Polynomial interpolation of modular forms for

Hecke groups
Barry Brent
4 March 2021

Abstract
For m “ 3, 4, ..., let λm “ 2 cos π{m, let Gpλm q be a Hecke group, and
let Jm pm “ 3, 4, ...) be a triangle function for Gpλm q such that, when
normalized appropriately, J3 becomes Klein’s j-invariant ř jpzq “ 1{e2πiz `
744 ` ... and Jm pzq has a Fourier expansion Jm pzq “ 8 n“´1 an pmqqm
n

with qm pzq “ exp 2πiz{λm . Raleigh [22] conjectures that, for each non-
negative integer n, there is a rational function Fn pxq with coefficients in Q
such that an pmq “ Fn pmq. We offer a similar conjecture on polynomials
interpolating the Fourier coefficients of normalizations of the Jm , and
extend it to normalizations of other modular forms on the Gpλm q. We
conjecture that Hecke group analogues of classical Eisenstein series are
interpolated by polynomials that detect primality or detect the integers
represented by the quadratic form x2 ` xy ` y 2 . We study the roots of
the polynomials conjecturally interpolating cusp forms and relate them to
Lehmer’s question, does the Ramanujan tau function ever vanish. When
the conjectured interpolating polynomials for Fourier coefficients q n of
some families of modular forms are factored into monic polynomials ˆ a
rational number rn , then the rn form sequences already in the literature,
all apparently expressible in terms of Dedekind’s eta function.

1 Introduction
Let us write H˚ for the extension of the upper half plane H by adjoining cusps
at the points on the real axis with rational abscissa and at i8, regarded as
a metric space with the Poincaré metric. Figures T made by three geodesics
of H˚ are called hyperbolic or circular-arc triangles. Schwarz [25], Lehner [17]
and others studied Schwarz triangle functions, which map hyperbolic triangles
T in the extended upper half z-plane onto the extended upper half w-plane.
Let Gpλm q be the Hecke group Gp2 cos π{mq. For certain T “ Tm , a triangle
function φλm : T Ñ H˚ extends to a map Jm : H˚ Ñ H˚ invariant under
modular transformations from Gpλm q. Suitably normalized, the Jm become
analogues jm of the normalized Klein’s modular invariant

jpzq “ ´1{q ` 744 ` 196884q ` ...

1
where q “ qpzq “ expp2πizq and j3 pzq “ jpzq. With λm “ 2 cos π{m and
qm pzq “ expp2πiz{λm q, the original Jm have Fourier series Jm pzq “
n
ř
ně´1 an pmqqm pzq . Raleigh [22] conjectured that the an pmq are interpolated
by polynomials Pn pxq in Qrxs in the sense that an pmq “ m´2n´2 a´1 pmq´n Pn pmq.
Under a certain normalization, the Fourier coefficients of jm appear to interpo-
late polynomials in Qrxs (not rational functions as in Raleigh’s original conjec-
ture); the a´1 factors are not seen either.

The plan of the article is as follows. We sketch the theory of Schwartz triangles;
then, the construction of their triangle functions; from the triangle functions, the
modular functions for the Hecke groups; and, from them, entire modular forms
for these groups. To this point, the article is just a summary of background ma-
terial. By methods familiar from the classical case, we then construct modular
forms with rational Fourier expansions and describe experiments on them, espe-
cially on cusp forms, using code adapted from the results of several authors, in
particular, Hecke’s theory. We offer observations and conjectures, but no proofs.

The earliest computer code we located for calculating Fourier expansions of

triangle functions is that of J. Leo [18]; it is based on Lehner’s construction.
Leo also calculates the Fourier coefficients of weight 4 and weight 6 analogs of
classical Eisenstein series in Chapter 4 of [18]. Our code for triangle functions
is based on a construction by Raleigh [22], but it was informed by Leo’s. J.
Jermann’s package [15] is also concerned with modular forms of triangle groups.

2 A glossary
1. The digamma function ψpzq :“ Γ1 pzq{Γpzq.

2. The Schwarzian derivative ([8], p. 130, equation 370.8)

2w1 w3 ´ 3w22
tw, zu “ (1)
2w12
for w “ wpzq.

3. The Pochhammer symbol

paq0 :“ 1 and, for n ě 1, paqn :“ apa ` 1q...pa ` n ´ 1q “ Γpa ` nq{Γpaq.

4. The function
pαqn pβqν
cν “ cν pα, β, γq :“ , ν ě 0.
ν!pγqν
To facilitate comparison with Raleigh’s equation (91 ) [22], we remark that

Γpα ` νq Γpβ ` νq Γp1q Γpγq

cν “ ¨ ¨ ¨ . (2)
Γpαq Γpβq Γp1 ` νq Γpγ ` νq

2
 In the terms of this article’s Theorem 1 below, Raleigh is treating the case
λ “ 0, for which (equation (6) below) γ “ 1 and the expression on the
right side of (2) becomes, as in Raleigh,
Γpα ` νqΓpβ ` νq
.
ΓpαqΓpβqpν!q2

5. The function eν given by ([22], equation 91 )

ν´1
ÿˆ ˙
1 1 2
eν “ eν pα, βq :“ ` ´ .
p“0
α`p β`p 1`p

Here, we are dealing with the same ambiguity present in the definition of
cν : this is a specialization to the case γ “ 1 of the eν for ν ě 1 given by
([8], p. 153, equation 387.5)
n´1
ÿˆ ˙
1 1 2
eν “ eν pα, β, γq :“ ` ´ .
p“0
α`p β`p γ`p

Unless it is explicitly indicated to be otherwise, we intend the first (Raleigh’s)

definition.
6. Gauss’s hypergeometric series
8
ÿ
F pα, β, γ; τ q :“ cν pα, β, γqτ ν .
ν“0

(F is occasionally written in Carathéodory as φ1 .)

