FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND BUSINESS STUDIES

Department of Business and Economics Studies

Factors influencing brand preferences for instant foods: A

comparative study between Sweden and Bangladesh

Tahreen Huq
Imran Mahmood Sarker

June, 2020

Student Thesis, Master Degree (One Year),15 Credits

Business Administration
Master Programme in Business Administration (MBA): Business Management 60 Credits
Master Thesis in Business Administration 15 Credits

Supervisor: Daniella Fjellström

Examiner: Maria Fregidou-Malama
 Acknowledgements

We would like to give our gratitude to everyone who helped and supported us during the whole
research and writing process of our Master thesis.

At first, we want to thank our supervisor Dr Daniella Fjellström for her supervision and valuable
feedbacks. Her expert support and efforts have significantly helped us during the challenging
process and provided us with encouragement for the construction and development of our thesis.

We also want to thank our examiner Dr Maria Fregidou-Malama and our teacher Dr Ehsanul Huda
Chowdhury, for their constructive criticisms and support. Their specialized guidance and valuable
comments certified us to improve the quality of our thesis.

We would also like to give heart full gratitude to our parents and family members for relentlessly
supporting us and provide continuous inspiration throughout the Master of Business
Administration program.

Lastly, we would want to show our gratitude to all our classmates and to those people whom we
meet during the whole study period.

Sincerely,

Imran Mahmood Sarker and Tahreen Huq

i
 Abstract
Title: Factors influencing brand preferences for instant foods- A comparative study between
Sweden and Bangladesh
Level: Final assignment for Master degree in Business Administration (MBA)

Authors: Imran Mahmood Sarker and Tahreen Huq

Supervisor: Professor Daniella Fjellström

Examiner: Professor Maria Fregidou-Malama

Date: 2020- June

Aim: This study aims to investigate the factors that influence consumers' brand preferences for
instant foods focusing on the graduate-level students of Sweden and Bangladesh.

Methodology: The research applied a qualitative approach. Semi-structured online interviews

were conducted with ten graduate-level students from Sweden and Bangladesh. The collected
primary data were transcribed and analyzed using thematic analysis by comparing with the
literature reviewed within distinct themes.

Findings and Conclusion: The main findings of the study are (1) culture, and religious values
have a significant influence on Bangladeshi consumers compared to consumers in Sweden; (2)
Quality plays a predominant role in determining instant food brands in both countries as it can
have a direct effect on the health; (3) Eye-catchy packaging creates fascination among consumers'
about a brand in both countries; (4) Price is considered as a critical factor due to limited purchasing
power of Bangladeshi consumers'; whereas in Sweden, consumers' are ready to compromise with
the price if they could get a superior quality.

Theoretical implications: This study has developed a theoretical model that shows the effect of
culture, marketing communication, brand elements, price of the brand, brand image and brand
availability on consumers' brand preferences in Bangladesh and Sweden. The findings divulge the
quality and packaging of a brand could play a tremendously important role in consumers' brand
preferences apart from other factors.

ii
Managerial implications: The study could help managers to be accustomed to cultural values
through standardization and adaptation. The research could add insights for the managers while
setting the price of a brand as it has considered as a critical factor. Appropriate quality assurance
is sufficiently necessary, which was reflected by the current study and will help managers while
determining quality.

Limitations: Only two countries were included in the study, which is considered as a limitation
and challenging to apply in other countries due to cultural differences. The focused group was
graduate-level students who are also a shortcoming, and it could therefore not be generalized to
have implications for consumers of other age group and occupation.

Suggestions for future research: A quantitative study with a more significant number of
respondents in more than two countries is suggested for future research. Future research can also
be carried out by consumers buying preference on other food items.

Keywords: Brand preference, Instant foods, Cultural influence, Sweden, Bangladesh.

iii
"Difficulties in your life do not come to destroy you but to help you realize your hidden potential
and power. Let difficulties know that you too are difficult."

-A. P. J. Abdul Kalam

iv
Table of Contents

Chapter 1.0 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Motivation of the study ......................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Problematization.................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Aim of the study .................................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Scope of research .................................................................................................................. 7
1.6 Disposition ............................................................................................................................ 8
Chapter 2.0 Literature Review .................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Concept of marketing ............................................................................................................ 9
2.2 Consumer behaviour ........................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Brand preference ................................................................................................................. 11
2.4 Instant foods ........................................................................................................................ 12
2.5 Culture ................................................................................................................................. 13
2.5.1 Culture and consumers food of Bangladesh ................................................................. 14
2.5.2 Culture and consumers food of Sweden ....................................................................... 15
2.6 Factors affecting Brand preferences .................................................................................... 16
2.6.1 Marketing communication............................................................................................ 16
2.6.2 Brand elements ............................................................................................................. 17
2.6.3 Price of brand................................................................................................................ 19
2.6.4 Brand image.................................................................................................................. 20
2.6.5 Brand availability ......................................................................................................... 21
2.7 Theoretical framework ........................................................................................................ 22
Chapter 3.0 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 24
3.1 Scientific approach .............................................................................................................. 25
3.1.1 Ontology ....................................................................................................................... 25
3.1.2 Epistemology ................................................................................................................ 26
3.2 Research Strategy and approaches ...................................................................................... 26
3.2.1 Population and Sampling strategy ................................................................................ 27
3.2.2 Multiple case studies .................................................................................................... 29

v
 3.3 Data collection..................................................................................................................... 29
3.3.1 Primary data.................................................................................................................. 30
3.3.2 Secondary Data ............................................................................................................. 31
3.4 Data Selection ..................................................................................................................... 32
3.5 Data Analysis method ......................................................................................................... 33
3.5.1 Operationalization ........................................................................................................ 33
3.6 Ethical Considerations......................................................................................................... 35
3.7 Trustworthiness ................................................................................................................... 35
3.8 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 4.0 Empirical Findings ................................................................................................ 37
4.1 Responses from Bangladesh................................................................................................ 37
4.1.1 Cultural Influence ......................................................................................................... 37
4.1.2 Brand Preference .......................................................................................................... 38
4.1.3 Marketing Communications ......................................................................................... 38
4.1.4 Brand Elements............................................................................................................. 39
4.1.5 Price of brand................................................................................................................ 40
4.1.6 Brand image.................................................................................................................. 41
4.1.7 Brand availability ......................................................................................................... 42
4.2 Responses from Sweden...................................................................................................... 42
4.2.1 Cultural Influence ......................................................................................................... 42
4.2.2 Brand Preference .......................................................................................................... 43
4.2.3 Marketing Communications ......................................................................................... 44
4.2.4 Brand Elements............................................................................................................. 45
4.2.5 Price of brand................................................................................................................ 46
4.2.6 Brand Image ................................................................................................................. 46
4.2.7 Brand availability ......................................................................................................... 47
4.3 Summary of empirical findings ........................................................................................... 48
Chapter 5.0 Discussion and Analysis ........................................................................................ 49
5.1 Cultural Influence ................................................................................................................ 49
5.2 Brand Preference ................................................................................................................. 50
5.3 Marketing Communications ................................................................................................ 52

vi
 5.4 Brand Elements ................................................................................................................... 54
5.5 Price of brand ...................................................................................................................... 55
5.6 Brand Image ........................................................................................................................ 57
5.7 Brand availability ................................................................................................................ 60
5.8 Overview of findings and analysis ...................................................................................... 61
5.9 The factors influencing brand preference on instant foods ................................................. 63
Chapter 6.0 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 65
6.1 Answering the Research Questions ..................................................................................... 65
6.2 Contributions to the field of research .................................................................................. 67
6.2.1 Theoretical contributions .............................................................................................. 67
6.2.2 Managerial implications ............................................................................................... 68
6.2.3 Societal implications..................................................................................................... 69
6.3 Critical reflection and Limitations ...................................................................................... 69
6.4 Suggestions for Future Research ......................................................................................... 70
References .................................................................................................................................... 72
Appendices ................................................................................................................................... 87
Appendix 1: Interview Questionnaire ....................................................................................... 87
Appendix 2: Example of the interview protocol ....................................................................... 88

vii
List of Figures

Figure 1: Disposition of the study ................................................................................................................. 8

Figure 2 Factors that influence the Brand preference on instant foods ....................................................... 22
Figure 3 Overview of the methodology ...................................................................................................... 24
Figure 4: The factors influencing brand preference on instant foods ......................................................... 63

List of Tables

Table 1: Overview of the respondents ........................................................................................................ 28

Table 2: Operationalization of interviews questions................................................................................... 35
Table 3: Summary of empirical findings .................................................................................................... 48
Table 4: Overview of findings and analysis................................................................................................ 62

viii
Chapter 1.0 Introduction

This section aims to provide a general overview of the research; including the background that
gives the readers a better understanding of the research subject. Furthermore, the motivation of
the study and Problematization discussed. Later on, aim and research questions, Scope, and
disposition of the research are presented.

1.1 Background

Marketing is an essential part of any business which is characterized as a feature of organizational

culture or business values that puts the customer at the heart of the firm's strategy and manoeuvre
(McKitterick, 1957; Keith, 1960). According to us, the most relevant definition was given by the
American Marketing Association (AMA) during 2007. They termed marketing as an
organizational purpose and a set of practices for constructing, conversing, and conveying value to
customers and for administrating customer relationships in ways that advantage the organization
and its stakeholders. Values can be created for consumers, clients, partners, and society at large
through marketing, which is a set of associations to build, communicate, deliver, and exchange
offerings of a company. There are four Ps of marketing mixes for products, e.g. product, place,
price, and promotion. All the factors have an immense impact on consumer brand preference
(Grönroos, 2006).

Brand preference establishes through brand positioning, which is associated with viable offerings
based on consumer perception. Branding, therefore, guarantees of good user knowledge (Iyer,
2019). Positioning describes the brand's distinctive competitive difference that makes the promise
undeniable (Shafiee et al., 2020). In other words, brand positioning illustrates the diversity of a
brand than its competitors in the customers' minds (Kotler, 2003). Brand positioning approach
engages in creating brand connections in customers' minds so that they can observe and except the
brand in a specific way than others (Fuchs and Diamantopoulos, 2010). Thus, brand positioning is
created by marketers through effective branding, which is an imperative practice of marketing.

Branding is an imperative practice of marketing. The brand is explained as a name, term, sign, or
style, and it is an association of the above. The goods or services represented by a single seller or
a group of sellers are recognized and distinguished by competitors (Kotler, 2000). Kapferer (2008)

1
states that a brand is categorized into two different functions named differentiating products from
each other and demonstrating its origin. During 2015, Smithson confirms that branding is a
marketing practise where a company builds a name, symbol, or design that is simply identified as
an exclusive asset of the company. Branding is helpful to recognize a product and differentiate it
from other products and services (Twin, 2019). Brands are equitably crucial for consumers as well
as firms. The functions of a brand may perform valuable to marketers. Brands recognize the basis
or producer of a product and permit customers to consign responsibility to a specific manufacturer
or distributor (Nalca et al., 2018). Therefore, brands provide unique meaning to a customer. The
record of past experiences with the product and its marketing ventures over the years may help a
customer to depict which brand can satisfy their needs and wants and which are not. Consequently,
brands provide a shorthand mechanism or indicator of simplification for their product decisions
(Cengiz, and Akdemir, 2016). So, the consumer is the ultimate objective of marketers, and they
make the blueprints for marketing strategies by keeping in mind consumer brand perception and
consumer behaviour (Keller, 2013).

Consumer behaviour is the study which consists the process which has been used by individuals,
groups or organizations to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or
ideas to persuade needs and the impacts that these processes have on consumers and society
(Vyshnavi and Rao, 2016). Before the production of goods and services which is suitable to fulfil
the needs and wants of customers, analysis of consumer behaviours is the first thing which
constitutes where, why and how the consumers purchase and utilize a particular brand as well as
why they revolve to other brands (Sy et al., 2020). However, Kotler and Keller (2006) found that
despite shifting by the merchandiser, consumer behaviour remains the same throughout the buying
process. One of the most important factors affecting consumers' purchasing behaviours is the
brand. There are some associated benefits derived from brands by consumers. Therefore,
consumers do take risks by purchasing unfamiliar products. Sy et al. (2020) surmise that brand
products are measured by having better quality and preferences compared to other products.
Hence, brands make it easy for consumers to identify the products and, thus, accelerate the decision
process for purchasing. Brand products mean certification for consumers and facilitate to guard
them (Blythe, 2008).

2
Perception is the process which helps people to select, categorize and understand feelings, i.e. the
direct response of sensory receptors (such as the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and fingers) to such
fundamental stimuli as light, colour, smell, surface, and sound (Carman, 1990). Each individual
interprets the meaning of an incentive to be steady with his or her own distinctive biases, needs,
and experiences (Chen, 2007). According to Yoo et al., (2000); Pappu and Quester (2006) price,
brand image, distribution process, advertising expenditures, and price promotion of the marketing
mix are the influential factors in consumer perception of the marketing mix. Chen (2007) argued
that the marketing mix on consumer behaviour is predisposed by product, price, place, and
promotion. However, Schiffman and Kanuk (2000), defined perception as the procedure by which
an individual chooses, classifies and infers stimuli into a significant and logical picture of the
world. They also revealed that individual consumers have clear images of themselves; they also
have perceived images of products and brands (Rahman, 2012). Hence, brand perception is an
exceptional outcome of a consumer's understanding of a brand. Brand perception is a response
which comes through customers, rather than companies (Spieth et al., 2019). Moreover, brand
perception is the representation of customers' believes regarding a product or service, not what the
company holding the brand says it does. Brand perception appears from customer use, familiarity,
functionality, status, and word-of-mouth suggestion - on social media channels as well as face-to-
face communication (Morrison and Crane, 2007).

In this study, we are going to focus on consumer brand preferences regarding instant foods. The
instant food products started through instant noodles during the year 1958 in Japan. Preparing food
with instant mixes has become practice, and undoubtedly, they are going to be an essential part of
food habits in the future. Instant foods are getting priority in the selves of households in every
sphere of the world. During selecting instant food, people cautious about brands. People construct
their brand choices based on some factors, e.g. price, quality, availability, advertisement, etc.
which helps them to differentiate between different brands.

In the current study, we are going to do a comparative analysis of two countries, e.g. Sweden and
Bangladesh, which are separate from each other based on the cultural, economic, and social
context. Sweden and Bangladesh are two diverse countries. Sweden is a Scandinavian country,
whereas Bangladesh is an Asian country. Not only geographical diversity but consumer perception

3
and behaviour may also differ undoubtedly due to differences in education, per capita income,
lifestyle, food habits, occupation, etc.

1.2 Motivation of the study

For numerous years, researchers have been focused on the influence of factors on consumers when
choosing a brand for foods. Consumers' perceptions and approaches toward purchasing fresh,
frozen, preserved and ready-to-eat products have mixed reactions geographically (Vanhonacker et
al., 2013). Nowadays, instant or ready-to-eat food items are getting high importance to customers
throughout the world. New and high qualities of instant food brands have transformed the lifestyle
of people (Ramasamy et al., 2005). In retail or online stores, various local and multinational brands
offer useful contemporary features to customers intending to improve their lifestyles by saving
time and energy (Srinivasan and Nirmala, 2014). The brands that are containing high quality at the
same time cost-efficient will always get priority from people of all professions. Other than price
and quality, several influential factors can affect consumers' selection nature of a brand directly
(Boyle et al., 2018). Instantaneously, consumers can seek a range of benefits from a brand and
hence will react differently to marketing communications emphasizing selected brand benefits
(Orth et al., 2004).

Furthermore, there is an increasing identification of the significance of brand image to the success
of market offering and organization, as indications recommend that an excellent brand image can
boost customer experience and satisfaction for long-term dedication (Ogba and Tan, 2009). The
brand is a psychological game where each element enlightens a story about the brand itself, and
these stories are designed collectively to a solitary goal to draw a distinctive image in the
consumer's mind additionally (Farhana, 2012). Brand availability is an additional important factor
that has direct effects on consumers' brand selection criteria (Kucuk, 2011). The combination of
all the factors mentioned above has control over consumers' brand preferences. They may play
roles differently from consumers to consumers in different countries (Alam and Sayuti, 2011).
Purchasing behaviour is the reflection of collective responses of buyers for choosing, estimating,
deciding, and post-purchase actions (Ali et al., 2010).

4
This study is an endeavour to comprehend various aspects of consumer behaviour on purchasing
of instant food brands. The study aims to measure the impact of numerous factors on consumers
while selecting and making the purchase decision of ready-to-eat food brands.

Moreover, many of the studies presented in the literature are single country investigation. The
present research includes the current knowledge foundation given that it has studied and compared
consumer attitudes toward a brand for instant foods in two diverse countries Bangladesh and
Sweden covering two different geographical locations, e.g. Asia and Europe.

1.3 Problematization

Lilly (2014), has studied the purchase decision of the Indian consumers toward instant food
products which also helps to reflect the brand preferences of Asian people. The study discloses
that the majority of the participants have a deliberate choice in purchasing instant food products
where self and spouse decision is preferred, and they generally buy in departmental stores. They
have also revealed that television plays a crucial role in providing information about instant food
products. However, their study only focused on the consumer's interest level to purchase instant
foods for the future on the targeted area of Coimbatore District. The quantitative method that they
have been gone through was not justified to find out the consumer's preferences level on the instant
food brands.

Brand preferences are considered as a means of consumer self-expression and desired personal
lifestyle (Cătălin and Andreea, 2014). They have identified that consumers are interested in
choosing brands that are considered appropriate in terms of self-image. Their study mainly focused
on the role of brands in different circumstances and to figure out the possible implications. Authors
discussed consumers stick with the desirable brand identity to express their own identity. However,
this research didn't reveal personal identity and lifestyle through brands. They didn't investigate
from a psychological and marketing point of view to prove that self-expression is a part of the
brand. They have made a gap in the link between brands and four specific constructions of lifestyle:
values, life vision, life goal, and aesthetic style.

As per the investigation of Isik and Yasar (2015), on the model of brand name and consumer
preference, they have figured out the influencing factors of the brand by utilizing the structural
equation modelling technique. Their study concluded as selecting a brand and brand image makes

5
positive impacts on the purchase decision of the consumer. However, some are lacking in the
analysis of the research of the study. It has been figured out that brand and consumer preferences
were not fully explained with the measurement used in the study. They didn't make any in-depth
examination of the dimensions of the brand and consumer preference. The relationships between
brand and consumer preferences were not conducted as per the consumer behaviours, which is
another gap of the study.

According to Lema and Wodaje (2018), the factors that are significantly associated with
consumers' brand choice for bottled water products are, e.g. packaging, product quality, price,
brand name, brand availability, brand image, and advertisement. However, the influences of brand
image, brand name, packaging, and expenditure on consumer's brand choice decisions were more
contributing than others. Also, age and income levels of an individual can make an impact on the
choice preference for a brand that they didn't focus on their study. The competition of substitute
products in the market make an influence on the consumer for a brand choice decision as per the
customer taste and preference level that were not focused on the study.

