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A Sociological Study of Development Issues and Problems in Development.
A Sociological Study of Development Issues and Problems in Development.
1992
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Wickrama, K. A. S., "A sociological study of development issues and problems in developing countries " (1992). Retrospective Theses
and Dissertations. 10358.
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UMI
300 N. Zeeb Rd.
Ann Arbor, MI 48106
A sociological study of development issues and
problems in developing countries
by
K.Â.S. Wickrama
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Major: Sociology
Signature was redacted for privacy. Signature was redacted for privacy.
1992
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1
Organization of Research 5
INTRODUCTION 23
Previous Research 23
Hypotheses 43
METHODOLOGY 46
Sources of Data 46
Measures 47
Analyses 53
RESULTS 55
REFERENCES 78
INTRODUCTION 84
Intervention of Variables 84
Hypotheses 92
METHODOLOGY 95
Measures 95
Analyses 97
RESULTS 101
REFERENCES 129
iv
REFERENCES 147
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
work.
Duane Shinn, Dr. John Tait and Dr. Stephen G. Sapp for their
research.
children, Bhagya and Thulitha, who have been most loving, and
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
countries.
development.
Jamaica 940 74 82 18
Brazil 2,020 65 78 62
Oman 5,810 57 30 40
effects.
Organization of Research
references cited.
(Hall, 1988).
towards societal.change.
need for reforms of society and did not want to see another
many researchers that the new nations would follow the same
Modernization Theory
Dependencv/World-svstem Theorv
more economies and between these and world trade assumes the
about it.
economic development.
22
and the change agent program in Sri Lanka are movements which
people start doing new things, start dealing with each other
in a new way. The point is only that for this to happen the
INTRODUCTION
Previous Research
sources.
showed that Burma, with a per capita GNP of less than $200,
and Sri Lanka, with less than $400 per capita GNP have
26
Brazil and Mexico which have six to ten times the per capita
countries.
following processes:
economic interests;
livelihood; and
for foreign exchange which, for most of the periphery can only
or world-system theory.
programs.
indicators.
agriculture.
universal franchise for more than fifty years, showed that the
income groups, government has not yet been able to broaden the
39
distribution.
development indicators.
Ethnic homoaeneitv
in developing countries.
countries.
Hvpotheses
the study.
investigated.
variable.
Economic Development
/Human Development
Ethnic Homogeneity >-
METHODOLOGY
Sources of Data
World Agriculture.
Measures
following.
Economic development
Human development
well.
Economic structure
forestry, hunting, and fishing. The data were taken for 1965
Bank 1988). The data were taken for an early point in time
1990 respectively).
developing countries.
disparity.
This measure was computed using World Bank (1988) data for
indicators.
Wimberely, 1990).
51
Democratic experience
follows.
since indepnedence = 3
country.
Ethnic homogeneity
given year. Data are from United Nations for 1986 (World
condition of people.
Primary education
Analyses
RESULTS
Independent
variables model 1 model 2
Economic -.005(.005) a
structure
Agri-ind 000(.007) a
disparity
Ethnic 002(.002) a
homogeneity
2
R .850 .870
N 54 63
-.003
Capital Penetration >
—.005
Eoonomio Structure >-
000
Agri-Ind Disparity - —>- -> Economic Development
-.002
Ethnie Homogeneity >-
.949**
Lagged Economie Dev. - >
.077**
Democratic Experience >
less than $500, between $500-$1000 and more than $1000. These
Independent
variables B
Constant .924(.473)
Democracy .038(.031)
S.E. .334
N 63
Independent
variables B
Constant -.430(.382)
Democracy .113(.057)*
2
R .874
S.E .371
n 63
Independent
variables model 1 model 2
Capital -.072 a
penetration (.052)
Agri-ind -.302 a
disparity (.236)
2
R .794 .712
n 54 64
-.072
Capital Penetration —
-.620**
Eoonomio Structure — >—I
-.302
Agri-Ind Disparity — -> Human Development
.121* (UN Index)
Ethnic Homogeneity —
8.42**
Lagged Economic Dev. -
5.11**
Democratic Experience
$1000).
democracies.
Constant 8.280(23.196)
Democracy 4.903(2.244)**
2
R .713
S.E. 13.241
n 64
Independent
variables B
Constant 22.857(24.236)
Democracy 4.235(1.361)***
2
R 728
S.E 12.899
N 64
***
Lagged eco. 2.070 -20.750 138.360 -4.375
development (1.271) (6.843) (74.947) (5.809)
***
Capital -.028 .143 -4.553 -.082
penetration (.020) (.109) (1.198) (.092)
*** ** * ***
Economic -.252 .818 -6.640 -1.172
structure (.057) (.305) (3.344) (.252)
*
Agri-ind -.164 .590 6.654 -.551
disparity (.091) (.490) (5.375) (.398)
** **
Democracy 1.490 -6.070 51.100 1.607
(.470) (2.529) (27.702) (2.07)
**
Ethnic .051 -.046 3.606 .023
homogeneity (.023) (.126) (1.386) (.107)
n 54 54 54 51
composite scale).
r
71
Taiwan.
higher human development index (44) than Sudan (25) which has
REFERENCES
Amin, Samir
1976 Unequal Development. New York; Monthly Review
Press.
