Ten Chemistry Note; 2019

Chapter One
Gas Laws
Boyle’s law: Pressure – Volume relationship
It states that “at a constant temperature the volume of a sample of gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure”.
1
Pα
V
PV = k (at constant temperature)
P1V1 = P2V2 (Boyle’s law equation)
Note: Solve numerical problems on page 6 using Boyle’s law equation.

Charles’ law: Volume – Temperature relationship

It states that “at a constant pressure, the volume of a given quantity of a gas increases or decreases by
1
of its volume at 00C for rise or fall in the temperature by 1 0C”.
273
Or
It states that “the volume of an ideal gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature”.
V
V α T or
=k
T
V1 V2
= (Charles law equation)
T1 T2
Note: Solve numerical problems on page 10.

Avogadro’s law
It states that “equal volumes of all the gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain
equal number of molecules”.
Example: If 2L of H2 contains ‘n’ molecules at STP; then 2L of CO2 at STP also contains ‘n’ molecules.
Note: Under similar conditions of temperature and pressure, the volume of the gas is directly proportional
to its number of moles (n) expressed in gram moles.
Vαn
Mole: It is the amount of substance that contains particles (atoms, ions, electrons or molecules) equal to
Avogadro’s number (i.e. 6.023x1023).
Avogadro’s number (NA or L)
It is the number of particles present in one mole of a substance (6.023x10 23).
Molar volume or gram molecular volume
It is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas at STP and is equal to 22.4L or 22.4dm3 or 22400cm3.

Gas equation (combining Boyle’s and Charles’ law)

P1V 1 P2V 2
= (Gas equation)
T1 T2
Note: Solve numerical problems on page 12.

Ideal gas equation (combination of Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro’s law)
PV = nRT (where, R = molar gas constant = 0.0821 litre atm K-1 mol-1)

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 w
Or PV = RT (where, w = mass of the gas and m = molar mass of the gas)
m
Number of moles (n) = given weight of the gas divided by molar mass of the gas.
Note: Solve numerical problems on page 16.

Dalton’s law of partial pressure

It states that “the total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases in a vessel of known capacity
at a constant temperature is equal to sum of the partial pressures of the constituent gases”.
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 …………+ Pn (where Pt is total pressure of the mixture and P1, P2……….Pn are the
partial pressures of each component).
Partial pressure is the pressure that would be exerted by a gas if it alone occupied the same volume as
the mixture at the same temperature.
(Or) It is the pressure that would be exerted by one of the gases in a mixture if it occupied the same
volume on its own.
By applying ideal gas equation, the partial pressure of each gas can be calculated as given below:
n 1 RT
P1 =
V

n 2 RT
P2 =
V

n 3 RT
P3 =
V
Now, sum of the partial pressure = total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases.
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3

n 1 RT n 2 RT n 3 RT
Pt = + +
V V V

RT
Pt = (n1 + n2 + n3 + …..)
V

RT
Pt = nt (where, nt is the total number of moles of the gas mixture in volume ‘V’).
V
Note: Solve numerical problems on page 21.

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Chapter Two
The Mole Concept and Stoichiometry
The study of quantitative relationships based on chemical formulas and equations is called
Stoichiometry.

Relative atomic mass (RAM or Ar)

1
Relative atomic mass of an element is the number of times one atom of the element is heavier than
12
times of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Example: Atomic mass of oxygen atom is 16 a.m.u., which means one atom of oxygen is 16 times
1
heavier than times of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
12
Gram atomic mass/weight: It is the atomic mass of an element which is expressed in grams.
Example: If atomic mass of oxygen is 16 a.m.u, therefore its gram atomic mass is 16g.

Relative molecular mass (RMM or Mr)

Relative molecular mass of an element or compound is the number of times one molecule of the
1
substance is heavier than the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
12
Steps to determine molecular mass of a substance are:
1. Write down the symbol of each element present in a given compound or substance.
2. Count and write down the number of atoms of each element present in that compound.
3. Multiply the number of atoms of each element by their atomic mass.
4. The sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms present in a molecule of the compound will be its
molecular mass.
Gram molecular mass: It is the molecular mass of a compound expressed in gram.
Example: If molecular mass of oxygen molecule is 32 a.m.u, then its gram molecular mass is 32g.
Avogadro’s law
It states that “equal volumes of all the gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain
equal number of molecules”.
Example: If 2L of H2 contains ‘n’ molecules at STP; then 2L of CO2 at STP also contains ‘n’ molecules.
Note: One gram-mole of any substance (gram molecular weight) is equal to 6.023 x 10 23 molecules.
If 32g is the gram molecular weight of oxygen, then 32g of oxygen contain 6.023 x 10 23 molecules of
oxygen.
Mole: It is the amount of substance that contains particles (atoms, ions, electrons or molecules) equal to
Avogadro’s number (i.e. 6.023x1023).
(or) Mole is the quantity of any substance which contains as many particles (atoms, molecules, ions) as
there are in 12 gram of carbon-12.
Avogadro’s number (NA or L)
It is the number of particles present in one mole of a substance (6.023x10 23).
Molar volume or gram molecular volume
It is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas at STP and is equal to 22.4L or 22.4dm3 or 22400cm3.

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Relationship between mole, gram molecular weight, number of molecules and molar volume
1 mole of any gas or vapor is equal to its gram molecular weight and contains 6.023 x 1023 molecules
and occupies 22.4L at STP.
Eg. 1 mole of oxygen = 32g = 6.023 x 1023 molecules = 22.4L at STP.
Relationship between mole, gram atomic weight, number of atoms or ions and molar volume
1 mole of any element is equal to its gram atomic weight/mass and contains 6.023 x 1023 atoms/ions
and occupies 22.4L at STP.
Eg. 1 mole of oxygen = 16g = 6.023 x 1023 atoms/ions = 22.4L at STP.
Important formulae
 Number of moles =
Given weig h t∈gram
gram molecular wt .∨gramatomic wt .∨gram formula wt . of a substance
 Number of molecules = number of moles x Avogadro’s number.
 Molecular weight = 2 x vapor density.
Molecular weig h t
 Vapor density =
2
Relationship between gram molecular weight and molar volume
Gram molecular weight = 22.4L at STP.
Percentage composition
Percentage composition of a compound is the percentage by weight of each element present in the
compound.
Steps to calculate the percentage composition of a compound
1. Calculate the molecular mass of the compound.
2. Find out the weight of each element present in one molecule of the compound.
3. Then the percentage of the element is calculated by using the formula:
weig h t of t h e element ∈a compound
Percentage composition/of an element = X 100
gram molecular weig h t of t h e compound
Note: If the question is to calculate the percentage composition of the compound, then you have to
calculate the percentage of each element present in the given compound.
But if the question is to calculate the percentage of an element in the given compound, then you have to
calculate the percentage of that particular element in a compound only.

Empirical formula: It is the formula of a compound which gives the simple whole number ratio of the
atoms of different elements present in one molecule of the compound. It is the simplest formula.
Empirical formula mass: It is the sum of the atomic masses of the various atoms represented by the
empirical formula of the compound.
If empirical formula of glucose is CH2O, then its empirical formula mass will be (1 x 12) + (2 x 1) + (1 x
16) = 30.

Molecular formula: It is the formula of a compound which gives or represents the actual or exact
number of atoms of different elements present in one molecule of the compound.

Compound Molecular formula Empirical formula

Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O

Benzene C6H6 CH

Steps to calculate the empirical and molecular formula of the compound

1) Draw a table that consists of five vertical columns.
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 2) In the first column, write the symbol of various elements present in the compound.
3) In the second column, write the weight or percentage of each element present in the compound.
4) In the third column, write down the atomic mass of each element present in the compound.
5) In the fourth column, calculate the relative number of atoms of each element by dividing weight
or percentage composition of an element by its atomic mass.
6) In the fifth column, find out the simplest ratio of atoms of each element by dividing the relative
number of atoms by the least value. The simplest ratio should be a whole number.
7) To get the empirical formula, write the symbols of various elements side by side and put the
whole number ratio as a subscript at the lower right hand corner of each symbol.
8) To determine the molecular formula, calculate the empirical formula mass by adding up the
atomic mass of each element represented by the empirical formula.
9) Find the value of ‘n’ by dividing molecular mass by empirical formula mass.
10) If the molar mass is not given or instead of molar mass of a compound, if vapor density is given.
Then calculate the molar mass of a compound by multiplying vapor density by 2. Molar mass =
V.D X 2.
11) Then write the molecular formula by using the formula:
Molecular formula = empirical formula x n.
Differences between empirical and molecular formula

Empirical formula Molecular formula

It gives the simple whole number ratio of the atoms It gives the actual number of atoms of various
of various elements present in one molecule of the elements present in one molecule of the compound.
compound.