As per Bosona and Gebresenbet (2018) in Europe, consumers habitually connected with locally
produced and organic food products having superior quality standards which ensure freshness as
well as nutritional value, healthy eating, excellent taste, cultural values, and environmentally
friendly production methods. The researchers have figured out the consumer's demand for locally
produced, and organic foods have increased in Sweden. However, the study only focused on the
different factors of the supply chain and the production of foods. A gap also found in the
relationship with the brand, price, and quality of the product purchasing behaviour.

Kumar and Pinakapani (2019) have identified the factors that influence consumers invariably to
make brand preferences among the durables. By investigating, they have also figured out the
variables that impact consumers. The business possesses, the odds to ascertain a technique,
advertising information (Special Value Suggestion), an ad campaign even more reliable as well as
furthermore a lot extra based on the requirements and perception of their aim at consumers.
However, their study didn't focus on the pinpointing elements with the corresponding variables
that impact on the consumer. They possess business techniques, advertisement information, ad
campaign, and tag preferences were not discussed accordingly as per the research aim.

6
There are several previous studies where researchers have discussed brand preferences considering
a single country. By looking over earlier studies, it is difficult to understand the nature of consumer
preference because they were limited within one country. Even if we take similar countries from
the same continent is also not enough to provide sufficient accuracy. If we make a comparative
analysis between Scandinavian countries, e.g. Norway or Denmark and Sweden or other Asian
Countries, e.g. India or Pakistan and Bangladesh, then it may provide a similar type of result. It is
logical to analyze two diverse countries to find authenticity. Due to the differences in
socioeconomic status, peoples' perception of the factors that influence brand preferences may also
vary, which may also include a significant ingredient to the current study.

1.4 Aim of the study

This study aims to investigate the factors that influence brand preferences for instant foods. The
focused group of this study is the graduate-level students of two economically diverse countries,
e.g. Sweden and Bangladesh. The purpose of the study is to discover the variable influence of
different factors on consumer brand preferences in Sweden and Bangladesh.

The following research questions (RQ) have been addressed:

RQ1 How do different factors influence on brand preferences of instant foods?

RQ2 How do consumer brand preferences vary between Sweden and Bangladesh regarding instant
foods?

1.5 Scope of research

The study wants to investigate how consumers are influenced by different factors while selecting
a brand for instant food. Furthermore, we want to probe how consumers from Sweden and
Bangladesh share perceptions regarding brand preferences, whether it is similar or different. The
study is going to cover various factors, e.g. marketing communications, brand elements, price of
the brand, brand image, and brand availability which influence consumers of Sweden and
Bangladesh to discover the nature of their perceptions (Cătălin and Andreea, 2014; Jafersadhiq,
2014).

7
1.6 Disposition

This study is going to organize as follows; Chapter 1 will present the background of the study,
problematization, the aim of the study and research question, and scope of research.

Chapter 2 will present the theoretical framework which has been constructed based on relevant
literature. Chapter 3 will represent the methodology used for this study; all the methods, strategies,
data collection, and data analysis provided in this chapter.

Chapter 4 will present empirical findings. Data obtained from the research questions will be
provided in this chapter to get a better understanding.

Chapter 5 will present the analysis and discussion of the study by linking the empirical findings
with relevant theories, and Chapter 6 will represent the conclusion, limitation of the study, and
future research prospects. A visual demonstration of the thesis structure is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Disposition of the study (Source: Authors Own)

8
Chapter 2.0 Literature Review

This chapter presents consumer behaviour, instant foods, cultural influences on Bangladesh and
Sweden, brand preference, and factors that impact on brand preferences of instant foods. This
chapter aims to provide reviews of earlier researchers. Furthermore, structuring an appropriate
theoretical framework as a part of the development of the research.

2.1 Concept of marketing

Marketing set up different practices for the organization that provides value to the customer and
establish a direct linkage between the stakeholders (Bahl, 2012). The discipline of marketing
paying attention to distribution, afterwards it is the task of marketing managers to design and
supply of a marketing mix and lastly on the precise association of organizations by merely
maintaining direct relationships with diverse stakeholders in societies in which they correctly carry
out business activities (Gonzalez and Nason, 2009). This advancement of the discipline's
conceptualization has focused on the ''marketing approaches" companies should implement; it is
necessary to reflect on the actual possibility that currently involves a significantly broader
assortment of responsible stakeholders in the possible accumulation of potential consumers
(Sanclemente, 2017). Consumers are the core heart of an organization and the principal purpose
of any sort of marketing initiative. After carefully scrutinizing an organization can accurately
determine consumer demographics, preferences, purchase behaviour, and fundamental frequency.
It is equally sympathetic to identify their brand preferences for any product. They do not always
behave consistently. Cantallops and Salvi (2014) explain consumer preferences may vary based
on country, origin, culture, nationality, etc. The volume of the consumer market in all the
developed and rapidly developing economies of the modern world was widespread. A vast
population of them was spending a large amount of money on goods and services. Alongside this,
consumer preferences were subtly shifting and getting extremely diversified (Ali et al., 2010).
Consumer value and organizational culture are primarily impacted by marketing activities.
Therefore, consumer behaviour, brand preferences, and brand values are parts of effective
marketing.

9
2.2 Consumer behaviour

The consumers motivate and aspire in a diverse and complex way that makes it harder for
marketers to integrate overall needs without knowing the target group properly (Aaker, 1997).
Consumer behaviour requires specific approaches like economic, sociological, medicinal,
psychological, and comprehensive statistics. From this point of view, consumer behaviour is
considered as the final element of mortal existence as a consumer. Consumer behaviour is complex
and generates a modern perspective that plays as the origin and raises others without being the
same (Aaker, 1996). It can equally be considered as a comprehensive approach as decisions are
taken by a set of groups or a person who is using the product or services. Consumer behaviour also
has an impact on the decision-making process before purchase.

In the same way, a person satisfied with the product or services establishes an emotional
connection with the brand and stays with it (Ansari and Samara, 2018). Satisfaction with the brand
naturally encourages brand loyalty and undoubtedly benefits the company under any kind of
situation. However, a study found that 55% of consumers prefer the cost advantage for owing a
branded product (Kotler and Armstrong, 2012). That means companies require understanding
consumer behaviour to raise brand loyalty through brand characteristics. Moreover, Atkin et al.
(2006) added, buyers' personalities and decision-making processes make an impact on their
purchase decisions. Therefore, marketers continuously try to understand buyers' perceptions in
terms of purchase behaviour.

However, the commands among customers are differentiated into two categories. The first one is
the direct observable influence that mainly deals with economic and demographical focusing on
the income level, age, gender, education, and lifestyle (Matsatsinis and Samaras, 2000). The
marketing mix consists of product, place, price, and promotion is equally related to the apparent
influence (Vyshnavi and Rao, 2016). Situational factors such as the specific situations in time and
space have an impact on consumer behaviour in marketing communication, time of purchase, and
consumption. Second is the deductible influence that divided into endogenous and exogenous
variables. Endogenous is considered hard in terms of assessment and justify that typically varies
from one product to another.

10
Nevertheless, to evaluate the realistic behaviour of the consumer, there requires assessing the
client's point of view. Three perceptual processes primarily influence these situations; they are
selective attention, distortion, and memory (Cătoiu, 2004). The particular process means that an
individual requires to pay attention to the unique parts that he sees, listens, and experiences. All
these experiences are distorted in the way that needs and remember scarcely if these are interested
in them. The learning process is considered one of the essential methods that make an impact on
consumer behaviour (Cătoiu, 2004). Behaviour changes based on the time and experience level
that a consumer gains throughout life. Behavioural learning theory and cognitive theory establish
a difference in the experience that a consumer participates in the mental process (Solomon, 2004).
Consequently, these are set up to make sure of the problem-solving process.

Personality is a set of an individual's psychological characteristics that help to discover how a

person responds in a particular environment (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2012). It represents the
multidimensional concept set up for constructing debates. Motivation comprises another factor
that equally determines how a person behaves and considers the inner force. It refers to how a
person should behave and biologically learn motivation. To such a degree, whether it is utilitarian
or hedonic, the behaviour has generated through the motivation of equally helpful individuals
desire to identify consumer needs. Solomon (2004) further added, consumers' attitude is a
remarkable indicator that considered as the predisposition process in terms of favourable or
unfavourable reactions to the object or class.

2.3 Brand preference

Brand preference is one of the unique features for the customer before purchasing any product
(Kwok et al., 2006). If the overall functional value of a brand is excellent, then it could satisfy a
customer's needs. However, if it fails to maintain quality and sustainably, then customers will not
want to continue with the same brand for a long time (Aaker, 1996; Pitta and Katsanis, 1995).
Brand preference is an essential element for competitive business. Due to this, customers mainly
switch to another business organization which creates competition (Hellier et al., 2003). The
mindset for brand preference is set up by customers that reduce the complexity of purchase
decisions (Gensch, 1987). At the very beginning, customer exposed to many other brands and
follows the complex decision-making process (Cătălin and Andreea, 2014). Later on, customer

11
deletes some of them from their memory and remains only the favourite one for the future purchase
(Roberts and Lattin, 1991).

Similarly, brand preference is an integral part of brand loyalty that helps to increase the sales
margin (Rundle and Mackay, 2001). The business organization always takes the challenges to
make the brand favourite for the customer and exposes a range of products (Mathur et al., 2003).
On the other hand, the customer looks for the brand based on the product and services.
Understanding brand preference is an essential factor that helps to identify the impact on the
appropriate outcome (Isik and Yasar, 2015). Thus, brand preference shows the level of interest by
the consumers that involves high cost and makes a massive impact on consumer life (Rijnsoever
et al., 2009). Product image is one of the significant components in brand preference (Lema and
Wodaje, 2018). Considering the income level of the consumer and product image, they intend to
purchase the product from other competitors in the market (Kumar and Pinakapani, 2019).

Consequently, brand preference for a specific product might change due to the changes in prices.
In terms of substitute products, when the cost of the product alters, e.g. when the price raises
exceptionally, customer switches to another (Apéria, and Back, 2004). A consumer failing to
discover the first preferred brand in point of sale will logically buy the second chosen one (Kwok
et al., 2006). Another reason to turn to a new brand is unique discounts and endorsements (reward
checks, free samples, discount coupons, etc.) for different potential alternative brands (Loudon and
Della, 1993).

However, according to Keiningham et al. (2005), brand preference mostly depends on the
experiences of the customer. The positive experience that is shared by the customer creates brand
preferences (Bolton and Drew, 1991). Customer's attitudes are shared after consuming products
and services (Buil et al., 2013). A loyal customer with their preferred brand does not accept any
other substitute product in the market (Kotler and Keller, 2003). Showing the interest level on
different instant food brands are preferred (Steenkamp et al., 2003).

2.4 Instant foods

The word "Food" is all about the chemical substance that is taken into the body to stay healthy and
being active to accomplish specific activities (Buil et al., 2013). Instant food products are helpful
to save the time and energy that have changed the lifestyle of people (Cengiz and Akdemir, 2016).

12
Thus, people are less interested in spending more time on household activities and simultaneously,
the foods which need less time to prepare are also getting popularity among people throughout the
world. Capitalizing this situation, business firms ranging from small scale manufactures to
multinational corporations have started radiating and commercializing the instant food products
(Bahl, 2012). Different types of instant foods are available in the super shop that is purchased by
the consumers to save time and energy.

Instant foods are considered as the precooked food that requires less time for preparation than
eating it (Cengiz and Akdemir, 2016). Most of them only need the addition of water to prepare as
they are previously dehydrated. Instant food is all about the simple, fast, easy to make that is also
hygienic (Ramasamy and Kalaivanan, 2005). Being free from different microbial contamination
lets them convenient to eat for most of the people who want to cook the food quickly. Instant food
mainly originated in Japan and found in most people's households (Karuppusamy and Arjunan,
2012).

The advancement of science and technology is offering people with heterogeneous new food
processing systems that speed up the cooking time and create balance with mechanical life (Baskar
et al., 2013). The changing lifestyle of men and women requires going outside for employment
(Buil et al., 2013). That means people have only plenty of time for spending time cooking in
traditional methods. To cope up with the situation, business people are investing in the
commercialization of instant food items. Instant foods are common in terms of everyday life.
Canned, frozen, dried, preserved, and convenience foods considered as instant foods. Furthermore,
different types of marketing concepts are also used for the instant food item that makes a big part
of the consumer's mind.

2.5 Culture

Culture is the collective programming of the mind that mainly differentiates a group of people in
a specified category from one to another (Hofstede's, 2001). The learning and communication
process of each culture is different than another (Wan et al., 2012). Each member of the culture
follows their theory and choices that impact on the behavioural process (Gudykunst et al., 1996).
According to Hofstede's (2001), culture is consisting of values, beliefs, attitudes, and lifestyle that
forces people and does a common practice. Each culture has its elements that reflect on the people's

13
mind, thoughts, and the perception that influences on the characteristics of nations (Parboteeah
and Cullen, 2003). Hofstede et al. (2010) prepared a model of six cultural dimensions that represent
the independent preference that distinguishes each country from the individuals. Their study
figures out the aspect of countries are different and unique based on the scores. Variations in the
culture make an impact on the organization's decision-making process and require changes in
internal communication (Shore and Cross, 2005).

National culture is the set of collective programming that differs from one country to another
(Trompenaars and Turner, 2011). Four levels of learning are found in society, and they are
symbols, rituals, values, and heroes. Symbols are considered as the objects that can also be changed
based on the time. Practices of beliefs on different cultures are regarded as the rituals that are
desired to achieve (Bosona and Gebresenbet, 2018). Values are learned from the early lives that
also remains unchanged and followed by everyone (Lilly, 2014). National characters that referred
to as the high value in society are the hero's (Hofstede et al., 2010).

Due to the differences in the culture, food habit is also changing that brings on cultural values and
food is considered a central identity maker (Trompenaars, 1993). Food is the lens that analyzes the
social order, changes of history, power, and politics (Isik and Yasar, 2015). To understand about
the culture, heritage as well the tradition of marketization, there requires to identify the dynamic
role of foods. Consumer prefers the food based on the objects, places, situations, characters,
practices, and behaviours that involve in all the sociological level (Shore and Cross, 2005). That
helps to understand the taste programming and make an interpretation of recognizing the dishes.
Food is connected to the social and cultural relationships that provide the identity and reproduce
the hybrid ways of remembering. According to Smith et al. (2018), Practices of food habits are
coming from family traditions and reconnects with the relationship and bring them to present and
pass to future generations.

2.5.1 Culture and consumers food of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is located in South Asia with the nearest borders are India and Myanmar. The most
important symbol of national identity is the Bangla language (Islam, 1982). Since its independence
in 1971, the national identity of Bangladesh is established (Sisson et al., 1991). Most of the people
in Bangladesh follow the Islamic religion. Bangladesh has a rich and diverse culture with a variety

14
of food and different festivals. Food is an integral part of Bangladeshi celebrations. Traditionally,
people of Bangladesh mostly prefer to fill up the stomach rather than focusing on nutrition value.
However, once there was a high diversity of fresh foods includes fish, meat, fruits vegetables, and
many others with high fulfilment of nutrition values (Rashid, 2003).

Traditionally, the leading food of Bangladesh is rice, and people take them with vegetables, fish,
meat, etc. as per the availability (Asif and Sargeant, 2000). Food habits are varied from regional
and household areas. The food preparation method is also changed due to the taste variation of
rural and city areas. They further added the food culture of Bangladesh is a mixture of geography
and religion. The impact of geography and spirituality is available in the food habits that can be
seen from cuisine to entertainment and ritual activities. A large number of people in Bangladesh
are Muslim that impacts the food culture. According to Islam (1982), people mostly prefer Halal
food due to Islamic rituals and beliefs. Homemade food is eaten mainly by people with high spices
and other ingredients.

People who are living in the city areas, they are mostly busy have plenty amount of time in terms
of cooking food or spending time on time (Bartoo and Sias, 2004). Both Males and females remain
busy and spend their time outside for jobs, studies, and other works that make an impact on their
daily life. People now prefer instant food that is easy to have within the shortest possible time
(Bryman, 2012). Instant food in Bangladesh are noodles, milk, custard, pudding, cup noodles,
curry, soup, breakfast items, chocolate beverage, coffee, drink mix, freeze-dried fruit juices,
powdered milk, pasta, shemai, packed cake, puffed rice, Chana Chur, tea and many others. There
are different brands available for instant foods. The major instant food provider brands are such as
Unilever, Nestle, Coca-Cola, Pran-RFL group, Mr Noodles, Ruchi, Jhatpot, Shezan, and others.

2.5.2 Culture and consumers food of Sweden

Sweden is a multicultural country retaining a population of 10 million people, where 2 million are
under 18 (Bosona, and Gebresenbet, 2018). The official language of Sweden is Swedish. All the
same, the vast majority of people speak English at an exceptional level. Sweden is the leading
exporter of culture that starts with Abba to Ingmar Bergman to Avicii (Lema et al., 2018).
Moreover, Swedish studies, work hard and obtain rest accordingly. They take a break for relaxation
called Fika which is a coffee break; this consists of tea or coffee, cookies or sweet buns, soft drinks,

15
or even fruits and sandwiches (Schiffman et al., 2000). This social institution represents a
substantial part of the Swedish national culture. Sweden predominantly represents a secular
country; however, they welcome the world's religious views and their representations (Bosona,
and Gebresenbet, 2018). They maintain the church, Catholicism, and other Christian
denominations that are widespread accordingly. Apart from that, Islam represents another most
liberal religion in Islam. Judaism and Buddhism are also well-known and established religion in
Sweden.

Meatballs and pickled herring are traditional and classic food in Sweden (Glenthøj, 2012). Popular
food items are Lingonberries, Pickled herring, Crispbread, Räksmörgås (shrimp sandwich) and
other open sandwiches, Pea soup, and pancakes, Prinsesstårta or princess cake, Cinnamon Bun,
Crayfish, Baltic herring, and sweets. Foods are most convenient in canned or frozen that helps the
consumer to prepare them quickly, also assorted fresh vegetables, and meat is available (Bryman,
2012). Global brands that typically provide instant foods in Sweden are Felix, Orkla, Turkish
Yogurt, PepsiCo, Coca-Cola, Nestle, Santa Maria, Royco, Knorr, and many others.

2.6 Factors affecting Brand preferences

2.6.1 Marketing communication

Consumer purchase decisions have influenced by marketing communication, and it possesses

direct effects on consumer brand preferences (Cătălin, and Andreea, 2014). Marketing and
communication are used for companies' promotional process that requires communication (Isik,
and Yasar, 2015). As follows, marketing represents an umbrella, and interface represents the
fundamental component that impacts on brand preference of the consumer. Marketing
communication or promotion maintains three crucial elements they are advertising, public
relations, and selling. Advertisement comprises an influential factor for consumers which is a part
of marketing and based on some facts, e.g. originality of the message, the substance, and the use
of category (Latif et al., 2012). Effective marketing communications must identify the bridge
between products or a brand and the perceived quality associated with it the consumers. The
following benefits of effective communication should be highlighted (Lema and Wodaje, 2018).
Furthermore, when the customer varies extensively in the benefits sought and put weightage on
brand name rather than products (Orth et al., 2004).

