with
OBSE, which was further supported by Geh and Tan (2009) analysing job satisfaction in different
organizational settings. Riasudeen and Prabavathy (2011) also stated a significant association of
workplace spirituality and OBSE. In order to test the relationship, the following hypothesis is formulated
(see also Figure 2):
6 Journal of Human Values

Figure 2.  Workplace Spirituality and Work Outcomes

Source: The authors.

H2: Workplace spirituality will be negatively related to intention to quit and positively related to job
involvement and OBSE.

Leadership Effectiveness, Psychological Well-being, Workplace

Spirituality and Work Outcomes
Having discussed in earlier sections the relationship of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-
being with work outcomes, and likewise the relationship of workplace spirituality with work outcomes,
this article posits the existence of significant and overlapping relationships of the study’s constructs.
Dehler and Welsh (1994) and Pawar (2008, 2009) reported significant relationships of leadership
effectiveness with spirituality at the workplace. Sanders et al. (2003) suggested that leaders are rated as
being effective by their followers if they exhibit superior initiative for intensified intuition and self-
knowledge and possess more features of spirituality. These studies proposed that there is a need to
measure leadership and the function of spirituality in the workplace. Ajala (2013) affirmed that people
having psychological wellness understand the inherent spirituality in the workplace which affect their
work outcome. As there is limited empirical evidence, thus revealing a research gap, this article asserts
that there is a need to assess the mediating effect of workplace spirituality.
Given that leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being are expected to predict work
outcomes, and that work spirituality predicts work outcomes, it is possible that work spirituality mediates
the relationship of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being with intention to quit, job
involvement and OBSE. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed (see also Figure 3):

H3: Workplace spirituality will mediate the association of leadership effectiveness and psychological
well-being with the intention to quit, job involvement and OBSE.
Riasudeen and Singh 7

Figure 3.  Leadership Effectiveness, Psychological Well-being, Workplace Spirituality and Work Outcomes
Source: The authors.

Method
The study is cross-sectional and non-experimental. Data were obtained from 630 IT employees of South
India adopting ‘power calculations’, as suggested by MacCallum et al. (1996). Respondents were
contacted through an online survey method (Google forms). For data collection, Dillman’s (2011) ‘total
design method’ was adopted, revised for online surveys. Every respondent was contacted through email,
and subsequent mails, up to four times, over a time span of 5 days.
The survey instrument first measured leadership effectiveness using a scale developed by Wood and
Winston (2007), comprising openness (10 items), responsibility (10 items) and answerability (10 items),
with an internal consistency reliability score of 0.98. To measure psychological well-being, Ryff’s (1995)
18-item scale was adopted, with a reliability score of 0.96. Workplace spirituality was measured using
a scale developed by Milliman et al. (2003), comprising sub-dimensions of meaning at work, sense of
community and alignment of organizational values, with internal consistency scores of 0.88, 0.91 and
0.94, respectively. Milliman et al.’s (2003) modified scale was used to measure work outcomes consisting
of the following sub-dimensions: intention to quit (α = 0.82); job involvement (α = 0.84); and OBSE
(α = 0.93). A 5-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, was used in all
measures of this study.

Results and Discussion

SPSS 20 for Windows and LISREL version 8.72 were used to perform preliminary analyses and model
development, respectively. Statistical information in numerous areas was examined as a preliminary step
to the data analyses. The outliers in the data were first identified; in the next step, errors were corrected,
and then the accuracy of the data was examined, not considering any values beyond the permissible
range. Reliability analyses confirmed the internal consistency of constructs, with Cronbach’s alpha
ranging from 0.75 to 0.93, composite reliability (CR) above the prescribed value of 0.70, and the range
8 Journal of Human Values

of average variance extracted (AVE) ranging from 0.53 to 0.64. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs)
was performed to develop a measurement model after confirming normality, homogeneity, linearity and
multicollinearity of the data collected.
In order to analyse workplace spirituality as a mediator, three models were developed: the first
examined the direct relationship of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being (independent
variables) with work outcomes (dependent variables) (H1); the second examined the direct relationship
of workplace spirituality with work outcomes (H2); and the third examined workplace spirituality as a
mediator of the relationship of the independent and dependent variables (H3) (see Figure 4).

Figure 4.  Relationship of Independent and Dependent Variables

Source: The authors.

