Fuel 85 (2006) 2359–2370

www.fuelfirst.com

Analysis and design of a stabilized fly ash as pavement base material

a,*
A. Hilmi Lav , M. Aysen Lav a, A. Burak Goktepe b

a
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey
b
Kolin Construction Co., Horasan Sok. No: 24 G.O.P., Ankara, Turkey

Available online 19 June 2006

Abstract

The main objective of this study is to utilize a class F fly ash as base material in road pavements. Since class F fly ashes do not manifest
desirable engineering properties for this purpose, it was decided to stabilize the material with cement. Fly ash may be utilized with or
without aggregate as a pavement layer. It should be noted that, in this research only aggregate free stabilized mixtures (fly ash and cement
only) were used since the aim was to utilize high volumes of this waste material. Cement content in the stabilized, laboratory prepared
samples were between 2%, 4%, 8%, and 10% by total weight. Initially, Texas triaxial test was carried out to justify the suitability of the fly
ash as pavement material. Then, mechanical tests were performed to obtain the fundamental properties of the cement stabilized material
in order to analyze the pavement structure. Under repeated wheel loading, fatigue cracking is the primary mode of failure of stabilized
materials in which cracks initiate due to the repeated tensile stresses. Utilizing an accelerated full scale road test data for the fatigue per-
formance of cement stabilized fly ash and performing a mechanistic-empirical design procedure, required layer thickness for different
lives were obtained for different amount of cement content.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fly ash; Cement stabilization; Pavement design

1. Introduction Laboratory tests were the most significant part of this

The aim of the study presented in this paper is to use a
class F fly ash as pavement base material. The most impor-
tant reason for replacing classical base materials with fly
ash is economy and waste utilization. Additionally, fly
ash base may continue to increase its strength for a long
time due to pozzolanic reactivity. However, class F ashes
are not self cementitious by itself; therefore, in order to
be used as a base or subbase course for a road pavement,
they should be mixed with a stabilizing agent such as
cement or/and lime. Generally, fly ash is also mixed with
aggregate in above applications, yet, in this study only
aggregate free stabilized mixtures were investigated. Other
information regarding various properties of this stabilized
material may be found elsewhere [1–3].
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 212 2856535; fax: +90 212 2865563.
E-mail address: lav@itu.edu.tr (A.H. Lav).
study. The results obtained from the tests such as elasticity
modulus, Poisson’s ratio and fatigue life performance
model were then incorporated into pavement analysis and
design procedure to obtain design life vs. layer thickness.
2. Literature review
One of the earliest applications of lime-fly ash stabilized
base was a test section constructed in 1957, near Colfax,
Iowa, USA. After four years the section was in a good con-
dition [4]. In 1960, a section of road from Gorgas to Par-
rish in Alabama, USA, was stabilized with lime and fly
ash and covered with asphaltic concrete. The road sub-
jected to heavy traffic loading because of a large coal-min-
ing area nearby, but remained in good condition. Some
sections deteriorated due to a poorly drained subgrade
[5]. In Kentucky, USA, coal-fired power stations are prom-
inent energy sources because of large amounts of coal pro-
duction. As a result of this, particular attention has been

