Proceedings of the Thirtieth (2020) International Ocean and Polar Engineering Conference www.isope.

org
Shanghai, China, October 11-16, 2020
Copyright © 2020 by the International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers (ISOPE)
ISBN 978-1-880653-84-5; ISSN 1098-6189

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Effect of Subsea Bolt Tightening on Bolt Preload and Slip Factor
Benjamin Ripsch
Fraunhofer Institute for Large Structures in Production Engineering IGP
Rostock, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany
Knuth-Michael Henkel
University of Rostock, Chair of Joining Technology
Rostock, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany

High-strength steel bolts and bolted connections according to general
European steel construction standards are currently also used in an
underwater environment. Due to recent bolt failures, the practicality of
these standards regarding subsea application was investigated.
Tightening methods, preload behavior and slip factor were examined
under water using special testing equipment. It was found that lubrication
of high-strength steel bolt assemblies according the standards applied
does not seem suitable for underwater use. Design surface class of
specially coated faying surfaces was verified, but seems to be different
from regular conditions when determined under water.
Currently, bolting technologies for offshore oil and naturals gas
operations are under great discussion (NAP, 2018). In 2016, the Bureau
of Safety and Environmental Enforcement released a safety alert
concerning connector and bolt failures as those failures happen
frequently and because of their potential for catastrophic events (BSEE,
2016). Failures of subsea bolted connections are mostly attributed to
hydrogen induced environmentally assisted cracking, initial material
flaws or to fatigue crack propagation supported by the corrosive
environment and cathodic protection, though (Omura, 2012;
Chaudhury, 2017; Johnson, 2018).

KEY WORDS: subsea; under water; high-strength steel bolts; preload;
slip-factor; self-loosening; lubrication
INTRODUCTION
The assembly of bolted connections under water or in the so-called
splash zone can sometimes not be avoided during construction and
maintenance of maritime structures. This can be seen at different parts
of offshore platforms, wind turbine foundations or other hydraulic
constructions (Fig. 1). For better fatigue performance of the joint, to
prevent self-loosening of the bolt assemblies or for structural safety
reasons, bolted joints of these frequently loaded structures are often
designed as preloaded connections (Junker, 1969; Chaudhury, 2017;
Stranghöner, Abraham and Jungbluth, 2018).
Friction conditions are of critical importance for design and execution of
these types of connection, as their performance relies on a specific
minimum preload remaining in the pretensioned bolts and a defined
surface friction between faying surfaces. With widely used torque-based
bolt tightening methods in particular, thread friction determines the
amount of preload applied. Still, the possible influence of water on the
tribological system of preloaded bolted connections of steel structures
was not systematically investigated or published openly, yet. In regard
to design and construction of bolted joints exposed to special
environmental conditions like subsea applications, general European
steel construction standards Eurocode 3 and EN 1090-2 do not contain
adequate regulations at present, so the special demands of these types of
connections are presumably sometimes neglected.
However, bolt assemblies from flanges designed as preloaded bolted
connections and installed under the influence of seawater attracted
attention during the inspection of offshore structures for their being loose
at the time of examination. As well as broken bolts, loose bolts present a
potential hazard for offshore personnel, increase maintenance and
operating costs and highlight the need for investigation and action in this
field. The bolts in question have been designed and executed according
to Eurocode 3 and EN 1090-2, so the following section shall lay the
theoretical foundation for a better understanding of bolted connections
according to these standards and lead to the experiments conducted.
Testing setups were developed to determine bolt preload with different
tightening methods and washer systems as well as to carry out slip factor
tests in an underwater environment. Other publications concerning the
underwater usability of these kinds of bolts or underwater slip factor tests
in general are not known to the authors.
Figure 1. Bolted connections in the splash zone and under water
(1: Sima Charters, 2018; 2: PLARAD, 2020; 3: Atlas Copco, 2015)