Table 1.  Results of Structural Model I

Independent
Variable Dependent Variable Std. Error Coefficient t R2
LE Intention to quit 0.046 −0.21 −4.61* 0.25
Job involvement 0.044 0.32 7.34* 0.45
OBSE 0.042 0.38 9.06* 0.41
PWB Intention to quit 0.048 −0.38 −7.85* 0.25
Job involvement 0.047 0.44 9.38* 0.41
OBSE 0.043 0.42 9.64* 0.45
Source: The authors.
Note: LE = Leadership effectiveness; PWB = psychological well-being; OBSE = organization-based self-esteem.
*significant at p ≤ 0.01.
Riasudeen and Singh 9

The path analysis results indicated that all coefficient values were significant, with leadership
effectiveness and psychological well-being establishing a significant negative relationship with intention
to quit, emphasizing that the perceived effectiveness of leaders and greater well-being reduce the
propensity to leave. Meanwhile, these constructs showed a positive and significant association with job
involvement and OBSE, highlighting that the effectiveness of leaders and well-being enrich individuals’
engagement with the job and their self-esteem (see Figure 4 and Table 1). With regard to model fit, the
combinational relative fit index was at acceptable levels (normed chi-square = 2.26, root mean square
error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.04, standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] = 0.05,
Bollen’s incremental fit index [IFI] = 0.99). Hence, H1 was accepted.

Structural Model II
The second model was developed in order to understand the relationship between workplace spirituality
and work outcomes. The path analysis results (see Figure 5), as predicted, showed a significant
relationship among the constructs, supporting H2.

Figure 5.  Workplace Spirituality and Work Outcomes

Source: The authors.

Table 2.  Results of Structural Model II

Independent Variable Dependent Variable Std. Error Coefficient t-Values R2

WPS Intention to quit 0.046 −0.51 −11.17* 0.26
Job involvement 0.049 0.67 13.72* 0.45
OBSE 0.046 0.64 13.88* 0.41
Source: The authors.
Note: WPS = workplace spirituality.
*significant at p ≤ 0.01.
10 Journal of Human Values

Furthermore, the relationship was found to be negative with the intention to quit and positive with job
involvement and OBSE (see Table 2). This result implies that individuals feel attached to their job and
experience high self-esteem in a spiritual organizational environment.

Structural Model III

It is observed from the results of path analysis that coefficient values showed a significant relationship
among this study’s constructs (see Figure 6). Further, it can be inferred that leadership effectiveness and
psychological well-being have a significant positive association with workplace spirituality, which, in
turn, has an impact on work outcomes (see Table 3). It is also observed that the combinational relative fit
index is at accepted levels (normed chi-square = 2.33, RMSEA = 0.03, SRMR = 0.04, IFI = 0.98).

Figure 6.  Indirect Model

Source: The authors.

Table 3.  Results of Structural Model III

Independent Variable Dependent Variable Std. Error Path Coefficient t-Values R2

LE WPS 0.047 0.51 10.85* 0.53
PWB WPS 0.041 0.35 8.62* 0.53
WPS Intention to quit 0.053 −0.53 −9.86* 0.28
Job involvement 0.061 0.69 11.34* 0.47
OBSE 0.058 0.66 11.50* 0.44
Source: The authors.
Note: *significant at p ≤ 0.01.
Riasudeen and Singh 11

Figure 7.  Indirect Effect of Leadership Effectiveness on Work Outcomes

Source: The authors.

Figure 8.  Indirect Effect of Psychological Well-being on Work Outcomes

Source: The authors.
12 Journal of Human Values

Table 4.  Direct, Indirect and Total Effects

Path (c') (a * b) c = (c' + ab) ab/c

LE → WPS → intention to quit −0.06 −0.15 −0.21 0.71
LE → WPS → job involvement 0.11 0.21 0.32 0.66

LE → WPS → OBSE 0.22 0.16 0.38 0.42

Source: The authors.
Note: (c') Denotes direct effect, (a * b) indirect effect, c = (c' + ab) total effects, and ab/c extent of mediations.

Table 5.  Direct, Indirect and Total Effects

Path (c') (a * b) c = (c' + ab) ab/c

PWB → WPS → intention to quit −0.27 −0.10 −0.37 0.27
PWB → WPS → job involvement 0.30 0.13 0.43 0.30
PWB → WPS → OBSE 0.31 0.10 0.41 0.24
Source: The authors.
Note: (c') Denotes direct effect, (a * b) indirect effect, c = (c' + ab) total effects, and ab/c extent of mediations.

In order to identify workplace spirituality’s mediating effect, this study adhered to the condition
recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986). In the model, the mediation effect can be observed if the
X and Y (c) relationship disappears or gets smaller (i.e., c' = 0 or c' < c) in the presence of a mediator. If
the relationship disappears, it indicates full mediation, and if gets smaller, it indicates partial mediation.
For clarity and ease of understanding, the mediation of workplace spirituality was described in two
forms. The first involves workplace spirituality as a mediator in explaining the relationship between
leadership effectiveness and work outcomes (Figure 7). The second involves workplace spirituality
as a mediator in explaining the relationship between psychological well-being and work outcomes
(Figure 8). In the presence of workplace spirituality, the value of the direct effect grew smaller, indicting
its mediating effect on the relationship between leadership effectiveness and intention to quit, job
involvement and OBSE, thus supporting one half of H3. However, it can only be stated as partial
mediation, since the extent of mediation does not satisfy the prescribed value of complete mediation, that
is, 0.80 (see Table 4).
On examining the extent of workplace spirituality’s mediation on the relationship between
psychological well-being and work outcomes, it was found that workplace spirituality mediated it and
explained intention to quit (27%), job involvement (30%) and OBSE (24%); thus, workplace spirituality
partially mediated the effects of leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being on the work
outcomes, supporting H3 (see Tables 4 and 5).