16
Bagozzi and Dholakia (2006) explained marketing communication helps to intimately relate with
brand participation and realistically achieve the company destination. Brand preference increases
the involvement of the consumer and the varied activities of the company (Bahl, 2012).
Consequently, consumers approach ideas about the brand, and they participate in product
promotion. The development of brand preferences in target customers requires the proper
communication approach and strategies of the organization (Hellström and Nilsson, 2011).
Simultaneously, some customers mainly do not attach to any brands or products and equally not
take to participate in branding activities (Blythe, 2008). That means they are not interested in
marketing communication.

The packaging is a marketing communication medium that used to detain consumer interest; which
involves the product selection process (Silayoi and Speece, 2007). Therefore, product packaging
provides an opening to communicate and persuade the consumer at the point of purchase (Atkin
et al., 2006; Wigley and Chiang, 2009). The packaging represents an essential principle for
consumers' choice of brands (Khan et al., 2017a, 2017b). Language, colour, and shape remain the
significant factors in packaging, which can influence customers' (Khan, 2019). Thalhammer
(2007) further added consumers get attracted to the packaging of the product and spread the news
to others that determine a distinct brand preference.

2.6.2 Brand elements

Brand elements constitute the foundation on which brand perception or preference built (Isik and
Yasar, 2015). The brand name can promote intrinsic strength to a brand (Kohli and Labahn, 1997;
Klink, 2001). Brand names need to be actively managed to control customers' viewpoints. From a
traditional branding perspective, the marketing team utilizes the brand name as an instrument to
dispose of their strategies and thoughts by forming a symbol to affect consumers' perceptions of
products or corporations' attributes (Yorkston and Menon, 2004). Lerman and Garbarino (2002)
explain a brand name works as a psychological possession of consumers. They more significantly
added brand name plays the role of an anchor for a product's identity. The brand name is a
significant, core symbol of the brand, origin of awareness, and interaction effort (Aaker, 1991).
Kohli and Leuthesser (2001) equally find that brand names are viewed as long-term commitments
because they cannot be transformed without a significant risk of losing all fairness. To such a
degree, the brand name represents a primarily integral element because it frequently reflects the

17
overarching theme or key associations of a product in a very compact and economical style. Brand
names can be extremely efficient shorthand modes of communication. If we compare marketing
communications and brand names, a brand name endures a more effective and long-lasting
existence in the customer's mind. Marketing communication could require half a minute (for an
advertisement) to possible hours (for a sales call) to recognize a customer the authentic message.

On the contrary, a brand name could complete just a few seconds to become noticed and to register
or activate its meaning in customers' memory (Keller, 2003). Thus, a brand name denotes more
than a word to its target audience. Researchers of this study believe that from the distinct beginning
of its birth, a brand name must express messages on its stimulating position. Furthermore, it should
be inspirational, convincing, and promising, which helps to grasp consumers' attention within a
competitive framework.

The brand's visual identity is highly essential to establish and retain an existence in the
marketplace. A visual understanding of the brand ensures to build up profoundly unforgettable,
easily identifiable, and signals that generate consumers to ally with the brand itself and its chosen
points (Ghose, and Lowengart, 2013). Keller (2003) states that logos represent visual symbols
providing two fundamental which attend essential functions for brands: identification (a marker to
discover specific offerings) and differentiation (how to separate that offering apart from others).

The slogan comprises another element of the brand, which is a brief phrase that communicates
expressive or influential information about the brand (Keller, 2003). He more substantially added,
slogans often become visible in the advertisement but carry out an enhanced role through
packaging or special promotional activities which employ symbols in consumers' mind. On the
contrary, Aaker, (2002) defines slogan can confine the concentration of a brand and become an
essential influencer for customers' brand preferences.

Khan et al. (2016) find product quality represents another element of the brand that affects brand
preferences in a way and would foster an optimistic or negative attitude demonstrated by customers
toward a brand. Business organizations need to uphold their product quality, as many other brands
are competing in the market to serve their customers (Pangaribuan et al., 2018). According to
Hoisington and Naumann (2003), product quality might include features, usability, or
compatibility. In every business, quality would be evaluated based on each consumer's approach

18
toward a product and its contrast with other products in the customer's suggested set (Zeithaml,
1988).

2.6.3 Price of brand

Price and brand value are directly correlated, and a brand should justify the expense to receive
priority (Bosona and Gebresenbet, 2018). According to Diallo et al. (2013), price plays the most
substantial role in choice criteria for customers, especially for those who obtain inaccurate
knowledge about the brand. Through various researches, it was identified that consumers try to
acquire comprehensive knowledge about prices of multiple products (e.g., Brown, 1969; Estelami,
1998; Evanschitzky et al., 2004; Gabor and Granger, 1961; Goldman, 1977; Jensen and Grunert,
2014). In food retailing, consumers react quite sensitively to price changes (Estelami and
Lehmann, 2001; Evanschitzky et al., 2004; Kenning et al., 2011). Price remains the prime factor
for product and brand choice in the food industry (Severin et al., 2001). Conspicuously when the
difference in the position of distinctive brands is slight, the attribute of the price is consequently
of superior importance for both sellers and customers. As declared by Diallo (2012), customers'
brand price images are affected by the costs of private labels brands.

Khan and Rohi (2013) considered prices represent the variable that generates a significant impact
on brand preference and buying behaviour on the purchase process. They further explain
organizations set up the price based on the economic situation, target customer, competitors,
location, and culture of the country. A customer looks for the perceived value of the product and
makes the purchase decision (Ghose and Lowengart, 2013). Kwok et al. (2006) provided a similar
opinion that the price of the product is what a customer shows a willingness to purchase the
product. There are predominantly two types of product price that impacts in the market, one is
brand image, and another represents a low brand. Brand image automatically increases the rate
that requires the customer to offer a significant premium for that. Rijnsoever et al. (2009) contend
that low branded products are typically providing contemporary techniques and services that
appraise to persuade modern consumers and provides more value to the product.

The price of instant food products has a massive impact beyond the sales and profit margin (Ghose
and Lowengart, 2013). They think high price rate requires higher material cost that establishes the
premium brand image among customers. On the other hand, a more modest price serves to

19
undercut the competition and provides the customer with the best value. The cost of the product
establishes competition in the market by offering similar products (Kwok et al., 2006). In terms of
the distribution of the products, setting up an appropriate price is precious that can contact the
customer properly. There requires providing value on the retail market, potential sales, and
discount margin to set up the cost of instant food (Apéria and Back, 2004). However, quality and
price do not stay isolated concepts in consumer minds. Providing a massive discount impact on
the customer's account that there might be something wrong with the product. Diallo et al. (2013)
added frequent discounts on the brand to lower its value and customer preference level.

2.6.4 Brand image

The brand image represents dominant features regarding marketing activities, branding, and
market offering with wide-ranging explanations and approaches to its conceptualization (Dobni
and Zinkhan, 1990; Martinez and Pina, 2003). A universal outlook is that brand image reflects
customers' perceptions of a brand as revealed by the brand associations held in the customer mind
(Keller, 1993a, b). However, Apéria and Back (2004) argued that these connections could initiate
from customer's direct experience or information accessed on a market offering or due to the force
of pre-existing involvements with an organization. Brand image is, therefore, the mental portrait
or sensitivity that contains symbolic denotations relate to the particular aspects of a product or
service (Dobni and Zinkhan, 1990; Padgett and Allen, 1997). Low and Lamb (2000) think the
brand image embodies the consistent or emotional insights consumers connect to specific brands.
They further explain it is a set of trusts built-in customers about a particular brand. Based upon
some inherent and extrinsic attributes of a market contribution accompanying to perceived quality
and customer satisfaction (Aaker, 1994; Cid and Rodríguez, 2001). Additionally, perceived quality
refers to the customer's perception of the universal quality or superiority of a product or service
concerning its intended purpose, relative to alternatives (Aaker, 1991; Keller and Davey, 2001).

The brand image provides sufficient guidance to customers who are tremendously interested and
concerned about branded products (Fernie, Burt, and Davies, 2010). Nevertheless, it is the crucial
criteria that explain consumer behaviour and perception toward a brand (Chakravarti and
Janiszewski, 2003). Brand image is related to the consumer usage pattern. The brand image reflects
the symbolic meaning of consumption and express consumer loyalty toward a brand (Lau and
Phau, 2007). Consumer prefers the extraordinary quality of esteemed brands (Rubio et al., 2014).

20
A high brand image helps an organization to introduce modern brands as well as uplift the profit
margin of current brands (Diallo et al., 2013; Martenson, 2007; Wu et al., 2011). The brand image
helps to broaden awareness and influence the consumer to purchase a product from the brand
(Norazah, 2013a). Consumer intends to purchase products with whom they are familiar (Norazah,
2013b). He on the tops added brand image increased through the endorsement of celebrities or
distinguished historical figures. However, integrated marketing communications and the word-of-
mouth strategy exerts a persuasive influence on the brand image (Romaniuk and Sharp, 2003; Šerić
and Gil-Saura, 2012).

2.6.5 Brand availability

Brand availability plays a vital role to fabricate an established position in consumers' minds
(Bagozzi and Dholakia, 2006). Because, if the product is not visible, then people will forget the
product as well as the product features. Put differently, if a product is available at the retail spaces
at the right time with a significant amount of in-store merchandising support, which might better
define the push-based brand awareness (PBA). In terms of instant food business, the availability
of a brand retains a compelling influence on consumers' purchase decisions than others (Khan and
Rohi, 2013).

A brand's availability could be referred to as psychological accessibility, which creates the

likelihood that a buyer will observe, distinguish, and imagine a brand in buying circumstances
(Emari et al., 2012). They further explained, it depends on the quality and quantity of remembrance
configurations related to the brand. So, this is much more than enlightenment, whether that is top-
of-mind, identification, or remind. A brand's availability differs across situations, so if a product
exists highly in consumers' mind, can ensure specific notice or thinks of in multiple purchase
occasions (Bosona and Gebresenbet, 2018).

Based on the brand availability, a consumer can take the experience of the products, which is also
helpful for the company to achieve its goals (Bagozzi and Dholakia, 2006). Brand availability
increased customer participation in product campaigns (Blanchard and Markus, 2004). Numerous
activities of the company and advertisement activities ensure the availability of the brand to
consumers. Researchers of the current study consider that it includes marketing communication
methods such as advertisement, sales promotion techniques, word-of-mouth referrals, viral

21
marketing, social media marketing, etc. Each of them is used to make the brand available for the
customer and develop a strong market identity.

According to Amaldoss (2005), brand availability helps in shaping consumer perception toward a
brand and their buying intention. He more significantly added, marketers have utilized a lack of
products available such as through purposefully planned shortages propose to generate the
perception of excessive demand, to stimulate the customer purchase before someone else does.

2.7 Theoretical framework

Based on the purpose of the study and literature review, the authors have developed a theoretical
model. The model is developed in Figure 2 to analyze the brand preference on the instant food of
Sweden and Bangladesh. To acknowledge the influence of brand preference on instant foods, we
have focused on graduate-level students from Bangladesh and Sweden.

Factors

• Cultural Influence
• Marketing Communications Consumers Brand Preference for
• Brand Elements Instant Foods in Sweden and
• Price of brand Bangladesh
• Brand Image
• Brand Availability

Figure 2 Factors that influence the Brand preference on instant foods (Source: Authors Own)

Since one of the research questions is about brand preferences for instant foods, the model has
been developed with six different factors that influence brand preferences for instant foods. First
is culture; from the literature review, we have found that the culture of Sweden and Bangladesh is
different. Wan et al. (2012) cited that the learning and communication process of each culture is
unlike that another.

Marketing communication has a relationship with the choosing and spreading of the information
of the brand to the consumer. According to Cătălin and Andreea (2014), marketing communication
influences the consumers purchasing decision. The third is brand elements, where numerous
studies discovered several features that made an impact on consumer buying behaviour. Brand

22
elements are the foundation that builds up the perception or preference of the brand (Isik and Yasar,
2015). Brand elements consist of name, symbol, logo, and other different features that remain
customers' memory (Keller, 2003).

According to Bosona and Gebresenbet (2018), the price of the brand is directly correlated with the
brand to receive priority. In addition to that, cost represents the variables of the product that makes
a significant impact on brand preference. Furthermore, the literature review also reveals that the
price of the brand is another element where the consumer-focused on the premium level to pay for
purchasing the product. Brand image makes an impact on providing an extensive range of
explanations and approaches (Evanschitzky et al., 2004). Our literature review also reveals that
brand image mainly represents different features in the marketing activities, branding, and market
offering that reflects consumers' perceptions of a brand.

Finally, brand availability added to find out its impact on the purchase decision of instant foods.
Brand availability establishes the position of consumers mind as it shows the visibility (Bagozzi
and Dholakia, 2006). The second research question aims to find out how brand preference varies
between Sweden and Bangladesh. For this reason, consumers' brand preferences for instant food
in Bangladesh and Sweden are also added to the theoretical framework.

23
Chapter 3.0 Methodology

This chapter is mainly set to provide overall information on research methods that are used in this
research and the process of data collection. There have also been provided with the strategy of
data collection and analysis method that ensures ethical considerations. Firstly, a summary of the
methodology is presented below in Figure 3.

Scientific approach • Ontology

• Epistemology

Research Strategy • Population and Sampling strategy

and approaches • Multiple Case Studies

• Primary Data from interview

Data Collection
• Secondary Data from journal, books and articles

Data Selection • Two different countries

• Graduate level students from Sweden and Bangladesh

Data Analysis • Thematic analysis method

method • Operationalization

Ethical • Secure the data and personal information of respondents

Considerations • Well behave and ensured no hurt to anyone

Validity and • Trustworthiness of the information and data

Reliability • Reliable sources

Limitation • Limited participants

• No face to face interviews

Figure 3 Overview of the methodology (Source: Authors Own)

24
3.1 Scientific approach

The scientific method considered as the standardized process of making observations, collecting
or allocating the data, formation of theories, predicting the tests, and interpretation of the results.
Bell et al. (2019) declare two key terms handling with the way to comprehend authenticity; they
are ontology and epistemology.

3.1.1 Ontology

Ontology investigates the nature of an incident. It is the potential to support an objectivistic or

constructionist viewpoint on ontology (Bell et al., 2019). They further added an objectivist
approach to observes social phenomena as objective realities or facts outside from individual
control. While a constructionist moves toward views social aspects as persistently being produced
and restructured by peoples' social communications. The objectivist ontological approach can be
termed as realism; while the constructionist called a subjectivist (Kamil, 2011). The reasons for
various scholarly perspectives on these two subjects are that they hold philosophical suppositions
that cannot empirically be verified. We cannot empirically demonstrate whether the objectivist or
constructivist ontology represents a definite reality. Instead, a rational and logical interpretation
takes place to come to the assured hypothesis.

Ontology principally refers to the things that exist in the social world and assumptions to form and
nature as per social reality (Snape and Spencer, 2003). Ontology concerned with the social fact
and existed independently as per the human understanding and interpretation of the shared social
reality, or it can equally be shared with specific realities within multiple contexts. There are three
positions of ontology; they are realism, idealism, and materialism (Snape and Spencer, 2003).
Realism focuses on the external reality that people can apprehend independently. Idealism
provides authenticity that can only be understood by the human mind and constructed by social
meanings. Materialism demonstrates a similarity with the realism that finds out the material or
secular world is purely real than the tangible world. Ontology focuses on what kinds of things
exist, and our research is about the brand preferences that also exist. An investigation by the
previous researchers was discussed in the literature review. According to Bahari (2010), ontology
represents the concept seeks and constructs a foundation on how the research is to be conducted.
Our study focused on the brand preferences of instant food. Considering the fact, we gathered

25
experiences of graduate-level students which prone to the influence of varied contextual factors,
our study can be deemed to assume a subjectivist ontology.

3.1.2 Epistemology

Epistemology predominantly focuses on the nature of knowledge and finding out the reality of
learning (Bell et al., 2019). This process agrees with the assumption of how we obtain knowledge.
Bahari (2010) argues that epistemology is connected with ontology in that the earlier advances
from the latter. Significantly, the ontological approach recognized by the researcher that represent
a fitting epistemological approach. To get a better understating of epistemology, it deals with what
we can realize about conditions for knowledge and how we can make able to know that exists.
There are two perspectives of epistemology; they are positivism and interpretivism. However,
Guba and Lincoln (1994) argue constructivism and naturalism represent the processes of
inconsistent for interpretivism. According to Bryman (2012), constructivism is helpful in a sense
that finds out the underlying principles of reality constructed. On the other hand, naturalism
focuses on the apparent fact that humans independently noticed.

To determine the results of our research, we have focused on the qualitative strategy and employ
the inductive approach. It helped to find out the brand preference level of the consumer in
purchasing instant foods. Interpretivism is the preferable epistemological strategies that answer
and gain knowledge in contradictory situations. By keeping in mind, we interpreted the factors
from the participants regarding brand preferences. Information collected from the primary and
secondary data interpreted accordingly to justify them.

3.2 Research Strategy and approaches

The research strategy provides the guidelines of the study process based on the aims and objectives
to find out results (Yin, 2014). There require adequate planning and a more in-depth analysis of
the research to acquire the information (Andersson et al., 2001). This study follows the nature of
exploratory with an inductive approach with the data from primary and secondary sources. The
reason for primary and secondary sources is to gather the maximum amount of information to
make the thesis more reliable and sensible. Exploratory research helps to accomplish regarding the
information about a topic with a vast opportunity and conduct broader analysis for the study done
for prospective studies (Bell et al., 2019).

26
According to Saunders et al. (2009), researchers pursue the inductive approach to collect ancillary
data that form theories. For this, the context of the research is considered a flexible structure and
applied to find out substitute enlightenments and results. Yin (2014) explains the inductive
approach helps to observe and get information about the topic that makes better understanding. He
more substantially connected the core focus of using the inductive approach concerns, particularly
the context of the event that is taking place. On the other hand, the deductive approach requires a
substantial number of samples to do it appropriately (Fuchs and Diamantopoulos, 2010). The
sample size of our research is limited, and the inductive approach is appropriate for this study.

Two types of research approaches are implemented widely, and they represent qualitative and
quantitative approaches. A quantitative approach is developed based on the data collected from
the sample population in a more massive number maintain the level of accuracy (Bell et al., 2019).
This method predominantly used to measure things. The qualitative approach provides a deep
understating of the subject than measuring. In qualitative research technique information presented
through theories and the components that are not possible to measure in values can be represented
through qualitative data (Merriam, 1998; Zikmund et al., 2010). Researchers have adhered to
various views regarding the importance of using qualitative study methods. Therefore, choosing
the right research method represents a pivotal factor before conduct the study (Zikmund et al.,
2010). In this research, the qualitative research method has been used. Because investigating the
events rely on tiny samples, theories, and other written or illustrated objects.

There are mainly three major research strategies they are experiments, surveys, and case studies
(Bell et al., 2019). All these strategies in the case study approach help to find out the problem
formulated for the research answering "How" or "Why". Our research objective also focuses on
"How", and we have chosen a case study strategy for our thesis. The case study is equally helpful
to investigate in detail the issue through the interview process.