7. With F “ F pα, β, γ; τ q, a special function
BF BF BF
F ˚ pα, β, γ; τ q :“ ` `2 ;
Bα Bβ Bγ
by [8], equation (387.4) on p. 153, F ˚ may be written
8
ÿ
F ˚ pα, β, γ; τ q “ cν pα, β, γqeν pα, β, γqτ ν .
ν“1

8. A special function φ˚2 pτ q is defined as a certain limit ([8], p. 152, equation

386.2) but is immediately (equation 386.3) reduced to

φ˚2 pτ q “ F pα, β, 1; τ q log τ ` F ˚ pα, β, 1; τ q.

9. The set Q “ t2, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, ...u of positive inte-
gers not represented by the quadratic form x2 ` xy ` y 2 . (It is conjectured
by Benoit Cloitre [31] that Q is also the set of non-square natural numbers
with divisor sums divisible by three.)

3
 10. The McKay-Thompson series of class 4A, namely, tap´1q, ap0q, ...u “
t1, 24, 276, 2048, ...u. It is the sequence of coefficients in the q-series of a
hauptmodul that is discussed in the Monstrous Moonshine literature, in
particular, here [19]. Via “Method II”, McKay relates the hauptmoduln
treated in this paper to Dedekind’s eta function. It appears to be 26 J8
(in the notation of [22].) We identified it with the an of our conjecture 1
after finding it in the On-line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequnces [32].

3 Schwarz triangles, triangle functions and Hecke

groups
For our purposes, Schwarz triangles T are hyperbolic triangles in H˚ with cer-
tain restrictions on the angles at the vertices. From a Euclidean point of view,
their sides are vertical rays, segments of vertical rays, semicircles orthogonal
to the real axis and meeting it at points pr, 0q with r rational, or arcs of such
semicircles. We choose λ, µ and ν, all non-negative, such that λ ` µ ` ν ă 1;
then the angles of T are λπ, µπ, and νπ. By reflecting T across one of its edges,
we get another Schwarz triangle. The reflection between two triangles in H˚ is
effected by a Möbius transformation, so the orbit of T under repeated reflections
is associated to a collection of Möbius transformations. The group generated
by these transformations is a triangle group M , say. By the Riemann Mapping
Theorem there is a conformal, onto map φ : T ÞÑ H˚ called a triangle function.

Hecke groups [14] are triangle groups M that act properly discontinuously on
H. This means that for compact K Ă H, the set tµ P M s.t.K X µpKq ‰ Hu is
finite. Recall that Gpλm q is the Hecke group generated by the maps τ ÞÑ ´1{τ
and τ ÞÑ τ ` λm . Apparently it was Hecke who, also in [14], established that
Gpλm q has the structure of a free product of cyclic groups C2 ˚ Cm , generalizing
the relation [26, 6] SLp2, Zq “ C2 ˚ C3 .

Let ρ “ ´ expp´πi{mq “ ´ cospπ{mq ` i sinpπ{mq, and let Tm Ă H˚ denote

the hyperbolic triangle with vertices ρ, i, and i8. The corresponding angles are
π{m, π{2 and 0 respectively. Let φλm be a triangle function for Tm . The func-
tion φλm has a pole at i8 and period λm . For P, Q P H˚ , let us us write P ”M Q
when µ P M and Q “ µpP q. Then φλm extends to a function Jm : H˚ Ñ H˚
by declaring that Jm pP q “ Jm pQq if and only if P ”M Q. Jm is a modular
function for Gpλm q.

4 Calculation of Schwarz’s inverse triangle func-

tion
Schwarz proved
Theorem 1. ([8], §374)

4
 1. Let the half-plane =z ą 0 be mapped conformally onto an arbitrary circular-
arc triangle whose angles at its vertices A, B, and C are πλ, πµ, and πν,
and let the vertices A, B, C be the images of the points z “ 0, 1, 8, re-
spectively. Then the mapping function wpzq must be a solution of the
third-order differential equation
1 ´ λ2 1 ´ µ2 1 ´ λ2 ´ µ2 ` ν 2
tw, zu “ ` ` . (3)
2z 2 2p1 ´ z 2 q 2zp1 ´ zq

2. If w0 pzq is any solution of equation (3) that satisfies w01 pzq ‰ 0 at all
interior points of the half-plane, then the function
aw0 pzq ` b
wpzq “ pad ´ bc ‰ 0q
cw0 pzq ` d
is likewise a solution of equation 3.
3. Also, every solution of equation (3) that is regular and non-constant in the
half-plane =z ą 0 represents a mapping of this half-plane onto a circular-
arc triangle with angles πλ, πµ, and πν.
In Carathéodory’s lexicon ([7] p. 124), a regular function is one that is differ-
entiable on an open connected set. Carathéodory writes the left side of (3) as
1 3 22
“tw, zu “ w w w´3w
12 “ ...”, but this is not the case. We infer that tw, zu is
intended from the automorphy property of clause 2.

Let us write
1
α“ p1 ´ λ ´ µ ` νq, (4)
2
1
β “ p1 ´ λ ´ µ ´ νq, (5)
2
and
γ “ 1 ´ λ. (6)
The solutions w of (3) are inverse to triangle functions; they are quotients of
arbitrary solutions of
u2 ` ppzqu1 ` qpzqu “ 0 (7)
when ([8], p. 136, equation (376.4))
1´λ 1´µ
p“ ´
z 1´z
and
αβ
q“´ .
zp1 ´ zq
Equation (7) reduces ([8], p. 137, equations 376.5-7) to the hypergeometric
differential equation

zp1 ´ zqu2 ` pγ ´ pα ` β ` 1qzqu1 ´ αβu “ 0. (8)

5
As long as γ is not a non-positive integer, u “ F pα, β, γ; zq is a solution of (8);
it is the only solution regular at z “ 0, and it satisfies F pα, β, γ; 0q “ 1 (final
paragraph of [8], §377, p. 138.)