Bollen, K.A.
1980 "Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political
Democracy." American Sociological Review 45:370-
90.
Bradshaw, York
1987. "Urbanization and Underdevelopment: A Global Study
of Modernization, Urban Bias, and Economic
Dependency." American Sociological Review 52:224-
239.
Bullock, Bradley
1986 "Basic Needs Fulfillment Among Less Developed
Countries: Social Progress Over Two Decades of
Economic Growth." Ph.D. Dissertation,
Vanderbiilt University, Nashville, Tennesse.
79
Caldwell, John C.
1980 "Mass Education as a Determinant of the Timing of
Fertility Decline." Population and Development
Review 6:225-55.
Freire, Paulo
1973 Education for Critical Consciousness. New York:
Seabury Press.
Firebaugh, Glenn
1980 "The case of the Missing Values Card, and Other
Mysteries: Another Look at the Effect of Government
Spending on Income Inequality," American
Sociological Review 45:137-146.
George, Susan
1977 . How the Other Half Dies; The Real Reason for World
Hunger. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allenheld.
80
Griffin, Keith
1977 "Book Review-Why Poor People Stay Poor: A Study of
Urban Bias in World Development by Michael Lipton."
Journal of Development Studies 14(1):108-11.
Hewitt, Christopher
1977 "The Effect of Political Democracy and Social
Democracy on Equality in Industrial Societies: A
Cross-National Comparison." American Sociological
Review 42:450-64.
Hirshman, Albert
1958 The Strategv of Economic Development. New
Haven: Yale University Press.
Hout, Michael
1980 "Trade Dependence and Fertility in Hispanic America:
1900-1975." Chapter 8 in Studies of the Modern
World Svstem edited by A. Bergesen. New York:
Academic Press.
Hraba, Joseph
1979 American Ethnicity. Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
Jackman, Robert.
1975 Politics and Social Eguitv. New York: Wiley.
Kuznets,Simon
1955 "Economic Growth and Income Inequality." American
Economic Review 45:1-28.
81
Lattre, De Anne
1991 "Democracy in West Africa." Development 3(4):46-48.
Lipton, Michael
1977 Why Poor People Stav Poor: A Studv of Urban Bias in
World Development. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press.
London, Bruce
1988 "Dependence, Distorte Development, and Fertility
Trends in Noncore Nations: A structural Analysis of
Cross-National Data." American Sociological Review
53:606-18.
Marga Institute
1974 Welfare and Growth in Sri Lanka. Clombo: Swasthika
Press.
Moran, Theodore
1978 "Multinational Corporations and Dependency: A
Dialogue for Dependentistas and Non-
Dependentistas." International Organization 32:79-
100.
Muller, Edward N.
1988 "Democracy, Economic Development, and Income
Inequality." American Sociological Review 53:50-68.
Paukert, Felix
1973 "Income Distribution of Different Levels of
Development." International Labor Review 108:97-
125.
Potter, J.E
1983 "Effects of Societal and Community Institutions on
Fertility" in Determinants of fertilitv in
developing countries, edited by R.Bulatao and R.Lee,
New York: Academic Press.
Rubinson, Richard
1976 "The World-economy and the Distribution of Income
Within States: A Cross-national Study." American
Sociological Review 41:638-59.
Shin, E.
1975 "economic and Social Correlates of Infant Mortality:
A Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Analysis of 63
Countries." Social Biologv 22: 315-25.
Sobel, M.E
1987 "Direct and indirect effects in linear structural
equation models." Sociological Methods and Research
16(1):155-177.
Sowell, Thomas
1983 The Economics and Politics of Race. New York:
William Morrow.
Stack, Steven
1978 "Internal Political Organization and athe World
Economy of Income Inequality." American
Sociological Review 43:271-72
Todaro, Michael P.
1981 Economic Development in the Third World. New York:
Longman.
Ward, K.B
1984 Women in the World-svstem: Its impact on status and
fertilitv. New York: Preager.
Warnock, John W.
1987 The Politics of Hunger. Toronto: Methuen.
Weede, Erich
1980 "Beyong Misspecification in Sociology Analysis of
Income Inequality." American Sociological Review
45:497-501.
