RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.

MA English: Semester III

CODE: ENGL 4145

Session: 43-45
 Area/s to be discussed.

• (Parts of Report, Review & Referencing).

 Research Process
• Formulating the research problem
• Extensive literature survey
• Development of working hypotheses
How does one go about developing working
hypotheses? The answer is by using the following
approach:
a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the
problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a
solution;
b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning
the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other
clues;
 Contd…

a)Review of similar studies in the area or of the

studies on similar problems; and
b)Exploratory personal investigation which
involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with interested parties and individuals with
a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.
• Preparing the research design
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a
particular research problem, involves usually the
consideration of the following:
1. the means of obtaining the information;
2. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff
(if any);
3. .
 Contd…

1. explanation of the way in which selected means

of obtaining information will be organised and
the reasoning leading to the selection;
2. the time available for research; and
3. the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the
finance available for the purpose
• Collecting the data
• By observation
• Through personal interview
• Through telephone interviews
• By mailing of questionnaires
• Through schedules
• The researcher should select one of these
methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration the nature of investigation,
objective and scope of the inquiry, finanicial
resources, available time and the desired
degree of accuracy.
 Contd…

• Though he should pay attention to all these

factors but much depends upon the ability and
experience of the researcher. In this context Dr
A.L. Bowley very aptly remarks that in collection
of statistical data commonsense is the chief
requisite and experience the chief teacher.
Execution of the project
Analysis of data
Hypothesis-testing
Generalisations and interpretation
Preparation of the report or the thesis
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done by him. Writing of report must be
done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the
preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end
matter. In its preliminary pages the report should carry
title and date followed by acknowledgements and
foreword. Then there should be a table of contents
followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and
charts, if any, given in the report.
 Contd…

• The main text of the report should have the

following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement
of the objective of the research and
an explanation of the methodology adopted in
accomplishing the research. The scope of the
study along with various limitations should as well
be stated in this part.
 Contd…
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there
would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the
findings are extensive, they should be
summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should
be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
 Contd…

• (d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the

main text, researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly
and precisely.
• In fact, it is the final summing up.
 Criteria of Good Research

Whatever may be the types of research works and

studies, one thing that is important is that they all
meet on the common ground of scientific method
employed by them. One expects scientific
research
to satisfy the following criteria:
1.The purpose of the research should be clearly
defined and common concepts be used.
 Contd…

1.The research procedure used should be

described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further
advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
2.The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
1. The researcher should report with complete
frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
2. The analysis of data should be sufficiently
adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be
appropriate. The validity and reliability of the
data should be checked carefully.
 Contd…

1. Conclusions should be confined to those

justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate
basis.
2. Greater confidence in research is warranted if
the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
 In other words, we can state the qualities of a
good research as under:

• Good research is systematic:

• It means that research is structured with
specified steps to be taken in a specified
sequence in accordance with the well defined
set of rules.
• Systematic characteristic of the research does
not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does
reject the use of guessing and intuition in
arriving at conclusions.
 Contd…
• Good research is logical: This implies that
research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction
and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research.
• Induction is the process of reasoning from a part
to the whole whereas deduction is the process of
reasoning from some premise to a conclusion
which follows from that very premise. In fact,
logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.
 Contd…

• Good research is empirical: It implies that

research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with
concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
• Good research is replicable: This characteristic
allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a
sound basis for decisions.
 The purpose of research is to…

• Review or synthesize existing knowledge

• Investigate existing situations or problems
• Provide solutions to problems
• Explore and analyse more general issues
• Construct or create new procedures or systems
• Explain new phenomenon
• Generate new knowledge
• …or a combination of any of the above! (Collis &
Hussey, 2003)
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH
Exploratory Descriptive Analytical Predictive
Exploratory Descriptive Analytical The aim of
research research research Predictive
is undertaken when can be used to often extends the research
few or no previous identify and Descriptive is to speculate
studies exist. The classify approach to intelligently on
aim is to look for the elements or suggest or explain future
patterns, characteristics of why or how possibilities,
hypotheses the subject, e.g. something is based on close
or ideas that can be number of days happening, e.g. analysis of
tested and will form lost because of underlying causes available evidence
the basis for industrial action. of industrial of cause and
further Quantitative action. effect, e.g.
research. Typical techniques are An important predicting when
research most feature of this and where future
techniques would often used to type of research is industrial action
include case collect, analyse in locating and might take place
studies, and summarise identifying the
observation and data. different factors
reviews of previous (or variable
related studies and
data.
 Research Approaches