In [8], §§386-388 (pp. 151-155), we find that when γ “ 1 and λ “ 0, an-

other, linearly independent, solution of equation (7) is φ˚2 pzq. [8], Section 394,
pp. 165 - 167 is devoted to the case λ “ 0. The mapping function w of Theorem
1 satisfies ([8], p. 166, equation 394.4)
„ 
1 φ˚2 sin πµ
w“ ´ p2ψp1q ´ ψp1 ´ αq ´ ψp1 ´ βqq ` i . (9)
πi φ1 cos πµ ` cos πν

5 Inversion of Schwarz’s inverse triangle func-

tion
Following Lehner and Raleigh, we consider the Schwarz triangle Tm with ver-
tices at ρ “ ´ expp´πi{mq, i, and i8. In terms of Theorem 1, Tm has λ “ 0
(an angle 0 at the vertex i8), µ “ 1{2 (an angle π{2 at i), and ν “ 1{m (an
angle π{m at ρ.) In this situation, γ “ 1.

Let Jm be automorphic for Gpλm q with Jm pρq “ 0, Jm piq “ 1, and Jm pi8q “ 8.

In terms of Theorem 1, w and Jm are inverse functions. We are going to write
down the Fourier expansion of Jm .

By clause 2 of Theorem 1, if w satisfies equations (3) and (9), so does τ “

τ pzq “ λm wpzq{2, and therefore

φ˚2
2πiτ {λm “ ´ p2ψp1q ´ ψp1 ´ αq ´ ψp1 ´ βqq ´ π secpπ{mq.
φ1
Let us write log Am “ ´2ψp1q ` ψp1 ´ αq ` ψp1 ´ βq ´ π secpπ{mq. Recalling the
definitions of φ1 and φ˚2 from our glossary items 6 and 8, we find (abbreviating
Jm pτ q as Jm ) that

F ˚ pα, β, 1; 1{Jm q
2πiτ {λm “ ´ log Jm ` ` log Am . (10)
F pα, β, 1; 1{Jm q

Equation (10) is equation (6) of [22], but Raleigh suppresses the subscripts. He
also writes exp 2πiτ {λm as xm , so that (in our earlier notation) xm “ qm pτ q.

In Raleigh’s notation, after taking exponentials,

1 F ˚ pα, β, 1; 1{Jm q
xm {Am “ exp , (11)
Jm F pα, β, 1; 1{Jm q
the right side of which has a power series in Jm with rational coefficients. Writing
Xm “ xm {Am we can regard Xm “ Xm pJm q as a power series in Jm . Following

6
[17] and [22], we inverted this power series to obtain one for the modular function
Jm . Let I be a formal operation taking a power series σpvq to its inverse; that
is, if u “ σpvq then v “ I pσqpuq. Let Ym pJq be a power series such that
F ˚ pα, β, 1; Jm q
Ym pJm q “ Jm exp “ Xm p1{Jm q
F pα, β, 1; Jm q
and hence
1 F ˚ pα, β, 1; 1{Jm q
Ym p1{Jm q “ expm “ Xm pJm q,
Jm F pα, β, 1; 1{Jm q
so that I pYm qpXm pJqq “ 1{Jm and, therefore, Jm “ 1{I pYm qpXm q.

6 Modular forms from modular functions

When the w-image of H˚ is Tm , the inverse of w is φλm . Jm , the extension by
modularity of φλm to H˚ , is periodic with period λm and maps ρ to 0, i to 1,
and i8 to 8 ([17], equation (2).) These mapping properties allow us, following
Berndt’s exposition of Hecke, to construct positive weight modular forms for
Gpλm q from Jm . This section describes results of Hecke that are perhaps most
easily accessible for the classical case in Schoeneberg [24], and, for the general
case, in Berndt [3].

6.1 m “ 3.
By keeping track of the weights, zeros and poles of the constituent factors in
the numerator and denominator of the fraction defining
1
Ja
fa,b,c “ ,
J pJ ´ 1qc
b

Schoeneberg [24] (Theorem 16, p.45) demonstrates that fa,b,c is an entire mod-
ular form of weight 2a for SLp2, Zq if a ě 2, 3c ď a, 3b ď 2a, b ` c ě a and
a, b, c are integers. (Schoeneberg speaks of “dimension ´2a.”) Thus he is able
to write down a weight 4 entire modular form E4˚ “ f2,1,1 for SLp2, Zq with a
zero of order 31 at ρ “ e2πi{3 and a weight 6 entire modular form E6˚ “ f3,2,1
for SLp2, Zq with a zero of order 12 at i. (Schoeneberg writes G˚4 , G˚6 .) It is well
known that the (vector space) dimension of the spaces of weight 4 and 6 entire
modular forms for SLp2, Zq is equal to one, so E4˚ and E6˚ may be identified
with the usual weight 4 and weight 6 Eisenstein series, up to a normalization.
Finally, Schoeneberg defines the weight 12 cusp form ∆˚ “ E4˚3 ´ E6˚2 with a
zero of order 1 at i8. It is a multiple of ∆.

6.2 m ě 3.
We quote statements from Berndt [3], which is an exposition of Hecke’s [13]
and other writings. We depart occasionally from Berndt’s choices of variable to
avoid clashes with our earlier notation.