0016-2361/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2006.05.017
2360 A.H. Lav et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 2359–2370
given to the use of fly ash as a component in stabilized
aggregate base course. Also atmospheric fluidised bed com-
bustion (AFBC) residue included in some mixes. AFBC is
an advanced combustion process where coal is burnt in a
fluidised bed of fine limestone to capture sulfur dioxide
by calcium oxide formed from the limestone. Therefore,
adverse effects of burning high-sulfur coal is eliminated,
yielding calcium sulfate as a waste material [6]. In 1988,
three test sections were constructed on State Route 3074
in Kentucky, USA. The first section comprises fly ash,
aggregate and AFBC residue. The second section made
up fly ash, lime and aggregate, the last section includes
pond ash (fly ash and bottom ash) with AFBC residue. A
control section was also included to assess the results.
Because of the excessive expansion of AFBC residue, the
two sections containing residue failed. The section with
fly ash, aggregate and lime showed good performance with-
out any significant distress and rutting. Moreover, it gave
much better structural efficiency compared to the control
section, [7,8].
Applications of stabilized fly ash base and subbase (con-
sisting of fly ash mixed with a relatively small amounts of
lime or cement) are relatively new in most countries except
England and France [9]. In 1975, at West Virginia, USA, a
parking lot pavement base was built using cement stabi-
lized fly ash. Unconfined compressive strength of pavement
was 3905 kPa at 7 days and 5996 kPa at 90 days and cli-
mate changes did not effect its performance [10]. Another
parking lot has been built for experimental purposes at
Mountaineer Power Plant, West Virginia, USA, [11]. Both
applications mentioned above were considered successful.
A haul road near Clinch River Power Plant, South Western
Virginia was constructed using 14% cement stabilized fly
ash. Although the road was subjected to heavy traffic, it
performed well for many years [12]. The Oakland County
Road Commission in Michigan, USA, decided to build a
road with 25 cm cement stabilized base. The mix contained
10% cement, 7 and 28 days cored unconfined compressive
strength test samples gave a strength of 979 kPa and
1311 kPa, respectively. It was also noted that, laboratory
prepared samples produced a 7 days strength over
2760 kPa. Because of the in situ test results did not exceed
the minimum required 7 days strength of 2760 kPa, the
trial was considered unsatisfactory, [13]. However, in
another test section which was constructed at Grand
Blanch, Michigan, USA, in 1987, cored samples exceeded
7 days strength of 2760 kPa. The base was beneath a high-
way shoulder and stabilized with 12% cement by weight.
After construction a monitoring and testing program was
put into practice for five years. According to post construc-
tion observation, cement stabilized fly ash performs well as
base material as long as it is mixed correctly [14].
An uncommon application of 100% fly ash base with no
additive or aggregate was attempted in 1988 at Fulshear,
Texas, USA. After placement and compaction, the average
compressive strength increased only 255 kPa, between 7
days and 28 days of curing. Also, the asphalt layer at the
top become corrugated in some sections after four months.
The trial considered not successful [15].
It should be noted that, the study presented in this paper
deals with 100% fly ash (without aggregate) stabilized with
cement and considered as road base layer. This type of
applications are quite rare, since general practice is to
mix fly ash with aggregate as detailed in this section.
3. Experimental analyses
3.1. Preparation of samples
Before starting sample preparation, the moisture–den-
sity relationship was determined for each cement content.
Compaction was achieved by the standard Proctor proce-
dure and the results are shown in Fig. 1. All the samples
tested throughout this study were prepared in accordance
with the above test results.
3.2. Texas triaxial tests
The Texas triaxial test is an undrained test, which mea-
sures the deformation resistance of pavement layers [16].
The test is carried out using a set of four cylindrical sam-
ples having a diameter of 153 mm and a height of
203 mm. The testing apparatus is a steel cylindrical cell fit-
ted with a rubber membrane on the inside. Air is used to
apply lateral pressure between the cell and the membrane.
For each sample, a different lateral (constant) stress is
applied and vertical stress is increased until the failure is
reached. Mohr circles for each lateral stress at failure are
drawn on a classification chart to determine the Texas tri-
axial classification number. Although it is not common
practice, the test method is suitable for stabilized materials
and they may also be cured before testing to investigate the
stabilization effect. In a study by Buhiyan et al. [17], stabi-
lized samples were assessed by the Texas triaxial method
after 60 days of curing.
1.36
1.31
Dry Density (gr/cm3)
1.26
2% Cement
4% Cement
1.21
8% Cement
10% Cement
1.16
10 15 20 25 30 35
Water Content (%)
Fig. 1. Moisture–density relationship of cement stabilized fly ash.
 A.H. Lav et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 2359–2370 2361

In order to asses the suitability of cement stabilized fly
ash as base material, a set of sample containing 2% cement
was prepared. The set consisted of four samples and the
samples were cured for 7 days. Then, each sample was
loaded until failure at different lateral stresses (10 kPa,
30 kPa, 60 kPa, and 90 kPa). The test results indicated that
the Texas triaxial classification number is 1.4 for cement
stabilized fly ash. NAASRA [18] states that a Texas triaxial
classification number of ‘‘3’’ for a material, indicates that it
is likely to perform satisfactorily as a road base and has a
design life of around one million equivalent standard axles.
According to Texas triaxial test results it was decided that
cement stabilized fly ash was suitable as a base material and
proceeded further testing. The Texas triaxial test results are
presented in Fig. 2.
3.3. Microstructural investigation and mechanical analysis
of stabilized samples
Fly ash and cement are called hydraulic binders. That is
they can be reactive when mixing with water. As a result of
this, there is two types of reactions occur as follows:

