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Tracing the Roots of Individualism:

An Analysis on the Evolution of the Early Modern Market

Matthew Conde

HONR 2210-01

8 June 2020
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Emerging from the Medieval Era with a social dynamic centered around Humanist

notions, Early Modern culture transformed political and religious institutions and influenced

ideas and people to foster communalization. While elements in this time frame may resemble

those of the contemporary era, one must note that this developing system of control, interactions,

and discoveries is different. Early Modern markets evolved society and culture from a communal

identity to one about the individual, and from Early Modern culture sprang a competitive attitude

of distinguishing oneself from a group. Examining the market is the best method of studying this

cultural transformation, for the market embodied people’s interests and desires. Also, the market

was closely connected to governmental and theological bodies. As a result of these interactions,

conflicts about control over ideological and capital markets arose—the only way to resolve them

was by separating oneself from a collective group through power, discovery, and uniqueness.

One distinction between contemporary marketplaces and the Early Modern markets is

that Early Modern markets were physical places that housed public events. Economics and

socialization were combined. In Tuscany, Italian cities commonly incorporated commercial and

social spaces.1 Italian and Western European city-life concentrated around the physicality of the

market. Shops and businesses surrounded pathways for shoppers and passersby, and markets

were exciting grounds for people of different social statuses to meet and interact. A product of

these experiences was the popularity of lotteries; in fact, Venetians gambled on the Senatorial

elections to gain money, not for political purposes.2 Lotteries stirred anxiety within betters, but

the excitement from these events increased consumerism and social interactions. While there

appears to be a separation between politics and economics, governments used revenue from

market businesses to supply military and other state demands. Indeed, when England expanded

1
Evelyn Welch, Shopping in the Renaissance: Consumer Cultures in Italy 1400-1600 (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 2009). 6.
2
Evelyn Welch, Shopping in the Renaissance: Consumer Cultures in Italy 1400-1600. 204.
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its trading businesses abroad, the government met this economic demand by paying with the

profits from international and domestic markets.3 State powers grew closer to the markets, for

they became great methods for accumulating money and fostering social interactions. The more

successful England’s market evolved, the more dominant England arose as a powerful nation.

Like shoppers in a market, nations of different sizes and authorities interacted on a global scale.

Evidently, a government’s power correlated to the prosperity of its markets, and nations

adapted to their economic demands to increase market and state wealth. England, especially,

demonstrated its rising power through its experiences in Virginia. Games highlights that the

Virginian enterprise was to mimic English charters, like the Muscovy Company and the East

India Company.4 England saw the promising fortunes of the New World, and they wanted to

capitalize on their opportunity to control trade. Set to gain authority over the coastline, England

aimed to secure the New World from already-powerful nations, such as Spain. Out of fear of a

Spanish attack the English allocated more resources to fortifications.5 England wanted to emerge

as a powerful empire to compete against other dominant nations like Spain, so they had to

generate enough revenue from their markets to fund their defense and military expansions.

Despite these changes, England was unsuccessful in establishing Virginia as a trading post due to

poor soil and infectious diseases. More significantly, unlike their traditional protocol in cultural

assimilation, English traders were more hostile towards the Indians in the New World, mistaking

the Indians as rivals: “Appearances were forever deceiving [the English].”6 The English failed in

New World because they could not adapt to the native social structure. If they better understood

the Indians, the English could have made a market around Indian demands. Moreover, England

3
Alison Games, The Web of Empire: English Cosmopolitans in an Age of Expansion, 1560-1660 (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2010). 83.
4
Alison Games, The Web of Empire: English Cosmopolitans in an Age of Expansion, 1560-1660. 118.
5
Alison Games, The Web of Empire: English Cosmopolitans in an Age of Expansion, 1560-1660. 138.
6
Alison Games, The Web of Empire: English Cosmopolitans in an Age of Expansion, 1560-1660. 136.
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could have established a strong alliance, and the Indians would have helped England control

costal entries. By doing so, they would control commerce itself. Evidently, the conflict between

appearance and reality arises through constant trade and consumerism in the market.

As Early Modern markets quickly grew in popularity and size, issue between appearance

and reality expanded as well, and market authorities could not properly control these situations.

As a result, there was a common belief within the people that the market was out to cheat them.

Civic surveillance was enforced and increased, for if merchants attempted to deceive shoppers,

the city would trace where he lived and worked to punish him. “Effective commerce, therefore,

depended on effective policing.”7 The markets wanted to implement an honor code, but due to its

vast size, it was unsuccessful. There was a problem with social order in the marketplace, and

since businesses interacted frequently, this issue quickly grew. Maintaining order was a difficult

challenge in such a rambunctious atmosphere, so major state authorities used this fear as a way

to exercise their powers, and a resistance to authority began to rise. When state entities were

unable to mitigate market issues, religious bodies interceded to possess both money and power.