7
Definition 1. ([3], Definition 2.2) We say that f belongs to the space M pλ, k, γq
if
1.
8
ÿ
f pτ q “ an e2πinτ {λ ,
n“0

where λ ą 0 and τ P H, and

2. f p´1{τ q “ γpτ {iqk f pτ q, where k ą 0 and γ “ ˘1.
We say that f belongs to the space M0 pλ, k, γq if f satisfies conditions (i), (ii),
and if an “ Opnc q for some real number c, as n tends to 8.

After defining the notion of a fundamental region in the usual way and defining
as Gpλq the group of linear fractional transformations generated by τ ÞÑ ´1{τ
and τ ÞÑ τ ` λ, Berndt states
Theorem 2. ([3], Theorem 3.1) Let Bpλq “ tτ P H : x ă λ{2, |τ | ą 1u. Then if
λ ě 2 or if λ “ 2 cospπ{mq, where m ě 3 is an integer, Bpλq is a fundamental
region for Gpλq.
Definition 2. ([3], Definition 3.4) Let TA “ tλ : λ “ 2 cospπ{mq, m ě 3, m P
Zu.
Berndt states in his Theorem 5.4 that Gpλq is discrete if and only if λ belongs
to TA . This discreteness is the premise of the theory of automorphic functions
generally. He embeds within the proof of his Lemma 3.1 (which we omit), the
Definition 3. 1. Let τλ denote the intersection in H of the line x “ ´λ{2
and the unit circle |τ | “ 1. (Berndt also remarks on page 35 that τλ is the
lower left corner of Bpλq.)

2. “Letting πθ “ π ´ argpτλ q (so that λ “ 2 cos θ) ....”

To characterize Eisenstein series, we need to keep track of some analytical prop-
erties. The next definition summarizes the second paragraph of Berndt’s Chap-
ter 5. (Throughout his Chapter 5, λ ă 2.)

Definition 4. Let f P M pλ, k, γq, f not identically zero.

1. N “ Nf counts the zeros of f on Bpλq with multiplicities.
2. Nf does not count zeros at τλ , τλ ` λ, i or i8.

3. If τ0 P Bpλq, f pτ0 q “ 0 and <pτ0 q “ ´λ{2, then f pτ0 ` λq “ 0 and Nf

counts only one of the two zeros.
4. If τ0 P Bpλq, f pτ0 q “ 0, and |τ0 | “ 1, then, f p´1{τ0 q “ 0, and Nf counts
only one of these two zeros.

8
 5. The numbers nλ , ni , and n8 are the orders of the zeros of f at τλ , i and
i8, repectively. The order n8 is measured in terms of expp2πiτ {λq.
The multiplier γ is given by
Theorem 3. ([3], Corollary 5.2) Let f P M pλ, k, γq and let ni be the order of
the zero of f at τ “ i. Then
γ “ p´1qni .
The next two results tell us that the only nontrivial case in this theory is the
one that we are interested in.
Theorem 4. ([3], Lemma 5.1) If dim M pλ, k, γq ‰ 0,
ˆ ˙
1 nλ 1 1
Nf ` n 8 ` n i ` “ k ´θ .
2 m 2 2

By Berndt’s equation (5.16), if m ě 3 then the right side can be written as

kpm ´ 2q{4m.
Theorem 5. ([3], Theorem 5.2) If dim M pλ, k, γq ‰ 0, then θ “ 1{m where
m ě 3 and m P Z.
We are concerned with λ P TA . This makes λ ă 2 as in all the results of Berndt’s
Chapter 5.

One estimate for dim M pλ, k, γq is

Theorem 6. ([3], Theorem 5.6) If λ R TA , then dim M pλ, k, γq “ 0. If λ “
2 cospπ{mq P TA , then for nontrivial f P M pλ, k, γq, the weight k has the form

4h
k“ ` 1 ´ γ,
m´2
where h ě 1 is an integer. Furthermore,
Z ^
h ` pγ ´ 1q{2
dim M pλ, k, γq “ 1 ` .
m

Eliminating h, we find that

Z ˆ ˙ ^
1 1 γ 1
dim M pλ, k, γq “ 1 ` k ´ ` ´ . (12)
4 2m 4 4

Berndt ([3], Remark 5.3) proves that the dimension formula above holds also
when h “ 0.

The existence of certain modular forms is provided by

9
Theorem 7. ([3], Theorem 5.5) Let λ P TA . Then there exist functions fλ , fi ,
and f8 P M pλ, k, γq such that each has a simple zero at τλ , i, and i8, re-
spectively, and no other zeros. Here, γ is given by [this article’s Theorem 3],
and k is determined in each case from [Theorem 4 of this article]. Thus, fλ P
M pλ, 4{pm ´ 2q, 1q, fi P M pλ, 2m{pm ´ 2q, ´1q, and f8 P M pλ, 4m{pm ´ 2q, 1q.
Remark 1. ([3], pages 47-48) By the Riemann mapping theorem there exists
a function gpτ q that maps the simply connected region Bpλq one-to-one and
conformally onto H. If we require that gpτλ q “ 0, gpiq “ 1, and gpi8q “ 8,
then g is determined uniquely.
Now we can write down fλ , fi , and f8 explicitly. The next theorem is extracted
from the proof of Theorem 7. fλ and fi correspond to Eisenstein series and f8
to a cusp form. In our code, we take g to be a normalized form of Jm .
Theorem 8. ([3], page 50)
*1{pm´2q
g 1 pτ q2
"
fλ pτ q “ ,
gpτ qpgpτ q ´ 1q
*1{pm´2q
g 1 pτ qm
"
fi pτ q “ ,
gpτ qm´1 pgpτ q ´ 1q
and *1{pm´2q
g 1 pτ q2m
"
f8 pτ q “ 2m´2
.
gpτ q pgpτ q ´ 1qm
In our applications to Lehmer’s problem, we will be interested in the dimensions
of the weight 12 cusp spaces for λ “ λm “ 2 cos π{m.
Definition 5. ([3], Definition 5.2) If f P M pλ, k, γq and f pi8q “ 0, then we
call f a cusp form of weight k and multiplier γ with respect to Gpλq. We denote
by Cpλ, k, γq the vector space of all cusp forms of this kind.
Remark 2. ([3], equation (5.25))

dim Cpλ, k, γq ě dim M pλ, k, γq ´ 1.