1118
DESIGN AND EXECUTION OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
ACCORDING TO EUROPEAN STANDARDS
Design of Bolted Connections according to Eurocode 3
The Eurocode comprise ten European standards (EN; harmonised
technical rules) that define how structural design shall be carried out
within the European Union (EU). Each of these standards consist of a
number of parts and is partially adapted to the needs of the respective
member country by individual National Annexes (NA). Eurocode 3:
Design of steel structures (EN 1993 or informally EC 3) deals with
different aspects of steel structure design. Part 1-8 of Eurocode 3
(EN 1993-1-8) specifies the design of joints.
Figure 2. Visualization of bolted connections according to EN 1993-1-8
(based on Stranghöner, Abraham, Jungbluth, Hüller and Machura, 2018)
According to EN 1993-1-8 there are five different categories of bolted
connections. They get divided into a group of shear connections and a
group of tension connections (Fig. 2). Slip-resistant shear connections of
category B/C and preloaded tension connections of category E are
preloaded connections that depend on preloading for reasons of
structural safety and require controlled tightening in conformity with
EN 1090-2, whereas bearing type shear connections of category A and
non-preloaded tension connections do not require preloading. However,
for a reduction of slip or deformation, connections of all categories are
preloaded frequently (Stranghöner, Jungbluth, Hüller and Machura,
2016). High-strength steel bolt assemblies of classes 8.8 and 10.9
conforming to the requirements of EN 14399-1 shall be used in
preloaded connections, see Table 1:
Table 1. Bolt Classes and nominal values of the yield strength and
the ultimate tensile strength for bolts according to EN 1993-1-8
Bolt Class 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8
in N/mm2 240 300 400 480 640
in N/mm2 400 400 500 500 600
For the assessment of slip-resistant connections, the design shear force
per bolt Fv,Ed(,ser) needs to be lower than the design slip resistance per
bolt Fs,Rd(,ser), see Eq. 1:
∙ ∙µ
, (, ) ≤ , (, ) = ( ,! − 0.8 ∙ ', ((,
(, )
) is a reduction factor depending on the shape and size of the hole, being
) = 1 for normal holes in contrast to e.g. oversized holes. + is the
number of friction planes and µ is the slip factor, which depends on the
condition of the friction surface (see EN1090-2). ,-.(, ) is a partial
safety factor reducing the design slip resistance per bolt. Preloading force
,! should be taken as stated in Eq. 2 unless specified otherwise, with
being the nominal ultimate tensile strength of the bolt and / being
the tensile stress area of the bolt (see ISO 898-1), also considering
controlled tightening in conformity with EN 1090-2. When an additional
axial (tensile) load ', ((, ) is applied, ,! is reduced by an amount of
0.8 ∙ ', ((, ) .
= 0.7 ∙ / (2)
,!
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As mentioned, bolted connections that do not require preloading for
reasons of structural safety might be preloaded for serviceability reasons.
The preloading level can be lower for these types of connections. For
this reason, the German National Annex of EN 1993-1-8 introduces a
reduced preloading force ,! ∗ relating to the yield strength of the bolt
(Eq. 3) in contrast to the bolts ultimate tensile strength. According to this
National Annex, a preloading force of 50 % ,! ∗ is generally adequate
to prevent self-loosening of bolted connections.
,! ∗ = 0.7 ∙ / (3)
Preloaded Bolted Connections according EN 1090-2 and
EN 14399
EN 1090-2, Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures –
Part 2: Technical requirements for steel structures, specifies
requirements for execution of steel structures in order to ensure adequate
levels of mechanical resistance and stability, serviceability and
durability. For bolted, slip-resistant connections, several aspects of the
standard have to be emphasized: The choice of the tightening method in
relation to the quality of lubrication of the bolt assemblies and the
preparation of faying surfaces.
As previously stated, bolt assemblies in accordance with EN 14399-1
have to be used for preloaded connections. Products not covered by the
harmonized standards can be used when successfully assessed by a
Technical Assessment Body (Kirchner, 2016), recognizable by CE
marking. As specified in EN 14399-1, there are two systems available
for establishing preloaded connections, systems HR and HV. They are
slightly different in design, resulting in different failure mechanisms