1500
σ3 = 90kPa
Deviatoric Stress (kPa)

1000
σ3 = 60kPa

σ3= 30kPa
σ3= 10kPa
500

0
0 4 8 12 16 20
Deformation (mm)

780
τ= 134 + σ tan 48.1
Shear Stress (kPa)

520

260

0
0 270 540 810 1080 1350
Normal Stress (kPa)

300
CLASS 1
CLASS 2
225
Shear Stress (kPa)

CLASS 3
150

75

Texas Class: 1.4

0
0 40 80 120 160 200
Normal Stress (kPa)

Fig. 2. Texas triaxial test results of 2% cement stabilized fly ash samples (7 days cure).
2362 A.H. Lav et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 2359–2370

Fig. 3a. Fly ash matrix upon stabilization. Fig. 3c. Formation of ettrignite on fly ash spheres.

• Pozzolanic reaction.
• Reactions result in various hydration products due to
cement stabilization.

Although pozzolanic reaction of Class F fly ashes is sig-

nificant, yet solid bindings between fly ash particles are
mainly developed by hydration products due to stabiliza-
tion. In this study, development of hydration products,
namely development of strength of stabilized fly ash was
investigated by a scanning electron microscope (SEM). It
was observed that upon stabilization, there was no evi-
dence of important hydration as can be seen in Fig. 3a,
however, after 7 days the fly ash particles acted as a nucle-
ation and growing sites for hydration products as shown in
Fig. 3d. Increase of bonding between fly ash particles.
Fig. 3b.
Then the following hydration products were identified in
cement stabilized fly ash:

• Ettrignite was formed using the fly ash spheres as nucle-

ation sites (Fig. 3c).
• Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C–S–H) gel along with Port-
landite [Ca(OH)2] maintained a bond between particles
and ettrignite rods joined together, resulting in an
increased strength (Fig. 3d).

Fig. 4. Dense C–S–H gel around fly ash spheres after 6 months.

• Finally, after 6 months of hydration C–S–H gel had fur-

ther densified and covered fly ash spheres including the
gaps between particles as can be seen in Fig. 4.

3.4. Resonant-frequency tests

The resonant-frequency test is basically the excitation of

Fig. 3b. After 7 days, fly ash particles acting as a nucleation and growing a sample by a vibration generator. The vibration is induced
site. at different bands of frequency. At the moment of
 A.H. Lav et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 2359–2370 2363