It is only for compound. It is for both compounds and elements.

Empirical formula of different compounds can be Molecular formula of any compound is always
same. fixed except isomerism.

Eg. Empirical formula of benzene and ethyne is Eg. Molecular formula of benzene and ethyne are
CH. C6H6 and C2H2 respectively.

Sometimes the molecular and empirical formulas of Molecular formula of any compound sometimes
any compound become identical. becomes identical with empirical formula and
sometimes it becomes multiple of the empirical
Eg. HCl formula.

Eg. H2O (empirical formula H2O)

C6H6 (empirical formula CH)

Steps to solve calculation based on chemical equations.

1) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction in molecular form.
2) Calculate the molecular weight of those substances whose weight have been mentioned in the
problem and write it below their formula.
3) Calculate the result by unitary method.

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Chapter Three
Metallurgy
Metallurgy: The study of metals and the various processes involved in the extraction of metals from their
respective ore is called metallurgy.
Some terminologies used in metallurgy are:
1) Minerals are those naturally occurring compounds of metals found in the earth’s crust and
associated with earthy impurities like sand, soil etc.
2) Ores are those minerals from which the metals can be extracted conveniently and profitably.
All ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
All minerals are not ores because from all minerals we cannot extract metals. Those minerals
which contain high percentage of metal and are free from objectionable impurities are called ores.
For example Fe2O3 (haematite) and FeS2 (iron pyrite) are minerals of iron. However, iron pyrite
which contains lower percentage of iron and is associated with objectionable impurities like S, P
etc is not used for the extraction of iron. Thus, iron pyrite is not an ore of iron.

3) Charge is mixture of materials fed (put) into a furnace (oven) to extract metal.
4) Gangue or Matrix: The impurities like sand, rocky materials, earthy particles etc. associated
with an ore are called gangue.
5) Flux: It is a chemical substance added to an ore during the extraction of metal that combines
chemically with the gangue to form a fusible light mass.
6) Slag: The product obtained by the combination of gangue with the flux is called slag.
Gangue + Flux → Slag
Different types of ores

Oxide ores Carbonates ore Halide ores Sulphide ores

Bauxite [Al2O3.2H2O] Calamine [ZnCO3] Cryolite [Na3AlF6] Cinnabar [HgS]

Cupric [Cu2O] Marble [CaCO3] Fluorspar [CaF2] Galena [PbS]

Haematite [Fe2O3] Magnesite [MgCO3] Horn silver [AgCl] Chalcocite [Cu2S]

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 Zincite [ZnO] Siderite [FeCO3] Rock salt [NaCl] Zinc blende [ZnS]

Magnetite [Fe3O4] Dolomite[CaCO3.MgCO3]

Processes involved in the extraction of metals

1. Dressing of ores
It is the process of converting the ore in such a physical form so that the gangue can be easily
removed. It is done by:
a) Hand picking
Large particles of impurities are removed from ore by hand picking.
b) Crushing and grinding of ore
Larger particles of ores are broken down into powder with the help of stamp mill or ball
mill. This process is called pulverization of the ore.
2. Concentration of ores
It is the process of removing some of the gangue particles from the dressed ore, thereby
increasing the percentage of the metal in the ore. It is done by:
a) Gravity separation or hydraulic washing
It is based on specific gravities of the ore or gangue particles (either ore or gangue
particles should be heavier and the other should be lighter).
This process is used for the concentration of tin stone (SnO2), haematite (Fe2O3) and
carbonate ores.
b) Froth floatation process
This method is based on preferential wetting properties of the ore with the frothing
agent and water. When powered ore is added to water containing pine oil (frothing
agent), water wets the gangue particles and the pine oil wets sulphide ores.
This process is used for the concentration of sulphide ores.
c) Magnetic separation
This method is based on the difference in the magnetic properties of the ore and
gangue particles (either ore or gangue particles should be magnetic and other should be
non-magnetic in nature). This method is used for the concentration of magnetite (Fe3O4)
and tin stone (SnO2).
d) Leaching
In this method, the powered ore is dissolved in a suitable reagent (solvent) but not the
impurities. This method is used for the concentration of bauxite ore.
3. Extraction of metal from concentrated ore
It involves:
a) Conversion of concentrated ore into metal oxide.
It is done by:
1. Calcination: It is the process of heating concentrated ore in a limited supply of air or
in absence of air at a temperature just below the melting point of a metal. This
process is used for carbonates and hydrated ores.
ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2
Fe2O3.2H2O → Fe2O3 + 2H2O

2. Roasting: It is the process of heating concentrated ore strongly in the presence of air
at a temperature below its melting point. This process is used for sulphide ores.
2ZnS + 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2
b) Reduction of metal oxide into free metal.

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 It is done by:
1) Reducing agent
i. Smelting: It is the reduction of metal oxide by carbon or coke.
ZnO + C → Zn + CO
FeO + C → Fe +CO
ii. Aluminothermy: Oxides of some metals like manganese, chromium, iron
and tungsten which are less active than aluminium are reduced by heating
them with aluminium powder.
Cr2O3 + 2Al → Al2O3 + 2Cr + heat
2) Heating
2HgO → 2Hg + O2 (metal oxides which are unstable to heat)
3) Electrolytic reduction (electrolysis)
This method is used for the extraction of highly reactive metals like potassium,
sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium etc.
4. Purification or refining of metal
It is done by:
a) Liquation
This method is used to refine metals like tin and lead which have low melting point.
The metal melts and flow down leaving behind the impurities.
b) Distillation method
This method is used for metals like zinc, cadmium, and mercury which vaporize easily
leaving behind the impurities.
c) Oxidation method
This method is used for refining cast iron in which the impurities like carbon,
phosphorous and arsenic gets oxidized easily to form volatile oxides leaving behind
the metal itself.
d) Electrolytic refining
In this method, the impure metal is made as anode and a thin sheet of pure metal is
made as cathode and the electrolyte is the salt solution of metal to be refined.

Electrolysis is the process of decomposition of an electrolyte in the molten state or in aqueous solution
by the passage of an electric current through it.
Electrolyte is those substances which allow an electric current to pass through them in molten state or in
aqueous solution.
Example: HCl, HNO3, NaOH, aqueous solution of NaCl, PbBr2, etc.

Types of electrolytes

Strong electrolytes Weak electrolytes

 Dissociates almost completely in molten  Dissociates partially in their molten state or

state or in aqueous solution.
 The solution contains almost free ions.
 They allow large amount of current too
flow through them.
 They are good conductor of electricity.
Example: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, NaOH, KOH,
aqueous solution of NaCl, KNO3, etc.
in aqueous solution.
 The solution contains partly ions and partly
undissociated molecules.
 They allow small amount of current too
flow through them.
 They are good conductor of electricity.
Example: acetic acid, oxalic acid, carbonic acid,
ammonium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and

Page 8 of 31
 bicarbonate.

Non-electrolyte is those substances which do not allow an electric current to pass through them even in
molten state or in aqueous solution.
Example: pure water, alcohol, kerosene, benzene etc.
Electrodes are the graphite or metal plates or rods which are dipped in the electrolyte through which
current enters and leaves an electrolyte.
Types of electrodes
1. Cathode is the electrode which is connected to negative terminal end of a battery.
2. Anode is the electrode which is connected to the positive terminal end of a battery.

Electrolytic cell or Voltameter

It is the device in which electrolysis is carried out.