(Aniello, Cassiano and Raffaele, 2017). Corresponding bolt assemblies
are generally to be made from steel. For corrosive protection they can be
hot-dip galvanized. The quality of lubrication of bolt assemblies in their
delivery condition is described by their k-class (EN 14399-1). The k-
class is assured by lubrication of bolt nuts and lubrication of bolt nuts is
usually realised by molybdenum disulfide coatings (PEINER, 2010).
8.8 10.9
Table 2. k-classes according to EN 1090-2
640 900
800 1000 Tightening Method k-class
Torque method K2
Combined Method K2 or K1
HRC tightening method K0 HRD nut or K2
Direct tension indicator (DTI) method K2, K1 or K0
)) (1)
According to EN 1090-2, the k-class defines the tightening method to
choose for applying the preloading force ,! (Table 2). There are three
k-classes. For K0, the manufacturer only has to ensure that the delivered
bolting assemblies are lubricated. For k-class K1, the manufacturer must
guarantee that the k-values of the bolting assemblies are between ) =
0.10 and ) = 0.16. For K2, additional statistical evaluations are
1119
required. The k-value is a measure for predominant friction conditions of
the bolt assembly and is defined as follows according to EN 14399-2
(Eq. 4):
-67
)5 = (4)
86,9∙(
: 5 is the individual value of the torque at which the bolt force has first
reached the value of ,! when tightened, ; is the nominal thread
diameter of the bolt. Looking at Eq. 4 it is obvious that when there is less
friction involved, meaning a lower value of )5 , less torque is necessary
to achieve the same amount of preloading force when using the same
diameter bolt.
With K1 bolt assemblies being the most accessible and also most
commonly used in certain areas, the combined method would have to be
used to assure adequate tightening regarding a preloading level of ,! .
In this matter, the torque method is not an option for tightening of K1
bolt assemblies. The combined method comprises two steps, the first one
being torque-based and the second one requiring an additional rotation
of the turned part to a certain degree. This way, a high level of preloading
with low spread amongst the preloading force of multiple bolts is
assured. However, according to the German National Annex of
EN 1993-1-8, the reduced preloading force ,! ∗ (Eq. 3) can be applied
to K1 bolt assemblies in two consecutive torque-based tightening steps
by using the so-called modified torque method. This method holds on to
historical practices and might still be the preferred way for establishing
even slip-resistant connections for many manufacturers today.
Preloading forces vary a lot more between multiple bolts tightened with
the modified torque method and are generally lower compared to results
of bolts tightened with the combined method. (Stranghöner, Schiborr,
Glienke, Wanner and Ulbrich, 2013).
Table 3. Classifications for faying surfaces according to EN 1090-2
Surface treatment Class Slip factor (µ)
Surfaces blasted with shot or grit with loose A 0.50
rust removed, not pitted.
Surfaces blasted with shot or grit; B 0.40
a) spray-metallized with aluminum or zinc
based product
b) with alkali-zinc silicate paint with a
thickness of 50 μm to 80 μm
Surfaces cleaned by wire brush or flame C 0.30
cleaning, with loose rust removed
Surfaces as rolled D 0.20
Regarding the condition of faying surfaces, EN 1090-2 structures
surfaces into four groups according to their treatment (Table 3). For
alternative surface treatments, the slip factor µ must be established by
slip tests, as described in Annex G of EN 1090-2. For painted contact
surfaces, the maximum dry coating thickness shall be 80 µm (see
EN 1090-2, Annex F). According to Annex I of EN 1090-2, preload
losses caused by relaxation or creeping of up to ten percent are already
considered in regard to to the tightening methods mentioned earlier
(Table 2) and adequate dry coating thicknesses. Furthermore, before
commencement of preloading, the connected components shall be fitted
together and the residual gap shall be limited to 2 mm.
With respect to subsea tightening of bolted connections, no special
remarks are made in EN 1090-2. Nevertheless, it is stated that contact
surfaces of slip resistant connections shall be free from all contaminants,
such as oil, dirt, paint, rust or other loose materials. Additionally, high-
strength steel bolts for preloading shall be used without alteration to the
1120
as-delivered lubrication, unless direct tension indicator method for
tightening is adopted or a calibration test for preloaded bolts under site