Remark 3. In view of (i) Theorem 6, (ii) equation (12), (iii) Remark 2, and
(iv) the fact that γ “ ˘1, we see that dim Cpλm , 12, γq ą 1 when m is greater
than or equal to 12.

7 Normalizations
In this section we write down normalizations of the functions from Theorem 8
such that, at m “ 3, the normalizations reduce to corresponding functions in
the classical theory, namely (in Serre’s notation [26]), j, E2 , E3 , and ∆— Klein’s
invariant, the weight 4 and weight 6 Eisenstein series, and the normalized dis-
criminant ∆. Also, the coefficients of their Fourier expansions should be rational

10
numbers, but this we have verified only experimentally. For simplicity, we will
abuse our
ř notation and write f pqm q for functions f pzq with Fourier expansions
f pzq “ cn qm pzqn . Let us also write Wm pXm q for the series 1{I pYm qpXm q in
the last equation of section 5.

The section 5 parameter A3 “ 1{1728 “ 1{p26 33 q and J3 pτ q “ W3 pX3 q “

W3 px3 {A3 q “ W3 p1728x3 q “ W3 p26 33 q3 pτ qq. The Fourier expansion of J3 and
that of the Klein j-invariant agree, but if m ‰ 3, 4, or 6, the Fourier expansion
of Jm has irrational coefficients because the residue a´1 of Jm pqm q is transcen-
dental if m ‰ 3, 4 or 6, ([34], according to [18]) and

a´1 “ Am . (13)

This equation can be justified by reference to Raleigh, but that author does, it
seems, commit a sign error in his equation (10), which it is necessary to com-
pare to his equation (I) to conclude that our equation (13) is true. The same
comparison indicates the sign error, because in (I) the signs of π secpπ{mq and
2ψp1q disagree, whereas they agree in Raleigh’s equation (10).

Therefore, following [18], we set

jm pxq :“ Wm p26 m3 xm q{Bm ,

where Bm is the coefficient of 1{xm in the series Wm p26 m3 xm q; by construction,

Bm “ 2´6 m´3 . Corresponding to fλ , we set
*1{pm´2q
pτ q2
" 1
jm
H4,m pτ q :“ .
jm pτ qpjm pτ q ´ 26 m3 q

Let *1{pm´2q
pτ qm
" 1
jm
K6,m pτ q :“ .
jm pτ qm´1 pjm pτ q ´ 26 m3 q
We set H6,m :“ K6,m where  “ e´iπ{pm´2q or 1, depending on whether m is
odd or even, respectively.

It is important to remark that, in our Mathematica code, K6,m is expressed

as a power series in qm , so that Mathematica is performing a purely formal
series operation when the exponent 1{pm ´ 2q is applied in this series. Further-
more, in order to obtain a series with rational coefficients, we found we had to
use the Mathematica command Refine[x>0] at this stage. ř8The result agrees at
m “ 3 with the weight six Eisenstein series E3 “ 1 ´ 504 n“1 σ5 pnqq n on page
93 of [26]. On the other hand, at the time of this draft we are repeating and
extending (because SageMath is faster) our calculations in SageMath, and in
this setting we must use a different normalization to avoid sign errors, namely,
H6 “ K6 for all m. We speculate (1) that the Refine command is behind this
behavior, and so (2) for m greater than three, the series H6,m (and consequently

11
for the cusp forms and interpolating polynomials) may differ in our SageMath
calculations from those we have found in Mathematica. (This should be simple
to check, but this has not been done at the time of the present draft.)

Corresponding to f8 , we set
*1{pm´2q
pτ q2m
" 1
‹ jm
∆ pτ q “ .
jm pτ q2m´2 pjm pτ q ´ 26 m3 qm
3 2 3
Finally, we set ∆:m “ H4,m ´ H6,m and ∆˛m “ H4,m {jm . Because J31 is a weight-
2 modular function ([24], p.44), and the weight-4 and weight-6 spaces and the
weight-12 cusp space are one-dimensional when m “ 3, the desired property
follows after checking the first few terms of the Fourier expansions at issue.

8 Interpolation by polynomials of the Fourier

coefficients of normalized modular forms and
functions for Hecke groups
In this section we state conjectures about polynomials interpolating coefficients
of various modular forms for Hecke groups. For the most part we confine our
attention to gross features of these polynomials such as their degrees and their
decomposition into irreducible factors, but we also make fragmentary obser-
vations about their Galois groups and the multiplicative structure of certain
coefficients, just to point out the (apparent) existence of such regularites. How-
ever, conjectures 7 and 8 do bear on Lehmer’s question about the existence of
zeros of Ramanujan’s tau function.

Let
8
ÿ
Jm pzq “ an pmqqm pzqn .
n“´1

For integers m ě 3 Raleigh [22] showed that

a´1 pmq “ exppπ secpπ{mq ´ 2ψp1q ` ψp1{4 ` 1{p2mqq ` ψp1{4 ´ 1{p2mqq

and that, for n “ 0, 1, 2, 3, an pmq “ m´2n´2 a´1 pmq´n Pn pmq where Pn pxq is a
polynomial with rational coefficients and degree 2n ` 2, such that the coefficient
of xn is zero when n is odd. He conjectured that similar relations exist among
the an for all positive n.