Types of conductors

Metallic conductors Electrolytic conductors

 Conducts electricity without undergoing  Undergo chemical change while

any chemical change. conducting electricity.
 Electrical conductivity is due to presence  Electrical conductivity is due to the
of free mobile electrons. presence of free ions (cations and
 Conducts electricity even in solid state. anions).
 Conducts electricity only in molten state
Examples: all metals except carbon in the form of or in aqueous solution.
graphite is a non-metallic conductor.
Examples: NaCl, NaOH, HCl, CuSO4, etc.

Theory of electrolytic dissociation

According to this theory:
 An electrolyte is a substance when dissolved in water, splits up into cations and anions.
 The ions formed have a tendency to reunite to form unionized electrolyte. As a result, equilibrium
is established between the ions formed and undissociated electrolyte.
AB → A+ + B-
 As ions enter the solution, they get surrounded by water molecules. This process is called
hydration and the hydrated ions are responsible for the electrical conductivity of the solution as
they move freely in the solution.
 The fraction of total number of molecules of an electrolyte which splits up into ions is called
degree of dissociation (α).

Thus,
number of molecules of an electrolyte which split up into ions
α=
total number o f molecules of an electrolyte
Substances containing molecules only, ions only, both molecules and ions
Non-electrolyte contains molecules only.
Strong electrolyte contains ions only.
Weak electrolyte contains both molecules and ions.

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Mechanism of electrolysis
 When an electrolyte is fused or dissolved in water, it breaks up into oppositely charge ions called
cations and ions.
 On passing current, cations moves towards cathode (C to C) while the anions moves to towards
anode (A to A).
 Cations on reaching to the cathode gains electrons and form neutral atom while the anions on
reaching to the anode lose electrons and form a neutral atom.
 When there is more than one ion carrying same type of charge in an electrolyte, only one ion is
discharged (lose/gain electron) in preference to other.
 The preferential discharge of ions is influenced by:
a) Position of the ions in the electrochemical series.
b) Concentration of ions in the electrolyte.
c) The nature of the electrodes.

Factors influencing the discharge of ions at the electrodes

I. Position of the ions in the electrochemical series.
The ions which are placed at the bottom of the electrochemical series get discharged in preference
to the ions which are placed above it.
Example: H+ ion get discharged at cathode in preference to Na + ion or OH- ion get discharged at
anode in preference to SO42+ ion, because H+ ion is placed below Na+ ion and OH- ion is placed
below SO42+ ion in the electrochemical series.
II. Concentration of ions in the electrolyte.
The ions with higher concentration get discharged at the electrodes in preference to the ions with
lower concentration.
III. The nature of the electrodes.
 If the electrodes are inert, the discharged of ions at the electrodes depends on the
position of ions in the electrochemical series.
 If the electrodes are active, none of the anions get discharged, instead the anode itself
lose electrons to form cation.
Note:
 Inert electrodes: PIG (Platinum, iron and graphite) and steel.
 Active electrodes: copper, zinc, silver, etc.

Examples of electrolysis
Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride (NaCl) solution
Electrolytic dissociation: NaCl → Na+ + Cl-
H2O → H+ + OH-
Reaction at Cathode: H + e- → H (reduction reaction)
+

2H → H2
2H+ + 2e- → H2 (overall reaction)

Reaction at Anode: Cl- → Cl + e- (oxidation reaction)

Cl + Cl → Cl2
2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e- (overall reaction)
Electrolysis of aqueous solution of Copper Sulphate (CuSO4) using Platinum Electrodes
Electrolytic dissociation: CuSO4 → Cu2+ + SO42+
H2O → H+ + OH-
Reaction at the Cathode (Pt): Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu (reduction reaction)
Reaction at the Anode (Pt): OH- → OH + e- (oxidation reaction)

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 4OH → 2H2O + O2
Note:
If copper is used as electrodes:
Reaction at Cathode (Cu): Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu (reduction reaction)
Reaction at Anode (Cu): Cu – 2e- → Cu2+ (oxidation reaction)

Note:
If copper is used as electrodes, none of the anions (SO42+ or OH-) get discharged. Instead copper
electrode (anode) itself loses two electrons and forms Cu 2+ ions. On the other hand, if platinum is used as
electrodes, O2 gas will be liberated at the anode.
During electrolysis of aqueous solution of copper sulphate salt using copper as electrodes, the blue color
of the solution (electrolyte) remains same. It is due to the amount of copper ions that is discharged at the
cathode is being replaced from the anode. Hence, the blue color of the solution remains same.
But if platinum is used as electrodes, the blue color of the solution will fade away. It is because the
amount of copper ions discharged at the cathode is not replaced from the anode.

Chapter Four
Halogens
The elements of group VIIA or 17 constitute a family known as halogen (halos means salt and genes
meaning former).
The family comprises the elements Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I) and Astatine
(At).
Fluorine is the smallest atom of the halogen and is the most reactive halogen element.

Occurrence
All halogen elements exist as diatomic molecules.
Astatine is highly radioactive and rarest element found in nature.
Halogen atoms in combined state are found in the form of minerals and salts.
Basic information of group 17 elements is:

Basic Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine Astatine

information

Symbol F Cl Br I At

Atomic 9 17 35 53 85
number

Mass number 18.9 amu 35.4 amu 79.9 amu 126.9 amu 210 amu

Isotopes F – 18 Cl- 35 Br- 79 37 known At- 210 has the

isotopes which longest half-
F - 19 Cl- 36 Br- 81 undergo life of 8 hours
radioactive 10 minutes.
Cl- 37 decay except

Cl- 38 I- 127

Discovery Joseph Henri Carl Wilhelm Antoine J. Bernard D.R.Corson in

Moissan in Scheele in Balard in 1826 Courtois in 1940
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 1886 1774 1812

Source Mineral Salt Sea water Sodium and Synthetically

Fluorite potassium obtained by
compounds. bombarding
bismuth (Bi)
with alpha
particles.

Electronic configuration: The distribution of electron in various energy levels or shells of an atom is
called the electronic configuration.
The distribution of electrons in various shells is guided by the expression 2n 2. Where ‘n’ refers to shell
number and it has value 1, 2, 3, 4 etc.
Halogen atoms have 7 valence electrons in which one electron short to achieve noble gas configuration.
Halogen atoms can achieve their noble gas configuration or octet state by any of the following processes:
1. Mutual sharing of electron between two similar halogen atoms. F 2, Cl2, Br2 etc.
2. Mutual sharing of electron between one halogen atom and one non-metal. HCl
3. Gaining or transferring of electron. NaCl, MgCl 2, NaBr, etc.

Safety and storage of elemental halogens

Halogens are corrosive, poisonous and highly toxic.
Halogens are preferred to be stored in dry glass containers because fluorine reacts with glass containers to
form silicon tetrafluorides (SiF4) in the presence of water.
Halogens are powerful oxidizing agent (readily accepts electrons).
The container of chlorine may explode if it is exposed to heat due to oxidation. Similarly, bromine should
not come in contact with ammonia, acetylene and other elements to avoid explosion.

General properties
Nuclear charge: The total charge of all the protons in the nucleus is called nuclear charge. It is equal to
the number of proton in the nucleus of an atom.
Example: The nuclear charge of chlorine is +17 as it has 17 protons in the nucleus.
Effective nuclear charge: The amount of positive charge that actually acts on the electrons of valence
shell is called effective nuclear charge.
(or) It is the net positive charge experienced by valence electrons in polyatomic atom.
Effective nuclear charge is always lesser than the nuclear charge due to shielding effect.
Example, Fluorine has nuclear charge +9. However, its effective nuclear charge is +7 due to two shielding
electrons.
Effective Nuclear charge = Atomic number minus Shielding electrons.
Zeff = Z – S

Shielding /Screening effect is defined as a reduction in the effective nuclear charge on the electron
cloud, due to a difference in the attraction forces on the electrons in an atom.
(or) It is the repulsive charge experienced by the valence electron from the electrons of inner shells.
Greater the shielding effect, further the valence shell can spread out and bigger will be the atom.
Shielding/non-valence electrons are those electrons which are present between the electrons of interest
and the nucleus.
These electrons cancel some of the positive nuclear charge due to electrons-electron repulsion force
between them.
Electrons of interest are those electrons which experiences effective nuclear charge.