conditions is performed. It is also noted that in case of uncontrolled
exposure conditions, the performance of the lubrication might be altered
and should be checked. Both, contact surfaces free from contamination
and quality of lubrication can hardly be guaranteed under the special
environmental conditions of underwater assembly of bolted connections.
In addition, it shall be mentioned that there are German national
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standards DIN 19704-1 and DIN 19704-2 concerning design and
manufacturing of hydraulic steel structures. They are generally referring
to Eurocode 3 and EN 1990-2 and explicitly prohibit the use of slip-
resistant connections, reasoning that contact surfaces might be prone to
corrosion. Offshore steel structures are excluded from the scope of
application of these standards, though. Besides, the Federal Maritime
and Hydrographic Agency (BSH) released a design standard (Minimum
requirements concerning the constructive design of offshore structures
within the Exclusive Economic Zone) exclusively dealing with issues
regarding offshore structures. The standard generally refers to
EN 1090-2 and Eurocode 3 as well, taking into account additional
aspects that come with the special challenges of design and operation
conditions in the marine environment, e.g. adapting partial safety factors
for fatigue verifications of components permanently under water (BSH,
2015). Again, specific remarks concerning the tightening of bolted
connections under water cannot be found in this standard. However,
there is the ISO 19900 series of standards for offshore structures of
petroleum and natural gas industries recommending different tightening
methods and bolts for underwater structures (see below). None of the
standards mentioned before refer to the ISO 19900 series of standards.
Importance of Friction and Integrity of Bolted Connections
As the previous explanations demonstrate, friction is the key factor in
design, construction and performance of preloaded bolted connections.
In design, preloading force and slip factor are considered in calculating
the slip resistance per bolt. Regarding construction, thread friction in
particular depends on the lubrication of the bolt assemblies and
determines the amount of preload applied, especially for torque based
tightening methods. Concerning the bolted connections performance, as
well as the preloading force actually applied the friction in between
faying surfaces can be essential for maintaining structural safety.
A lot of research was done regarding the integrity of bolted connections
of steel constructions: Investigations were conducted to examine the
influence of different factors on the preloading level achievable and
corresponding preload losses. The tightening method, the kinds of
fastener or bolt assemblies used and the kind of surface preparation of
the faying surfaces were the varying parameters in these examinations
(Baptista, Missoum, Muzeau and Ryan, 1997; Ebert, Dörre and Glienke,
2017; Stranghöner, Makevicius, Henkel, Glienke and Dörre, 2018; RFCS,
2019). Torque was shown to be an inaccurate metric for assuring the
actual preload of bolts, even under regular assembly conditions. (Brown,
Morrow, Durbin and Baca, 2008; Stranghöner, Makevicius, Henkel,
Glienke and Dörre, 2018). Various kinds of surface preparation and
surface coatings were examined to determine their influence on the
faying surfaces slip factor and different ways of slip factor testing were
examined (Cruz, Simoes and Alves, 2012; Ebert, Glienke, Dörre and
Henkel, 2019). Also, studies analysing the influence of corrosion on slip
factor and fatigue life of bolted connections are available (Paolo,
Curtarello, Maiorana and Pellegrino, 2017; Maiorana, Paolo and
Pellegrino, 2018). Furthermore, the effect of self-loosening was
investigated intensively (Junker, 1969; Zhang, Jiang and Lee, 2007;
Chen, Gao and Guan, 2017). Several studies were done to determine the
influence of imperfect contact surfaces (lack of fit) on bolted connections
(Bucher and Ebert, 2000; Feldmann and Naumes, 2011). Imperfections
were proven to be detrimental especially for slip-resistant joints by
reducing the preloading applied (Mann and Morris, 1984). Different
products are available to reduce the risk of self-loosening (Fig. 3), e.g.
special kinds of washers with cams facing each other and serrations
gripping the contact surfaces (wedge lock washers, e.g. HEICO®, 2018
and Nord-Lock Group, 2019) or washers enabling coaxial torqueing
without the need of an reaction arm for higher preloading levels
(HYTORC®, 2016).