Catholicism sought to dominate the market by controlling transactions and the ethical

nature surrounding them. One way they exercised power was by regulating market and European

times. Using Church and Gregorian Calendars, the Church controlled when markets opened

through the ringing of bells: “Listening to bells meant accepting civic authority and conforming

to public notions of appropriate behavior.”8 Bells signaled Catholic rituals, and they notified the

public when the market was, or was not, operating. By obeying the bells, the public showed their

adherence to social order, an action that structured a robust market. While the market appeared in

order, lucrative business occurred after workhours. In fact, on holy holidays, merchants were not

7
Alison Games, The Web of Empire: English Cosmopolitans in an Age of Expansion, 1560-1660. 72.
8
Evelyn Welch, Shopping in the Renaissance: Consumer Cultures in Italy 1400-1600. 119.
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allowed to fill their windows with their products, yet discreet transactions were permitted.9 For

the Church, as long as an individual appeared devout and rested on non-business days, they were

fine. Answering the discrepancies of appearance and reality, the Church placed more importance

on presentation than the truth. This notion shows that personal and collective identity are rooted

on the external nature of people’s thoughts and behaviors, not on people’s true ideas and actions.

Morality was one of the most major concerns for Catholic control over the markets, and

they were able to build their faith around the market fears. Religion was seen as a belief and a

place of comfort, and the Catholic Church, especially in Tuscany, was the most accepted faith.

The Church knew that if people were genuinely scared of disobeying the order of theocratic, or

even civil, doctrines, they could buy an indulgence. These purchases were popular and quickly

became an opportunity for Catholics to gain virtuous riches and moral capital. In fact, single-

sheet certificates of indulgence were the first and most popular work of early German printing

presses.10 The creation of indulgences imply that the Church saw the discrepancies between the

market’s appearance and its truth. Buying indulgences was easy, and that transaction meant to

show a growth in morality—from an external perspective. Morality was not gained through just

payment, but also through radical moralists like San Bernardino. When criticizing sexuality in

the market, Bernardino exclaimed, “Wake up citizens, and see that your sons are going to the

devil unless you ensure that the taverns are shut at the twenty-fourth hour.”11 Angry and

confused with a preconceived notion of sexual undertones from female merchants, Bernardino

preached from a radically religious perspective and advocated for Catholic control over the

people allowed in the markets. With concerns of a fleeing honor code, the cry for religion was

9
Evelyn Welch, Shopping in the Renaissance: Consumer Cultures in Italy 1400-1600. 113.
10
Andrew Pettegree, Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). 1
11
Evelyn Welch, Shopping in the Renaissance: Consumer Cultures in Italy 1400-1600. 32-33.
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strong, and Catholicism took advantage of the opportunity. While the Catholic Church was the

most dominant religion, Protestantism emerged from its control to challenge Catholic ideologies.

While the Catholic Church symbolized power, Protestantism represented the resistance to

it. The clash between these two religions displayed the changing hierarchies that established

order within the market and society itself. Protestants retaliated against Catholic control, and

Catholics responded by warning others of the dangers of flirting with the rising faith. In France,

more particularly, “Protestantism was the source of division, chaos and disorder.”12 Followers of

this faith were disowned, persecuted, and punished. Western Europe appeared to be in order with

Catholicism as the leading, unquestioned religion, so the rise of Protestantism threatened the

social and religious dynamic of Europe. This “division, chaos and disorder” went beyond Europe

and was shown in the trial of Nicolas Burundel, a prisoner in the Caribbean. Burundel, refusing

to truly accept Catholicism and convert, claimed he was a poorly educated Christian. Fearing a

change in his appearance would alter his inner-self, Burundel did not comply until he was forced

into the torture chamber and asked, “Wouldn’t cooperation be preferable?”13 The Church wanted

social order to appear maintained, but Nicolas’s rejection to Catholicism indicates a new fear:

Outer appearances affect reality itself. Through this fear, it is possible that Nicolas was truly a

Protestant, and like many Protestants, he resisted the Church’s control of their ideas and market.

In addition to public sermons in the marketplace, Protestants sought to regain the market

from Catholic domination through the printing press. The printing press became a very integral

aspect of spreading the Bible and other Protestant publications. Prominent theologians, such as

John Calvin, used printing companies to press his translations, sermons, and anti-Catholic works.