resonance, the exciting frequency matches the natural fre- From the dynamic elasticity and shear moduli, the
quency of sample and standing waves are produced. As dynamic Poisson’s ratio was calculated utilizing the follow-
the natural frequency of a sample is mainly dependent on ing equation and the results of the resonant-frequency test
the fundamental properties of the material (modulus and are given in Table 1
Poisson’s ratio), the resonant-frequency test enables the td ¼ ðEd =2Gd Þ  1 ð3Þ
determination of those properties without damaging the
sample.
The aim of conducting this test was essentially to obtain 3.5. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
the dynamic Poisson’s ratio of stabilized fly ash that will be
used both to analyze pavement structure and to calculate The ultrasonic pulse velocity test is a measurement of
the dynamic modulus from the ultrasonic pulse velocity the transit time of a longitudinal vibration pulse through
test. The resonant-frequency test was unsuitable for the a sample, which has a known path length. The test is car-
testing of fresh and nonhydrated fly ash samples. Therefore ried out by applying two transducers (transmitting and
90 days cured cement stabilized beam samples (cement con- receiving) to the opposite end surfaces of the samples. A
tent was 2%, 4%, 8% and 10% by total weight) having a sufficient acoustical contact between the transducers and
length of 350 mm and 100 · 100 mm cross sections were the surface of the sample is maintained by a couplant such
tested. The samples were prepared in a purpose built steel as silicon grease. The pulse delay between the transducers is
mould and were statically compacted. In computing the measured as the transit time and the ultrasonic pulse veloc-
dynamic Poisson’s ratio, longitudinal and torsional reso- ity is calculated using the length the sample (the distance
nant-frequencies must be measured. between the transducers). The ultrasonic pulse velocity
The measurements were made by an Erudite resonant- method helps to monitor the hydration process that causes
frequency tester [19]. The samples were placed on a special the strength increase as a result of a microstructure forma-
bench, where they were supported at the center nodal point tion. The ultrasonic pulse velocity time increases over time,
and then clamped by the clamping bar. The longitudinal that is, the ultrasonic velocity time decreases due to hydra-
vibrations were excited placing the couplings (vibration tion, which gradually increases the stiffness of the material.
emitter and receiver) at the ends of the sample and the tor- In this part of the study, sample preparation, cement
sional vibrations were produced when couplings were contents as well as the dimensions was the same as
placed to the sides of the sample. Commencing from the described in the previous section (350 mm in length and a
low frequency, vibration frequencies for both cases were square cross-sectional area of 100 · 100 mm). The mea-
increased gradually until the outputmeter showed a maxi- surement was carried out according to ASTM C 597 [20],
mum value, which was the fundamental resonant fre- also complying with the RILEM [21] technical recommen-
quency. The sinusoidal standing wave was also dations. A study by Hwang and Shen [22] showed that the
monitored by oscilloscope and the resonant frequency pulse velocity is unstable in the first 24 h of curing. High
was obtained from the digital frequencymeter. Equations water content in the material causes instability in the ultra-
of moduli for longitudinal frequency and torsional fre- sonic pulse velocity because the pulse passes through the
quency are given as follows [19]: shortest possible path. Therefore, upon preparing the sam-
ples an initial measurement was made across the width
Ed ¼ DWn2L ð1Þ (100 mm) instead of the length (350 mm) and a further
Gd ¼ BWn2T ð2Þ measurement was taken after 24 h. According to the results
as shown in Fig. 5, hydration started to form soon after the
where preparation (although it is not significant in 3a). Besides,
Ed dynamic elasticity modulus (kg/cm2) the dynamic elasticity modulus was calculated from the fol-
Gd dynamic shear modulus (kg/cm2) lowing relation [21]:
W weight of sample (kg)
nL longitudinal resonant frequency (Hz) Ed ¼ qv2u ½ð1 þ td Þð1  2td Þ=ð1 þ td Þ ð4Þ
3
nT torsional resonant frequency (Hz) where, td is dynamic Poisson’s ratio, q (kg/m ) is density,
B, D constants related to cross-sectional shape and and vu (m/s) is ultrasonic pulse velocity. The dynamic Pois-
length of sample son’s ratio was determined by the resonant-frequency test
mentioned in the previous section.
Table 1 The increase of dynamic modulus, which corresponds to
Resonant-frequency test results the increase in the ultrasonic pulse velocity, indicated that
Sample type nL nT Ed Gd Poisson’s cement stabilization is successful in terms of initial setting.
(Hz) (Hz) (MPa) (MPa) ratio Initial setting is important in pavement projects because
2% Cement 1657 965 1976 793 0.25 the road is usually expected to be open for service as soon
4% Cement 2002 1190 2917 1219 0.20 as possible. Furthermore, at the construction stage, the
8% Cement 2624 1573 5086 2163 0.18 pavement may be subjected to higher stresses because of
10% Cement 2874 1732 6181 2657 0.16 heavy trucks and road construction machinery. Therefore,
2364 A.H. Lav et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 2359–2370

2100 gained in practice and from observation of the perfor-

mance of existing or specially constructed roads under dif-
1900 ferent traffic conditions. One of the first empirical methods
was the CBR (California Bearing Ratio) method developed
Ultra Sound Velocity (m/s)