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Figure 4. Experimental setup for underwater tightening (front view)

A specimen comprised two steel plates (EN 10025-2 – S355J2+N) with

a thickness t of 30 mm and three sets of bolts each. The plates were grit
blasted (cleanliness level Sa 3 acc. to ISO 8501) and coated with two-
phase alloy zinc-aluminium (Zn-Al 85-15: 85 % zinc, 15 % aluminium)
Figure 3. Washer systems for high-strength steel bolts
by thermal spray according to industry standards to represent typical
flange coatings of offshore constructions located in the splash zone and
Besides Eurocode 3 and EN 1090-2, there are additional tightening
under water (e.g. boat landing flanges). Mean dry film thickness DFT
methods available promised to obtain a level of preload near the yield
was 67 µm. HV assemblies according to EN 14399-4 with different
strength of the bolt material with less variance over multiple bolts
kinds of washers underneath bolt head and bolt nut were used. The HV
tightened, such as the yield-point controlled method (Junkers, 2015;
assemblies were hot-dip galvanized (tZn) according to ISO 10684 and
HYTORC®, 2018) or bolt tensioning methods (for subsea use see: SKF,
labeled to be of k-Class K1 (delivery condition). Assembly and
2009; Atlas Copco, 2015). ISO 19902 advises the use of tensioners and
tightening of the bolts were done under water inside a water basin. The
simultaneous tightening of multiple bolts for bolted connections of
bolts were tightened in an upright position whilst the steel plates were
bottom founded offshore steel structures. Bolts according to BS 4882 are
resting on a mounting pad. Regarding European regulations, the
required (ISO 19902). These recommendations are not reflected in
modified torque method (EN 1090-2) and the combined method
general construction standards Eurocode 3 or EN 1090-2.
(DIN EN 1993-1-8/NA) were used. A hydraulic torque wrench with an
angle sensor and a hydraulic pump conforming to the demands of
Concerning the assembly of bolted connections under water, a number
VDI/VDE 2862 Blatt2:2015-02 were used to ensure accurate torque and
of investigations not related to Eurocode 3 or EN 1090-2 dealing with
angle. Additionally, bolts were tightened with the yield-point controlled
different kinds of bolts (design and material) for subsea applications and
method using the same tightening setup. As each specimen contained
the corresponding bolt failure mechanisms are publicly available, often
three bolts, the neighbouring bolts supported the reaction arm of the
with a focus on corrosive behaviour and hydrogen assisted cracking
torque wrench. With the HYTORC® washer system, using a reaction arm
(Hasson and Crowe, 1988; Aylor, Bowles and Tregoning, 1997; Ross,
was not necessary, but a special torque wrench socket had to be used. All
1990; Ross, 2000; Esaklul and Ahmed, 2009; Omura, 2012; Meikle,
assemblies were tightened by turning the nut.
Tadolini, Sainsbury and Bolton, 2018; Johnson, 2018; NAP, 2018).
However, for subsea applications of preloaded bolted connections
Table 4. Testing schedule for tightening and preload measurements
according to Eurocode 3 and EN 1090-2, it is evident to investigate the
influence of water on the preloading level in regard to tightening method
and bolt assembly lubrication as well as to determine the slip resistance Medium De-ionized water + 3.5 % sodium chloride
per bolt depending on the slip factor of the faying surfaces, which might Plates EN 10025-2 – S355J2+N (t = 30 mm)
be influenced by the presence of water, too. Still, no corresponding Zn-Al 85-15
research could be found. Regarding the originally addressed problem of Coating (mean DFT mx = 67 µm, sx = 9.6 µm, n = 720)
self-loosening bolts, ensuring a certain amount of preload (50 % ,! Bolt/nut Instrumented HV bolt and nut assemblies
according to DIN EN 1993-1-8/NA) or the prevention of slip at the assemblies (EN 14399-4 – M27 x 100 – 10.9/10 – HV – tZn – K1)
faying surfaces (slip-resistant connections) could prevent this Plain chamfered
HYTORC® washer
phenomenon (Stranghöner, Makevicius, Henkel, Glienke and Dörre, washers Wedge lock
system (zWasher
Washers (EN 14399-6 – 27 – Washers
2018). Additionally, the use of alternative kinds of washers is an option and Backup washer)
to be considered, as the effect might still occur under certain conditions tZn)
even when some contact facets are stuck (creep slip phenomenon, see
Modified torque method

Modified torque method

Modified torque method

Yield-point controlled

Yield-point controlled

Yield-point controlled
(DIN EN 1993/NA)

(DIN EN 1993/NA)

Chen, Gao and Guan, 2017).