3.2.1 Population and Sampling strategy

The sampling strategy represents the process that starts with the population interviewed in the
research (Bell et al., 2019). They further explained, to get in-depth information about the study, a
sampling audience is adequate that is gathered from the interrogations. According to Guba and
Lincoln (1994), there is two non-probability sampling strategy that is used in the research; they

27
are named as purposive and snowballing. By selecting specific samples of the populations and
setting up the questions as per the aim of the study, purposive strategies are applied. They further
explained, purposive sampling is also called as the judgmental selective that forms as non-
probability sampling, where researchers depended on their judgment and chose the number of
participants for the study. On the other hand, snowballing research is the technique that is difficult
to find out the potential participants and mostly used for social scientists with a large number of
participants. By recruiting research participants, the study is tested that looks like rolling the ball
and pick up more that becomes larger.

No. of Research Location Age Gender Type Interview Duration

Participants (RP) Date
RP1 Bangladesh 27 Female Zoom 05-05-2020 24 min
RP 2 Bangladesh 27 Male Zoom 05-05-2020 17 min
RP 3 Sweden 31 Female Zoom 04-05-2020 20 min
RP 4 Bangladesh 32 Male WhatsApp 05-05-2020 19 min
RP 5 Sweden 33 Female Zoom 05-05-2020 21 min
RP 6 Bangladesh 30 Female WhatsApp 05-05-2020 25 min
RP 7 Sweden 34 Female WhatsApp 04-05-2020 23 min
RP 8 Sweden 30 Male WhatsApp 05-05-2020 20 min
RP 9 Sweden 31 Male WhatsApp 05-05-2020 22 min
RP 10 Bangladesh 28 Female WhatsApp 04-05-2020 25 min
Table 1: Overview of the respondents (Source: Authors Own)

As a part of the purposive sampling strategy, there have been sent emails to the potential
participants and asked they are ready for the interview process. Graduate-level students from
Bangladesh and Sweden are the main targeted people. The questions that were prepared before
have been sent to them before the scheduled interview. Five graduate-level students from
Bangladesh and five from Sweden have been selected for the discussion and collect their opinion
as per the research aim. Table 1 shows the list of respondents from Bangladesh and Sweden that
used in this research.

28
3.2.2 Multiple case studies

According to Baxter and Jack (2008), Yin (2014), as part of a qualitative method, there are two
options of case studies: single and multiple case studies. Individual studies submit to the
exploration of a single cause or organization. Conversely, multiple case studies refer to the
investigation of two or more cases or groups on a specific event. Yin (2014) advocates the
exercises of multiple case studies at the same time as trying to responds "how" and "why"
questions. In the current research, a multiple case study has been applied. Not only because "how"
issues are examined but also due to the reason to present more prevailing outcomes by evaluating
and scrutinizing data from numerous cases and viewpoints, as recommended by Yin (2014).
Convoyed with declarations from various authors (e.g., DeMarrais and Lapan, 2004; Siggelkow,
2007; Yin, 2014) the endeavour of using this approach has been to discover obtainable theories, to
uncover and fill the recognized gap by examining and assembling data from real-world
circumstances.

3.3 Data collection

According to Kinnear et al. (1991), data gathered from two sources, primary and secondary.
Primary data are primarily considered as the information that is collected for accomplishing the
specific research study (Babbie, 2013). That helped to enhance the research and applied for the
most preferred or suitable area for the study. He more significantly added secondary data available
in numerous sources that are done by previous researchers or studies. Hox and Boeije (2005) also
explained secondary data are considered valid because that is approved by other scientific
researchers and can be attained by the upcoming researchers. Secondary data can be collected from
documents, interviews, direct observation, previous records, and participant-observation (Yin,
2014).

Empirical data are designed and used for qualitative research strategies (Siggelkow, 2007). The
interview process requires more time than the survey process due to nature. Yin (2014) explained
in the qualitative method, questions asked are open, and participants can share their opinion
accordingly. Respondents are also selected less number than the survey analysis. As the
respondents, scantily in number, the superior quality of information is required for the research.
Conducting the interview requires a specific period endured from the participants (Andersson et

29
al., 2001). According to Bell et al. (2019), participants can ask the interviewer if they face any
difficulties, and the interviewer equally able to direct them to adapt the questions accordingly. In
this study, primary data collected through the interview process and secondary data collected from
journals, books, and reports.

3.3.1 Primary data

Primary data are the set of empirical studies that are collected from semi-structured interviews
(Bell et al., 2019). The semi-structured interview process is designed to find out opinions from the
participants as per the structured questions (Kamil, 2011). Structured interviews are substantially
prepared and utilize the pre-planned questions that are asked to participants by the interviewers. It
is fundamentally significant to focus on the research aim and theories from the literature review to
prepare the questions. On the other hand, unstructured interviews are unplanned before the
interview formulated by the interviewer. They are equally considered as the follow-up questions
and designed at the time of the interview. Respondents can acknowledge the items as per their
interest. In this research, questions are set up and prepared before the interview, and they were pre-
planned.

The interview method is mainly set up to find out the respondent’s flexibility and analyze the data
at the time of interviewing (Kumar and Pinakapani, 2019). The authors of this research
implemented this method to achieve the flexibility level of the customer's preference level and
their feelings about the brands. It allows the interviewers to share their opinion in a more specific
way as per the research objectives and purposes. The Zoom meeting, and WhatsApp, are set up
for the interview purpose and collect the data from the interviewers.

According to Archibald (2019), Zoom remains an innovative and modern videoconferencing

platform that consists of numerous unique features. They more substantially added this innovation
helps to increase the potential appeal of a qualitative research approach through communication
technologies. Consequently, Zoom allows the researchers to collect and record data that are
alternative to face-to-face, telephone, and other web platforms.

WhatsApp was founded in 2009, which now a part of Facebook Corporation (WhatsApp, 2019).
According to Gajjala and Verma (2018), WhatsApp allows the user to maintain one-to-one and
group communication and provides vast multimedia functions. O’Hara et al. (2014) it includes

30
features like voice and video calls, exchange pictures, documents, audio and video message,
locations on the chat, and share daily story updates. They more immeasurably added end-to-end
data encryption processes tighten the security that allows the researchers to maintain the interview
process from any location.

Collecting data from Bangladesh and Sweden is challenging; that’s why face-to-face interviews
are avoided in the research. Ten semi-structured have been set up for the interview process related
to the research aim and study. Questions were provided in Appendix 1 that covered all the literature
review and theoretical framework. Before proposing the questions, there have been developed
discussions with the supervisor and taken permission for the semi-structured questions.

3.3.2 Secondary Data

Secondary data are handled to explore different theories that have also discussed in the literature
review of this research. Based on reliable authors, diverse data have already described that are
published by previous researchers. According to Guba and Lincoln (1994), secondary sources are
gathered from the second different parties from the primary sources. Furthermore, this helps to
reduce the difficulties of the research and make several paths based on the limitations that
heretofore exist. Hox and Boeije (2005) stated, a range of convenient sources is available in
academic publications, and operating them is helpful to develop theories. Secondary data have
been collected from the library of the University of Gävle, Google Scholar, and scientific
publications that are available in the library resources. According to Andersson et al. (2001),
secondary sources are available in different third-party sources like academic papers,
organizations, data provided by individuals, databases, or statistics. Various relevant educational
research resources such as Emerald, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate have explored for this
research.

Different existing data were obtained from the secondary sources by the systematic literature
review to understand the brand preference for instant food. A peer-reviewed literature review from
the database has been developed. This helped to find out review and contributions on the topic that
has been made by the researchers. The literature review also helped to formulate the knowledge
on a similar subject. Through Google Scholar, there have been searched “brand preference” to
understand and find out related research on this topic. Various types of previous searches on this

31
topic have been finding out through a process that helped with the theoretical method. However,
the first keyword finds out a substantial number of articles then later on searched by narrowing
down the keywords to “brand preference on instant foods”. Also focused on the considerable
number of cited journals to increase the reliability of the search through keywords. Search has also
been done by using keywords like “instant foods in Bangladesh”, “instant foods in Sweden”, and
“consumer brand preference on instant foods” and related to highly cited articles have been used.

Six articles have been selected and focused more on the research purposes. First is the purchase
decision of the consumers toward instant food products by Lilly (2014). This article predominantly
focused on the pristine and good quality of instant food products by Indian customers. Cătălin and
Andreea (2014) discussed brand preferences and their relationship with the self-expression and
personal lifestyle or self-image. Bosona and Gebresenbet (2018) investigated on the Swedish
consumer's perception of food quality and sustainability of organic food production. Consumers
demand local produce and natural foods that fulfil the standards to ensure freshness and nutrition
value. Isik and Yasar (2015), suggested a model on the brand name and consumer preferences by
making structural equation modelling techniques. Lema and Wodaje (2018) focused on brand
choice for bottled water production. They identified distinct preferences they are packaging,
product quality, price, brand name, brand availability, brand image, and advertisement. Kumar and
Pinakapani (2019), stated the influence consumers invariability that impacts on the brand
preferences.

3.4 Data Selection

The study has predominantly focused on two diverse countries they comprise Bangladesh and
Sweden. The reason for selecting Bangladesh is people are nowadays familiar with instant food
items. However, the food culture of both countries is different, and this is another reason to find
out how brand preferences can impact the buying decision on instant foods. Consumers of Sweden
are familiar with instant food for so long. Different instant food brands that are available in the
market are generating life more comfortable for the consumers.

The reason for focusing on the graduate-level students of both countries is to establish a balance
on the participants. Age, level of education, ideas about instant food, culture, and brand ideas have
been considered at the time of selecting the participants for the interview. Before choosing the

32
participants, this keeps in mind that participants can provide insights and information regarding
brand preference. There has been granted a brief idea about the research purposes before the
interview process. Permission for recording the interview for intended purposes has equally been
taken. Confidentiality about the interviews has been maintained accordingly as per the request of
the interviewee.

3.5 Data Analysis method

The objective of data analysis is to provide an adequate understanding of the data (Babbie, 2013).
Furthermore, Yin (2009) states that data analysis obtains the ultimate representation of the data.
Hence, we have highlighted the literature review and put a lot of attention to the interview
questions. As our research follows the qualitative analysis, we believe that thematic analysis is the
most preferred for this study. According to Hox and Boeije (2005), thematic analysis is commonly
used for the qualitative research approach. To this effect, we used the thematic study method for
our studies. Seven themes were generated from the data collected from the interview. These themes
were subsequently aggregated for further analysis.

Reading and going through all the transcribed answers, we have analyzed the questions pattern to
formulate the code to identify themes. At the time of the interview, we have recorded the video
that later in detail made into transcribed word by word. It helped to re-read the whole conversation
and reflect them accordingly and reduces the chances of missing any valuable information.
Moreover, this allowed us to highlight the main vital points as per the themes for discussion. Later
on, extracting the data from interview questions is described in the empirical findings chapter.
Furthermore, there have been established similarities between the literature review and analysis of
the themes. Lastly, we then categorize the data as per the theoretical framework and conclude the
analysis.

3.5.1 Operationalization

To find out information about brand preference on instant foods, we have prepared out questions
for the interview participants. All the items were set up are related to the literature review, research
aim, and theory. Below table is summary and theories that used at interview with the purpose of
the question.

33
No. Question Theory Purpose
i. You may introduce yourself. These questions help to find out the
ii. How old are you? basic information of the participant
iii. What is your current occupation No Theory and enhance the data reliability.
level?
iv. What is your nationality?
Q1 How does your cultural Lilly (2014); Isik and Yasar To find out the impacts of cultural
background influence your brand (2015); Bosona and background with brand perception
perception? Gebresenbet (2018); and how cultural situation is related
Hofstede's (2001);
to the instant food brands.
Trompenaars and Turner
(2011)
Q2 How can brand preference impact Bosona and Gebresenbet, To find out the preference level of
on your purchase decision of (2018); Cătălin and Andreea, brands at the time of purchasing
instant foods? (2014); Isik and Yasar, (2015); instant foods.
Kumar and Pinakapani, (2019)
Lema and Wodaje, (2018)
Q3 How are you influenced by Bagozzi and Dholakia, (2006) To get an idea about the marketing
marketing communication while Cătălin, and Andreea, (2014) communication process and their
determining a brand for instant Isik, and Yasar, (2015) impacts on the purchasing decision
Latif et. al., (2012)
food? of instant food.
Lema and Wodaje, (2018)
Q4 How do the brand elements like Bosona and Gebresenbet, To get the opinion regarding
brand name, logo, symbols, (2018); Hoisington and different elements like name, logo,
message, and characters impact on Naumann (2003); Isik and symbols, and character and how
Yasar (2015); Keller (2003;
your purchase decision of instant they provide importance at the time
Kumar and Pinakapani (2019)
food? Lema and Wodaje (2018) of purchasing instant foods.
Q5 How do you give importance on Bosona and Gebresenbet To find out the importance of price
price while selecting a brand for (2018); Diallo et al. (2013) at the time of purchasing instant
instant food? Estelami and Lehmann (2001); food.
Evanschitzky et al., (2004) and
Kenning et al., (2011),
Lema and Wodaje (2018)
Severin et al. (2001)
Q6 What are the most important areas To get an idea on which things
(for example, price, quality, and Aaker (1994); consumer provides most
packaging) that you consider in Bagozzi and Dholakia (2006) importance from price, quality, and
terms of buying instant foods? Blanchard and Markus (2004) packaging at the time of purchasing
Bosona and Gebresenbet instant foods.
Q7 How does a brand can give you (2018) To get information about the value
more value for instant foods? Fernie, Burt, and Davies, of the brand for instant foods and
(2010) what is the relationship with that.
Chakravarti and Janiszewski,
Q8 Does the brand image matters (2003) To get information about the
while selecting a brand for instant Garcia et al. (2001) importance of the brand image for
food? Do you like to use the same Isik and Yasar (2015) instant foods. This question also
brand for lifelong or you would like Keller, (1993a, b) asked to find out how long a
to try new brands? Low and Lamb (2000) customer will stick with their
favourite brand.

34
 Q9 How do you differentiate a famous
and non-famous brand product at
the time of purchasing instant
foods?
Q10 How brand availability matters to
you at the time of choosing a brand
for instant food? If your favourite
brand is not available, then which
things you consider most?
Table 2: Operationalization of interviews questions (Source: Authors Own)
Martinez and Pina (2003)
Norazah, (2013a)
Rubio et al. (2014)
Amaldoss (2005); Bosona and
Gebresenbet (2018); Bagozzi
and Dholakia (2006);
Blanchard and Markus (2004)
Emari et al. (2012); Khan and
Rohi (2013)
To get information on how do they
differentiate a famous and non-
famous brand, and that matters to
them.
To find out how the brand
availability matters to the
customers at the time of purchasing
instant foods and what they will do
if their favourite brand is not
available.

3.6 Ethical Considerations

Ethical consideration depends on the universal quality of the research and following the standards
(Bell et al., 2019). They more substantially added it consists of deception avoidance, respecting
previous research, refraining of the plagiarism, manipulation of the data and information, and
leaking or providing the personal details to any other sources. According to Miles et al. (1994), it
is one of the significant responsibilities of the authors to secure the personal data of the interviewer.
For this reason, we have maintained the privacy level of participants and well behaved with all.

Hox and Boeije (2005) describe, at the time of conducting the research, profound consideration of
ethical principles is significant. Therefore, we maintained safety measurements of the interview
participants and provided their freedom to share opinions at the time of the interview. Before
starting the interview, the robust process and questionnaire have been shared with the interviewee.
As there requires to transcribe the respondent's answer, the permission of recoding the interview
has been obtained. Questions were set up following the ethical consideration, and no one can be
hurt by them.

3.7 Trustworthiness

The trustworthiness of research is the level of the truthfulness of the information and the ending
data (Hair et al., 2017a). Miles et al. (1994) defined the trustworthiness of research is not only the
connection between the real world and the research result but also a way to confirm and inquiry
about the quality of data. According to Byman and Bell (2011), trustworthiness is reflected through
credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Credibility looks for the sources of
information that relies on the findings and conclusion (Bleiker et al., 2019). To maintain

35
credibility, we have recorded and transcribed interviews. Transferability is the set of extensive
information that supports evaluating the findings (Byman and Bell, 2011). Interview questions and
purposes have been illustrated to the participants before conducting the interviews. That also
enables the participants to comprehend the questions and answers with pertinent information.
When we received assurance that the participants are prepared, semi-structured interviews have
been performed

Dependability is logical to conduct and proper documentation of the research process that can be
trace and justify by readers (Zikmund et al., 2010). Following this, we have provided detailed
documentation of interview questions, coding of the keywords, and example of the interview
process. Confirmability verifies the presence of the information without biases (Yin, 2014). To
ensure confirmability, we have presented to the sources collected from the data and journals.
Furthermore, we have maintained the interview records and transcripts.

3.8 Limitations

Bangladesh represents a diverse cultured country, and people follow a different religion. Muslim,
Hindu, Christian, Buddhism, and other minor groups live in this country. Our study focused only
on Muslim graduate-level students, which represents one of the significant limitations of the study.
The study is conducted by implementing a qualitative method, but it would be more divine if we
could opt for broader research and doing a face-to-face interview. The face-to-face question helps
to find out a more in-depth analysis of the interviewer that also adds accuracy. Moreover, targeting
a more extensive group instead of only the graduate-level students would be better to find out more
information. However, after conducting the interviews if we grapple with any issue, then we will
incorporate them later on in the study.

Moreover, the language barrier remains a formidable barrier as none of us from Sweden or have
the fluency of the Swedish language. Conducting an elevated conversation of Swedish language
will help to find out more information from the Swedish consumers. English is moreover not the
mother language of the researchers that also impact on the respondents. Also, most of the research
by previous works of literature that was found is written in the Swedish language that caused
difficulties to explore information or comprehend them accordingly.

36
Chapter 4.0 Empirical Findings

In this chapter, we present the findings that have collected from the interview respondents. To
evaluate the responses from Bangladesh and Sweden, we have separated them. This section is
divided into three essential parts they constitute responses from Bangladesh, responses from
Sweden, and a summary of the whole empirical findings.

4.1 Responses from Bangladesh

4.1.1 Cultural Influence

On asking the cultural influence in brand preference, respondents have shared varied opinions. The
majority considers culture performs a significant role in purchasing instant food brands; where
some of them think that it does not have an impact. Respondents further shared that this is a new
and growing business where a limited number of people only purchase these. Besides, due to
cultural influence, consumers look for the ingredients and packaging system that maintains health
safety.

Most of the respondents shared that they seek Halal food at the time of purchasing instant foods.
Besides, religion comprises a substantial factor that enables them to look for this concept, and they
never want to purchase the food that is forbidden. Another aspect that is shared by the respondents
that they consider for the social networking review which represent the current trend for the people.
On the other hand, a review on social media influences the purchase decision of instant foods.

However, traditional values are assigned by one of the respondents. Instant food related to the
tradition and observed for a long time encourages to purchase them. One of the respondents shared
brands are known by the family members. That means, the family remains the overriding priority
and food that suits all are purchased first. One of the responders stated as below.