1700
in the 1930’s by Hveem and associates. However, the most
1500 well known example of the empirical design method is the
1972 version of American Association of Highway Offi-
1300 cials’ pavement design guide [23] developed in connection
with the AASHO road test [24]. The method was based
1100
on an equation (prediction model) with coefficients that
900 2%Cement were statistically obtained from the AASHO test road.
All of the empirical design methods are restricted to the
4%Cement
700 range of pavement materials and traffic loads defined in the
8%Cement procedure. When a new material or different traffic loads
500
10%Cement outside the range are considered, the empirical methods
300
become insufficient, even unless. As a result of this, mech-
0 1 2 3 4 7 14 21 28 anistic-empirical methods take their place. In mechanistic-
Days empirical methods, the first step is to assume the pavement
structure and load configuration. Pavement structure may
Fig. 5. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of cement stabilized fly ash.
consist of many layers of different materials, but for the
general design procedure, the structure is simplified to three
distinctly different layers. Such simplification is preferred
6000 by many researchers for analyzing various pavements
[25–27].
5000 The top layer takes up all the asphaltic concrete, the
middle layer can be stabilized material as in this study,
and the bottom layer is considered as the subgrade (foun-
4000
dation of the structure). After simplifying the structure,
Modulus (MPa)

the stress induced by specified wheel loading is calculated

3000 in order to identify the critical strains in the structure
(pavement analysis) by means of purpose developed com-
puter programs. These programs are usually based on lin-
2000
ear elastic theory or finite element methods. The layers in
2%Cement the pavement structure are generally considered to be
1000 4%Cement homogenous and isotropic or cross isotropic. Fundamental
8%Cement
properties of layers were expressed by elastic modulus and
10%Cement
0
Poisson’s ratio, which can be obtained by laboratory tests.
0 1 2 3 4 7 14 21 28 The critical strains usually occur under the wheel paths.
Days These are the horizontal tensile strains developed at the
Fig. 6. Dynamic modulus of cement stabilized fly ash.

Wheel Load
in order to avoid excessive damage, early development of
elastic stiffness and strength has always been desirable in Rut
stabilization projects. Even though the moduli of all the Depth
samples were almost the same upon compaction, after
one day the samples increased their modulus as much as Asphalt Tensile Strain
five times. The gap then stated to decrease and at 28 days,
when the hydration rate of cement had slowed. The
dynamic modulus of cement stabilized fly ash is presented Tensile Strain in Stabilised Fly ash
in Fig. 6.

4. Pavement analysis and design

There are basically two design methods available in cur-

Subgrade Compression Strain
rent practice: empirical methods and mechanistic-empirical
methods. Empirical methods are based on experience Fig. 7. Critical strains and failure mode in pavement structures.
 A.H. Lav et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 2359–2370 2365

Simplified Pavement Structure

(3 layers)

Asphalt Layer Design Criteria

(Easp, υasp) Hasp • Fatigue ( Nasp, Nsta)
START HERE
Material Properties • Permanent
Stabilised Layer Deformation, ( Nsub)
• Modulus
(Esta, υsta) Hsta (from laboratory tests and
• Poisson’s Ratio
(from laboratory tests
full scale trials)
Subgrade
and full scale trials) (Esub, υsub)
∞

Pavement Analysis
(Linear Elastic)
εasp

Standard axle load

N
εasp εsta N
asp

εsta
N
Nsta
εsub ε sub

N
Nsub

Design Traffic, N
(total number of standard
axles over design period) Design Criterion, NDC
(Minimum of Nasp, Nsta, Nsub)

Adjust layer thickness

and/or modify N < NDC ?
material properties
NO

YES

Finalize Design

Fig. 8. Mechanistic-empirical approach to pavement analysis and design.

bottom of both the asphalt layer and stabilized layer, which are the expression of the relationship between allowable
control fatigue cracking, while the vertical compressive strain and the number of load applications to failure as a
strains at the top of the subgrade, control the permanent
deformation as shown in Fig. 7. Design criteria for critical
strains may be obtained from laboratory tests and full scale Asphaltic Concrete
50mm
trials in terms of number of standard axles. These criteria E= 2800MPa and υ= 0.40

Stabilized Fly Ash 250-500mm

Table 2
Elastic parameters of stabilized fly ash
Sample type Modulus (MPa) Poisson’s ratio Subgrade
2% Cement 1500 0.20 CBR= 2, 3, 4, 5 and υ= 0.45 Semi-infinite
4% Cement 2500 0.18 CBR= 10, 15 and υ= 0.35
8% Cement 4500 0.16
10% Cement 5600 0.14 Fig. 9. Assumed pavement structure used in the structural analyses.
2366 A.H. Lav et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 2359–2370