These publications were popular in Protestant nations like Geneva, and the market benefitted

12
Andrew Pettegree, Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion. 182.
13
Kristen Block, Ordinary Lives in the Early Caribbean: Religion, Colonial Competition, and the Politics of Profit
(Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012). 9.
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from them. In fact, Calvin’s literary works alone could support a printing company.14 While these

books contained a theological message, like indulgences, the author and company profited from

these sales. These books were shipped around the world, and the higher the demand rose, the

more money the author and publisher received. These books reaffirmed and spread Protestant

ideas, and international merchants purchased them. In fact, English clergy in Japan acquired

them and made collections to substitute for libraries.15 The clergy dispatched by England

monitored morality within businesses and preached their faiths. Through these books, the clergy

could remind themselves of Protestant teachings and doctrines, and this confirmation in faith

reveals that the market is intrinsically immoral, but that the market is capable of being moralized.

Noting the communal atmosphere of the market, Protestants transformed local markets

and challenged Catholic authority through their influence on fine arts. Their plays discussed

morality and salvation through knowledge of the Bible, and they were open to all members of the

community.16 Unlike the Catholic Church, where Papal authority dictated how the religion was

presented, Protestant plays better included their followers with faith. Performances may not have

been effective evangelization tools, but they grounded Protestants in their religion. They showed

a true interest in Protestantism because, rather than profiting from the play, writers gave free

admittance to the public. Plays were brought into the market because of their power to convey

ideas. Leaders like King Louis XIV used performances to emphasize his power. In fact, Louis

would play as himself in French productions about his war victories, and he aimed to redefine

the arts through his creations of the academies of arts and sciences, which acquired the finest

artisans and scientists.17 Not only did he show himself as that, but Louis also portrayed himself

14
Andrew Pettegree, Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion. 142.
15
Kristen Block, Ordinary Lives in the Early Caribbean: Religion, Colonial Competition, and the Politics of Profit.
235.
16
Andrew Pettegree, Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion. 86-87.
17
Peter Burke, The Fabrication of Louis XIV (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011). 51; 66.
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as the leader of international Catholicism. Louis’s interest in the arts with a religious perspective

shows how Protestants integrated their plays into the market and daily life. As Catholicism and

Protestantism conflicted through the market, people were unsure which faith they should follow.

Subscribing to Catholic or Protestant ideals led to consequences on both sides, for

religion was a prominent piece of identity. The Reformation challenged many on a theological

and social level. The clash between each religion jeopardized harmonies within families,

communities, and nations.18 Faith was a major proponent of one’s identity and following the

“wrong” religion resulted in the cutting of social ties. Catholics and Protestants stereotyped one

another, and people disowned anyone, depending on their preferred faith. An individual’s ideas

and experiences were overshadowed by religious belonging. However, there were attempts to

break social barriers to appeal to individuals. For one, Protestants smuggled Bibles and other

works into Catholic France through the black market.19 Despite France’s religious identity and

ban against Protestant ideas, there was a niche group of individuals in France that benefitted

from the black market. Underlying the spread of faiths is the flow of ideas. Slowly and over time,

people saw one another beyond their subscribed religion—they saw their ideas and experiences.

Emerging from market capital and the fight between Catholicism and Protestantism was

human capital, and one of the faculties of this concept emphasizes an individual’s unique

experiences. Understanding where someone was, and what they underwent, was more important

than their shared identity. In a race to attain the most power, England dispatched merchants

abroad who assimilated into native cultures, learned about the indigenous people, and established

a market. Gradually, merchants realized that “travel outside of England shaped a man’s

identity.”20 Traders adapted to local culture and accommodated to their societies. Living in their

18
Andrew Pettegree, Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion. 217.
19
Andrew Pettegree, Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion. 175.
20
Alison Games, The Web of Empire: English Cosmopolitans in an Age of Expansion, 1560-1660. 94.
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social structures was essential for market success, as alliances secured trading posts and helped

consumerism. Interactions beyond England were carefully noted, and people questioned outside

experiences, as they could undermine loyalty to the crown. This attitude reflects a shift away

from identity focused on collectiveness—an individual’s formation of character and ideas

through personal interactions were valued more than collective identities, such as religion. This

change is shown through Isabel Criolla, a slave who successfully contested against her master’s

cruelty. In the Caribbean, slaves used stories of their membership in the Christian community to

their advantage.21 If social identity functioned from a general, communal perspective, Criolla

would only be seen as a slave—as property. However, legislation saw beyond her social class

and accepted her unique account. Indeed, through her external performances, she was able to

display her true self. This increase in personal interactions also lead many to gain unique skills.