Combined method

Combined method

Combined method
(ETA-13/0246)*

(ETA-13/0246)*
(EN 1090-2)

(EN 1090-2)
method

method

method

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND TESTING SCHEDULE Tightening

method
Preload Measurements of Bolts Tightened Under Water

In order to determine the influence of water on preloading and preloading

losses, a number of bolted connections were established under water and
*Specific tightening recommendations and preload level Fp,C,SC for
under experimental conditions (Fig. 4). To simulate a saltwater
wedge lock washers (European Technical Approval ETA-13/0246)
environment, 3.5 % sodium chloride were added to de-ionized water.

1121

Figure 5: Experimental setup for slip factor tests
Table 4 summarizes the testing schedule. To measure bolt strain and the
respective preloading, the bolts were instrumented with commercially
available strain gauges especially designed for the application inside of
bolt shanks. Each instrumented bolt was calibrated individually. For this
purpose, the bolts were put in a tensile testing machine and loaded to the
elastic range of the steel. The relationship between load and voltage
change was established by linear regression analysis. Leads and cables
coming out of the bolts heads were sealed waterproof. Finding a proper
strain gauge sealing lasting for the measuring period was a trial and error
process. Finally, satisfactory sealing could be achieved by using a two-
component epoxy adhesive. After tightening, the bolts preload was
measured continuously for 72 hours to determine preload losses from
static loading (bolt preload) and to be able to extrapolate preload losses
to an offshore structures design life (25 years) according to common
practices (Stranghöner, Makevicius, Henkel, Glienke and Dörre, 2018).
Underwater Slip Factor Tests
In order to determine the influence of water on the slip factor and to
verify the corresponding surface class according to EN 1090-2, a series
of slip factor tests according to Annex G of EN 1090-2 were performed
under water utilizing a newly developed testing setup (see Fig. 5): A
water tank was installed onto the machine bed of the testing machine.
The upper and lower testing machine mounts for fastening of the test
specimens were realized by tensile connections using high-strength steel
bolts. Slip was measured as the relative displacement between the cover
and center plates of the specimens. According to EN 1090-2 the
displacement has to be measured at the side of the plates. Since the test
specimens comprise two center plates and two cover plates with two
sides each, eight measurements must be taken. LVDTs (linear variable
differential transformators) were used for measuring the displacement at
specific points of the specimens in accordance with EN 1090-2. A
special rack was developed to attach the LVDTs to the specimen plates.
The fixtures of the rack were positioned in the center of the lower and
upper bolt groups. The rack was extended upwards so that the actual
brackets and supports of the LVDTs were positioned above water level
inside the water tank. This way, regular, non-waterproof LVDTs could
be used. When transmitting the displacement to the LVDTs, the
individual elements of the rack did not interfere with each other.
Standard test specimens according to EN 1090-2 for M16 bolting
assemblies were used. The influence of the specimen geometry on the
determination of the slip factor is generally negligible. The specimens
were assembled and tightened under water (de-ionized water with
1122
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3.5 % sodium chloride added). Bolts were tightened with a wrench up to
a preload level of ,! < 5 %, which equals 110 )= < 5 % for M16 HV
bolts. Again, bolts instrumented with strain gauges were sealed for
underwater application and used for preload measurement, so preload
could be monitored while tightening. The plates were coated with Zn-Al
85-15 by thermal spray as well. Mean dry film thickness was 117 µm.
As stated in EN 1090-2, the coating of the test specimens shall be at least
25 % thicker than the nominal thickness specified for use in the structure,
which, again, is 80 µm for slip resitant connections. For reference, a
second series of tests was conducted under regular conditions (meaning
not under water) using the same testing setup. The testing specifications
as well as the general testing procedure for slip factor testing according
to EN 1090-2 are summarized in Table 5.
Table 5. Testing specifications and procedure of slip load testing
Medium De-ionized water + 3.5 % sodium chloride
Plates EN 10025-2 – S355J2+N
Zn-Al 85-15
Coating (mean DFT mx = 117 µm, sx = 28.9 µm, n = 1692)
Bolt/nut Instrumented HV bolt and nut assemblies
assemblies (EN 14399-4 – M16 x 60 – 10.9/10 – HV – tZn – K1)
Plain chamfered washers
Washers (EN 14399-6 – 16 – tZn)
Preload 110 )= < 5 % = ,! <5%
Slip factor testing acc. to Annex G of EN 1090-2:2018
Quasi-static slip factor tests
Step 1 (determination of >? , n = 4)
Creep test
Step 2 (verification of 90 % >? , n = 1)
Extended creep tests
Step 3 (verification of reduced slip factor if necessary, nmin = 3)
Slip factor testing is a three-step procedure according to EN 1090-2:
First, four quasi-static slip factor tests have to be done to determine slip