40kN

Contact pressure=467 kPa

Asphalt
Concrete

Base

Subgrade

Fig. 10. Finite element mesh used in MICHPAVE analyses.

mathematical equation. The number of standard axles to
failure is calculated for each failure mode (fatigue cracking
and permanent deformation) with the corresponding criti-
cal strains and design criteria. The governing design
criterion (the minimum number of load applications to fail-
ure) is compared to the design life (the predicted number of
equivalent standard axle passing in the life of pavement). If
the design life is less than the governing failure criterion in
terms of number of standard axles, then the related pave-
ment configuration is considered as satisfactory and
acceptable as a valid design. Otherwise, layer thickness
and/or material properties are adjusted to reach an accept-

Table 3
Calculated maximum tensile strains (microstrains)
h (mm) CR MC KN CR MC KN CR MC KN CR MC KN CR MC KN CR MC KN
2% Cement stabilized (E = 1500 MPa, u = 0.20)
250 231 210 248 216 202 229 205 194 216 195 187 204 171 157 165 156 137 142
300 180 153 190 169 148 176 160 143 165 154 138 156 135 118 127 123 104 110
350 144 115 150 136 111 138 129 108 130 124 105 124 109 91 101 100 81 87
400 119 88 121 111 86 112 106 84 105 101 82 100 90 71 82 82 64 71
450 104 70 100 98 68 93 93 67 88 90 65 83 80 58 68 74 52 59
500 90 56 84 85 55 78 82 53 74 78 52 70 70 47 57 65 42 50
CBR 2 3 4 5 10 15
4% Cement stabilized (E = 2500 MPa, u = 0.18)
250 162 142 174 151 138 162 144 134 153 138 130 146 122 114 121 111 103 107
300 126 102 133 118 100 123 112 98 117 107 95 111 95 85 93 87 77 83
350 100 76 104 94 75 97 89 73 92 86 72 88 77 65 74 70 59 65
400 81 58 84 77 57 78 73 56 74 70 55 71 63 50 59 58 46 53
450 71 46 69 67 45 65 64 44 62 62 44 59 56 40 49 51 37 44
500 61 36 58 58 36 54 56 35 51 54 35 49 49 32 41 45 30 37
CBR 2 3 4 5 10 15
8% Cement stabilized (E = 4500 MPa, u = 0.16)
250 107 90 115 100 88 108 95 86 103 91 84 98 81 77 84 75 71 75
300 82 64 87 77 63 82 73 62 78 71 61 74 63 56 64 58 52 58
350 65 47 68 61 46 64 58 46 61 56 45 58 51 42 50 47 40 45
400 52 35 54 49 35 51 47 35 49 46 34 47 41 32 40 38 31 36
450 45 28 45 43 28 42 41 27 40 40 27 39 36 25 33 33 24 30
500 39 22 37 37 22 35 35 22 33 34 21 32 31 20 28 29 19 25
CBR 2 3 4 5 10 15
10% Cement stabilized (E = 5600 MPa, u = 0.14)
250 91 75 99 85 74 93 81 73 88 78 71 84 70 65 73 64 61 66
300 70 53 74 65 52 70 63 52 66 60 51 64 54 47 55 50 45 50
350 55 39 58 52 38 54 49 38 52 48 38 50 43 35 43 40 34 39
400 44 29 46 42 29 43 40 29 42 39 29 40 35 27 35 33 26 32
450 38 23 38 36 23 36 34 23 34 34 22 33 30 21 29 29 21 26
500 33 18 31 31 18 30 30 18 28 29 18 27 26 17 24 25 16 22
CBR 2 3 4 5 10 15
CR: CIRCLY, MC: MICHPAVE, KN: KENLAYER computer programs.
 A.H. Lav et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 2359–2370 2367