“In Bangladesh, instant foods business is a new and growing business concept. Right now, only
aristocrat people are purchasing instant foods. So, it will take some more time to grab the mass
market due to our cultural background. In terms of cultural influences, most of the people look for
Halal food that does positive thinking among the people to purchase the food.” (Bangladesh, 2020)

37
4.1.2 Brand Preference

Brand preference is vital for Bangladesh that has found from most of the respondents. In addition
to that, preferred brands let the purchase decision easier. Most of the respondents expressed that
they look for brand value in the market. Based on the trust of a particular brand, they carry out
their purchasing decision. As a result of this, they prefer established branded products because
they get satisfied with the quality. It makes them hesitated at the time of purchasing instant food
which is not established or renowned. One of the respondents further stated that brand preference
provides more safety, satisfaction, and assurance. Below is the response from one of the
participants.

“For purchasing of instant foods, at first, I'll check the brand value in the market. If it is a famous
brand in the market, then I'll prefer this brand. Trusting the famous brand means having
satisfaction with the quality and all that makes me secure to purchase brand products.”
(Bangladesh, 2020)

However, we have observed contradictory responses too. Some of them shared that they seek the
quality of the product rather than focusing on the brand. That means the quality of the product adds
value to the brand preference. Focusing on health and safety, consumers purchase instant foods
that maintain an outrageous amount of variety. Besides, there are some famous branded products
in Bangladesh they put a high price margin, but the quality is the same as other competitors in the
market. Therefore, it is not habitually an ingenious idea for them to place trust in branded products
or to prefer only the brands.

Another aspect of not choosing instant food brands is comparatively expensive. Respondents
further added, sometimes manufacturing companies impose excess charge due to brand
establishment in the market. That means, it is not a wise idea to determine the famous brand foods
as they put only a high price tag than the quality.

4.1.3 Marketing Communications

Marketing communication portrays a significant role in the purchasing decisions of instant foods.
Most of the respondents have said they look for the review on different social networking sites and
make their purchase decision. Facebook pages, groups, YouTube reviews, and Instagram posts

38
represent the most common form that allows the reviewers to provide a good or bad review about
instant foods. In addition to that, hearing from a close zone or word-of-mouth also plays a
substantial role in purchasing instant foods. One of the respondents stated as below.

“I think in food sectors marketing communication impacts me when I got a review from my close
zone. Before purchasing the instant food brands, I try to look forward to the good review and then
take my purchasing decision. On the other hand, brands catchword influences me to buy their
products.” (Bangladesh, 2020)

Besides, instant food manufacturers make different communication processes through the use of
advertisements on television, social networking sites, newspapers, and many other ways.
Respondents also stated, all these are helpful to receive ideas, values, offers, benefits, etc. about
the product. Therefore, these advertisements and review processes enable the customer to compare
substitute products and purchase the preferred one.

However, one of the respondents expressed that there are some paid reviews on social networking
sites. That means, companies provide good reviews for their products and paid to social media
influencers. For instance, it is immensely vital to investigate reviews and adopt a trustworthy
communication process.

4.1.4 Brand Elements

In our study, most of the respondents agree that different elements in the instant food products lead
them to purchase. Name of the brand, the message, and logo design mostly influence them to buy
the product. Respondents state that the design of the logo allows them to feel the elegance of the
brand that also helps them to differentiate from other products. Hence, the creative brand logo and
symbols attract the consumer to purchase them.

However, some of the respondents are not aware of the brand logos, name, and other elements.
They consider all these are just a waste of time and not required to give attention to them.
Respondents further shared that they have some terrible experiences on the excellent logo,
message, symbols, and others. For instance, having a good logo doesn’t mean the product quality
always be good too.

39
Besides, one of the respondents believes logos and symbols mostly provide false information. He
further stated, elements just try to increase customer attention. The reason for giving such
comments has a terrible experience trusting on attractive logos and design. Whereas, the quality
of the food was beyond the expectation and didn’t match with the exterior design. Below represents
the response from one of the participants.

“Purchasing an instant food, I prefer quantity and hygienic packing rather than price. If those
things come together, I bought it. Attractive logo, symbols, and many other elements are not
usually blow up my mind to purchase. I think mostly they are fake and just try to impress the
customer's attention. I have some bad experiences with the attractive logo, that is far away from
the food quality.” (Bangladesh, 2020)

4.1.5 Price of brand

Some of the respondents from Bangladesh have stated that price is an essential element while
selecting any brand before purchase. Especially for the students, it is a factor that gets the most
attention because they have limited purchasing power. Customers in developing countries like
Bangladesh have to be cautious before spending money as per capita income is low, and the price
hike is a common factor. It is also challenging to maintain the quality of any product. So, the
brand that is cost-effective but contains a standard variety will get priority. Sometimes people have
to change their minds while purchasing any brand considering the status of their pocket or budget
gets priority over choice. They have to compromise with their preference if the chosen brand is
costly. Students have limited earnings from which they have to accumulate in several sectors.
There are limited options for luxury. One of our respondents from Bangladesh has provided a
similar type of view,

“I am compelled to give importance on price while buying instant foods as I am a student & it’s
not easy for me to choose an expensive brand. I usually prefer those brands which have a
combination of good quality and balanced price.” (Bangladesh, 2020)

But some of the respondents have shared different views regarding their brand preference for
instant foods. As health is an essential factor and having healthy eating is also vital, so price always
not matter if we think about our health safety. Superior quality is also a provider of mental

40
satisfaction, especially for foods. A standard variety gets high priority for some respondents we
came to know from the below statements,

“There have many unhealthy cheap foods available in the market. I do not consider price to buy
instant food. As I already said, health is important to me. I don’t think twice at the time of
purchasing healthy food by paying high money than the lower quality one.” (Bangladesh, 2020)

4.1.6 Brand image

A brand image ensures standard and persistent quality. Especially for food items, people focus on
this matter a lot as it has direct contact with our health. Quality can influence someone to choose
a brand over other brands and also helps to compare among different brands. If a brand has superior
quality, then it is also able to generate value, and the customer might have consistency in his brand
preference. One of the respondents has cited,

“I am looking for quality food and brand image makes a huge impact to buy instant food. By
hearing the reviews and from my personal experiences, I prefer the branded one because they
follow the quality.” (Bangladesh, 2020)

The brand image comes on consumers’ mind before making the purchase decision. Poor quality
or non-famous brands do not get attention from the customers. Customers want to pay the price
for a brand which gives certainty of getting benefits. Brands with high quality can ensure customer
retention for a long time. Brand image or product reviews play an important while selecting a
brand. Sometimes non-famous brands also offer excellent variety to compete with other brands
and to survive in the market. The equivalent combination of quality, price, and packaging is
necessary for food brands, but the brand which has food safety certification will get priority over
every brand. Some of the respondents have provided their views in this regard.

Sometimes consumers do not want to come out of a structured mindset, but not always. Usually,
people feel afraid to try unknown brands because of uncertain characteristics. But to overcome
boredom some people like to try new brands to differentiate the previous one and also to bring a
change in their taste bud.

41
“It matters a lot while selecting a brand for instant food. Though I prefer to stick to my structured
mindset mostly my curious mind sometimes encourages me to try something new also.”
(Bangladesh, 2020)

4.1.7 Brand availability

People usually search for the brand, which they generally use before purchasing. But if they do
not get that instantly, then they look for the next best option or substitute which goes with their
requirement and at the same time cost-effective. Consumers are ready to purchase any available
brand because they mainly concentrate on the price and quality of the brand. In the case of instant
foods, the environment will also get priority. If the packaging is good and ensures hygiene, then it
may create a positive signal to make the purchase. Some consumers don’t want to spend much
time seeking their desired brand, especially for instant foods. In that case, they quickly make their
mind to choose the nearest brands. They are ready to purchase any available brand. Some of the
respondents have cited,

“While purchasing instant foods I always look for certain brands which I generally buy first, but
if they are not available then I would like to prefer the next most famous brand which is also
budget-friendly.” (Bangladesh, 2020)

4.2 Responses from Sweden

4.2.1 Cultural Influence

Respondents from Sweden typically do not prefer cultural factors, and they are highly unbiased at
the time of purchasing foods. They further stated, due to the globalization, and brands are available
everywhere. Thus, participants do not encounter difficulties to buy instant foods. Openness in
culture is another aspect that shared the respondents. Due to this, consumers can select any type of
brand. One of the respondents stated as below.

“Culture does not influence brand perception. The fact that globalization is everywhere my mind
of brands is seen almost everywhere you go. I am open to anything, and products are globally
oriented. My preferences for the brand are also available that can be seen anywhere. So, for me,
culture does not influence brand perception.” (Sweden, 2020)

42
However, some respondent feels that culture occupies a significant role. The food ingredients,
tastes, and other things differ from culture to culture. Besides, they stated culture differentiate what
can be consumed or what cannot. In addition to that, respondents shared several brands are
available in the market, and they choose as per the background. One of the respondents shared the
contents provide an immense idea about the brand. That means the contents of the food enable the
consumer to know about details.

4.2.2 Brand Preference

Most of the respondents shared that they prefer branded products and feel secure on the established
brands. That means, at the time of purchasing instant foods from the super shop, they look for their
preferred brands. Respondents further stated sensitivity on the instant food products allows them
to stick with their preferred brand and do want to compromise with others. Besides, brands that
they are not purchased before are unpreferable for the respondents. As follows, positive experience
with the brand is crucial; otherwise having negative experience can discontinue at any time. Below
is the response from one of the participants.

“Brand preference has a lot of impact on my purchasing in that, when it comes to instant food, I
am very sensitive on that and I stick with the brand I know. I am a person who prefers to continue
with what I know and I don’t like to go for a new one. What I have tried over and over because at
a time trying new instead can be both positive and negative, when I try and it is positive, I continue
with it, if on the opposite, well I discontinue. But most often I go for what I already know.”
(Sweden, 2020)

Furthermore, one of the respondents said that the brand let them fulfil their demands. That means,
preferred prepared food brands eliminate the fear and increases the trust level. Hence, the attraction
on the brand and buying preference also enables the consumer to choose only the highly anticipated
brand.

“It matters. Because in any place I visit if I am familiar with the product and brand then I definitely
go for that without any fear. Brands really have an important impact on my purchasing decision.”
(Sweden, 2020)

43
However, observing the brand is another factor that shared a respondent. That means consumers
perceive a specific brand before making the purchasing decision. Food value, taste, and ingredients
represent the benefits that consumers expect from instant food brands. Therefore, brand preference
permits them to fulfil the demands and increase the expectation level.

4.2.3 Marketing Communications

Most of the respondents get attracted by the marketing communication process that influences the
purchasing decision of instant foods. Hence, they trust advertisements to obtain an in-depth idea
regarding the features of the brand. Respondents have further shared that they get to know about
the offers or promotional deals through marketing communication. Besides, effective
communication enables the customer to recognize the characteristics of the brand. Underneath
represent the response from one of the participants.

“Marketing communication gives us clarity about a brand and we come to know the brand and
characteristics it contains. I have more affection for them because I know them, so their little
initiatives can help us widely. It can give us conviction and we know that they are popular. Because
of their marketing communication, we come to know them and become familiar with the brand.”
(Sweden, 2020)

Respondents also stated an excellent presentation and attractive advertisement enable them to
make a purchase instant food brand. Proper representation of the product causes a tremendous
impact on consumers purchasing behaviour. Moreover, advertisement allows respondents to have
an idea about the colour, taste, and shape. That means if the commercial has properly settled or
thoughtfully done; subsequently, it may reflect the brand attributes for instant food.

Furthermore, respondents shared that they got influenced by the direction through the marketing
communication process and brand attribution. Having experience from another customer or word-
of-mouth represents an additional aspect of marketing communication that stated by the
participants. Therefore, reviews or hearing from other users impacts the purchasing behaviour.
One of the respondents said as below.

“Yeah, it does. Marketing communication or advertising has an impact on me. If the commercial
has well settled or nicely done then, it may reflect the brand attributes for instant food and give

44
direction that let me try the brand. I say it has a tremendous influence on me. I can make my mind
to consume the brand based on how marketing communication has represented. The colour,
design, the pattern they used can also matter in this regard.” (Sweden, 2020)

4.2.4 Brand Elements

The majority of the participants focuses on brand elements. They also shared that the brand logo
allows them to purchase instant foods. That means, only by looking at the brand logo, they make
the purchase decision because it attracts their mind and attention. Respondents further stated
creative logo design enhances the attractiveness and increases the brand image. One of the
respondents said as below.

“For the brand elements, two things image and the packing. If I move by the brand image, let’s
say the logo, if it is attractive and catches my mind, I will purchase based on the logo. I don’t look
at other things, I just look for the logo and image. If the logo is not attractive and does not catch
my attention, I don’t want to know what is beyond it.” (Sweden, 2020)

One of the participants also stated that by looking at logo design, it attracts to check out the product.
Attractive design and packing of the product allow them to consider it can be delicious. Besides,
a beautiful logo design comes with the exceptional disposal of the products that lead to the
purchasing decision.

Besides, another respondent also expressed that brand elements provide a long-term existence on
memory. It gives a strong value message and motivates them to purchase the product. Famous
brand names with an extended period have good track records, and respondents feel secure to buy
them. Hence, an attractive brand logo, name, design, and symbol, instantly clutch the attention of
respondents. One of the respondents stated as below.

“Yes, after getting satisfied with the price, then I will look for the brand name and their logo design
that can easily attract my attention to check out a product. So, an attractive brand can make me
purchase a product. However, the attractive brand also comes with good packaging that makes
me feel interested to purchase that particular instant food.” (Sweden, 2020)

45
4.2.5 Price of brand

In the case of Sweden, the respondents have shared quite diverse opinions regarding the role of
the price while selecting a brand for instant foods. Budget-friendly brands having unique
characteristics may get priority over the price for many of the respondents in Sweden.

Sweden is a rich country and lifestyle is quite expensive here. Generally, students do not have the
opportunity to do full-time jobs and to earn money. They have to think twice before purchasing
any product. So, price is an essential factor before finalizing a brand for any product. Usually,
consumers are willing to pay a lower price in exchange for a superior quality brand and have a
tendency to win over the sellers. The brands are efficient to generate value to the customers’ cost
high price, which is unacceptable for most of the customers. Students’ are more likely to choose
and continue the brand that is valuable as well as consistent with the budget.

“Price is so… so… so… important. I would choose the brand that is cost-effective but has good
quality and it’s in between with my budget.” (Sweden, 2020)

Sometimes quality and packaging play a vital role to choose a brand over price. It works
subconsciously on the consumer’s mind. Packaging can attract customers at a glance, especially
for food products. If the packaging is vibrant and contains a contemporary look, then it can
magnetize customers’ minds and influence them to compromise with the price. One of the
respondents has stated in this regard,

“Price doesn’t matter once the item is good and once the packaging is attractive, I am eager to
try it so I don’t look at the price in that case.” (Sweden, 2020)

4.2.6 Brand Image

Peoples’ preferences toward brands may transform by time. As time goes on, people switch from
one brand to the other, but always tend to choose that brand which creates value. Brand image can
give an overview of the Organizational reputation and give assurance of value generation. A high
brand image provides comfort to customers rather than a low brand image. It has a special long-
lasting effect compared to others. It has consistency with the production and supply process and
with their quality. Brand image is such a thing that has a strong bonding with customers. But if

46
any brand is capable of attracting customers, then they would want to try that brand. Some of the
respondents have cited,

“Sure, the brand image matters a lot to me, it what attracts me and keeps me with the brand, once
a while, trying new brand matters but not that much. But due to the word-of-mouth and opinions
from others about another brand, I may switch to that one.” (Sweden, 2020)

A complete enclosure of quality, price, and packaging also has a tremendous impact on creating a
positive perception regarding a brand. The packaging gives the first impression of a brand that
contains the product description, manufacturing, and expiry date, which are necessary, especially
for instant food items. Total quality management (TQM) can give value to customers and also
create a positive viewpoint about the brand and earn the trustworthiness of customers by
maintaining consistent commitment.

For example, Kellogg’s corn flakes, I can trust them because I know the commitment the company
has put in and it ensures Total Quality Management (TQM). Their quality and excellence have an
impact and have a high influence on me. But if any brand does not provide much value then I
would try other options and I am enthusiastic to try new brands.” (Sweden, 2020)

4.2.7 Brand availability

Sometimes people do not want to switch to other brands at all. But if the aspired brand is not
available, then they search for another brand, but the product feature or quality must be similar.
Brand availability has an influence on customers to some extent. If brands with the same features
easily exist near hands, then people could take another brand without hesitation. Mainly people
emphasize the fulfilment of demands instantly. So consequently, the second-best brand will get
priority if it is capable of meeting up requirements and has equivalent quality, price, packaging,
and environment. Some of the respondents have stated,

“It matters a lot, for me, I will say when it comes to instant food and I don’t like trying new things
little. For example, I love Turkish yoghurt, if it is not available, I will look for another brand name
with attractive packaging that provides similar yoghurt.” (RP-03, Female, Sweden)

47
4.3 Summary of empirical findings

The below table is a summary of the empirical findings that are gathered from the interview.

Findings from the Participants of Findings from The Participants of Sweden Identified
Bangladesh Themes
• An important factor for consumers. • They shared mixed and biased reviews.
• The number of customers of instant foods is • Differentiates what can be consumed or not.
small due to low identity among people. • Due to globalization, foods from different Cultural influence
• Consumers’ choose only “Halal” foods. countries are available.
• Essential for consumers. • Established brands help to secure the purchase.
• Makes purchase decisions easier. • It does not want to compromise other factors.
• Quality of a branded product helps to satisfy • Preferred brand fulfils the demands of consumer Brand preference
consumers’ needs. that shared by Sweden respondents.
• Provide sufficient information to consumers • Offers, deals, and product descriptions give ideas
about a brand’s characteristics. about the product.
• Reviews in social networking sites and word- • Pleasant presentation of advertisements Marketing
of-mouth communications have an impact. influences consumers. Communications
• Offers are available in TV commercials, • Allows getting the idea of colour, taste, shape
newspaper, and social networking sites. that influences purchasing decisions.
• Makes a craze to purchase the product. • Attractive logo and image catch the mind.
• Quality matters than brand elements. • Stays long-exitance in the memory. Brand Elements
• Critical for students due to their limited • Combination of price, quality, packaging, and
budget. unique characteristics could charge a high price.
• Healthy and hygienic food brands charge high • Prioritize cost-effective and budget-friendly
prices. brands. Price of brand
• Ready to pay to get mental satisfaction • Sometimes cost does not matter due to curiosity
through superior quality. and willingness to try something different.
• Constantly existence in peoples’ minds. • Overtime brand preferences may change, which
• Famous brands assured high quality and caused brand switching.
safety certification. • A reflector of organizational reputation. Brand Image
• New brands could get priority due to peoples’ • Non-famous brands are unable to acquire
enthusiastic mind. customers’ attention.
• Unavailability causes switching to other • Unavailability of preferred brand caused
brands. switching to other substitute brands.
• Time matters over choice; consequently, any • Sensitivity may exist for certain brands caused to
available brand is acceptable. stick with that. Brand Availability
• Closest substitute brands may get importance • It affects customers to some extent but ultimately
in case of unavailability of desired brands. results in switching to other brands.