We made numerical studies to explore how this conjecture might extend to

the normalized modular forms defined in the previous section. The calculations
were done in Mathematica, SageMath, and Magma. Documentation is here [5].

12
Conjecture 1. Let the Fourier expansion of jm be
ÿ
n
jm “ 1{qm ` αn pmqqm .
ně0

1. For each integer n greater than ´2, there exists a polynomial An pxq P Qrxs
that satisfies the relation αn pmq “ An pmq for m “ 3, 4, ..., with A´1 pxq ”
1, A0 pxq “ 24px2 ` 4{3q “ a0 ¨ a0 (say) , and A1 pxq “ 276x2 px4 ´ 8x2 {69 ´
16{23q “ a1 ¨ a1 (say.).

2. (i) For n greater than one, An pxq “ an px ´ 2qpx ` 2qxn`1 an pxq where
the sequence tan u is the McKay-Thompson series of class 4A (item 10 in our
glossary), an pxq is a monic polynomial irreducible over Q, the degree of an is
2n, and the coefficient of xk is zero if and only if k is odd.

3. For n greater than one, let Galpan , Qq be the Galois group of an over the ra-
tionals. Then (i) the size of Galpan , Qq is 2n n! and (ii) if n is greater than two,
Gal pan , Qq is isomorphic to a permutation group on 2n elements te1 , ..., e2n u
with three generators: a transposition pej , ek q, a product pej , ej 1 qpek , ek1 q, and a
product of disjoint cycles C1 C2 , each of length n, such that C1 sends ej to ej 1
and C2 sends ek to ek1 .
Question 1. The index-n hyperoctahedral group has size 2n n! ([10], [20],and
[12].) It is natural to wonder whether or not Gal pan , Qq is isomorphic to this
group.
Conjecture 1 implies that for all integers m greater than or equal to three,
An pmq is nonzero, and therefore that

Conjecture 2. For each fixed n greater than or equal to ´1 and all integers m
greater than or equal to three, αn pmq is nonzero.
Conjecture 3. 1. If n ą 1, an pρq “ 0 and ρ ‰ ˘2, then

|ρ| ď n{ logpnq. (14)

2. Consequently (even supposing that conjecture 2 is false), if n ě 0 and m ą

maxpn{ logpnq, 2q then αn pmq ‰ 0.
3. For each n, there is a closed curve Pn symmetric about both axes in the
complex plane, such that the roots of an lie on Pn or on one of the axes. Exactly
two non-zero roots of an are imaginary. Pn has exactly one self-intersection, at
zero.
We used the argument principle to count the zeros in the disks of radius n{ logpnq
to test clause 1. For small enough n, we plotted the zeros to discern the curve
Pn , which resembles a lemniscate. For larger n this was infeasible, and we used
a different plotting method to see Pn : points in the complex plane that the
function z ÞÑ pn pzq send to a given quadrant were assigned one of four colors,

13
and so zeros were visible as points where four colors meet. The plots are in-
cluded in [5], in the documents “conjecture 3 no2.nb” and “conjecture 3 no3.nb”
(readable with Mathematica software.) Remark: it is already known that, for
all integers n ě ´1, αn p3q is positive. (See, for example, page 199 in [23].)

The interpretation of the set Q in our glossary and Cloitre’s conjecture about
it come from Sloane’s OEIS article [31]. Cloitre’s conjecture appears to be sup-
ported by the fact that divisor sums appear as Fourier coefficients of Eisenstein
series in several contexts, including, for Hecke groups, that of Chapter 4 in [18].

Conjecture 4. Let the Fourier expansion of H4,m be

8
ÿ
H4,m pzq “ βn pmqqm pzqn .
n“0

1. For each n there is a polynomial Bn pxq with rational coefficients such that
βn pmq “ Bn pmq for m “ 3, 4, ....

2. B0 pxq ” 1 identically.

3. If n is positive, then the degree of Bn pxq is 3n ´ 1.

4. B1 pxq “ 16xpx ` 2q.

5. B2 pxq “ ´16xpx ´ 2qpx ` 2qpx ` 6q.

6. If n is larger than two and n R Q, then Bn pxq “ px2 ´ 4qxn ˆ bn ˆ bn pxq

where bn is a rational number and bn pxq is an irreducible polynomial with inte-
ger coefficients. The sign of bn is ´p´1qn .

7. If n is larger than two and n P Q, then Bn pxq “ px2 ´4qpx´6qxn ˆbn ˆbn pxq,
where bn pxq and bn are as above.

8. If p is a prime number other than 2, let lp denote the leading coefficient

of bp pxq. Then lp “ 3p´1 ˆ a number divisible by all of the prime numbers be-
tween 5 and p (inclusive), and divisible by no other primes.

9. If p and q are prime numbers such that p is less than q, then lp divides
lq .

10. If p is prime number such that ord2 pp ` 1q “ s, ord3 pp ` 1q “ t, and

(written as a ratio of relatively prime positive integers) bp “ νp {δp , then (a)
νp “ 16 ¨ 2s if p is not 2 and (b) for all primes p, including p “ 2, δp “ 3p´1´t ˆ
a number divisible by all of the prime numbers between 5 and p (inclusive) and
divisible by no other primes.