load mean value >? . The fifth specimen is subjected to a creep test
under static load (90 % >? ). When the slip difference between the
record slip at five minutes and at three hours after application of the full
load exceeds 0.002 mm during this creep test, at least three more
specimens have to be subjected to an extended creep test. The plot of a
“displacement - log time” curve shall then demonstrate that the load
determined using the proposed slip factor will not cause displacements
greater than 0.3 mm over the course of the structures design life.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Preload Measurement Results
The test results of the preload measurements are displayed in Fig. 6. The
varying number of evaluable tests can be ascribed to strain gauge defects
caused by water penetration. For both the bolts tightened with the
combined method and the bolts tightened with the yield point controlled
method, mean initial bolt preload A was measured at a sufficiently high
level relative to design preload ,! ( ,!,>! for wedge lock washers,
respectively). Taking into account preload losses of these connections
extrapolated to the constructions design life of 25 years, bolt preload
does not fall below preload design level either. This applies to all washer
systems used. However, tightening bolts with the modified torque
method according to German National Annex of EN 1993-1-8 does not
deliver satisfactory results. With this torque-based method, mean initial
bolt preload is below design level for all washer systems used. Using the
zWasher/Backup washer system in torque based tightening results in
higher mean bolt preload, but still mean initial bolt preload does not
reach preload design level when tightened under water.
Figure 6: Preload measurement results in absolute values
Even though under regular conditions torque based tightening can also
fall short in regard to the bolt preload achived (Stranghöner, Makevicius,
Henkel, Glienke and Dörre, 2018), the bolt preloads measured after
underwater assembly show severe shortcommings of this tightening
method for subsea application. The results are indicating higher
coefficients of friction when tightening under water than assumed and
guaranteed by the manufacturer with assuring the bolt assembly k-class.
A reaction of water with the lubrication of the nuts or even rinsing the
1123
nuts from lubrication by assembling the connections underwater are
possible explanations for this phenomenon. As with the combined
method an additional angle is applied to the already pre-tightened nut,
this method is not relying on bolt lubrication as much as torque based
methods, so the higher bolt preloads of bolts tightened with this method
are reasonable. The same applies to bolts tightened with the yield-point
controlled method, as the bolting process is terminated immediatley
when the programmed relative gradient threshold for the linear gradient
of the tightening process (50 % of torque-angle slope) is exceeded
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(Junkers, 2015). However, higher coefficients of friction might result in
higher torsional shear stresses inside the bolts when the same amount of
preload is reached. For these bolts there is a risk of overload failure
(Kloos and Thomala, 2007). This should be prevented by yield-point
controlled tightening, but cannot be assured for the combined method.
Figure 7: Preload measurement results in relative mean values
Looking at the relative preload deviations from design preload level
(Fig. 7), it is noticable that the relative amount of preload losses seems
to be independent of absolute bolt preload level A . This is congruent
with similar investigations concerning comparable connections
assembled and tightened under regular conditions (Stranghöner,
Makevicius, Henkel, Glienke and Dörre, 2018) and applies for all test
series, though for wedge lock washers it seems that lower initial bolt
preload is correlating with preload losses higher than usual. Reason
could be the difference in geometry of wedge lock washers compared to
plain chamfered washers and to zWasher/Backup washers. Furthermore,
the additional gap between each wedge lock washers two components
can be accounted for higher preload losses with wedge lock washers in
general. In order to obtain a final statement on this effect, the tightening
behaviour of wedge lock washers would have to be investigated further,
which was not part of this research. Gernerally, mean preload losses
seem to be accumulating to an amount of 10 % to 15 % over the course
of 25 years compared to the mean initial bolt preload. As expected the
amount of preload loss does not seem to be influenced by the presence
of water when comparing the results to tests done under regular
conditions with HV assemblies of similar dimensions, clamp lenghts and
plate surface coatings. For these reference connections preload losses
were at around 10 % to 15 % as well (Stranghöner, Makevicius, Henkel,
Glienke and Dörre, 2018). Considering the originally adressed problem
of self-losening bolts at offshore constructions it must be said that
affected bolts were tightened by torque, so insufficient bolt preload
might have enabled the effect.
Table 6. Results of slip factor testing