Table 3: Summary of empirical findings (Source: Authors Own)

48
Chapter 5.0 Discussion and Analysis

This chapter provides the comparison and analysis between empirical findings that are presented
in Chapter 4 and the literature review and theories of Chapter 2. This study aims to investigate
the knowledge and overall understanding of brand preferences for the instant food of Bangladesh
and Sweden. Subsequently, we have modified the theoretical framework as per the findings. Then,
we have made a summary of the analysis shows the similarities and differences of the results and
theories from literature reviews.

5.1 Cultural Influence

Bangladesh

According to Hofstede’s (2001), culture is the collective programming of the mind that
differentiates a group of people in a particular category from one to another. From the empirical
findings, it has been reflected the consumer has provided a diverse opinion in terms of purchasing
instant foods. Culture is a crucial factor acknowledged by most of the respondents. They shared
that instant foods represent a new and ongoing business that retains a limited number of customers.
Based on the packaging and overall ingredients of the food item, the customer develops the
purchasing decision. Besides, Gudykunst et al. (1996) supported this finding in their research and
sated that, each member of the culture follows their philosophy and choice that impacts the
behavioural process.

Trompenaars and Turner (2011) also stated that national culture is considered as the collective
programming that diverges from country to country. That is in line with the empirical findings as
consumers of Bangladesh typically prefer the food that supports religious values. Hence, they
never want to purchase food that is forbidden by religion. Furthermore, Smith et al. (2018) suggest
that practices of the food habit mainly come from family tradition. In our study, we have found
that traditional family values are observed by the respondents, and they value them at the time of
purchasing instant food.

Respondents also shared that they look at current food trends in various social networking sites. It
is intriguing to note that social media influences and encourages to purchase instant foods. In the
same way, Wan et al. (2012) attribute the communication process of each culture inspires or directs

49
food habits. However, empirical findings show clearly that instant food remains a new and growing
business that has a limited number of target customers. We have found that consumer looks for
the ingredients and packaging of instant foods that maintain health safety.

Sweden

Our empirical findings represent that they mainly do not get biased with the cultural factors at the
time of purchasing instant foods. They consider that due to globalization, products can be found
worldwide in the world. Bosona and Gebresenbet (2018) support this as they described Sweden
comprising a multicultural country, and social institutions carry out a substantial role in the cultural
situation. Furthermore, Bryman (2012) contend that different types of instant foods are available
in Sweden that helps the consumer to cook them quickly.

Some of the respondents also shared that culture is an essential factor in terms of food. Ingredients
of the foods, tastes, and other things differ from culture to culture that makes an impact on the food
choice. Similarly, Wan et al. (2012) supported this and described that the learning and
communication process of each culture is different than another. There are four factors of culture
suggested by Hofstede’s (2001) they are values, beliefs, attitudes, and lifestyle that forces people
and develops the standard practice.

The findings show the consumers of Sweden like to try out new things as they are open in their
culture. Openness in the culture allows purchasing anything from anywhere. Perhaps this
explained better by Trompenaars (1993) who find culture made changes on food habits and creates
a separate identity for the people. In our study, the contents of the food provide an immense idea
about the brand. Therefore, respondents overlook the materials and purchase instant foods as per
the ingredients.

5.2 Brand Preference

Bangladesh

According to Kwok et al. (2006), brand preference is a unique feature that directs the customer to
purchase any product. That is related to our findings, as most of the respondents from Bangladesh
find brand preferences are essential in purchasing instant foods. They look for brand value in the
market before buying instant foods. By making trust in a particular brand, they execute their

50
purchasing decision. In contrast, Pitta and Katsanis (1995) argue that a customer might not
purchase the product again if they are not satisfied with them. Therefore, the satisfaction level of
the customers from instant food brands is vital to prefer them.

In our study, we have also found that respondents prefer branded products because of their quality.
Hence, highly anticipated brands maintain the class as they have more value in the market than
others. Cătălin and Andreea (2014) expressed that customers exposed to many other brands and
follow the complex decision-making process. That is similar to the findings as respondents
experienced difficulties due to bearing a lot of non-famous or new brands in the market compared
to the prominent brands.

However, quality is the most important factor than the brand preferences that are also shared by
some respondents. Put differently; consumers prefer healthy and hygienic food than brand
reputation. Additionally, notable branded products increase their price due to their status, but the
quality is the same as the new or a non-established brand. Rijnsoever et al. (2009) note that brand
preferences show the level of interest by the consumers that involves high cost and generates a
massive impact on consumer life. Therefore, we can acknowledge that respondents do not focus
on brand preferences as they think it is nothing but only a waste of money.

Sweden

Brand preferences maintain a connection between the respondents of Sweden and Bangladesh. As
respondents of Sweden consider the brand preferences allows them to feel secure. Findings show
that due to the sensitivity of the instant foods, they stick with their preferred brands, and they do
not want to concede them with other substitutes. In addition to that, some of the respondents go to
the super shop and purchase preferred brands to save time. Similarly, Lema and Wodaje (2018)
describe product image is one of the significant factors that help with brand preference. However,
Kumar and Pinakapani (2019) argue that consumers' brand prefers differing due to the income
level. Therefore, consumers purchase brand products as per their income level.

Moreover, Keiningham et al. (2005) contend that brand preference depends on the experiences of
the consumer. Hence, the positive experience that consumers obtain with the product allows them
to repurchase them. In our study, we have found some of the respondents prefer instant food brands
as per the previous experiences.

51
Additionally, brand preferences increase the attraction of the respondents, and they choose only
the highly anticipated brands that are available in the market. That partially corresponds with
Kotler and Keller (2003) who find that a loyal customer with the preferred brand does not accept
any other substitute product in the market. Therefore, we can say that the positive experience of
the customer with the product helps to stay with the same brand.

5.3 Marketing Communications

Bangladesh

Empirical findings show marketing communication represents an essential factor in terms of

making the purchasing decision of instant foods. Respondents further state food reviews on social
networking sites help to discover the most superior product. Hence, there are certain groups, pages,
and blogs that are available on Facebook, YouTube reviews, and Instagram pages that commonly
engage the people. According to Cătălin and Andreea (2014), consumer purchase decisions get
influenced by marketing communication that affects consumer brand preferences. That is similar
to our findings as the respondents get influenced by marketing communication, and they try to
purchase the products that maintain effective communication. However, respondents also shared
the word-of-mouth plays an essential role in terms of making the purchasing decision for instant
foods. In general, consumers frequently spend time on social networking sites and looking for
reviews that impact purchase decisions.

Isik and Yasar (2015) stated in their study that marketing communication is managed for
companies marketing process that requires communication. They further explain marketing
represents an umbrella and communication is the core component that impacts brand preference
for the consumer. According to our findings, instant food manufacturers make different
communication processes through the use of advertisements on television, social networking sites,
newspaper, and many others. By using all these communication processes, respondents can get the
values, offers, benefits, and much other information. In addition to that, advertisements and
reviews allow the consumer to compare the substitute product and select the preferred one.
Moreover, this explained better by researchers like Latif et al. (2012) And Lema and Wodaje
(2018) as they find that advertisement is an influential factor of marketing communication that
spreads messages through different mediums.

52
Sweden

Respondents from Sweden explained that marketing communication helps to make the purchasing
decision of instant foods. Advertisements that are given by the organizations allow them to have
an in-depth idea about brand features. Furthermore, different types of promotional deals that are
shared by the organization are helpful to make the marketing communication process more
straightforward. That supports to Orth et al. (2004) as they believe that effective marketing
communication requires to identify the bridge between producers and a brand's perceived quality
that is related to what a consumer is considering. Literature specifies that subsequent benefits of
communication should need to be highlighted when consumer varies extensively in the benefits
sought and put weightage on brand rather than products. Thus, effective marketing communication
helps the consumer to identify the perceived quality of the brand.

Additionally, an excellent presentation and attractive advertisement that is given in the marketing
communication process impact the purchase decision of instant food stated in the findings. A
consumer can have an idea about the colour, taste, and shape of the product through the effective
marketing communication process. This evidence is also correlated to Khan (2019), who notes that
language, colour, and shape are important factors that influence the customer. In contrast,
Hellström and Nilsson (2011) highlight that the packaging represents a marketing communication
medium that allows seizing consumer interest. Respondents also get influenced by the exceptional
packaging of instant food. Our finding shows, through the marketing communication process,
consumers can know about the language, colour, and shape that can enhance their attention.

Besides Bagozzi and Dholakia (2006) contend that marketing communication helps to engage in
a relationship with brand participation and achieve the company's destination. That means an
effective communication process with the consumer enhances company development.
Respondents stated, marketing communication helps to obtain proper direction and brand
attribution. Numerous researchers have acknowledged this as they said about advertisements. The
advertisement given by the organizations provides adequate orientation on the brand and its quality
(Isik and Yasar, 2015; Latif et al., 2012). Hence, representation of the product enhances the brand
attribution and greatly influences to consume the particular item.

53
5.4 Brand Elements

Bangladesh

Various elements of the brand make impacts on the purchasing of instant foods that identified from
the empirical findings. Respondents shared the name of the brand, the message, and logo design
influences consumers' decisions. Moreover, having a good outlook or design allows the consumer
to feel the elegance of the brand that differentiates from others. Isik and Yasar (2015) also share a
similar view on this as they find that brand elements are the foundation on which brand perception
of brand preference built. Also, Aaker (1991) find that the brand name is a significant, core symbol
of the brand, origin of awareness, and interaction effort. That can be confirmed from the findings
of our study.

According to Kohli and Leuthesser (2001), the brand name is an anchor of the product that
demonstrates the identity. They more significantly added that brand names are viewed as long-
term commitments with the consumers. In our study, respondents consider the brand name is
essential that helps to obtain some idea about the quality of the product. Moreover, the name of
the brand allows them to differentiate them from others. However, Lerman and Garbarino (2002)
state that brand logos work as psychological possession of consumers. That supports our findings
as respondents believe that the creative design of the logo and symbols persuades them to purchase.

In contrast, some of the respondents also shared that they are not aware of the brand logos, name,
and other elements. It is interesting to note that they consider logos or design are a waste of time.
The reason for focusing less concentration on these elements is they have some bad experiences
from the logo, message, symbols, and other factors. That has also been indicated in Hoisington
and Naumann (2003) who find consideration of product quality, usability, compatibility, and
features are more important than the logo design. Therefore, having a good logo or design does
not mean the product quality will be good too.

Sweden

Major respondents from Sweden focus on brand elements. The brand logo helps to make their
purchase decision easily that stimulates minds as well. That has also been similar to Keller (2003),
who finds that logos represent visual symbols that provide different fundamentals which are
positively necessary functions for brands. Furthermore, logos are helpful to require the

54
identification that differentiates the brand from others. In our study, we have found that brand
image engages respondents and captures their minds to purchase the product.

Moreover, the attractive design and packaging of the product create a craze among them and
purchase the products. Exterior design and packaging of the product allow the respondents to
identify what is inside. According to Hoisington and Naumann (2003), product quality might
include features, usability, or compatibility. We can acknowledge our findings that quality would
be evaluated based on the approaches showed in the market.

After reviewing the empirical findings, we can discover that brand elements provide a long-term
existence on memory. It allows and influences the respondents to purchase the product only by
focusing on the logo, design, name, and symbol. Consequently, the interesting symbol or logo
design that provides by the manufacturers can grasp the attention very quickly. Keller (2003)
argued that slogans play an essential element for the brand that influences the brand and necessary
for expressing communication. However, none of the respondents' shares slogans encourages
purchasing instant foods.

5.5 Price of brand

Bangladesh

From the empirical findings, we acquired that price and brand values have a close affiliation with
each other which is also supported by Bosona and Gebresenbet, (2018). Generally, consumers tend
to purchase food products with excellent taste and price. The brand that provides good quality with
taste, as well as cost-effective, generates value to the customers. The brand that ensures high and
dependable standard enlightens customers to purchase those brands and continue to consume the
same brand for a long time. It is quite a common factor for many of the respondents. People usually
want to choose a brand that is fully capable of executing their demands. Customers are highly
interested in paying even more for a renowned brand that gives more exceptional quality.

After reviewing the empirical findings, we observe that price plays a vital role in selection criteria
for customers especially for those who have insufficient understanding of the brand which is also
recommended by Diallo et al., (2013). In Bangladesh, the per capita incomes of people are quite
low. Social problems, such as poverty and unemployment, have an impact on consumers. The rate

55
of illiteracy is also extremely high, which leads to customers toward an inferior brand due to lack
of understanding. As a result, consumers relentlessly try to buy the best products at the same time
have to keep in line with their ability. Therefore, before spending a single money, they have to
think several times. Especially for students' price is considered a critical factor not only for
purchasing foods but also for any product. Because in many cases, students do not have any
income, and they need to depend economically on their parents. Therefore, before selecting a brand
in-depth knowledge about the brand and the features related to that is highly necessary to avoid
any sort of wastage of their money.

During food purchasing, consumers respond quite delicately to price changes. From the empirical
findings we got, sometimes people have to alter their decision while obtaining any brand
considering their purchasing power which has synchronization with Estelami and Lehmann,
(2001); Evanschitzky et al., (2004) and Kenning et al., (2011). The price of different brands rises
very fast without giving any pre-notice as the inflation rate is relatively high in Bangladesh. There
is a lack of market monitoring which is the root cause behind it. The Government has little control
over market mechanisms and pricing organisms.
Moreover, the frequency of syndicates and middle-man in the marketplace is comprehensively
high. Consequently, the price hike is a common factor in Bangladesh which is a matter of great
concern to the people. Therefore, customers’ have to give priority to price over choice, which
causes eliminate their first preferred brand due to lack of affordability and purchase the second
option.

Our findings from the empirical study have stated that the price of instant food products has an
immense impact on sales and profit margin, which is also suggested by Ghose, and Lowengart,
(2013). The cost of raw materials enhances rapidly in Bangladesh, which increases the price of
different brands. The manufacturers must invest sufficiently extra money for high-valued materials
to produce a superior quality product. But if it ensures the sustenance of the existing quality of a
brand and also gives some additional value to customers, then consumers will be highly interested
in paying and eager to use the same brand for lifelong. Nevertheless, one of the respondents has
agreed to pay a premium price in exchange for a better quality product.

56
Sweden

Through different researches, it was acknowledged that in majority cases consumers try to acquire
profound knowledge regarding the price of different products (e.g., Brown, 1969; Estelami, 1998;
Evanschitzky et al., 2004; Gabor and Granger, 1961; Goldman, 1977; Jensen and Grunert, 2014).
From the empirical findings, we discover similarities. In Sweden, the standard of living is quite
high, and the cost of goods and services is also high. Therefore, if the spending will not balance
with income, then it is nearly impossible to carry out a comfortable life. Especially for the students,
it is a matter of great concern. Every time they have to spend money wisely as there are limited
options for students to earn money in Sweden. Therefore, they need to select a brand that can give
them maximum satisfaction at a reasonable price. By taking sufficient information about a product,
they can make an accurate purchase decision.

From the empirical study, we have viewed that price is the main factor for product and brand
choice in the food industry which has uniformity with Severin et al. (2001). Especially when the
difference in the position of different brands are little, the attribute of the price is thus of high
importance for both sellers and customers. Price can play a vital role in the selection of a brand.
As consumers emphasize those brands which offer unique features than others, but it is relatively
difficult to get much uniqueness. More or fewer attributes are the same as different brands except
for the price. Therefore, it is the basic standard of measure for the customers before selecting a
brand.

5.6 Brand Image

Bangladesh

From the empirical study, it has revealed that brand image is a set of trusts inherent in customers
about a specific brand, based upon some intrinsic and extrinsic attributes of a market involvement
significant to perceived quality and customer satisfaction which is also carried by Aaker, (1994)
And Cid and Rodríguez, (2001). Our findings also reveal that standard and stable quality is an
essential characteristic of any brand that exposes through the underlying brand image. Especially
for instant foods, the proper combination of taste and nutritional value is necessary. If the quality
deteriorates, then consumers will not want to continue with the same brand for a long time which
has also submitted by Aaker and Equity, (1991). Our findings also exposed that nowadays, people

57
are extremely conscious about health, and they do not want to compromise at any cost in this
regard. Therefore, consumers will prefer the brands that are certified by ISO (International
Organization for standardization) generally. Brands those have advanced image will give an
assurance of high standard, which has also posited by Keller and Davey (2001).

Our findings advocate that brand image reflects customers’ perceptions of a brand as revealed by
the brand associations held in the customer mind. These connections could instigate from
customer's direct experience or information acquired on a market offering or due to the force of
pre-existing involvements with an organization had on the consumer who has harmonization with
Keller, (1993a, b). According to Romaniuk and Sharp, (2003) and Šerićand Gil-Saura,(2012),
integrated marketing communications and the word-of-mouth strategy has a strong influence on
the brand image which has parallelism with the empirical study. Through marketing
communication, word-of-mouth, or previous experience, they can realize the vision or status of a
brand. Especially for food items, people are highly conscious as it has direct contact with our
health. Quality has a strong influence on customers that helps them to determine to choose or
ignore a brand. It is also helpful to make a comparison between various brands. Another critical
factor that has direct control over customers is value. If a brand can generate value, then it may get
the foremost priority from the customers than any other brand.

Furthermore, the findings propose that brand image is the mental portrait or sensitivity of a brand
or a branded product or service and contains symbolic connotations that consumers relate with the
particular aspects of a product or service which is also explained by Dobni and Zinkhan, (1990);
Padgett and Allen, (1997), Apéria, and Back, (2004). Additionally, our empirical findings
recommend that brand image represents the consistency or emotional connections consumers have
with a specific brand. Brand image has a static portrait of consumers' minds. Some of the
respondents revealed that they feel uncomfortable shifting from one brand to another, especially
for instant foods. Because it is related to our taste and all the brands will not provide the same
feeling. However, some of the respondents have offered different opinions in this regard. To bring
some changes and out of curiosity, they wanted to try new brands occasionally. These opinions
have correspondence with Low and Lamb, (2000).

58
Sweden

As per the empirical findings, people can get ideas about organizational reputation through brand
image. The superior brand image gives overall guidance to those customers who are highly
conscious of branded products. The customers can believe with closed eyes even on a specific
brand through their image and feel highly comfortable. Brand image has an ever-lasting effect on
consumers which has been suggested by Fernie et al. (2010). Findings also reveal that brand image
is the principal criteria to measure consumer behaviour and consumer perception toward a brand.
A high-quality brand image is capable of attracting and a force to consume the brand continuously.
Nevertheless, through word-of-mouth communication or any other marketing initiative can
influence to switch to other brands rarely. It has been suggested by Chakravarti and Janiszewski
(2003) also.

Furthermore, findings suggest that brand image has a relationship with consumers’ usage pattern
that reflects the symbolic meaning of consumption and articulate consumer loyalty toward a brand
which has also been suggested by Lau and Phau, (2007). If a brand is capable enough to generate
value and worth, then it is definite to stick with the same brand lifelong. In the case of instant
foods, Kellogg’s corn flakes could be the best example that is undoubtedly a value generator.

Consumer prefers the high quality of esteemed brands as suggested by Rubio et al. (2014) which
corresponds with the empirical findings. The valued brands could ensure TQM. Their consistently
high quality and excellence could have a strong influence on consumers. However, if they become
unable to generate value or even if quality deteriorates, then there may be a possibility of losing
the consumer.