Another aspect of human capital was an individual’s unique expertise, and the main issue

with achieving such personal skills was that it reinforced order and societal ranking. Presenting

himself as a glorious general, Louis XIV showed himself a very prolific military leader. When

fighting the Dutch, he crossed the Rhine, and writers and painters applauded this simple action,

and furthered those notions, by exclaiming how Louis executed this task better than Caesar.22

Louis made a system of government officials who highlighted his actions and accomplishments.

Not only did Louis’s external self align with his internal self, but it emphasized his true self.

Upon Louis’s return to France, medals were made to emphasize his victories, not the army’s.

Louis intended for this to happen to maintain his reputation as a powerful leader, and the only

way he could distinguish himself from other kings was through his personal achievements.

Magnifying unique skills reaffirmed power and brought out a resistance to power. Protestants

21
Kristen Block, Ordinary Lives in the Early Caribbean: Religion, Colonial Competition, and the Politics of Profit.
57.
22
Peter Burke, The Fabrication of Louis XIV (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011). 76.
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proclaimed sermons in the market because of the dense crowds and ample spaces, and preachers

used effective rhetoric to speak against Catholicism. For one, Calvin utilized his skill of

relatability and tailored Biblical passages to address the needs of his local audience and mixed

congregation.23 These speakers used the market to reach to the local population, and they

challenged Catholicism to advocate for Protestantism. Sermons were the most effective method

of evangelization because it was easily accessible and were uniquely tailored to the issues in

local cities. The markets and the power behind it drove many to explore their best skills, for the

most successful individuals distinguished themselves from the crowds, and this competition

drove many to demonstrate how their inner self is unique from collective appearances.

The most defiant element of human capital that rose from market capital was knowledge.

As the Renaissance dawned, people wanted to gain more knowledge of their world; however,

this drive caused tensions with major institutions. Galileo Galilei was tried over the validity of

the heliocentric universe and was accused of challenging Papal authority. Affirming Nicholas

Copernicus’s works, Galileo published, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems in

Italian to express to a wider audience that the sun was at the center of the universe. This use of

the market also mirrors how Protestants released works in various languages to appeal to specific

audiences. The Church saw Galileo as an imposer who enforced his universe onto others, but

Galileo was merely correcting traditional beliefs.24 Galilei wanted to become the scientist who

proved Earth’s motion and risked his life and reputation for his ideas. Galilei himself was

Catholic, and he was not denying sacred scriptures, but to reaffirm that God’s works are

mysterious. Like Galilei, John Milton emphasized knowledge and free-will in Paradise Lost, a

popular, yet controversial, book during its release. Retelling the creation story, Milton built Satan

23
Andrew Pettegree, Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion. 23.
24
Jerome J. Langford, Galileo, Science and the Church (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1971). 173.
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as an advocate for personal choice when he tells Eve that the Fruit of Knowledge “gives you

life / To knowledge.”25 Similar to Galilei, Milton released this book to the market—a place

where commerce and ideas spread. Businesses, ideas, and discoveries were not collective—they

were competitively oriented. Without unique knowledge, intellectuals and pioneers would not

have challenged one another to discover the truths within their world and within their own

culture.

Markets transformed society and culture from an Early Modern emphasis on community,

to once centered around individualism and distinguishing oneself from a group. Without looking

at the markets, modern readers would dismiss markets’ physical nature, and from its existence,

how issues between appearances and reality arose. Indeed, the Catholic Church controlled these

problems by regulating time and morality, but Protestantism resisted their authority, and the new

faith aimed to regain the market. As Catholicism and Protestantism fought on an economic,

religious, and political level, many learned that they could separate themselves from their group

identity by following their ideas. The market, as a result, evolved from a highly regulated space

to one that was free. This shift resulted from global and personal competition for control, which

inspired individuals to transform their products, powers, and ideas. From Early Modern culture,

emerged Individualism, empowering each person to redefine their ideas that structured society.

Works Cited

Block, Kristen. Ordinary Lives in the Early Caribbean: Religion, Colonial Competition, and the

Politics of Profit. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012.

Burke, Peter. The Fabrication of Louis XIV. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011.

Games, Alison. The Web of Empire: English Cosmopolitans in an Age of Expansion, 1560-1660.

New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

25
John Milton, Paradise Lost, ed. David Scott. Kastan (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2005). 287.
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Langford, Jerome J. Galileo, Science and the Church. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,

1971.

Milton, John. Paradise Lost. Edited by David Scott. Kastan. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing,

2005.

Pettegree, Andrew. Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 2009.

Welch, Evelyn. Shopping in the Renaissance: Consumer Cultures in Italy 1400-1600. New

Haven: Yale University Press, 2009.