Research can be approached in the following

ways:
• Quantitative/Qualitative
• Applied/Basic
• Deductive/Inductive
 QUANTITATIVE/QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative
The emphasis of Quantitative
research is on collecting and
analysing numerical data; it
concentrates on measuring the
scale, range, frequency etc. of
phenomena.
This type of research, although
harder to design initially, is
usually
highly detailed and structured
and
results can be easily collated and
presented statistically.
Qualitative
Qualitative research is more
subjective in nature than
Quantitative research and
involves examining and
reflecting on the less tangible
aspects of a research subject,
e.g. values, attitudes,
perceptions. Although this type
of research can be easier to
start, it can be often difficult to
interpret and present the
findings; the findings can also
be challenged more easily.
 BASIC/APPLIED RESEARCH

Deductive Inductive
General ideas Particular
Situation
Particular
Situation
General ideas
Deductive research moves
from general ideas/theories to Inductive research moves
specific particular & from
situations: the particular is particular situations to make
deduced from the general, or infer
e.g. broad theories. broad general
ideas/theories.
 Examples of Deductive/Inductive
Research in Action
• Imagine you wanted to learn what the word
‘professional’ meant to a range of people.
• Deductive Approach:
It is clear that you would want to have a clear
theoretical position prior to collection of data. You
might therefore research the subject and discover
a number of definitions of ‘professional’ from, for
example, a number of professional associations.
 Contd…

• You could then test this definition on a range of

people, using a questionnaire, structured
interviews or group discussion. You could
carefully select a sample of people on the basis
of age, gender, occupation etc. The data
gathered could then be collated and the results
analysed and presented. This approach offers
researchers a relatively easy and systematic
way of testing established ideas on a range of
people.
 Inductive Approach

If you adopted this approach you might start by

talking to a range of people asking for their ideas
and definitions of ‘professional’.
From these discussions you could start to
assemble the common elements and then start to
compare these with definitions gained from
professional associations.
 Contd…

• The data gathered could then be collated and

the results analysed and presented. This
approach might lead you to arrive at a new
definition of the word – or it might not! This
approach can be very time-consuming, but the
reward might be in terms of arriving at a fresh
way of looking at the subject.
 RESEARCH PHILIOSOPHIES
Research is not ‘neutral’, but reflects a range of the researcher’s
personal interests, values, abilities, assumptions, aims and ambitions.
In the case of your own proposed research, your own mixtures of these
elements will not only determine the subject of the research, but will
influence your approach to it. It is important to consider in advance
what approach you to take with your research – and why.
 Contd…
There are essential two main research philosophies (or positions)
although there can be overlap between the two – and both
positions may be identifiable in any research project.
POSITIVISTIC PHENOMENOLOGICAL
(can also be referred to (can also be referred to as
‘Quantitative’, ‘Objectivist’, Qualitative’, ‘Subjectivist’,
‘Scientific’, ‘Experimentalist’ or ‘Humanistic’ or ‘Traditionalist’)
‘Interpretative’

The research philosophy can impact on the methodology

adopted for the research project.
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

Positivistic
• Surveys
• Experimental Studies
• Longitudinal Studies
• Cross-sectional Studies
Inductive
• Case Studies
• Action Research
• Ethnography (participant
• observation)
• Participative Enquiry
• Feminist Perspectives
• Grounded Theory
 How to give references?