Slip factor testing results – underwater Slip factor testing results – regular conditions
Slip factor test 1 2 3 4 Slip factor test 1 2 3 4
Fsi (top) 225.7 kN 259.9 kN 225.5 kN 283.2 kN Fsi (top) 314.3 kN 272.5 kN 316.9 kN 288.8 kN
Fsi (bottom) 256.0 kN 236.6 kN 228.0 kN 269.2 kN Fsi (bottom) 279.8 kN 293.5 kN 315.6 kN 305.2 kN
Fsm 248.04 kN Fsm 298.31 kN

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Failed at 223.2 kN tensile load (90 % Fsm) Failed at 268.5 kN tensile load (90 % Fsm)
Creep test (CT) 0.002 mm < displacement < 0.15 mm
Creep test (CT) displacement > 0.15 mm
n B in kN sFs s (sFs/ B) n B in kN sFs s (sFs/ B)
Statistics Statistics
4 248 kN 22.14 8.9 % 5 292.3 kN 18.69 6.4 %
1 2 3 1 2 3
Extended 217 kN load; 244 kN load; 204 kN load; Extended 239 kN load; 204 kN load; 176 kN load;
creep tests upper joint upper joint both joints creep tests both joints both joints both joints
failed failed passed failed failed passed
Slip factor µ 0.46 Surface class B Slip factor µ 0,40 Surface class B

Slip Factor Test Results
Results oft the slip factor tests are summarized in Table 6. Surface class
B according to EN 1090-2 could be verified under regular conditions and
also with tests conducted under water. However, the specimens failure
mode was different: The samples tested under water began to slip slowly
until the middle plates suddenly gave way and came to rest at the shafts
of the bolts. Under regular conditions, continuous slipping could be seen
until bolt contact was reached. Slip load mean value ? was higher for
the specimens tested underwater. It has to be noted, that s (standard
deviation for slip load expressed as percentage from mean slip load
value) is slightly higher for the underwater series than the 8 % limit
stated in EN 1090-2, so additional slip factor tests would have to be
conducted, but due to the failed creep test extended creep tests had to be
carried out anyway. Surprisingly, at a tensile load of 204 kN the
specimen tested under regular conditions did not pass the extended creep
test (ECT) while the specimen tested under water did. The third
specimen tested under regular testing conditions (ECT) was subjected to
the minimum load for the creep test to verify surface class B and passed
the test, so the actual slip factor value might be a bit higher. Besides,
several bolts failed due to overload while tightening before reaching
design preload level. Torsion fractures could be seen at the first free,
loaded threads underneath the bolt nuts, which is an unusual failure mode
for HV assemblies. This did not happen while tightening the M27 bolts,
so the dimension of bolts seem to be of importance for this kind of
failure. Additional bolt assembly lubrication solved the issue. For the slip
factor tests conducted only the level of preload was important and not
the maintenance of the bolts delivery condition.
be an issue. Still, the use of wedge lock washers might be another option
to prevent self-loosening. Investigations on alternative kinds of bolt
assembly lubrication should be done in case HV assemblies and torque
based tightening are still the preferred way to establish subsea bolted
connections. As experimentally determined preloads varied widely and
no final conclusion on the influence of bolt size or the effect of different
medium compositions can be drawn yet, no recommendations regarding
a safety factor to apply for underwater bolt torqueing can be given.
Additionally, slip factor tests were performed under water to determine
the influence of water on the coating surface class. Surface class B could
be verified under regular conditions and under water. Yet, failure
behaviour of the specimens was different when tested under water
compared to regular conditions. Further investigations are necessary to
explain the individual phenomena seen. According to offshore specific
standards of petroleum and natural gas industries, different fasteners and
tightening methods (bolt tensioners) are generally recommended for
under water applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The investigations were made within the IGF research project 19.675 B
of the Research Association on Welding and Allied Processes of the
DVS and has been funded by the AiF within the program for sponsorship
by Industrial Joint Research (IGF) of the German Federal Ministry of
Economic Affairs and Energy based on an enactment of the German
Parliament.
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