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Periodic properties of halogens
1) Atomic size
Atomic size of halogen elements increases down the group due to addition of new shells and
increased in screening effect.
Note:
 Fluorine has the smallest atomic size.
 Cations have smaller size compared to their parent atom due to increased in effective nuclear
charge.
 Anions have larger size compared to their parent atom due to decreased in effective nuclear
charge.
2) Electronegativity
Electronegativity of halogen elements decreases down the group due to increase in atomic size
and decrease in effective nuclear charge. Fluorine has the highest Electronegativity value
among the elements of periodic table.
3) Ionization energy/enthalpy
Ionization energy of halogen elements decreases down the group due to increase in atomic size
and decrease in effective nuclear charge.
4) Electron affinity
Electron affinity of halogen elements decreases down the group due to increase in atomic size.
However, Fluorine has a lesser value of electron affinity than the Chlorine due to electros-
electron repulsion.
Note: Halogen elements have smallest atomic size, highest ionization energy, highest
Electronegativity and highest electron affinity in their respective period. Among halogen elements,
Fluorine has smallest atomic size, highest ionization energy, highest Electronegativity and lowest
electron affinity.

Physical properties of Halogens

1. Physical state: At room temperature (250C), Fluorine & Chlorine are gases, Bromine is a
volatile liquid and Iodine is a volatile solid. This is all due to increasing strength of the Van der
Waal’s forces of attraction between the molecules down the group.
2. Colour and solubility: In pure form, Fluorine (Pale yellow gas), Chlorine (Pale green gas),
Bromine (Dark red liquid) and Iodine (Grey solid).
Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine are slightly soluble in water.
3. Density: Density of halogens increases down the group due to increase in mass.
4. Melting and Boiling point: Melting and boiling points of halogen elements increases down the
group.
5. Oxidation state/number: It is the number that represents the number of electrons that an atom
can gain, lose or share during bond formation. All halogens uniformly exhibit an oxidation state
-1 as they gain one electron. Except for fluorine, other halogens also exhibit positive oxidation
states of +1, +3, +5 and +7.

Chemical properties of halogens

1. Combustibility
Halogens are neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion.
2. Oxidizing agent: In molecular state, halogens are powerful oxidizing agents due to strong
affinity (attraction) for electrons.
Oxidizing power decreases down the group from fluorine to astatine.

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 3. Reducing agent: In ionic form, halogens are strong reducing agents as it can easily lose electron.
The reducing power of halides increases down the group due to decrease in effective nuclear
charge.
Halides are binary compounds in which one part is a halogen atom and the other part is an
element that is less electronegative than the halogen.
4. Bleaching agent: Chlorine is a strong bleaching agent and its action is permanent.
Bleaching is a process of removing the colours from coloured organic matter by using chemical
agents or upon exposure to sunlight.
The chemicals used in bleaching are called bleaching agent.
Mechanism of bleaching actions of chlorine:
a) Moist colored organic matter combines with chlorine to form hydrochloric acid (HCl)
and hypochlorous acid (HClO).
H2O + Cl2 → HCl + HClO
b) HClO being unstable decomposes to produce nascent oxygen [O].
HClO → HCl + [O]
c) The nascent oxygen oxidizes the coloring matter to a colorless compound.
Coloring matter + [O] → Colorless compound
Note: Bleaching action of chlorine is due to oxidation and hence, the change is permanent.
5. Displacement reaction: Halogen elements placed at the top displaces halide ion below it from
their compound.
Example: Chlorine displaces bromide ion from potassium bromide.
2KBr (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + Br2
6. Reaction with alkali metals
Halogen atom reacts easily with alkali metals to form metal halides.
Example: 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl (metal halide, i.e. Sodium halide)
7. Reaction with water
Fluorine and Chlorine can oxidize water.
a) Fluorine reacts with water vapors to form oxygen and ozone along with hydrofluoric
acid.
2F2 + 2H2O → 4HF + O2
3F2 + 3H2O → 6HF + O3

b) Chlorine dissolves in water to some extent and form two acids, hydrochloric and
hypochlorous acid.
Cl2 + H2O → HCl + HClO
8. Reaction with hydrogen
All halogens react directly with hydrogen to form hydrogen halide.
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
H2 + F2 → 2HF
Fluorine
Elemental fluorine is highly poisonous; however its fluoride form has wide range of uses.
Uses of fluoride
1. It is used in toothpaste to prevent tooth decay (Sodium fluoride).
2. In the manufacturing of tough non-stick plastic called Teflon to coat cooking pans.
3. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) is used as refrigerants and propellants.
4. Used as an etching agent in a glass industry.
Chlorine
Chlorine is a highly poisonous gas. However its compound has wide range of uses.
Uses of chlorine and its compounds are:
1) Used in table salt (NaCl).

Page 14 of 31
 2) For sterilization of drinking water and swimming pool.
3) As disinfectants
4) In the preparation of warfare gases such as phosgene, tear gas, etc.
5) As bleaching power.
6) Production of organic and inorganic compounds.
Bromine
Bromine easily transform into gas.
Uses of bromine are:
1) To purify swimming pools.
2) In the manufacturing of organic pesticides and fungicides.
3) As flame retardants for plastic products.
4) In car head light.
Uses of Iodine are:
 In the preparation of tincture of iodine.
 As food supplement in animal feed.
 Used to make dyes and for development of photography in photographic film.
Astatine: It is radioactive with short half-lives. It is used to treat a condition known as hyperthyroidism.

Chapter 5
Transition Elements
Those elements of group 3 to 12 in a modern periodic table are called transition elements as their
properties are intermediate (midway) between the elements of s-block and the elements of p-block.
Transition elements are also called d-block elements as the last electron enters the d-orbital.
Electronic configuration: The distribution of electron in various energy levels or shells of an atom is
called the electronic configuration.
Energy level/Shell: It is an imaginary orbit in which an electron revolves around the nucleus. It is
represented by ‘n’ and has value; n = 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
If n = 1, electrons belong to K-shell.
If n = 2, electrons belong to L-shell
If n = 3, electrons belong to M-shell.
If n = 4, electrons belong to N-shell
The maximum number of electrons that can be present in any shell is given by 2n 2, where ‘n’ is the
number of shell.
Each energy levels/shells are further split into sub-shells. The number of sub-shells present in each shell
is equal to the value of ‘n’. Sub-shells are denoted as s, p, d, f, etc; and have value 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.
Example: If n = 1, there is 1 sub-shell [s sub-shell (value = 0)].
If n = 2, there is 2 sub-shells [s and p sub-shell (value = 0 and 1)].
S sub-shell has 1 orbital, p sub-shell has 3 orbitals, d sub-shell has 5 orbitals and f sub-shell has 7
orbitals.
Orbital is the space around the nucleus where the probability of finding electron is maximum. Orbitals
are also denoted as s, p, d, f, etc orbitals.
Each orbital can hold only two electrons.

Orbital s p d f

Electron holding 2 6 10 14
capacity of each
orbital

Aufbau’s Principle
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It states that “the electrons are filled to the orbitals one by one in order of increasing energies”. This
means that the electron starts filling the orbitals of the lowest energy level first and continues to fill up the
orbitals of higher energy levels.
The orbitals have been arranged in order of their increasing energies as given below:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, etc.

1S2 (1 is main shell, S is sub-shell/orbital and 2 is number of electrons.

Electronic configuration of Sodium atom (Na) with atomic number 11 is 1s 2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2.

Position in a periodic table

In modern periodic table, the elements are classified into four blocks,i.e; s, p, d and f block. The
classification is based upon the name of orbital where the last electron enters.

s-block elements are those elements in which the last electron enters the s-orbital. The elements of group
1 and 2 including Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He) are s-block elements.

p-block elements are those elements in which the last electron enters the p-orbital of their outermost
shell. The elements of group 13 to 17 are called p-block elements.

d-block elements are those elements in which the last electron enters the d-orbital. The elements of group
3 to 12 (between s-block and p-block elements) are called d-block elements/transition elements. Usually,
the d-orbitals of this block are incompletely filled.
The d-block elements are further classified into four series as given below:
1. 3d – series (1st transition series) includes elements from Sc-21 to Zn-30. The elements of 4 th
period are 3d-series.
2. 4d-series (2nd transition series) includes from Y-39 to Cd-48 and lie in 5th period.
3. 5d-series (3rd transition series) includes from La-57, Hf-72 to Hg-80 and lie in 6 th period.
4. 6d-series (4th transition series) includes from Ac-89 and beyond Rf-104 and lie in 7 th period.
Note:
 d-block elements are also called transition elements.
 Transition elements have incompletely filled d-orbitals in their atomic state.
 All d-block elements are not transition elements.
 Zinc and Scandium are not transition elements as zinc (Zn 2+) has its d-orbital completely filled,
while scandium (Sc3+) has no electron in d-orbital.
f-block elements are those elements in which the last electron enters the f-orbital. These elements lie at
the bottom of the table, which includes the elements in Lanthanoids and Actinoids series. These elements
are also called inner transition elements or rare earth elements.