Audio-Visual Media

References to audio-visual media must include the

following elements: name and function of the
primary contributors (e.g., producer, director), date,
title, the medium in brackets, location or place of
production, and name of the distributor. If the
medium in indicated as part of the retrieval ID,
brackets are not needed.
 Contd…
• Videocassette
Garmon, L. (Producer and Director), & Apsell, P.
(Executive Producer). (1994). Secret of the wild child
[Videocassette]. Boston, MA: WGBH Educational
Foundation.
• Audio Recording
Costa, P. T., Jr. (Speaker). (1988). Personality,
continuity, and changes of adult life (Cassette Recording
No. 207-433-88A-B). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
• Motion Picture
Scorsese, M. (Producer), & Lonergan, K.
(Writer/Director). (2000). You can count on me [Motion
Picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.
 Examples
• Television Broadcast
Crystal, L. (Executive Producer). (1993, October
11). The MacNeil/Lehrer news hour [Television
broadcast]. New York and Washington, DC:
Public Broadcasting Service.
• Television Series
Miller, R. (Producer). (1989). The mind
[Television series]. New York: WNET.
• Music Recording
Shocked, M. (1992). Over the waterfall. On
Arkansas traveler [CD]. New York: PolyGram
Music.
 Examples
Electronic Media and Online Sources

APA's recommendations for citing electronic media

call for consistent observation of at least two
important guidelines:
1) Direct readers as closely as possible to the
information being cited -- whenever possible,
reference specific documents rather than home or
menu pages;
2) 2) Provide addresses that work. At a minimum, a
reference of an Internet source should provide a
document or title description, a "date" (either the
date of publication, update, or date of retrieval),
and an address (in Internet terms, a URL).
Whenever possible, identify the authors of the
document as well.
 Contd…

• Listed below are examples of citation

styles for several types of electronic
sources.
• Internet articles based on a print
source (exists in print and online)
VandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J.
(2001). Role of reference elements in the
selection of resources by psychology
undergraduates [Electronic version].
Journal of Bibliographic Research, 5, 117-
123.
 Examples
• Article in an Internet-only journal
Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating
positive emotions to optimize health and well-being.
Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved
November 20, 2000, from
http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre00300
01a.html
• Article from an online encyclopedia
Bergman, P. G. & Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica
Online. (1994-1999). Relativity. Encyclopedia
Britannica Online. Retrieved August 4, 1999, from
Encyclopedia Britannica Online on the World Wide
Web:
http://search.eb.com/bol/topic?eu=117376&sctn=1
 Examples
• Professional web site
American Psychological Association. (1999, June 1).
Electronic preference formats recommended by the
American Psychological Association. Retrieved July 18,
1999, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html

• Document available on university program or

department site
Chou, L., McClintock, R., Moretti, F., & Nix, D. H. (1993).
Technology and education: New wine in new bottles:
Choosing pasts and imagining educational futures.
Retrieved August 24, 2000, from Columbia University,
Institute for Learning Technologies Web site:
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publications/papers/newwine
1.html
 Contd…

• When citing an entire web site (and not a

specific document on that site), no Reference
List entry is required if the address for the
site is cited in the text of your paper.
Witchcraft In Europe and America is a site that
presents the full text of many essential works in
the literature of witchcraft and demonology
(http://www.witchcraft.psmedia.com/).
 Ethical Use of Web-Based Materials

• It is a common mistake to believe that if

something is on the Web and there is no notice
of copyright, it is acceptable to use the
information you may find without acknowledging
your source. This is definitely not the case. All
materials you find on the Web are copyrighted,
regardless of whether or not the individual
document indicates it is copyrighted. As with
materials in print, it is also dishonest and
unethical to use Web-based materials created
by someone else and not give appropriate credit
for the work.
 Contd…

• When you include information from Web-based

materials in a paper or report, be sure to provide
a complete citation for the site and give the
person credit for his or her work in your paper or
project. Giving people credit for their work is the
right thing to do, and it is also the law. If you do
not cite resources used in a paper, you can be
sued by the author, fail your course, and even
be expelled or suspended from the university.
 General Guidelines