able configuration. A schematic illustration of the mecha-
nistic-empirical procedure is given in Fig. 8.
5. Analysis of stabilized fly ash pavement
In this study, a simplified pavement structure having a
stabilized fly ash base layer was analyzed for critical
strains. The pavement consisted of three layers and the
top layer was asphaltic concrete having a thickness of
50 mm, a modulus of 2800 MPa, and a Poisson’s ratio of
0.40 (since the aim of this study is to assess the stabilized
fly ash, other values are assumed). The elastic parameters
shown in Table 2 were assigned for stabilized layers.
The parameters were derived from laboratory test
results discussed previously. The layer thickness varied
between 250 mm and 500 mm to investigate the effect of
increasing thickness. The subgrade was assumed to be
semi-infinite and analyses were carried out for a variety
of modulus values that were designated as CBR. Equiva-
lent standard axle loading (one side dual wheels, 330 mm
apart, and supporting a load of 4.1 tonnes with the tire
pressure of 700 kPa) was applied throughout the analysis.
The assumed pavement structure is given in Fig. 9.
Table 4
Regression coefficients for fatigue performance relationship
Sample type a b
2% Cement 265
4% Cement 255
8% Cement 340
10% Cement 170
Analyses of the pavement structure were performed uti-
lizing three different computer programs to observe the
variation of design lives based on layered elastic theory
and finite element analysis. CIRCLY [28] and KEN-
LAYER [29] may be applied to layered elastic systems
under wheel loadings. These programs are basically based
on Burmister’s layered elastic theory. Another program,
MICHPAVE [30] which is a nonlinear finite element
method (FEM), was also employed; however the pavement
structure was assumed linear elastic. Finite element mesh
used in this study is given in Fig. 10. Calculated maximum
tensile strains from each program are given in Table 3. The
maximum tensile strains occurred in the cement stabilized
layers are found at the bottom of the layer symmetrically
between dual wheels and used in design life calculations.
6. Failure mechanism of stabilized fly ash
The Accelerated Loading Facility (ALF) is a mobile
road testing machine. The ALF was designed and manu-
factured by the Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA), New
South Wales. Since 1984, the machine has been owned
and operated by the Australian Road Research Board
(ARRB). Also, the US Federal Highway Administration
purchased the manufacturing rights and constructed the
machine in 1986. Another ALF was manufactured by the
RTA for the Research Institute of Highway, China.
The machine applies full scale half axle wheel loading at
a constant speed of 20 km/h to a pavement test strip of
9 12 m. The load wheel assembly is guided by a main frame
9 and the loading can either be applied over a normal trans-
7 verse distribution of 1.4 m, 1 m or channelized. The load is
10 applied in one direction alone and after each cycle, the

550 550
(a) 2% Stabilized (b) 4% Stabilized
500 500

450 450

400 400

350 350 CBR: 2

CBR: 2
CBR: 3 CBR: 3
CBR: 4 300 CBR: 4
300
CBR: 5
CBR: 5
250 CBR: 10
250 CBR: 10 CBR: 15
CBR: 15
200
200 10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6 1E+9
10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6 1E+9

550 550
(c) 8% Stabilized (d) 10% Stabilized
500 500

450 450

400 400

350 CBR: 2
350 CBR: 2 CBR: 3
CBR: 3 300 CBR: 4
300 CBR: 4 CBR: 5
CBR: 5 CBR: 10
250 250
CBR: 10 CBR: 15
CBR: 15
200
200
10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6 1E+9 10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6 1E+9 100E+9

Fig. 11. Design life (fatigue performance) of stabilized fly ash based on MICHPAVE analyses.
2368 A.H. Lav et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 2359–2370

550 550
(a) 2% S t abilized (b) 4% Stabilized
500 500

450 450

400 400

350 350
CBR: 2 CBR: 2
CBR: 3 CBR: 3
300 CBR: 4 300 CBR: 4
CBR: 5 CBR: 5
250 CBR: 10 250 CBR: 10
CBR: 15 CBR: 15
200 200
10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6 10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6 1E+9

550 550
(c) 8% Stabilized (d) 10% Stabilized
500 500
450 450
400 400
350 CBR: 2 350
CBR: 2
CBR: 3 CBR: 3
300 CBR: 4 300 CBR: 4
CBR: 5 CBR: 5
250 CBR: 10 250 CBR: 10
CBR: 15 CBR: 15
200 200
10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6 1E+9 10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6 1E+9

Fig. 12. Design life (fatigue performance) of stabilized fly ash based on KENLAYER analyses.