Characteristics of transition elements

1) Metallic character
Transition elements are:
 Good conductor of heat and electricity.
 Hard, ductile and malleable and have metallic lustre.
 Can form both metallic and covalent bonding.
2) Melting and boiling point: Transition metals have high melting and boiling point. These metals
melt at 10000C.
3) Color: Both in solid state and in solution, the transition metals show a great variety of colors. The
colors are formed due to the presence of partially filled d-orbitals.
4) Ionization potential: The ionization energy of transition elements is midway between the
elements of s-block and p-block elements.

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 5) Atomic volume and densities: The transition elements have smaller atomic volume & higher
densities than the metals of group 1 and 2.
6) Reactivity: Most transition metals react with mineral acids and liberate hydrogen gas. The noble
metals like platinum and gold have low reactivity due to their high melting point, boiling point
and ionization energy.
7) Magnetic properties:
 Most transition elements are paramagnetic in nature.
 Paramagnetic character of transition metals increases across the period due to increase in
the number of unpaired electrons.
 The transition metals which contain paired electrons depict diamagnetic behavior.

Note:
A. Paramagnetic substances are those substances which acquire magnetic property in the presence
of magnetic field but lose their property when the magnetic field is removed. The substance
which contains one or more unpaired electrons shows paramagnetism.
Example: Platinum, chromium and manganese.
B. Ferromagnetic substances are those substances which retain their magnetic property even upon
removing the magnetic field.
Example: Iron, nickel and cobalt.
C. Diamagnetic substances are those substances which are repelled by the magnetic field. The
substances which have paired electrons shows diamagnetism.
Example: Zinc, cadmium & copper.
8) Variable oxidation state (Valency)
Most of the 3d-block elements show variable oxidation state due to unstable core/kernel after
losing their valence electrons.
Example:
26Fe = 2, 8, 14, 2
2+
24Fe = 2, 8, 14 (core/kernel)
The core being unstable loses one or more electron to give Fe 3+ ion
3+
23Fe = 2, 8, 13
9) Complex ion formation
Transition metals have high tendency to form complex ion/coordination compounds with
ligands.
Complex ion/coordination compound is an ion containing one or more ligands attached to a
central metal ion by means of a coordinate bond.
Examples: [Fe(H2O)6]2+, [Fe(CN)6]4-, [Cu(NH3)4]2+.
Ligand is a species which can use its lone pair of electrons to form a coordinate bond with a
transition metal.
Ligands can be a neutral molecule such as NH3 & H2O or negatively charged ions such as Cl-,
OH-, CN- etc.
Example: In [Fe (H2O)6]2+ ion, Fe2+ is central metal ion and six water molecules are the ligands.
Conditions for the formation of coordinate compounds are:
a) Smaller cationic size
b) Vacant d-orbital to accept lone pairs of electron from the ligands.

Coordination number is the number of coordinate bonds formed by the central metal ion by
accepting the lone pairs of electron from the ligands during the formation of complex ion.
The central metal ion of the complex ion is assigned with the number known as the coordination
number depending upon the number of lone pair of electrons accepted from the ligands.

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 The coordination number of Fe2+ in [Fe (H2O)6]2+ is 6 as Fe2+ ion accepts 6 lone pair of electrons
from six water molecules.
10) Catalytic properties
Transition elements are good catalyst and their catalytic property is due to vacant d-orbitals and
their ability to absorb and activate reacting substances.
Example:
a) Haber process
This process is used to prepared ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen.
Fe
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3
Here, iron is used as catalyst to increase the rate of reaction and lower the temperature at
which the reaction takes place.
b) Contact process is used in the manufacturing of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) by the oxidation
of sulphur dioxide (SO2) into sulphur trioxide (SO3).
V2O5
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g)
Here, vanadium (V) oxide (V2O5) is used as catalyst.
c) Hydrogenation of alkenes (unsaturated hydrocarbon)
Ni
C2H4 + H2 → C2H6 (ethane)
(ethene)
Here, nickel lowers the temperature and pressure to complete the reaction.
Similarities among copper, silver and gold
Go through table 5.5 on page 143
Similarities of group 11 elements with other transition elements.
1. Similarities of Cu with Zn
Although these two metals are in different group, they show some similar characteristics as given
below:
 Both show bivalency (valency-2).
 Sulphides, carbonates and phosphate of both metals are insoluble in water, whereas their
chloride and sulphates are soluble in water.
2. Similarities of Ag with Cd
 Both metals are white in color.
 Their oxides are colored and get reduced when heated with carbon.
 Both metals forms complex compounds.
3. Similarities of Au with Pt
 These metals do not react with air, water, alkalis and acids under ordinary conditions.
Thus, they are used as raw materials for preparing the jewelries.
 They occur in their native state.
 Both dissolves in aqua regia, i.e; mixture of concentrated HNO 3 (nitric acid) and HCl
(hydrochloric acid) in the volume ratio 1 : 3.
 Both metals show variable valency (valency more than one).
Reaction involving transition elements
1) Iron (Fe)
Iron reacts moderately with steam and acids and displaces hydrogen gas.
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
Aqueous solution of iron (II) salt forms a grey gelatinous precipitate of iron (II) hydroxide with
alkali.
FeCl2 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Fe (OH)2 + 2NaCl (aq)

Page 18 of 31
 Aqueous solution of iron (III) salt forms a red-brown gelatinous precipitate of iron (III)
hydroxide with alkali.
FeCl3 (aq) + 3NaOH (aq) → Fe(OH)3 + 3NaCl (aq)
2) Zinc (Zn)
 Zinc displaces hydrogen from steam and dilute acids.
Zn + 2H2O → ZnO + H2
Zn +2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
 Zinc (II) carbonate on heating, decomposes to give zinc oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2
 Zinc (II) salts form a white precipitate of zinc (II) hydroxide with sodium hydroxide
(alkali).
ZnSO4 + 2NaOH → Zn(OH)2 Na2SO4
 Zinc hydroxide is an Amphoteric hydroxide. On addition of excess NaOH solution,
Zn(OH)2 dissolves to form sodium zincate, Na2Zn(OH)4
Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH → Na2Zn(OH)4
Uses of transition elements
 Some transition metals like Fe, Ni, etc; are used as catalyst in chemical industries.
 Au, Ag and Pt are used for making jewelries.
 Mercury (Hg) is used in thermometer.
 Tungsten (W) in filament (electric bulb).
 Titanium (Ti) in hip replacement.
Note: Go through the uses of transition metals and their compounds on page 148.