Journal or magazine articles from

Proprietary/Subscription Web Databases
• If the resource you are citing is from one of
UMUC's Web databases, follow the format
below. If you cannot find some of this
information, cite what is available.
 Contd…
• Citation Model:
Author's last name, First initial. (date). Article
title. Journal Title,
volume(issue), pages. Retrieved month day,
year,
from Database Name database.
• Example:
Deans, G.K., Kroeger, F., & Zeisel, S. (2002).
The consolidation curve. Harvard Business
Review, 80(12), 20-21. Retrieved April 19, 2004,
from Business Source Premier
database
 General Guidelines
• Author—The author(s) of the article. APA style
only requires the first initial of author names (for
example, Smith, J. instead of Smith, John). If no
author is given, then the article title should be
listed first, followed by the date.
• Date—Provide in parentheses the year the work
was published. For monthly magazines, use
(year, month); for weekly magazines use (year,
month day).
• Article title—The title of the article. Only
capitalize the initial letter of the article title and
subtitle (for example: Sound bite news:
Television coverage of elections).
 Contd…
• Journal title—The title of the journal in which the article
was published. The journal title should be italicized or
underlined.
• Volume and issue—Include this information if it is
provided. The volume (but not the issue) should be
italicized or underlined.
• Pagination—Use start and end pages, if provided (e.g.
60–79). If no pagination is provided, then omit pages
numbers. Do not use the number of pages when printed,
since this varies from one printer to another.
• Retrieved date—The date that you accessed the article,
in the format month day, year (for example: Retrieved
April 28, 2004,).
• Database name—The word "from", the name of the
database, and then the word "database" (for example:
from Business Source Premier database.)
 References and Bibliography

• Baker, T. L. (1994). Doing Social Research (2nd Ed.). Singapore:

McGraw Hill.
• Babbie, E., & Rubin, A. (2001). Research Methods for Social Work
(4th Ed.). USA: Wadsworth Thomas Learning
• Barzun, J. and Graff, H. E. (1977) The Modern Researcher, 3rd
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• Bell, J. (1999). Doing Your Research Project. Buckingham, UK:
Multilingual Matters.
• Best, J. W. & Khan, J. V. (2006). Research in Education (9th Ed.).
Lahore: Mayo Art Press
• Cohen, L. & Manion, L. (1985). Research Methods in Education.
Bedeenham: Croom Helm
 Contd…
• Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2003) Research Methods in
Education (5th Edition). Hampshire: Routledge
• Connolly, P. (2007). Quantitative Data Analysis in Education: A
Critical Introduction Using SPSS. New York: Routledge Publishers.
• Creswell, John (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative,
and Mixed Methods Approaches. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks,
California: SAGE
• Denscombe, Martin. (1998). The Good Research Guide: For Small
Scale Social Research Projects. Buckingham: Open University
Press
• Dey, Ian. (1993). Qualitative Data Analysis. London: Routledge, 11
New Fetter Lane
 Contd…
• Finnan, C. 1992 Becoming an Accelerated Middle School: Initiating
School Culture Change.
• Palo Alto, CA: The Accelerated Schools Project, Stanford University.
• Firestone, W. and Pennell, J. 1993 Teacher Commitment, Working
Conditions, and Differential Incentive Policies. Review of
Educational Research, 63, 489-525.
• Gay, L.R. 2000 Educational Research (5th Edition) Islamabad:
National Book Foundation.
• Goddard, Wayne and Melville, Stuart (2001) 2nd ed. Research
Methodology: An Introduction. Lansdowne: Juta and Company
Limited
• Henson, K.T. 1996 Teachers as researchers. In J. Sikula, (ed.)
Handbook of research on teacher education. (2nd edition.) New
York, NY: Macmillan.
 Contd…
• Johnson, A. P. 2005 A Short Guide to Action Research. Boston: Pearson
Education Inc.
• Lodico, M. G., Spaulding, D. T. & Voegtle, K. H. (2006). Methods in
Educational Research: From Theory to Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass Publishers
• Mertler, C.. A. (2006). Action Research: Teachers as Researchers in the
Classroom. USA: Sage Publications
• Salkind, N. J. (1997). Exploring Research, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
• Tuckman, B. W. (1994). Conducting Educational Research (4th Ed). USA:
The Ohio State University
• Wiersma, William. (2000). Research Methods in Education: An Introduction.
USA: Allyn & Bacon, A Pearson Education Company
• Wolcott, F. H. (2001). Writing Up Qualitative Research 2nd Edition.
California: Sage Publications