Conclusion
This study attempted to shed light on the relevance of spirituality in the workplace in the presence of
perceived leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being and work outcomes. Though many of
the issues might not have been fully addressed by this research, a contribution has been made in helping
understand that an innate feeling of connectedness with others would bring constructive work outcomes.
This research adds to the body of knowledge on spirituality literature by drawing attention to the
Riasudeen and Singh 13

optimistic aspects of spirituality, leadership transformation and well-being at work. In conclusion,

building core values anchoring spirituality would lead to greater connectedness and healthier employee
outcomes.

Implications
This study is an initial attempt to address certain limitations in the previous empirical examination of
spirituality at work through employing a rigorous pragmatic technique to examine the proposed relations.
This study employed emergent propositions on the associations of dimensions that are significant for
achieving desirable work outcomes. It measured not only the relationship of leadership effectiveness, as
perceived by the followers, and psychological well-being of employees with work outcomes but also the
mediating effect of workplace spirituality on such relations. The outcomes confirmed the hypothesized
relationships within the dimensions of this study. The article has advanced a conceptual framework
depicting the influence of spiritual values on attitudinal outcomes. Individuals’ sense of community creates
a connectedness within oneself and with others (Hicks, 2003; Mirvis, 1997), resulting in less propensity to
leave the organization, higher involvement in the job and greater feelings of self-esteem in the organization.
Based on the study results, this article contends that spirituality in the workplace alone cannot bring
about desirable attitudinal outcomes, as proposed by Milliman et al. (2003), but rather has to be shaped
in the presence of perceived leadership effectiveness and psychological well-being. In a sense, this
article proposes that the leader must be a catalyst in fostering workplace spirituality and also in creating
an environment in which spirituality emerges, inevitably enhancing individual well-being. The study
outcomes reveal, with empirical evidence, prospects for improving values and the growth of employees.
Therefore, the effective practice of spirituality at work will have a positive effect on the alignment of
individuals with the values of the organization (Vallabh & Singhal, 2014). Such practices will also
augment organizational change and development through greater worker involvement, as they tend to
improve employees’ participation. Furthermore, defining and categorizing spirituality, subjectively or
objectively, is difficult (Neal, 1997); therefore, designing feedback mechanisms for continual evaluation
of workplace spirituality effectiveness could be worthwhile to improve work outcomes. The authors
suggest designing forums to create awareness, both among leaders and employees, on promoting
spirituality. The authors also recommend a protective environment wherein employees learn from others
through making mistakes, which should nourish workplace spirituality that will alleviate or help avoid
humiliation and conflict (Brown, 2003; Rego & Pina, 2008). Training programmes highlighting the
spiritual quotient for improving abilities and alignment with others and organizational vision should be
initiated. In the absence of spirituality, organizational effectiveness is negatively affected, leading to
turnover and absenteeism (Dalton & Mesch, 1991); therefore, by analysing the propensity to leave and
employees’ non-alignment, managers can gain insights into employees’ feelings and working conditions.
To summarize, the authors contend that making work meaningful, generating a sense of belongingness
and engendering a coherence of values will pave the way for spiritually inspired employees, resulting in
improved work outcomes.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

The basic assumption of this study is that the respondents have a natural consideration and understanding
of workplace spirituality as an innate element of human interaction. The study deployed a cross-sectional
design, wherein unrecognized causation could be a possible limitation. The survey was based on
14 Journal of Human Values

self-reported measures, and there is, therefore, a possibility of personal bias. Hence, the lack of cross-
validation by supervisors, with the inclusion of related measures, may limit the results of this study.
Furthermore, there is a need for assessment with additional positive organizational behaviour variables,
such as organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), work attitude, commitment and innovative work
behaviour, and negative constructs such as stress and burnout. The profound involvement required
of employees in practising spirituality in the workplace might lead to resistance to change; therefore,
future research should examine the consequences of spirituality at work. This study used a one-time
measurement; hence, further assessment is needed to examine the consistency and direction of the
causation of workplace spirituality over a period of time. Finally, the nuances of spirituality at work may
be better understood with qualitative research.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of
this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

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