The empirical findings suggest that brand image helps to create awareness and influence the
consumer to purchase the brand. Packaging plays a vital role, particularly for instant foods.
Because it contains the price, product description, preparation method, nutritional values,
manufacturing, and expiry date, therefore, it gives the first impression of a brand. It is helpful for
a consumer to get sufficient information and to verify a brand before purchasing it. It also assists
in judging the quality of a brand to some extent at a glance. If the Packaging were attractive, then
definitely the overall quality of the brand would be good. It is highly necessary to create brand

59
awareness, and it has a strong influence on consumers’ purchase decisions. It has been agreed by
Norazah (2013a) as well.

5.7 Brand availability

Bangladesh

Findings advocate that brand availability plays a vital role to fabricate a permanent position in
consumers’ minds. Still, the absence of a brand in the market may cause elimination from peoples’
memory which has been suggested by Bagozzi and Dholakia, (2006). Though people are quite
conscious about branded instant foods, the unavailability of the preferred brand may compel to
buy other brands to meet up the necessity immediately, which has theoretical assimilation with our
study. That can be considered as PBA.

Furthermore, findings declare that to acquire the favourite brand, it is possible to wait for some
time, but if it is highly necessary, then it may induce to go for the nearest substitute brand. It has
been supported by Khan and Rohi, (2013), as they recommend that the availability of a brand of
instant foods has a strong influence on consumers’ purchase decisions than others. If the preferred
brand is not available, then consumers will want to take the nearest brand that can fill up the
requirements. As instant foods are useful to meet up spontaneous needs so usually, people do not
want to wait for a long time. Typically, students prefer foods which can readily satisfy their need
as well as convenient to carry.

Additionally, the findings suggest that a brand’s availability diverges across situations, the
continuous existence of a brand in consumers’ minds can ensure specific notice or imagine in
multiple purchase occasions which have been said by Bosona and Gebresenbet (2018).

Sweden

Our findings exposed that a brand’s availability could be referred to as psychological accessibility
as well, which creates the likelihood that a buyer will observe, distinguish, and imagine a brand in
buying circumstances. If the suggested brand is unavailable, then it will undoubtedly look for a
different brand that has eye-catching packaging, but subconsciously will remember the preferred
brand repeatedly which has been claimed by Emari et al. (2012).

60
Moreover, our empirical judgments suggest that brand availability has a vital role in shaping
consumer perception toward a brand and their buying intention. If a preferred brand is unavailable,
then the closest substitute brand will get precedence. Still, in that case, things need to consider are
better quality, budget-friendly price, attractive packaging, and a standard environment that is
especially essential for instant food. Therefore, if a substitute brand can offer such a criterion, then
it may help to create a positive perception of the consumer regarding that substitute brand, which
may cause the customer to switch to that brand permanently in the future, this has been stated by
Amaldoss (2005).

5.8 Overview of findings and analysis

The below table presents similarities and differences of findings between Bangladesh and Sweden.
Moreover, analysis of related theories that support our results has also shown.

Overview of the theoretical framework and research analysis

Themes Findings from Findings from Sweden Analysis and validation with the theory
Bangladesh
Cultural influence - One of the most critical - Shared mixed reviews - Findings confirm learning is essential for
factors. on culture. Bangladesh, similar to Trompenaars and
-- Purchase foods that - Foods are available Turner (2011).
are Halal or accepted by everywhere due to - Mixed response from Sweden and due to
religion. globalization. the globalization brands are available
- Influenced by family. - Tastes, ingredients everywhere supports Bosona and
differ by culture. Gebresenbet (2018).
Brand preference - Important and makes - Established brand - Findings confirm brand preference is crucial
the purchasing decision secures the purchase at the time of purchasing instant foods similar
easier. and does not to Cătălin and Andreea (2014).
- Quality products are compromise. - Preferred brands fulfil the quality and other
essential for brand - Purchase anticipated factors that confirm the findings of Lema and
preferences. and preferred brands. Wodaje (2018).
Marketing - Influences by the - Promotions, deals, and - Influences the purchasing decision supports
Communications reviews on social product descriptions the theory of Isik and Yasar (2015).
networking sites or influence consumers. - Consumers from both countries can identify
recommendations. - Attractive packaging, promotional deals, colour, taste, shape, and
- TV commercials, presentations let the looks of the products through marketing
newspapers etc. provide consumer identify the communication stated by Latif et al., (2012).
promotional news. colour, shape, and taste - Social media reviews, TV advertisements,
- Paid reviews are given of the product. and other media activities that are related to
by companies on social -Word-of-mouth and marketing communication validating the
networking sites. reviews from others. theory of Bagozzi and Dholakia (2006).
Brand Elements - Brand name, logo, and - Brand logo, name, and - Different elements of the brand's impacts on
attractive design allows attractive image of the the consumers of Bangladesh and Sweden
them to feel the

61
 elegance also product catch consumer that found from the study and stated by Isik
differentiate from the attention. and Yasar (2015).
substitutes. - Brand elements stay for - Brand elements are the foundation that
- However, some of a more extended period increases brand preferences and related long-
them do not aware of and cause to purchase term commitments that agrees with
brand elements as they the product. Hoisington and Naumann (2003).
prefer quality than - Famous brands come - However, findings argue with Keller (2003)
elements. with premium packaging as slogans are not essential elements of the
and design. brand for instant foods.
Price of brand - Critical factor due to - Prioritize budget- - The findings confirm that in both countries’
limited budget and high friendly brands due to consumers’ give importance to budget-
priority of reasonable high standard of living friendly brands confirms to Bosona and
brands. cost. Gebresenbet (2018) And Lema and Wodaje
- Look for a balanced - The balanced (2018).
combination of price, combination of price, - In Bangladesh, consumers prefer a balanced
quality, health and quality, packaging, and combination among price, quality, healthy
hygiene. unique characteristics. and hygienic food is necessary. In Sweden,
- Willingness to pay - Less critical factor due consumers prefer a balanced mix of price,
more to get mental to curiosity and to quality, packaging, and unique characteristics,
satisfaction through overcome boredom. which was also confirmed by Diallo et al.
superior quality. (2013), and Severin et al. (2001).
Brand Image - Guarantor of standard - A reflector of - Organizational reputation exploded through
and persistent quality. organizational the brand image for both countries, which has
- Eternal existence in reputation. correspondence with Aaker, (1994).
peoples’ minds. - Long-term existence in - Brand image has a constant presence in
- Famous brands assured peoples’ minds. consumers’ minds which has consistency with
high quality and safety - Non-famous brands are Chakravarti and Janiszewski, (2003), Keller,
certification. unable to acquire (1993a, b) and Low and Lamb (2000).
- New brands could get customers’ attention. - In both countries, people have tendencies to
priority due to peoples’ - Over time brand purchase famous brands instead of non-
enthusiastic perception. preferences may change, famous brands by observing their quality and
which caused brand standard that was also proposed by Rubio et
switching. al. (2014).
- Due to curiosity, people may choose new
brands over time, which demonstrates
equivalency with Norazah (2013a).
Brand Availability - The tendency to buy - Unavailability of - Findings harmonize the effect of brand
the same brand every preferred brand caused availability on consumers’ brand preference
time, but unavailability switching to substitute for two countries which has also supported by
causes switching to brands. Bagozziand Dholakia, (2006) and Emariet al.,
other brands. - It affects customers to (2012)
- The closest substitute some extent but - Consumers of two states to choose the
may get importance due ultimately results in nearest substitute brands in of unavailability
to unavailability of switching to other of the preferred brand, which is also
desired brands. brands. proposed by Khan and Rohit, (2013) and
Amaldoss, (2005).
Table 4: Overview of findings and analysis (Source: Authors Own)

62
5.9 The factors influencing brand preference on instant foods

Considering different results from the previous works of literature in Figure 2, the modified factors
affecting brand preference on instant foods below Figure 4 shows the modification and new
perceptions.

Factors

• Cultural Influence
• Marketing Communications
• Brand Elements
• Price of brand
• Brand Image
• Brand Availability
• Packaging
• Quality of Brand

Consumers Brand Preference Consumers Brand Preference

for Instant Foods in Sweden for Instant Foods in Bangladesh

• Quality of Brand • Quality of Brand

• Price of brand • Price of brand
• Packaging • Packaging
• Cultural Influence
• Cultural Influence
• Marketing Communications
• Brand Image
• Brand Availability
• Brand Elements
• Brand Availability

Figure 4: The factors influencing brand preference on instant foods (Source: Authors Own)

The findings of this study support the proposed theoretical framework (Figure 2) especially, in the
field of culture, price of the brand, marketing communication, brand image, brand availability, and
brand elements. We have found cultural influences have an impact on the brand preference for
instant foods, mostly from Bangladesh. Religious values and food habits of the culture are highly
influential factors that have explored in this study. However, quality and packaging are added to
the modified factors.

63
Furthermore, quality, price, brand availability and packaging of the brand are shown in Figure 4
influences the consumers of Sweden and Bangladesh. Brand image and brand elements are highly
influenced by the consumers of Sweden that also showed. Also, marketing communication has a
strong influence on the consumers of Bangladesh that showed in the separated box.

Also, brand availability matters profoundly for the consumers of Sweden and Bangladesh on
purchasing instant foods. In our study, we have also found they firstly look for the favourite instant
food brands. If favourite brands are not available, consumers can switch to substitute products that
maintain the quality.

64
Chapter 6.0 Conclusion

This chapter presents the answers to research questions, analysis, and discussion of different
factors. We also discuss the contribution of the study, implications, and reflections. Furthermore,
suggestions for future research are presented.

6.1 Answering the Research Questions

The current study aimed to explore the influence of different factors on consumers’ brand
preferences regarding instant foods in Sweden and Bangladesh. Two research questions have been
developed considering the aim of this study. Based on the literature review, a theoretical model
has been constructed. Empirical findings were connected with the literature review to achieve the
aim and answer of the research questions; which are represented below.

How do different factors influence on brand preferences of instant foods?

The first step of the study was to identify the influence of various factors on consumer brand
preferences of instant foods.

The core enlisted factors in the study those control over consumer brand preferences are culture,
marketing communications, brand elements, price of the brand, brand image and brand
availability. The findings reveal that consumers’ deals with different factors are delicate while
selecting a brand for instant food to make an ideal purchase decision. Consumers’ consider culture
as a vital factor in the case of choosing a brand for instant food. Cultural heritage, values, beliefs
and religious norms have authority over consumers’ while selecting a brand for instant foods.
Quality is another factor which matters significant as foods have a direct association with our
health and superior quality of a brand can hold consumers’. Marketing communication influences
the purchasing decisions of consumers’ through social networking sites, advertisements, TV,
newspaper and other media platforms. It helps consumers’ to know about brand characteristics,
promotional offers, price and usage descriptions of instant foods. Brand elements construct a
foundation in consumers’ mind regarding a brand and develop sustained commitments with the
product. However, the current study discloses that the importance of slogan or message is quite
less for instant foods.

65
Consumers go with the budget-friendly product combined with the price, quality, healthy, and
hygienic. The study also shows brand image maintains a constant presence in consumers' minds.
The analytical mind of the consumer observes the qualities of the brand and selects the most
satisfactory one.

How do consumer brand preferences vary between Sweden and Bangladesh regarding instant
foods?

The second step of the study and the second research question aimed to analyze the consumer
brand preferences regarding instant foods of two countries, Sweden and Bangladesh.

The results showed that cultural variation has a diverse impact on consumers’ brand preferences
among the two countries. In Sweden, due to globalization, people are getting different options for
food brands that create curiosity for consumption. By acquiring different brands, people in Sweden
can understand the attributes of other countries. People are open-minded in Sweden, which leads
them to try new options. In Bangladesh, before selecting a brand, people think about their religion
as the majority of the people are Muslim, and only Halal brands are allowed in their religion.
Consumers’ of Bangladesh highly emphasizes the quality and standard of a brand. The level of
corruption is high, and entrepreneurs adopt unfair means in most cases. So, to maintain a consistent
quality is a very unusual phenomenon in Bangladesh. It forces people to think a lot before selecting
a brand in Bangladesh food producers generally interested in using low-cost raw materials and
using preservatives and formalin’s to preserve their product for a long time.

Consequently, consumers’ are cautious while selecting a brand for any food items. Furthermore,
findings confirm that in both countries, ’ consumers’ give importance to low-cost brands, but their
perceptions are different. In Bangladesh, consumers are willing to pay more for a brand that
contains a proper balance between prices, quality, healthy and hygienic food and are willing to pay
more to get mental satisfaction through superior quality. Bangladesh is a highly populated country
that leads to a poor unhygienic production environment and causes various diseases. So only the
brands that are standard and internationally certified are acceptable by the customers. However, in
Sweden, consumers prefer a balanced combination of price, quality, packaging, and unique
characteristics that motivates them to pay a higher price.

66
6.2 Contributions to the field of research

6.2.1 Theoretical contributions

Our research has several contributions to the sectors that were not highlighted by the previous
studies. Lilly (2014), unveils that consumers have tendencies to choose the brands that are
available in shelves and spouse decisions also play a fundamental role in this regard. But the
current study proposes that consumers think about other factors, e.g. price, quality, packaging, and
brand image before selection of a brand. Moreover, the earlier study emphasizes only television as
a medium of marketing communication. But the current research reveals that social media
marketing, word-of-mouth communication, and promotional campaigns assist customers in getting
information regarding a brand and also to evaluate the reliability of the brand.

Cătălin and Andreea (2014) have acknowledged that consumers determined a brand based on self-
image. The authors have conferred that consumers reveal their own identity through brand identity.
Furthermore, they have omitted consumers’ psychological and marketing viewpoints. But our
research has found out that consumers put importance on the brand image instead of self-image.
The brand that has a renowned identity in society will always get consumers’ attention. Brand
image is an instantaneous publisher of an organizational reputation as well as the quality and
standard of the brand. Simultaneously brand elements have a long-lasting effect on consumers’
minds which subconsciously conducts customers’ decisions. Brand elements have an immediate
impact on consumers’ brand assessment.

Isik and Yasar (2015) have studied the effects of the brand name on consumer preferences. They
have only incorporated brand name instead of considering other brand elements, e.g. logo, slogan,
message, character, jingle, etc. The current study also has seen that brand elements influence the
brand preference of consumers for instant foods.

Packaging, quality of the brand, price of the brand, brand name, brand availability, brand image,
and advertisement have significant associations with consumers’ brand choice for bottled water
were identified by Lema and Wodaje, (2018). The current study has similarities with the earlier
research but also has some diversity. The recent research has incorporated various brand elements
apart from the brand name. Besides, it has examined the influence of diverse types of marketing
communications on consumers’ brand choice. Findings of the current study also show attractive

67
packaging and improved quality of the product plays a vital role in consumers’ brand selection for
instant food which incorporates new insights with the previous study.

Consumers of Sweden are habitually connected with locally produced organic food products that
have superior quality and standard as introduced by Bosona and Gebresenbet (2018). The study
has focused only on the consumers of Sweden. The current research focuses on the nature of
consumers' brand preferences of two countries, e.g. Sweden and Bangladesh. It will nourish the
understanding of consumer brand preferences of geographically two diverse locations, e.g. Europe
and Asia.

Kumar and Pinakapani (2019) have identified the factors that influence consumers consistently to
formulate long-lasting brand preferences. Their study did not explain in detailed the pinpointing
elements, e.g. business techniques, advertisement information, ad campaign, and tag preferences
that have correspondence with customers' brand selection process. This study has introduced
indicative factors to overcome the shortcomings of prior research. Through brand image, it is
possible to understand the business techniques taken by the organization to originate a superior
and consistent standard that is covered by the current study. Moreover, advertisement information,
ad campaign, and tag preferences are considered as parts of marketing communications which is
also highlighted enormously throughout the present study.

6.2.2 Managerial implications

Numerous practical ideas based on the current study enhance understanding of managers about the
judgments that consumers’ apply before selecting a brand for instant foods. One of the significant
findings suggests that cultural value has a strong influence on consumers’ before choosing a brand.
This study encourages managers to offer only Halal brands mandatorily while operating business
in a Muslim majority country and provide proper descriptions while packaging, which gives
consumers’ of different religions better understanding about the brand. Another core finding of
this study reveals that price is an imperative factor that consumers’ focus while selecting a brand.
Price strategists will get an idea from the research that helps them to set budget-friendly price.
Managers could get direction from the study, which motivates them to offer various
complementary packages and charge subsidized price from students.

68
Furthermore, the finding exposes the importance of quality of a brand. This study helps managers
to determine the quality of a brand through ISO before promoting it in the mass market. Attractive
and contemporary packaging could play a vital role in consumers’ brand preferences has revealed
through this study. Managers could find out the necessity of detailed descriptions in an
understandable language above the packaging to transmit brand messages to consumers’. While
promoting a brand, managers could design marketing communication strategies in the local
language of the host country to show solidarity with the local culture and to deliver brand messages
to customers accurately. Besides, the current study persuades the importance of brand image,
which will manipulate managers to hold a consistent quality and standard of a brand. The study
further revealed that Unavailability of a brand could cause abolishment of that particular brand
and force consumers’ to switch to other brands. So managers could put emphasize on availability
of a brand for consumers to ensure sales revenue.

6.2.3 Societal implications

The current study could add insights which help consumers’ to determine the most appropriate
brand for instant food. The research exposes that consumer brand perception could be shaped
through the transmission of information via marketing communication and word-of-mouth
message. Furthermore, the study suggests, consumers could scrutinize and compare prices of
several brands to win over the seller and keep a balance with their budget. Besides, the research
shows the importance of quality of an instant food brand as food has a direct connection with
health, and people should not compromise with quality at all. The strong image of a brand can
create a permanent place in society and ensure to attain a high volume of the consumer was also
declared through this research. This study further discloses a brand could exist in society and
peoples’ mind forever through brand elements. Moreover, the study admits that highly available
brands get instant attention from consumers’ which is necessary for the survival of a brand in
society.

6.3 Critical reflection and Limitations

Reflection on the study demonstrates the constraints that had to be confronted during the research.
Firstly, this study has been paid attention to influential factors that affect consumer's brand
preferences for instant foods through interviews of graduate-level students of Bangladesh and
Sweden.

69
Additionally, the study investigates the significance of various factors that influence consumer’s
preferences is limited to only instant foods brands. It did not compare any specific brand with
another brand but underscore only generic brands, despite the brand type. Thus, congregated
information from interviewees is to scrutinized factors that dominate them to choose a particular
brand. Furthermore, assembled information from respondents disclosed only interviews, not
observations as interview method is the research approach selected for this study and the data
collection process could not have been amalgamated with observation. The focused cluster of
respondents was also limited within the graduate-level students. Still, if the study could cover
homemakers, working people, or elderly persons, then it would be possible to get more authenticity
of the study. The majority of the people in Bangladesh are Muslim, but some people are Indian
originated and considered a minority group. They do not think about religious restrictions. The
focused group of this study is only Muslim people. If we could incorporate people from other
religions in Bangladesh in the study, then it would be more authentic and vast.