wheel lifted off the pavement and returned back to the
starting point through the main frame. The wheel load
can be varied between 40 and 80 kN, in 10 kN increments.
In this study, an ALF trial results were used to characterize
the performance of cement stabilized fly ash [31].
Basically, stabilized materials have two modes of failure
under repeated wheel loading. Fatigue cracking which is
the primary mode of failure initiates at the bottom of the
stabilized layer due to the tensile stress. The other is crush-
ing and fracturing of the upper layer due to the vertical
compressive and shear stresses. In general, failure of thin
stabilized pavements (having a thickness of between 80
and 120 mm) start by fatigue cracking and then punching
the cracked parts in to the subbase layer, subsequently
crushing of the entire layer. The failure mechanism of rel-
atively thick pavements is crushing of upper parts with less
effect on the underlying layers. However, considering all
kinds of stabilized pavement materials there is not a unique
failure mechanism applicable to every stabilized pave-
ments. Therefore, stabilized materials (especially new and

550 550
(a) 2% S tabilized (b) 4% S tabilized
500 500

450 450

400 400

350 CBR: 2 350 CBR: 2

CBR: 3 CBR: 3
300 CBR: 4 300 CBR: 4
CBR: 5 CBR: 5
250 CBR: 10 250 CBR: 10
CBR: 15 CBR: 15
200 200
10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6 10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6

550 550
(c) 8% S tabilized (d) 10% S t abilized
500 500

450 450

400 400

350 CBR: 2 350 CBR: 2

CBR: 3 CBR: 3
300 CBR: 4 300 CBR: 4
CBR: 5 CBR: 5
250 CBR: 10 250 CBR: 10
CBR: 15 CBR: 15
200 200
10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6 1E+9 10E+0 1E+3 100E+3 10E+6 1E+9

Fig. 13. Design life (fatigue performance) of stabilized fly ash based on CIRCLY analyses.
 A.H. Lav et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 2359–2370
unconventional stabilized materials such as fly ash) should
be investigated individually [32].
ALF testing results showed that, the failure mechanism
of stabilized fly ash is fatigue cracking and crushing. The
crushing which occurred at the top of the layers was more
evident than the fatigue cracking which emerged at the bot-
tom of layers. It was also assumed that the thickness of
asphalt layer (top layer) is determinant in the design life
and failure mode of cement stabilized fly ash.
7. Fatigue performance and design of stabilized fly ash
pavement
Fatigue performance of stabilized fly ash was established
using the following relationship:
b National symposium on the use of recycled materials in engineering
N ¼ ða=leÞ ð5Þ
where
N fatigue life (cycles to failure)
le maximum value of the initial tensile strain (micro-
strain)
a, b regression coefficients
As mentioned previously, ALF trial test results were used
to obtain the above regression coefficients. The results are
shown in Table 4. Detailed information regarding full scale
trial (ALF trial) may be found elsewhere [31]. From the
maximum calculated strains (Table 3) and fatigue perfor-
mance relationships (Table 4), design life for a layer of sta-
bilized fly ash can be determined in terms of standard axles
as presented in Figs. 11–13 for different cement contents.
8. Conclusions
Cement with fly ash and aggregate have been used as
pavement base material for many years, however, in this
study, the material did not mix with aggregate. In other
words, only aggregate-free stabilized mixtures were used.
This type of applications are quite uncommon all around
the world, yet in this way significant increase in commercial
utilization of this material where authorities desperate to
cope with increasing stockpiles, may be achieved.
As can be seen from the design charts, cement content is
the most important parameter controlling the design life
(fatigue performance) of stabilized layers. It should be
stressed that layer thickness is also important on design
life. Since the strength of aggregate free stabilized fly ash
is lower than the ones mixed with aggregate, cement con-
tent and layer thickness should not be less than 8% and
300 mm, respectively. Mixes having cement content less
then 8% may be used as subbase materials instead of being
used in pavement base.
The design lives obtained from CIRCLY and KEN-
LAYER analyses are relatively similar to each other for
corresponding cement content and layer thickness, how-
ever, there are discrepancies between the design lives
2369
obtained from MICHPAVE analyses. Although the pave-
ment structure was assumed linear elastic, calculated
maximum tensile strains are relatively low than the corre-
sponding results obtained from CIRCLY and KEN-
LAYER analyses due to the technique employed.
Finally the authors are stressed that, the design charts
are given herein as examples only. Various pavement struc-
tures may be assumed using the results and relationships
arising from this study.
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