Weisband, Edward
1989 Povertv amidst Plentv. Boulder: Westview Press.
Wimberly, W. Dale
1990 "Investment Dependence and Alternative Explanations
of Third World Mortality: A Cross National Study"
American Sociological Review 55:75-91.
World Bank
1988 World Development Report. Balrimore: John Hopkins
Press.
84
INTRODUCTION
Int9FV9ntion@ ot v^riab^eg
mechanisms involved.
countries.
will be tested for two groups of countries (GNP < $500 and GNP
Intervening variables
Income Ineoualitv
the people.
Chase-Dunn, 1985).
above views.
FsrtilitY
Most of the developing countries are characterized by
Chase-Dunn, 1985).
(Caldwell, 1983).
country.
Government services
Hypotheses
study.
economic development.
development.
93
economic structure.
availability.
education.
health services.
drinking water.
fertility.
fertility.
inequality.
examined.
METHODOLOGY
Measures
Income inequality
Fertility
Fertility Survey.
96
services in a country.
Bank Annual Reports for 1986 which have been based on the
I.
97
Anslyses
Separate path models for different hypotheses will be
those models.
method .
98
a b
> Y1 >
I I
Model A X >Y2
Y1
Model B X Y2
al bl a2 b2
r Y1 -> Y1
X > Y2 X > Y2
Cl c2
RESULTS
development.
.55 I .55
V
GNP GNP
* *
—.67 .51 -.67 .74
.45
<—
Economic > Life Economic Life
Structure -.35* Expect Structure Expect
Chi-square = 0 Chi-square - 10.42 (1 d.f)
Model lA Model IB
.94 I .94
V V
-GNP- -GNP—
.35
.25 .66 .25 .74 I 35
Life Life <
Democracy —> Expect Democracy Expect
.33*
Model 2A Model 2B
.89 89
V V
> GNP ->GNP
*
.33 .74 .47 .33 .73 .45
v<—
Capital -> Life Capital Life
Penetration .06 Expect Penetration Expect
Model 3A Model 38
of economic development.
d.f.=22.66).
|.75 |.75
V V
Model 4A Model 4B
I .66 .34
V
-.58
*
21 *
.53
l<
r:58
*
3 .60
Economic > Life Economic Life
Structure -.45* Expect Structure Expect
Chi-ssquare = 0 Chi-square = 16.98 (1 d.f)
Model 5A Model 5B
Model 7B (Figure 8). Model 6A and Model 7A show that there are
.89 .89
Model 6A Model 6B
.89 .89
Model 7A Model 7B
Results show that both the direct effect (t=-5.71, p<.01) and
.76 .76
Model 8A Model 8B
Model 9A Model 9B
V .89 V .89
d.f.=4.77).
and is rejected.
reported.
of a country (GNP) were tested for all the models which do not
V .22 V .22
V .99 V .99
Life Life
Democracy ->Expect Democracy Expect
.51*
< $500 and GNP > $500) were considered (Figure 5). These two
Chi-sguare for the two model comparisons (two models with all
which have high capital penetrations (more than 60), very low
6NP (less than $300) and very low life expectancy (less than
Venezuela and Israel have GNPs of more than $1000 and show
a country.
(Weede, 1980).
active and have more bargaining power for their wages and for
countries with lower GNPs (less than $500) have high fertility
rates (close to 6), except for Sri Lanka and India. This may
more than 80) have the lowest fertility, less than 3. This
and Figure 6) for the poorest countries (GNP < $500) and
Lagged Economic
Development Level
Structure
Family -
Planning
Level and period Services &
of Democracy — -> Facilities
Food
-Ineguality- -> Consumption
Lagged Economic
Development level
Economic Fertility
Structure
Ethnic Homogeneity
inequality and food consumption whereas the model for the rest
REFERENCES
Amin, Samir
1976 Unequal Development. New York: Monthly Review
Press.
Bollen, K.A.
1980 "Issues in the Comparative Measurement of Political
Democracy." American Sociological Review 45:370-
90.
Bradshaw, York
1987. "Urbanization and Underdevelopment: A Global Study
of Modernization, Urban Bias, and Economic
Dependency." American Sociological Review 52:224-
239.
Bullock, Bradley
1986 "Basic Needs Fulfillment Among Less Developed
Countries: Social Progress Over Two Decades of
Economic Growth." Ph.D. Dissertation,
Vanderbiilt University, Nashville, Tennesse.
130
Caldwell, John C.
1980 "Mass Education as a Determinant of the Timing of
Fertility Decline." Population and Development
Review 6:225-55.
Freire, Paulo
1973 Education for Critical Consciousness. New York:
Seabury Press.
Firebaugh, Glenn
1980 "The case of the Missing Values Card, and Other
Mysteries: Another Look at the Effect of Government
Spending on Income Inequality." American
Sociological Review 45:137-146.