Chapter 6
Chemical Energetics
The branch of chemistry which deals with the energy changes during a chemical reaction is called
chemical energetic.
Page 19 of 31
The branch of chemistry that deals with the amounts of heat released or absorbed during a chemical
reaction is called thermochemistry.
Note:
 During a chemical reaction, some bonds are broken and some new bonds are formed.
 Energy is absorbed to break the old bonds in the reactant molecules and energy is released while
forming new bonds in the product molecules.
 Hence, the chemical reactions are accompanied (go with) by energy changes.
Law of conservation of energy
It states that ‘energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be converted from one form into
another.’
Internal energy (E)
The energy stored in a substance by virtue (good quality) of its molecules is called its internal energy. It is
different for different substance.
The internal energy is the sum of vibrational, rotational and kinetic and potential energy of molecules.
E = E v + Er + Ek + Ep
Change in internal energy (∆E)
The change in the internal energy of the reactant (E R) and the internal energy of the product (EP), ∆E is
given by:
∆E = EP – ER
Sign of ∆E depends on whether ER is greater or smaller than EP.
If ER < EP, ∆E will have positive value. In this case the energy will be absorbed during reaction and the
chemical reaction will be endothermic. All endothermic reactions that take place at constant volume and
temperature will have positive value of ∆E (i.e. ∆E = +ve).
If ER > EP, ∆E will have negative value. In this case the energy will be released during reaction and the
chemical reaction will be exothermic. All exothermic reactions that take place at constant volume and
temperature will have negative value of ∆E (i.e. ∆E = -ve).
Enthalpy or Heat content (H)
It is defined as the sum of internal energy of a system and the product of the pressure and volume of the
system.
Or
The energy contained in a chemical bond that can be converted into heat is called enthalpy.
H = E + PV
Change in enthalpy (∆H)
The amount of heat evolved or absorbed in a chemical reaction carried out at constant pressure and
temperature is called change in enthalpy.
Or
The change in the heat content, in a chemical reaction that is carried out at constant pressure is called
change in enthalpy.
If HR and HP are the enthalpy of reactants and products respectively, then the change in enthalpy, ∆H is
given as:
∆H = HP – HR
1) If HR < HP, ∆H = positive value. In this case, heat energy will be absorbed in a reaction and the
reaction is endothermic. The heat content of the reaction will be raised.
2) If HR > HP, ∆H = negative value. In this case, heat energy will be released in a reaction and the
reaction is exothermic. The heat content of the reaction will be lowered.
Heat of reaction/Enthalpy of reaction
It is the amount of heat released or absorbed in a chemical reaction when numbers of moles of reactants
completely react to form the products. It is denoted by ∆H.
C + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ∆H = -94.00 k.cal (heat of reaction)

Page 20 of 31
Sum of the change in enthalpy = (sum of the enthalpies of products) – (sum of the enthalpies of
reactants).
∑∆H = ∑HP - ∑HR
Types of heat of reaction
1) Heat/enthalpy of combustion
It is the amount of heat released when 1 mole of a substance undergo complete combustion in the
presence of excess of oxygen or air at a given temperature. Combustion reactions are exothermic
and the heat of combustion has negative value.
C3H8 (propane gas) + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O ∆H = -530.60k.cal
2) Heat of neutralization
It is the amount heat evolved when 1 mole of an acid is neutralized by 1 mole of a base in dilute
solution, or vice versa.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) ∆H = -13.7 k.cal
3) Heat of solution
It is the amount of heat absorbed or evolved when 1 mole of solute dissolves in solvent that
further addition of solvent to the solution produces no further change in the heat content.
NaCl (s) + (aq) → NaCl (aq) ∆H = 1.2 k.cal (heat is absorbed)
HCl (g) + 50H2O (l) → HCl.50H2O (aq) ∆H = -17.51 k.cal (heat is released)
4) Heat of formation and stability
It is the amount of heat absorbed or evolved when 1 mole of substance is formed from its element
at STP. Here the standard state (i.e; STP) of any substance is taken at 25 0C and at 1 atmospheric
pressure. Thus, it is also known as standard heat of formation (∆H 0f).
1
H2 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O (l) ∆H0f = -68.3 k.cal
2
Note:
 Higher the value of negative heat of formation, greater is the amount of energy required for the
decomposition of the compound, and more stable the compound is.
 Example: carbon dioxide with ∆H0f = -94.00 k cal is more stable than water (liquid) whose ∆H 0f
= -68.3 k cal
 Higher the value of positive heat of formation, lesser is the amount of energy required for the
decomposition of the compound, and less stable the compound is.
Thermochemical reactions
A chemical equation that includes the quantity of heat released or absorbed during a reaction is called
thermochemical equation, and the reaction is called thermochemical reaction.
Types of thermochemical reactions are:
1) Endothermic reactions: A chemical reaction in which the energy is supplied to or absorbed by
the reactants from the surrounding to obtain products is called endothermic reaction.
Reactants + Energy absorbed by the reactants → Products
For endothermic reactions, ∆H will be positive and the heat content of the reaction is raised.
Example:
a) N2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO (g) ∆H = +43.3 k cal
b) Dissociation of molecules into atoms.
c) Removal of electrons to form ions (ionization).
d) Melting of solids.
e) Vaporization of liquids.
f) Sublimations, synthesis of protein in living bodies, etc.
2) Exothermic reactions: A chemical reaction in which the energy is released or evolved to the
surrounding along with the products is called exothermic reaction.
Reactants → Products + Energy released
For exothermic reactions, ∆H will be negative and the heat content of the reaction is lowered.
Page 21 of 31
Examples:
a) 2Zn (s) + O2 (g) → 2ZnO (s) ∆H = -166.5 k. cal
b) Hydration process.
c) Formation of anions, formation of metal halides, etc.
Note: Copy figure 6.1 to 6.4 on page 159, 160 and 161.
Applications of energy change
1) When a mixture of natural gas and methane are burnt in air, it produces heat which is used for
cooking.
2) When coal is burnt in air, it produces heat which is used as fuel.
3) Burning of candle gives heat and light energy.
4) During photosynthesis, formation of glucose takes place with the absorption of light energy.
5) When electric current is passed through acidified water, it decomposes water into its constituent
elements, namely H2 and O2.
6) Combustion of diesel and petrol give mechanical energy which is used as motor fuel.
7) The chemicals in a car battery undergo reaction to produce electrical energy, which is used in
running the engine; etc.

Chapter 7
Reversible Reaction
A chemical reaction that can proceed in both forward and backward direction is called reversible
reaction.
Example: 2NH3 (g) N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
A reaction in which the reactants are completely converted into the products and the change cannot be
reversed is called irreversible reaction.
Example: NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
A chemical equilibrium is an apparent (noticeable) state of rest at which the forward and the backward
reactions are proceeding at the same rate.
Note: Copy figure 7.2 on page 173
Le Chatelier’s principle states that if a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the
conditions, the position of equilibrium shifts to counteract the change to reestablish equilibrium. If
a chemical reaction is at equilibrium and experiences a change in pressure, temperature or
concentration of products or reactants, the equilibrium shifts in the opposite direction to offset the
change.
Or
It states that when a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change in temperature, pressure or
concentration of a component, the equilibrium shifts in the direction of the reaction opposing the
change.
Factors affecting the systems at equilibrium
1) Concentration
If the concentration of reactants is increased, the rate of forward reaction increases and the
equilibrium shifts towards right.
On the other hand, if the concentration of products is increased, the rate of backward reaction
increases and the equilibrium shifts to the left.
2) Temperature
The effect of temperature on a system at equilibrium depends on whether the reaction is
endothermic or exothermic.
For endothermic change (∆H > 0), an increase in temperature shifts the equilibrium to the right,
thereby forming more products. A decrease in temperature shifts the equilibrium to the left,
thereby forming more reactants.

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 For exothermic change (∆H < 0), an increase in temperature shifts the equilibrium to the left,
thereby forming more reactants. A decrease in temperature shifts the equilibrium to the right,
thereby forming more products.
3) Volume and pressure
Increase in pressure shifts the equilibrium in the direction in which there is decrease in volume so
that the product of pressure and volume remains constant.
If there is equal number of gas molecules on both sides of the reaction equation, it has no effect
on the position of equilibrium as long as there is no change in temperature.
Example: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
In the above reaction, the increase in pressure increases the rate of forward reaction and the
equilibrium shifts to the right. This is due to decrease in the volume of the product.
Note: Pressure changes have no affect on equilibrium reactions in solution.
Catalyst
 Catalyst does not affect chemical equilibrium.
 Catalyst lowers the activation energy of the reactant molecules and makes the reaction to proceed
faster.
 Catalyst increases both forward and backward reaction and helps to attain chemical equilibrium
faster.
Application of Le Chatelier’s Principle
1) It is applied in the study of the physical equilibrium such as effects of temperature and pressure
on solubility of solids on dissolution, melting of ice and vaporization of water.
2) In the study of chemical equilibrium during the manufacturing of compounds.

Chapter 8
Rate of Reaction
The speed at which the reactants are converted into products is called rate of reaction. It is often
expressed in terms of either the concentration (amount per unit volume) of a product that is formed in a
unit of time or the concentration of a reactant that is consumed in a unit time.
So, the rate of a chemical reaction is expressed quantitatively in terms of the change in concentration of
one of the reactants or products per unit change of time.
c h ange∈concentration of reactant
Rate of reaction =
c h ange ∈time

c h ange∈concentration of product
Rate of reaction =
c h ange ∈time
How do chemical reactions occur? This was explained by collision theory as given below.
 A chemical reaction takes place only when the particles of reactants collide with each other.
 The reacting molecules must possess a minimum amount of energy called threshold energy for
effective collision.
 Only the effective collisions bring about the chemical reaction.
 For effective collision to take place, reactant molecules should
a) Possess energy equal or greater than threshold energy and
b) Must have proper orientation.
The threshold energy is the minimum amount of energy required for the reactants to collide
successfully, and to form the activated complex. It is kinetic energy of reactants plus activation energy.
The activation energy is the potential energy difference between the reactants and the activated complex.
Or
The additional energy supplied to the reactants to attain the threshold energy is called activation energy.
Go through proper orientation of reactant molecules to form product on page 189.

Page 23 of 31
Factors affecting rate of reactions are:
1) Temperature
Rate of reaction increases with the increase in temperature due increase in kinetic energy of the
reacting molecules.
2) Concentration of reactants
Rate of reaction increases with the increase in the concentration of reactants due to greater
number of collision.
3) Surface area of the reactants
Rate of reaction increases with the increase in the surface area of the reactants.
4) Catalyst
The presence of catalyst lowers the activation energy of the reactants and increases the rate of
reaction.
Copy figure 8.4 on page 195
Biological catalyst (Enzymes)
Enzymes are proteins produced by the living cells. Enzymes are called biological catalysts as they
enhance the rate of biochemical reactions such as breathing, digestion, cell division, contraction of
muscles, etc.
Enzymes become inactive at 0 0C and get destroyed at 100 0C. Enzymes are specific in their action and act
on particular substance called substrate.
The general enzyme catalyzed reaction takes place as per the equation:
Enzyme + Substrate → Enzyme – Substrate complex
Enzyme – Substrate complex → Enzyme + Product
Factors influencing enzyme activity
1) pH
All enzymes have a particular pH at which their activity is maximum. The pH at which the
enzyme shows maximum activity is known as optimum pH. Any change in pH above or below
the optimum pH will cause decrease in the rate of reaction.
2) Temperature
Increase in temperature increases the rate of enzyme catalyzed reactions up to a certain
temperature of about 45 0C. Above this temperature, enzymes get denatured. Denaturation is the
alteration of protein shape and structure. The optimum temperature of most of the enzymes is
found to be 37 0C.
A 10 0C rise in the temperature will increase the activity of most enzymes by 50 to 100% because
of increase in kinetic energy.
Importance of enzymes in biotechnology
 Most of the biochemical reactions in human body are catalyzed by enzymes.
 Enzymes help in breaking down of food during digestion.
 Some enzymes are used in medicine to treat disorder that results from their deficiency.
 Some enzymes are used as diagnostic indicators of various diseases.
 Some enzymes are used for therapeutic purposes.
Enzymes and their functions

Enzymes Function

Salivary amylase Breaks down starch into smaller polysaccharides.

Pepsin Breaks down proteins into small polypeptides.

Pancreatic amylase Breaks down starch and polysaccharides into

disaccharides.

Page 24 of 31
 Lipase Breaks down fats into glycerol, fatty acids.

Amino peptidase Breaks down polypeptides into amino acids.

Chapter 9
Alcohols
Hydrocarbons are the compounds which are made up of only carbon and hydrogen.
Organic compounds are hydrocarbons and their derivatives in which covalently bonded carbon atom is
an essential constituent.
Homologous series
It is a group of compounds in which the different members:
 Have similar chemical properties.
 Can be represented by same general formula
 Have same functional group and
 Differ by –CH2 group in the molecular formula as compared to the preceeding member.
Functional group: It is an atom or group of atoms which determines the chemical properties of all the
members of the same homologous series.
The remaining part of a molecule determines the physical properties of the compound.
Alkanes are hydrocarbons with carbon to carbon single bonds and are also called saturated
hydrocarbons.
The compounds are known as saturated hydrocarbons because all the four valencies of carbon are fully
satisfied or saturated by C – C and C – H single bonds and they are not able to take any other atom in the
molecule.
Alkanes have:
General formula: CnH2n + 2 where ‘n’ is the number of carbon atom.
Functional group: carbon to carbon or carbon to hydrogen single bond.
First ten members of alkanes

Name of alkanes No. of carbon atoms Molecular formula

Methane 1 CH4

Ethane 2 C2H6

Propane 3 C3H8

Butane 4 C4H10

Pentane 5 C5H12

Hexane 6 C6H14

Heptane 7 C7H16

Octane 8 C8H18

Nonane 9 C9H20

Decane 10 C10H22

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Alkyl group is a group formed by the removal of one hydrogen atom from an alkane molecule. Its
general formula is CnH2n + 1.
To name the alkyl group, the ‘ane’ of corresponding alkanes are replaced by ‘yl’.

Alkyl radical/group Corresponding alkanes Name of alkyl group

CH3 - CH4 (Methane) Methyl

C2H5 - C2H6 (Ethane) Ethyl

C3H7 - C3H8 (Propane) Propyl

C4 H9 - C4H10 (Butane) Butyl

Alkenes (Unsaturated hydrocarbons)

 are unsaturated hydrocarbons with carbon to carbon double bond.
 have two hydrogen atoms less than the corresponding alkanes containing same number of carbon
atoms.
 General formula is CnH2n.
 Functional group is carbon to carbon double bond.
 In unsaturated hydrocarbons, the tetravalency of carbon is not fully satisfied by carbon to carbon
and carbon to hydrogen bond.
 First member is ethene, C2H4.
Alkynes (Unsaturated hydrocarbons)
 Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with carbon too carbon triple bond.
 They have four hydrogen atoms less than corresponding alkanes.
 Functional group is carbon to carbon triple bond.
 The general formula is CnH2n – 2.
 First member of alkynes series is ethyne/acetylene, C 2H2.
Molecular formula is a chemical formula that gives the total number of atoms of each element present in
a molecule of a substance.
Structural formula is the formula of a compound which represents the exact arrangement of atoms of
different elements present in one molecule of a substance.
Condensed formula of a molecule is the formula where the symbols of atoms are listed in order as they
appear in the molecule’s structure with bond dashes omitted or limited.

Alcohols are the compounds obtained by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms of alkanes by the
corresponding number of hydroxyl groups.
According to the number of hydroxyl groups present in them. Alcohols are classified as monohydric,
dihydric, trihydric and ………polyhydric alcohols.
Monohydric alcohols are the compounds obtained by the replacement of one hydrogen atom of alkane
by a hydroxyl group.
General formula of monohydric alcohols is CnH2n + 1OH or ROH where R is an alkyl group.
Functional group of alcohols is –OH.
Nomenclature of alcohols

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 1) Common system
Common names of alcohols are obtained by adding the word ‘alcohol’ after the name of the alkyl
group.
Example: CH3OH (methyl alcohol) C2H5OH (ethyl alcohol)
2) IUPAC system
According to this system, names of alcohols are obtained as follows:
i. The longest chain of carbon atom containing –OH group is selected as the parent chain.
ii. The name of alcohol is then obtained by replacing ‘e’ of the corresponding alkane by the
suffix ‘ol’.
iii. The position of the –OH group is indicated by numbering the carbon atom so as to give
the lowest possible number to the carbon atom bearing the –OH group.

Formula Common name IUPAC name Corresponding

alkanes

CH3OH Methyl alcohol Methanol Methane

CH3CH2OH/C2H5OH Ethyl alcohol Ethanol Ethane

CH3CH2CH2OH/C3H7OH n - Propyl alcohol Propan – 1 –ol Propane

(CH3)2CHOH Isopropyl alcohol Propan-2-ol Propane

Physical properties of alcohol
i. Physical state
Lower members of alcohol are colorless liquid at room temperature with a characteristic alcoholic
odour and burning taste.
The higher alcohols with more than 12 carbon atoms are colorless, odourless and waxy solids.
ii. Density
All liquid alcohols have densities approximately 0.8g/mL which is less than water (1g/mL at 4
0
C).
iii. Hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bond is a weak chemical bond formed between the hydrogen atom attached to an
electronegative atom of one molecule and an electronegative atom of a different molecule.
Usually the electronegative atom is oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine which has a partial negative
charge.
Two types of hydrogen bonding are:
a) Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is formed between hydrogen atom and some
electronegative atom within the same molecule.
Example: nitrophenol, nitro-benzaldehyde and salicylic acid.
b) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is formed between hydrogen atom and
electronegative atom of different molecules of the same substance or different
substances.
Example: hydrogen fluoride, water, ammonia and lower alcohols.
iv. Boiling point and volatile
The lower members of alcohols in its series have lower boiling point than those of higher
members.
The term volatility of a substance is its tendency to convert into gaseous state easily. The
substance with lower boiling point has higher volatility.
Alcohols are less volatile than their corresponding alkane molecules due to the presence of
hydrogen bonding. However, some alcohols are more volatile than water.

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 v. Solubility in water
The alcohols of lower members up to three carbon atoms are completely miscible in water in all
proportions due to the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonding. However, the solubility
decreases for those alcohols which have more than three carbon atoms due to increase in
molecular mass and carbon chain. With the increase in chain length, the non-polar alkyl group of
alcohol dominates and hinders the formation of hydrogen bond which causes the decrease in
miscibility of alcohols.
vi. Viscosity is the property of a fluid that resists the force tending to cause the fluid to flow. Within
the alcohol series, the viscosity increases with increase in its molecular mass. Thus, viscosity is
high for higher members of alcohols due to strong intermolecular force.

Chemicals properties of alcohols

1) Combustion
Lower alcohols such as methanol and ethanol burns with a blue flame producing carbon dioxide
and water vapors in the presence of oxygen. For higher alcohols it becomes more difficulty to
burn due to increase in their molecular weight.
C2H5OH (l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (l) ∆H = -1368 KJ/mol.
2) Oxidation
Alcohols on oxidation give ethanol (acetaldehyde) which on further oxidation produces
ethanoic acid (acetic acid). Potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7 is used as an oxidizing agent.
C2H5OH → CH3CHO + H2O
(ethanol) (ethanal, smell and taste like sour apple)
CH3CHO → CH3COOH (ethanoic acid, smell and taste like vinegar)
Note: A device called breathalyzer is used to inspect the drunk driving based on oxidizing property of
ethanol.
The breathalyzer contains an orange potassium dichromate (IV) which when reacted with ethanol forms
ethanal. The orange potassium dichromate (IV) itself gets reduced to green chromium compound. The
presence of alcohol in breath is confirmed by observing the color change of potassium dichromate.
3) Esterification
The reaction in which alcohol reacts with carbolic acid in the presence of concentrated sulphuric
acid to form ester is called esterification. Here, conc. Sulphuric acid acts as both protonating
and dehydrating agents.
Esters are the derivatives of organic acids which have pleasant, fruitlike odours and are
responsible for flavors of many fruits and flowers.
4) Dehydration
The removal of water from a substance in the presence of dehydrating agent is called dehydration.
When alcohol is heated up to 170 0C in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid,
corresponding alkenes and water are formed.
Example: when propanol (C3H7OH) is heated at 170 0C in the presence of conc.H2SO4, propene
and water are formed.
C3H7OH (propanol) → C3H6 (propene) + H2O
If excess of propanol is heated to 140 0C in the presence of conc.H2SO4, dipropyl ether is formed.
2CH3CH2CH2OH → CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – O – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 + H2O
5) Reaction with alkali metals
Alcohols react with alkali metals to form alkoxides and hydrogen gas.
2CH3CH2OH + 2Na → CH3CH2ONa + H2
(ethanol) (sodium ethoxide)
Denatured alcohol or Methylated spirit

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The ethyl alcohol made unfit for drinking purposes by adding poisonous substances like methanol,
pyridine or copper sulphate is called denatured alcohol and the process is called denaturing.
Ethyl alcohol/ethanol containing 5 to 10% methanol is termed as Methylated spirit.
Spurious liquor or illicit alcohol is prepared by diluting the denatured alcohol with water and then
adding necessary colors and flavors. Alcohols obtained by this process contain impurities like methyl
alcohol and acetaldehyde which can lead to blindness or liver damage and even to death.

Preparation and uses of ethanol

Ethanol from starch by fermentation
Starch is a carbohydrate that is the main form of stored energy in plants, especially wheat, maize, rice,
barley and potatoes. It is used as a main source of ethanol.
The starch present in those raw materials is converted into maltose in following steps:
1) Malting
Malt is germinated cereal grain that has been dried in a process known as malting. The grains are
made to germinate by soaking in water and then halted from germinating further by drying with
hot air. It is then crushed and extracted with water. This malt extract contains an enzyme called
diastase.
The process of immersing barley in water to encourage the grain to sprout, then drying the barley
to halt the progress when the sprouting begins is called malting.
2) Mashing
Mash is a fermentable starchy mixture which is obtained by steaming starchy substances at 140
0
C to 150 0C under pressure. From mash, alcohol or spirit can be distilled.
3) Hydrolysis
The chemical breakdown of compounds due to reaction with water is called hydrolysis.
In this process the mashed and malted extract are treated together at 47 0C to 57 0C to obtained
maltose.
diastase
2(C6H10O5)n + nH2O → nC12H22O11
(starch) (Maltose)
Alcoholic fermentation
Maltose obtained from starch is then fermented in the presence of yeast. Yeast contains two enzymes (i.e;
maltase and zymase) which perform different function as given below:
C12H22O11 + H2O → 2C6H12O6 (glucose) brought by maltase
(Maltose)
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 brought by zymase
(glucose) (ethanol)

Ethanol from ethene by hydration

1. Indirect addition of water
Ethene gas is heated with concentrated sulphuric, H2SO4 at 75 0C and then treated with water to
produce ethanol.
H2C = CH2 + H – OH → C2H5OH or CH3 – CH2 - OH (ethanol)
2. Direct addition of water
Here, ethene and steam are compressed at 60 – 70 atmospheric pressure and then passed over
phosphoric acid to obtained ethanol.

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 H2C = CH2 + H – OH → C2H5OH or CH3 – CH2 - OH (ethanol)
(ethene)
Ethanol from molasses – commercial production
Molasses is a dark viscous (sticky) product obtained from refining sugarcane or sugar beets into sugar. It
contains about 60% of fermentable sugars like sucrose and invert sugar.
The processes involved in the manufacturing of ethanol from molasses are:
1) Dilution
Molasses is diluted with water to bring down its concentration up to 10% and then acidified with
small amount sulphuric acid to avoid bacterial growth.

2) Fermentation
After dilution, yeast is added and the temperature of a mixture is maintained at 30 0C for a few
days to undergo fermentation.
C12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 (brought by invertase)
(Sucrose) (glucose) (fructose)
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 (brought by zymase)
(ethanol)
3) Distillation
Fermented liquid contains about 8 to 10% ethanol and are called wash. It is distilled in a
distillation plant to remove water and other impurities present in wash. The distillate contains
90% ethanol and the residue left is used as cattle feed.
4) Rectification
The impurities present in the alcohol obtained after distillation process are removed by fractional
distillation.
The process of repeated distillation to obtain pure alcohol is called rectification.
Uses of ethanol
It is used:
 As solvent for fats and many other organic compounds.
 As an antiseptic in the hospital.
 As a biofuel (mixture of 30% ethanol and petrol called gasohol).
 As an antifreeze.
 In the manufacturing of esters used as perfumes.
 As a fluid for scientific apparatus.
 As a reagent in the manufacturing of compounds.
Note: According to Natural Resources Canada, ethanol reduces greenhouse gas emissions because the
grains or other biomass used to make the ethanol absorbs carbon dioxide as it grows.
Write down the advantages & disadvantages of ethanol production to economy and environment.
Write down the societal & health issues of drinking alcohol.

BEST OF LUCK

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