14
Thus, in the range of our observations (3 ď m ď 302, 0 ď n ď 100q, the only
integer value of m such that H4,m has any vanishing coefficients is six, and βn p6q
is zero just if n is in Q.
Conjecture 5. Let the Fourier expansion of H6,m be
8
ÿ
H6,m pzq “ γn pmqqm pzqn .
n“0

1. For each n there is a polynomial Cn pxq such that γn pmq “ Cn pmq for
m “ 3, 4, ....

2. C0 pxq ” 1 identically.

3. C1 pxq “ ´8x2 p3x ´ 2q.

4. C2 pxq “ 8p3x ´ 2qpx ´ 2qpx ´ 14q.

5. For n larger than two, Cn pxq “ px ´ 2qp3x ´ 2qxn`1 ˆ dn ˆ dn pxq where

dn pxq is a polynomial, irreducible over Q, of degree 2n ´ 3 with integer coeffi-
cients and dn is a rational number. The sign of dn is p´1qn .

6. If p is a prime number other than 2, let lp denote the leading coefficient

of dp pxq. Then lp “ 3p´1 ˆ a number divisible by all of the prime numbers be-
tween 5 and p (inclusive), and divisible by no other primes.

7. If p and q are prime numbers such that p is less than q, then lp divides
lq .

8. With s and t as in conjecture 4 and (written as a ratio of relatively prime

positive integers) |dp | “ νp {δp , then (a) νp “ 8 ¨ 2s if p is not 2 and (b) for all
primes p, including p “ 2, δp “ 3p´1´t ˆ a number divisible by all of the prime
numbers between 5 and p (inclusive), and divisible by no other primes.
Let ∆ be usual normalized discriminant, a weight 12 cusp form for SLp2, Zq “
Gpλ3 q with integer coefficients. Its Fourier expansion is written
8
ÿ
∆pzq “ τ pnqq n
n“1
2πiz
where q “ e and τ pnq is Ramanujan’s function. Whether or not the equation
τ pnq “ 0 has any solutions is an open question [16]. (Recently, Balakrishnan,
Craig, and Ono [2] ruled out ˘1, ˘3, ˘5, ˘7, and ˘691 from membership in the
image of Ramanujan’s function.)
Conjecture 6. 1. Let ∆m “ ∆‹m , ∆:m or ∆˛m and let the Fourier expansion of
∆m pzq be
8
ÿ
n
∆m pzq “ τm pnqqm .
n“1

15
 ˚ : ˛
where τm “ τm , τm or τm respectively. Then there is a set of polynomials
‹ : ˛
Tn “ Tn , Tn , or Tn , respectively, with coefficients in Q such that τm pnq “ Tn pmq
for each m “ 3, 4, ....

2. T1‹ pxq ” 1 identically, and, if n is greater than one, then Tn‹ pxq “
t‹ n px ´ 2q2 xn´1 t‹n pxq, where t‹n pxq is a monic irreducible polynomial over Q of
degree 2n´4 and t‹ n is (in the notation of [9], Chapter 7, Theorem 7) the coeffi-
cient of q n in the Fourier expansion of ∆8 pzq [27]. Also ([28]), t‹ n “ p´1qn`1 ˆ
the sum of the cubes of the divisors d of n such that n{d is odd; this sum is the
coefficient of q n in the Fourier expansion of E8,4 , the unique normalized weight-
4 modular form for Γ0 p2q with simple zeros at i8 ([4], equation (2-3)) and the
number of representations of n ´ 1 as a sum of 8 triangular numbers ([21], the-
orem 5.) Finally, t‹ n is the coefficient of q n in the expansion of ηp2zq16 {ηpzq´8
where ηpzq is Dedekind’s function ([4], equation (2-16).)

3. (i) T1: pxq “ 16xp3x2 ` x ` 6q.

(ii) T2: pxq “ ´16x2 p39x4 ´ 95x3 ` 66x2 ´ 260x ´ 120q.
(iii) T3: pxq “
64x3 p189x6 ´ 3021x5 ` 9574x4 ´ 12520x3 ` 19136x2 ´ 2960x ´ 2208q{9.

(iv) If n is greater than 3, then Tn: pxq “ t: n px ´ 2q2 xn t‹n pxq, where t:n pxq is a
monic polynomial, irreducible over Q, of degree 2n´1 and t: n is (in the notation
of [9], Chapter 7, Section 2) the coefficient of q n for the theta series of the direct
sum of two copies of the D4 lattice in powers of q 2 [29]. It is also (proposition
7.5 of [19]) p´1qn ˆ the coefficient of q 2n in the Fourier expansion of tf8 , zu
where f8 pzq “ ηp4zq12 {pηp2zq4 ηp8zq8 . Here f8 is the normalized Hauptmodul
for the SLp2, Zq subgroup Γ0 p8q and the braces stand for the Schwarzian deriva-
tive (item 2 in our glossary.)

4. (i) T1˛ pxq, T2˛ pxq, and T3˛ pxq are irreducible polynomials over Q of degrees
3, 6, and 9, respectively.
(ii) If n is greater than 2, T1˛ pxq “ t˛ n px ´ 2qxn´1 t˛n pxq, where t˛n pxq is a monic
polynomial, irreducible over Q, of degree 2n ´ 3, and t˛ n can be written in terms
of Dedekind’s eta function in several ways. First,
8
ÿ ź ź
t˛ n q n “ p1 ´ q n q24 ¨ p1 ´ q n q´24 “ η 24 pzqη 24 p4zqη ´48 p2zq.
n“0 nodd n”2p4q

n`1
Also, t˛ n “ p´1q ˆ the coefficient of q n in pηp2zq{ηpzqq24 .
The product decomposition in clause 4(ii) above is a guess based on 43 terms
of the series using Euler’s method ([11]; also [1], Theorem 14.8.) It also appears
in [33]. The second decomposition appears in [30].
Conjecture 7. None of the Tn pxq takes an integer greater than two to zero;
consequently, none of the τm vanish for m “ 3, 4, ....