George, Susan
1977 How the Other Half Dies: The Real Reason for World
Hunger. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allenheld.
131
Griffin, Keith
1977 "Book Review-Why Poor People Stay Poor: A Study of
Urban Bias in World Development by Michael Lipton."
Journal of Development Studies 14(1):108-11.
Hewitt, Christopher
1977 "The Effect of Political Democracy and Social
Democracy on Equality in Industrial Societies: A
Cross-National Comparison." American Sociological
Review 42:450-64.
Hirshman, Albert
1958 The Strategy of Economic Development. New
Havens Yale University Press.
Hout, Michael
1980 "Trade Dependence and Fertility in Hispanic America:
1900-1975." Chapter 8 in Studies of the Modern
World System edited by A Bergesen. New York:
Academic Press.
Hraba, Joseph
1979 American Ethnicity. Illinois: Peacock Publishers.
Jackman, Robert.
1975 Politics and Social Eguitv. New York; Wiley.
Kuznets,Simon
1955 "Economic Growth and Income Inequality." American
Economic Review 45:1-28.
132
Lattre, De Anne
1991 "Democracy in West Africa." Development 3(4):46-48.
Lipton, Michael
1977 Why Poor People Stav Poor: A Studv of Urban Bias in
World Development. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press.
London, Bruce
1988 "Dependence, Distorte Development, and Fertility
Trends in Noncore Nations: A structural Analysis of
Cross-National Data." American Sociological Review
53:606-18.
Marga Institute
1974 Welfare and Growth in Sri Lanka. Clombo: Swasthika
Press.
Moran, Theodore
1978 "Multinational Corporations and Dependency: A
Dialogue for Dependentistas and Non-
Dependentistas." International Organization 32:79-
100.
Muller, Edward N.
1988 "Democracy, Economic Development, and Income
Inequality." American Sociological Review 53:50-68.
Paukert, Felix
1973 "Income Distribution of Different Levels of
Development." International Labor Review 108:97-
125.
Potter, J.E
1983 "Effects of Societal and Community Institutions on
Fertility" in Determinants of fertility in
developing countries, edited by R.Bulatao and R.Lee,
New York: Academic Press.
Rubinson, Richard
1976 "The World-economy and the Distribution of Income
Within States: A Cross-national Study." American
Sociological Review 41:638-59.
Shin, E.
1975 "economic and Social Correlates of Infant Mortality:
A Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Analysis of 63
Countries." Social Biology 22: 315-25.
Sobel, M.E
1987 "Direct and indirect effects in linear structural
equation models." Sociological Methods and Research
16(1):155-177.
Sowell, Thomas
1983 The Economics and Politics of Race. New York:
William Morrow.
Stack, Steven
1978 "Internal Political Organization and athe World
Economy of Income Inequality." American
Sociological Review 43:271-72
Todaro, Michael P.
1981 Economic Development in the Third World. New York:
Longman.
Ward, K.B
1984 Women in the World-svstem; Its impact on status and
fertllltv. New York: Preager.
Warnock, John W.
1987 The Polities of Hunger. Toronto: Methuen.
Weede, Erich
1980 "Beyong Misspecificatlon in Sociology Analysis of
Income Inequality." American Sociological Review
45:497-501.
Weisband, Edward
1989 Poverty amidst Plentv. Boulder: Westview Press.
Wimberly, W. Dale
1990 "Investment Dependence and Alternative Explanations
of Third World Mortality: A Cross National Study"
American Sociological Review 55:75-91.
World Bank
1988 World Development Report. Balrimore: John Hopkins
Press.
135
development.
make access to productive assets for the people and allow them
not only at the national level but also at lower levels, more
meaningfully.
(Lattre, 1991).
necessarily includes:
rural people;
(UNCD, 1990);
(UNCD, 1990);
1991).
power structure.
effective.
first strive to satisfy the basic needs of the people and not
(Goulet, 1989).
Theoretical Implications
environment.
change.
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152
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1987 The Politics of Hunger. Toronto: Methuen.
Weber, Max
1930 The Sociology of Religion. Boston: Beacon Press.
Ethiopia
Bhutan
26
24
. ,
. 101., 31. 21 46 58 6 2 4.15 4.79 155 1704
45 . 6 . . 5.01 139 2477 15 2536
... 99 40 35 2 48 . 6 .
M'bique 24 . 5.35 120 1617 13 84
Madagascar 44 94 1 53 31 6 . 10.97 5.44 130 2452 18 121
Uganda
Burundi
35
23. 23 96 1 48 . 7 9. . 5.48 114 2233 39 53.
14 10 1 48 52 7 1 7.58 5.44 105 2483 16
Note: