Physical Pharmacy Lecture / Prepared by: Young CP 2020 1

SOLUTIONS OF NON-ELECTROLYTES
Materials can be mixed together to form a true solution, a colloidal solution, or a coarse
dispersion.

Types of Dispersed Systems

 True solution – a mixture of two or more components that form a homogenous

molecular dispersion; one-phase system
 Coarse dispersions – emulsions and suspensions; two-phase system
 Colloidal dispersion – intermediate between that of a true solution and a coarse
dispersion; usually a one-phase system

A solution composed of only two substances is known as a binary solution, and

components are referred to as solute and solvent.

Types of Solutions

Solute Solvent Example

Gas Gas
Liquid Gas
Solid Gas
Gas Liquid
Liquid Liquid
Solid Liquid
Gas Solid
Liquid Solid
Solid Solid

The solutes (whether gas, liquid, or solid) are divided into two main classes: non
electrolytes and electrolytes.

 Non-electrolytes –
o E.g. sucrose, glycerine, naphthalene, urea
 Electrolytes
o Strong electrolytes – hydrochloric acid
o Weak electrolytes –
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CONCENTRATION EXPRESSIONS
Expression Symbol Definition
Molarity M Moles (gram molecular weights)
of solute in 1 liter of solution
Normality N Gram equivalent weights of
solute in 1 liter of solution
Molality m Moles of solute in 1000 g solvent
Mole fraction X Ratio of moles of one constituent
(e.g. solute) of a solution to the
total moles of all constituents
(solute and solvent)
Percent by % w/w Grams of solute in 100 g solution
weight
Percent by % v/v Millilitres of solute in 100 ml
volume solution
Percent weight- %w/v Grams of solute in 100 ml of
in-volume solution
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Example problem

An aqueous solution of ferrous sulfate was prepared by adding 41.50 g of FeSO4 to

enough water to make 1000 mL of solution at 18° C. The density of the solution is 1.0375
and the molecular weight of FeSO4 is 151.9. Calculate the (a) molarity; (b) the molality;
(c) the mole fraction of FeSO4, the mole fraction of water, and the mole percent of the
two constituents; and (d) the percentage by weight of FeSO4.
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COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
The freezing point, boiling point, and osmotic pressure of a solution also depend on the
relative proportion of the molecules of the solute and solvent. These are called
colligative properties (Greek: “collected together”) because they chiefly depend on
the number rather than on the nature of the constituents.

Vapor Pressure Lowering

When a solute is combined with a solvent, the vapour above the solution is provided
solely by the solvent, and the vapour pressure of a solution containing a solute is
lowered proportional to the number of solute.

Example problem:

Calculate the relative vapor pressure lowering at 20°C for a solution containing 171.2 g
of sucrose (w2) in 100 g (w1) of water. The molecular weight of sucrose (M2) is 342.3 and
the molecular weight of water (M1) is 18.02 g/mole. We have:

Boiling Point Elevation

The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg. A solution will boil at a
higher temperature than will the pure solvent. The more of the solute that is dissolved,
the greater is the effect.

The boiling point of a solution is higher than that of the pure solvent owing to the fact
that the solute lowers the vapour pressure of the solvent.

The equation can be written as: ΔTb = Kbm

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Where:
ΔTb is known as the boiling point elevation (°C);
Kb is called the molal elevation constant or the ebullioscopic constant (°C/m);
m is the molality of the solution (m)

Example problem:

A 0.200 m aqueous solution of a drug gave a boiling point elevation of 0.103°C.

Calculate the approximate molal elevation constant for the solvent, water.

The molal elevation constant (Kb) of water is always 0.52 °C/m.

Freezing Point Depression

The freezing point of a solution is always lower than that of the pure solvent. The more
concentrated the solution, the greater is the freezing point depression.

The equation can be written as: ΔTf = Kfm

Where:
ΔTf is the freezing point depression (°C);
Kf is the molal depression constant or the cryoscopic constant (°C/m);
m is the molality of the solution (m)

Example problem:

What is the freezing point of a solution containing 3.42 g of sucrose and 500 g of water?
The molecular weight of sucrose is 342. In this relatively dilute solution, Kf is
approximately equal to 1.86.

The cryoscopic constant (Kf) of water is always 1.86 C/m.

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Osmotic Pressure

In the process of diffusion, both the solvent and solute molecules migrate freely. On the
other hand, if the solution is confined in a membrane permeable only to the solvent
molecules, the phenomenon is known as osmosis (Greek: “a push or impulse”) occurs,
and the barrier that permits only the molecules of one of the components (water) to
pass through is known as a semipermeable membrane.

Osmosis is defined as passage of solvent into a solution through a semi-permeable

membrane. This process tends to equalize the vapour pressure of the solvent on both
sides of the membrane.

The equation can be written as: πv = nRT

Where:
π is the osmotic pressure (atm);
v is the volume of the solution (L);
n is the number of moles of the solute (mol);
R is the molar gas consant (0.08205 L atm/mol K);
T is the temperature of the solution (°K)

Example problem:
One gram of sucrose, molecular weight 342, is dissolved in 100 mL of solution at 25°C.
What is the osmotic pressure of the solution? We have:

Activity: Problem Solving

I. Concentration Expressions

1. An amount of 18 g of lithium oxide (molar mass = 29.9 g/mol) was dissolved in

sufficient amounts of water to make 500 mL of a solution. Calculate the molarity.
2. Calculate the molality of 125 g of iodine (I2 = 253.8 g/mol) in 750 g of carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4).
3. If 6.0 g of NaCl is dissolved in enough water to make 300 mL of solution, what is
the w/v percent of NaCl?
4. A gas mixture contains 50.4 g of dinitrogen monoxide (N2O = 44 g/mol) and 65.2
g of oxygen gas (O2 = 32 g/mol). What is the mole fraction of N2O?
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II. Colligative Properties

1. Calculate the vapor pressure lowering at 20° C for a solution containing 171.2 g
of sucrose (342.3 g/mol) in 1000 g of water (18.02 g/mol).
2. A 0.200 m aqueous solution of a drug gave a boiling point elevation of 0.103° C.
Calculate the approximate molal elevation constant for the solvent (water).
3. What is the boiling point of a 0.262 m solution of sucrose in water?
4. What is the freezing point depression of a solution containing 3.42 g of sucrose
(mw= 342 g/mol) and 500 g of water? In this dilute solution, Kf is approximately
1.86.
5. What is the freezing point of a 0.262 m solution of sucrose in water?
6. Calculate the osmotic pressure of a 100 mL solution in which 1 g of sucrose has
been dissolved in water at 25°C.
7. Find the π of a 0.23 M non-electrolyte solution at 16° C.

Resources:

Sinko, P. J., & Singh, Y. (2011). Martin's physical pharmacy and pharmaceutical
sciences: physical chemical and biopharmaceutical principles in the pharmaceutical
sciences. Walter Kluer.