16
Obviously, one basis of conjecture 7 is conjecture 6, but it is also a consequence
of the following
Conjecture 8. For Tn “ Tn˛ pxq, Tn˛ pxq, or Tn˛ pxq, for each positive integer n,
and for each integer m greater than two, let the minimum distance from m of
any root of Tn be denoted as dpm, nq. For fixed n, dpm, nq is never zero. For
fixed m, dpm, nq decays exponentially as n increases. If m is greater than three,
then dpm, nq ą dp3, nq. (We note, however, that for T “ T ‹ and n “ 1, the
interpolating polynomial is identically equal to one and the corresponding root
set is therefore empty.)

References
[1] Tom M Apostol. Introduction to analytic number theory. Springer-Verlag,
1976.
[2] Jennifer S Balakrishnan, William Craig, and Ken Ono. “Variations of
Lehmer’s Conjecture for Ramanujan’s tau-function”. In: Journal of Num-
ber Theory (2020).
[3] Bruce C Berndt and Marvin Isadore Knopp. Hecke’s theory of modular
forms and Dirichlet series. Vol. 5. World Scientific, 2008.
[4] Barry Brent. “Quadratic minima and modular forms”. In: Experimental
Mathematics 7.3 (1998), pp. 257–274.
[5] Barry Brent. Supporting documents. https : / / drive . google . com /
drive/folders/1Dl4r- ElSBRTGz5UBJMy8UddjMnUtU3YB?usp=sharing.
2020.
[6] I. N. Cangül. “The group structure of Hecke groups H(λq )”. In: Turkish
Journal of Mathematics 20.2 (1996), pp. 203–207.
[7] Constantin Carathéodory. Theory of functions of a complex variable, Sec-
ond English Edition. Vol. 1. Translated by F. Steinhardt. Chelsea Pub-
lishing Company., 1958.
[8] Constantin Carathéodory. Theory of functions of a complex variable, Sec-
ond English Edition. Vol. 2. Translated by F. Steinhardt. Chelsea Pub-
lishing Company., 1981.
[9] John Horton Conway and Neil James Alexander Sloane. Sphere packings,
lattices and groups. Vol. 290. Springer Science & Business Media, 2013.
[10] Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. Hyperoctahedral group. https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperoctahedral_group. 23 October 2020.
[11] L Euler. “Discovery of a most extraordinary law of numbers concerning
the sum of their divisors, Opera Omnia, Ser. 1”. In: Eneström index 2
(E175), pp. 241–253.

17
[12] Piotr Graczyk, Gérard Letac, and Hélène Massam. “The hyperoctahe-
dral group, symmetric group representations and the moments of the real
Wishart distribution”. In: Journal of Theoretical Probability 18.1 (2005),
pp. 1–42.
[13] Erich Hecke. Lectures on Dirichlet series, modular functions, and quadratic
forms. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983.
[14] Erich Hecke. “Über die bestimmung dirichletscher reihen durch ihre funk-
tionalgleichung”. In: Mathematische Annalen 112.1 (1936), pp. 664–699.
[15] Jonas Jermann. Triangle functions on SageMath site. https : / / doc .
sagemath .org / html/ en /reference /modfrm _ hecketriangle/ index .
html. 2013.
[16] D. H. Lehmer. “The vanishing of Ramanujan’s function τ pnq”. In: Duke
Mathematical Journal 14.2 (1947), pp. 429–433.
[17] Joseph Lehner. “Note on the Schwarz triangle functions.” In: Pacific Jour-
nal of Mathematics 4.2 (1954), pp. 243–249.
[18] John Garrett Leo. Fourier coefficients of triangle functions, Ph.D. thesis.
http://halfaya.org/ucla/research/thesis.pdf. 2008.
[19] John Mckay and Hubertus Strauss. “The q-series of monstrous moonshine
& the decomposition of the head characters”. In: Communications in Al-
gebra 18.1 (1990), pp. 253–278. doi: 10.1080/00927879008823911. url:
https://doi.org/10.1080/00927879008823911.
[20] GA Miller. “Groups formed by special matrices”. In: Bulletin of the Amer-
ican Mathematical Society 24.4 (1918), pp. 203–206.
[21] Ken Ono, Sinai Robins, and Patrick T Wahl. “On the representation of
integers as sums of triangular numbers”. In: Aggregating clones, colors,
equations, iterates, numbers, and tiles. Springer, 1995, pp. 73–94.
[22] J Raleigh. “On the Fourier coefficients of triangle functions”. In: Acta
Arithmetica 8 (1962), pp. 107–111.
[23] R.A. Rankin. Modular Forms and Functions. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1977.
[24] Bruno Schoeneberg. Elliptic modular functions. Springer, 1974, p. 45.
[25] Hermann Amandus Schwarz. “Ueber diejenigen Fälle, in welchen die Gaus-
sische hypergeometrische Reihe eine algebraische Function ihres vierten
Elementes darstellt.” In: Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathe-
matik 75 (1873), pp. 292–335.
[26] Jean-Pierre Serre. A course in arithmetic. Springer-Verlag, 1970.
[27] Neil J. A. Sloane. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, A002408.
http://oeis.org/A002408.
[28] Neil J. A. Sloane. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, A007331.
http://oeis.org/A007331.

18
[29] Neil J. A. Sloane. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, A008658.
http://oeis.org/A008658.
[30] Neil J. A. Sloane. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, A014103.
http://oeis.org/A014103.
[31] Neil J. A. Sloane. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, A034020.
https://oeis.org/A034020.
[32] Neil J. A. Sloane. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, A097340.
https://oeis.org/A097340.
[33] Neil J. A. Sloane. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, A100130.
http://oeis.org/A100130.
[34] Jurgen Wolfart. “Transzendente Zahlen als Fourierkoeffizienten von Heckes
Modulformen”. In: Acta Arithmetica 2.39 (1981), pp. 193–205.

19