Moreover, we are convinced with the validity of the study, and it provides exact answers. Because
we interviewed the people who have considered as the primary customers for instant foods, we
used purposive sample method to choose them arbitrarily, and we gathered information based on
their personal experiences. We gain the reliability of their responses. It shows the nature and
actions of consumers of two different countries while selecting a brand for instant foods.

6.4 Suggestions for Future Research

Different areas of this study could be done with more considerable aspect for the future.
Furthermore, it would be beneficial if researches in the future could insert more factors that can
affect customers’ buying decisions comprehensively, e.g. brand participation, brand advocacy,
brand involvement, etc.

It would be worthwhile in the future if such study could be accomplished with various categories
of respondents such as homemakers, older adults, and service-holders to get multiple viewpoints
and styles of dealing with different factors before selecting a brand. Moreover, a large target group
with other minor religions of Bangladesh could be done for future research.

Also, future research could be done for a more extended period that will be beneficial to get longer
observations on consumer preferences. However, we are aware of the limited number of

70
respondents in our research. Thus, future research can be carried out between Sweden and
Bangladesh through a quantitative research method.

Besides, future researches could incorporate different items other than instant foods to get
knowledge about customer philosophy concerning the brand. It would be precious if multiple
countries can be included from different geographical locations having dissimilar cultural beliefs
in future studies.

71
References

Aaker, D. A. (1996). Building Strong Brands The Free Press. New York.

Aaker, D. A. (2002). Building Strong Brands. London: The Free Press.

Aaker, D.A., (1994). Gestión del valor de la marca: capitalizar el valor de la marca (No.
608.7/A11mE).

Aaker, D.A., and Equity, M.B. (1991). Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name. New York,
28(1), pp.35-57.

Aaker, J.L. (1997). Dimensions of brand personality. Journal of marketing research, 34(3),
pp.347-366.

Alam, S.S. and Sayuti, N.M. (2011), Applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) in halal
food purchasing. International Journal of Commerce and Management, 21(1), pp. 8-34.

Ali, J., Kapoor, S. and Moorthy, J. (2010). Buying behaviour of consumers for food products in
an emerging economy. British Food Journal. 112 (2), pp. 109-134.

American Marketing Association (2007), ‘‘AMA definition of Marketing’’, Available at

www.marketingpower.com/Community/ARC/Pages/Additional/Definition/default.aspx.
(Accessed on April 24, 2020).

Amaldoss, W. (2005). Pricing of Conspicuous Goods: A Competitive Analysis of Social Effects.

Journal of Marketing Research, 42(1), 30–52.

Andersson, N., Carlsson, C., Christensen, L. and Haglund, L., (2001). Market research - A guide.
Lund: Student literature.

Ansari, W. E., and Samara, A. (2018). Adherence to Recommended Dietary Guidelines and the
Relationships with the Importance of Eating Healthy in Egyptian University Students.
International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 9(73), pp.1-28.

Apéria, T. and Back, R., (2004). Brand relations management: bridging the gap between brand
promise and brand delivery. Copenhagen Business School Pr.

72
Archibald, M.M., Ambagtsheer, R.C., Casey, M.G. and Lawless, M., (2019). Using Zoom
Videoconferencing for Qualitative Data Collection: Perceptions and Experiences of Researchers
and Participants. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18 (2/7), pp.1609-1987.

Asif, S., and Sargeant, A. (2000). Modelling internal communications in the financial services
sector. European Journal of Marketing, 34(3/4), pp.299–317.

Atkin, T., Garcia, R., and Lockshin, L. (2006). A multinational study of the diffusion of a
discontinuous innovation. Australasian Marketing Journal (AMJ), 14(2), pp.17-33.

Babbie, E.R., (2013). The basics of social research. Cengage learning.

Bagozzi, R. P., and Dholakia, U. M. (2006). Antecedents and Purchase Consequences of Customer
Participation in Small Group Brand Communities. International Journal of Research in
Marketing, 23(1), pp.45-61.

Bahari, S.F., (2010). Qualitative versus quantitative research strategies: contrasting

epistemological and ontological assumptions. Sains Humanika, 52(1). pp.55-78.

Bahl, S., (2012). Consumer Behaviour towards Food Retailing System; Arth Prabhand. J. Econ.
Manag, 1(4), pp.2278-0629.

Bartoo, H. and Sias, P.M., (2004). When enough is too much: Communication apprehension and
employee information experiences. Communication quarterly, 52(1), pp.15-26.

Baskar, K. Kamaraj, K., and Arunmozhi, R. (2013). A Study on Instant Food Products Buying
Behaviour of Consumers in Cuddalore District. Indian Streams Research Journal, 2(12), pp.26-
48.

Blanchard, A.L. and Markus, M.L., (2004). The experienced" sense" of a virtual community:
characteristics and processes. ACM Sigmis Database: the database for advances in information
systems, 35(1), pp.64-79.

Bleiker, J., Morgan-Trimmer, S., Knapp, K. and Hopkins, S., (2019). Navigating the maze:
qualitative research methodologies and their philosophical foundations. Radiography, 3(1),
pp.153-179

73
Blythe, J., (2008). Essentials of marketing. Pearson Education.

Bolton, R. N., and Drew, J. H. (1991). A multistage model of customers' assessments of service
quality and value. Journal of Consumer Research, 17(4), pp.375-384.

Bosona, T. and Gebresenbet, G., (2018). Swedish consumers’ perception of food quality and
sustainability in relation to organic food production. Foods, 7(4), pp.54-75.

Boyle, P. F., Kim, H. and Lathrop, E. S. (2018). The relationship between price and quality in
durable product categories with private label brands. Journal of Product & Brand Management,
27(6), pp.647–668.

Buil, I., Martinez, E., and de Chernatony, L. (2013). The influence of brand equity on consumer
responses. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 30(1), pp.62–79.

Brown, F.E., (1969). Price image versus price reality. Journal of Marketing Research, 6(2),
pp.185-191.

Bryman, A., (2012). Getting started: reviewing the literature. Social research methods. 4th edn.
Oxford University Press.

Bryman, A. and Bell, E., (2011). Business Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3rd edition.

Cantallops, S., & Salvi, F. (2014). New consumer behaviour: A review of research on eWOM and
hotels. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 36(2), pp.41–67.

Carman, J.M., (1990). Consumer perceptions of service quality: an assessment of T. Journal of

retailing, 66(1), p.33-57.

Cătălin, M. C., and Andreea, P. (2014). Brands as a means of consumer self-expression and desired
personal lifestyle. Procedia- Social and Behavioural Sciences, 109(18), pp.103-127.

Cătoiu, I., (2004). Consumer behaviour, Second Edition, Uranus Publishing House, Bucharest.

Cengiz, H. and Akdemir-Cengiz, H., (2016). Review of brand loyalty literature: 2001–
2015. Journal of Research in Marketing, 6(1), pp.407-434.

74
Chakravarti, A. and Janiszewski, C., (2003). The influence of macro-level motives on
consideration set composition in novel purchase situations. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(2),
pp.244-258.

Chen, H.C., (2007). Customers' perceptions of the marketing mix and the effect on Taiwan
hypermarkets' brand equity. Lynn University, Boca Raton, FL.

Cid, G.B. and Rodríguez, M.J.G., (2001). Los componentes del valor de la marca: una aplicación
empírica en el segmento alto del mercado automovilístico. Revista Europea de Dirección y
Economía de la Empresa, 10(2), pp.161-178.

Dobni, D. and Zinkhan, G.M., (1990). In search of brand image: A foundation analysis. ACR North
American Advances, 17(1), pp. 110-139.

Diallo, M.F., (2012). Effects of store image and store brand price-image on store brand purchase
intention: Application to an emerging market. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 19(3),
pp.360-377.

Diallo, M.F., Chandon, J.L., Cliquet, G., and Philippe, J., (2013). Factors influencing consumer
behaviour towards store brands: evidence from the French market. International Journal of Retail
& Distribution Management, 41(6), pp. 422-441.

E Bell, A Bryman, B Harley (2019). Business Research Methods (Vol. 5). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Emari, H., Jafari, A. and Mogaddam, M., (2012). The mediatory impact of brand loyalty and brand
image on brand equity. African Journal of Business Management, 6(17), p.5692.-5701.

Estelami, H., (1998). The price is right… or is it? Demographic and category effects on consumer
price knowledge. Journal of Product Brand Management, 7(3), pp.254–266.

Estelami, H. and Lehmann, D.R., (2001). The impact of research design on consumer price recall
accuracy: an integrative review. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 29(1), p.36–54.

Evanschitzky, H., Kenning, P., Vogel, V., (2004). Consumer price knowledge in the German retail
market. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 13(6), pp.390–415.

75
Farhana, M. (2012). Brand Elements Lead to Brand Equity: Differentiate or Die. Information
Management and Business Review, 4(4), pp. 223-243.

Fernie, J., Burt, S., and Davies, K., (2010). From the retail brand to the retail‐er as a brand: themes
and issues in retail branding research. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management,
38(11/12), pp.865-878.

Fuchs, C. and Diamantopoulos, A., (2010). Evaluating the effectiveness of brand‐positioning

strategies from a consumer perspective. European Journal of Marketing, 44(11/12), pp.1763-
1786.

Gabor, A. and Granger, C.W., (1961). On the price consciousness of consumers. Journal of the
Royal Statistical Society: Series C (Applied Statistics), 10(3), pp.170-198.

Gajjala, R.H. and Verma, T., (2018). Q WhatsAppified Diasporas and Transnational Circuits of
Affect and Relationality. Appified: Culture in the age of apps, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press. pp.205-278.

Gensch, D.H., (1987). A two-stage disaggregate attribute choice model. Marketing Science, 6(3),
pp.223-239.

Ghose, S., and Lowengart, O., (2013). Consumer choice and preference for brand
categories. Journal of Marketing Analytics, 1(1), pp.3-27.

Glenthøj, R., (2012). The divorce: Danish and Norwegian identity before and after
1814. Politics, 18(3), pp.361-377.

Goldman, A., (1977). Consumer knowledge of food prices as an indicator of shopping

effectiveness. Journal of Marketing, 41(4), pp.67-85.

Gonzalez-Padron, T.L., and Nason, R.W., (2009). Market responsiveness to societal

interests. Journal of Macromarketing, 29(4), pp.392-410.

Grönroos, C., (2006). On defining marketing: finding a new roadmap for marketing. Marketing
Theory, 6(4), pp.395-417.

76
Gudykunst, W.B., Matsumoto, Y., Ting-Toomey, S., Nishida, T., Kim, K., and Heyman, S.,
(1996). The influence of cultural individualism-collectivism, self construals, and individual values
on communication styles across cultures. Human communication research, 22(4), pp.510-543.

Guba, E.G. and Lincoln, Y.S., (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. Handbook of
qualitative research, 2(163-194), pp.105-129.

Hair Jr, J.F., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C.M. and Gudergan, S.P., (2017). Advanced issues in partial
least squares structural equation modeling. Sage publications.

Hellström, D., and Nilsson, F., (2011). Logistics‐driven packaging innovation: a case study at
IKEA. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 39(9), pp. 638-657.

Hellier, P.K., Geursen, G.M., Carr, R.A., and Rickard, J.A., (2003). Customer repurchase
intention. European journal of marketing, 37(11/12), pp.1762-1800.

Hoisington, S., and Naumann, E., (2003). The loyalty elephant. Quality progress, 36(2), pp.33-51.

Hofstede, G., (2001). Culture’s Consequences. Comparing Values, Behaviours, Institutions, and
Organizations across Nations. One Thousand Oaks. California.

Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G.J., and Minkov, M., (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of
the mind: intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival. McGraw-Hill.

Hox, J.J. and Boeije, H.R. (2005) Data collection, Primary vs Secondary. Encyclopedia of Social
Measurement, 1(0), pp.593-599.

Isik, A., and Yasar, M. F. (2015). Effects of Brand on Consumer Preferences: A study in
Turkmenistan. Eurasian Journal of Business and Economics, 8(16), pp.139-150.

Islam, Aminul A. K. M. (1982). Bangladesh Village: Political Conflict and Cohesion. Available
at: https://www.everyculture.com/A-Bo/Bangladesh.html#ixzz6KZMZTRyJ (Accessed on
4/25/2020).

Iyer, P., Davari, A., Zolfagharian, M., and Paswan, A., (2019). Market orientation, positioning
strategy, and brand performance. Industrial Marketing Management, 81(4), pp.16-39.

77
Jafersadhiq, A. (2014). A study on buying behaviour on Instant food products at Coimbatore.
Research Script International Journal of Management and Humanities, 1(1), pp.26-29.

Jensen, B.B., and Grunert, K.G., (2014). Price knowledge during grocery shopping: what we learn
and what we forget. Journal of Retailing, 90(3), pp.332-346.

Kamil, N.M., (2011). Ontology and epistemology in management research: an Islamic perspective.
Postmodern Openings, 2(7), pp.67-84.

Kapferer, J.N., (2008). The new strategic brand management: Creating and sustaining brand
equity long term. Kogan Page Publishers.

Karuppusamy, A. and Arjunan, C., (2012). A study on consumers buying behaviour towards
instant food products in Coimbatore. Namex International Journal of Management Research, 2(2),
pp.23-40.

Kenning, P., Hartleb, V., Schneider, H., (2011). An empirical multi-method investigation of price
knowledge in food retailing. International Journal of Retail Distribution Management, 39(5),
pp.363–382.

Keiningham, T.L., Perkins-Munn, T., Aksoy, L., and Estrin, D., (2005). Does customer satisfaction
lead to profitability?: The mediating role of share-of-wallet. Managing Service Quality, 15(2),
pp.172-181.

Keith, R.J., (1960). The marketing revolution. Journal of Marketing, 24(3), pp.35-48.

Keller, K. L. (2003). Strategic brand management: Building, measuring, and managing brand
equity (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Keller, K.L., (1993a). Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand

equity. Journal of Marketing, 57(1), pp.1-22.

Keller, K.L., (1993b). Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand

equity. Journal of Marketing, 57(1), pp.1-22.

Keller, K.L., (2001). Building customer-based brand equity: A blueprint for creating strong
brands (pp. 3-27). Cambridge, MA: Marketing Science Institute.

78
Keller, K. L. (2013). Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring, and Managing Brand
Equity. 4th ed. Pearson Education Limited.

Khan, H. (2019). Effects of personal dispositions, familiarity, and consumption situation on

Western brands’ packaging. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 36(6), pp.715–732.

Khan, H., Lee, R., and Lockshin, L. (2017a). The effects of packaging localization of Western
brands in a non-Western emerging market. Journal of Product and Brand Management, 26(6),
pp.589-607.

Khan, H., Lockshin, L., Lee, R., and Corsi, A. (2017b). When is it necessary to localize product
packaging? Journal of Consumer Marketing, 34(5), pp.373-391.

Khan, M.N., Salman, M., Nadeem, B., and Rizwan, M. (2016). The Impact of Product and Service
Quality on Brand Loyalty: Evidence from Quick Service Restaurants. American Journal of
Marketing Research, 2(3), pp.84–111.

Kinnear, T.C., Taylor, J.R. and Kresge, S.S., (1991). Marketing research: An applied approach
(3), New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Klink, R.R., (2001). Creating meaningful new brand names: A study of semantics and sound
symbolism. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 9(2), pp.27-44.

Kohli, C., and Labahn, D. W. (1997). Creating effective brand names: A study of the naming
process. Journal of Advertising Research, 37(1), pp.67–85.

Kohli, C., and Leuthesser, L. (2001). Brand equity: Capitalizing on intellectual capital. Ivey
Business Journal, 65(4), pp.74-98.

Kotler, P., Kartajaya, H., and Setiawan, I. (2012). From Products to Customers to the Human
Spirit. Marketing 3.0., New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Inc.

Kotler, P., (2003). Marketing Management. 11th ed. Englewoods Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kotler, P. (2000). How to create, win, and Dominate Market, (The Free Press, New York).

Kotler, P., and Keller, K. L. (2003). A Framework for Marketing. Prentice-Hall.

79
Kotler, P., Keller K. L. (2006). Marketing Management. (12. baskı). New Jersey, Amerika Birleşik
Devletleri: Pearson Education.

Kucuk, S. U. (2011). Push-based brand awareness: the role of product availability and in-store
merchandising. The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, 21(3),
pp.201–223.

Kumar, B. M., and Pinakapani, P. (2019). Identifying the Factors Influencing the Consumers
Invariably to Make Brand Preferences among the Durables. International Journal of Innovative
Technology and Exploring Engineering (IJITEE), 23(2), pp.1564-1567.

Kwok, S., Uncles, M., and Huang, Y. (2006). Brand Preferences and Brand Choices Among Urban
Chinese Consumers: An Investigation of Country-Of-Origin Effects. Asia Pacific Journal of
Marketing and Logistics, 18(3), pp.163-182.

Latif, A., Shah, A.A., Syed, G., Halepoto, A.H., Nazar, M.S., and Shaikh, F.M., (2012).
Advertising effectiveness on brand judgment and consumer preference in purchasing decision in
Pakistan. Journal of Asian Business Strategy, 2(1), pp.9-28.

Lau, K.C., and Phau, I. (2007), Extending symbolic brands using their personality: examining
antecedents and implications towards brand image fit and brand dilution. Psychology and
Marketing, 24(5), pp.421-444.

Lema, L. And Wodaje, M. N. (2018). Factors Affecting Brand Choice of the Consumers on Bottled
Water Brands. Pacific Business Review International, 11(3), pp.7-29.

Lerman, D., and Garbarino, E., (2002). Recall and recognition of brand names: A comparison of
word and nonword name types. Psychology & Marketing, 19(7‐8), pp.621-639.

Lilly, J. (2014). The purchase decision of the consumers towards instant food products.
International Journal of Business and Administration Research Review, 2(5), pp.125-129.

Loudon, D. L., and Della Bitta, A. J. (1993). Consumer Behaviour. Concepts and Applications.
New York: McGrow Hill, Inc.

80
Martenson, R. (2007). Corporate brand image, satisfaction, and store loyalty: a study of the store
as a brand, store brands, and manufacturer brands. International Journal of Retail and Distribution
Management, 35(7), pp.544-565.

Martinez, E., and Pina, J.M. (2003). The negative impact of brand extensions on the parent brand
image. Journal of Product and Brand Management, 12(7), pp.432-481.

Mathur, A., Moschis, G. P., and Lee, E. (2003). Life events and brand. Journal of Consumer
Behaviour, 3(2), pp.129-141.

Matsatsinis, N. F., and Samaras, A. P. (2000). Brand Choice Model Selection Based on
Consumers’ Multicriteria Preferences and Experts’ Knowledge. Computers and Operations
Research, 27(7-8), pp.689-707.

McKitterick, J., (1957). What is the marketing thought and action. American Marketing
Association, Chicago, IL.

Merriam, S.B., (1998). Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. Revised
and Expanded from" Case Study Research in Education.". Jossey-Bass Publishers, 350 Sansome
St, San Francisco, CA 94104.

Miles, M.B., and Huberman, A.M., (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook.
Sage.

Morrison, S., and Crane, F. G. (2007). Building the service brand by creating and managing an
emotional brand experience. Journal of Brand Management, 14(5), pp.410–431.

Nalca, A., Boyaci, T., and Ray, S., (2018). Brand positioning and consumer taste
information. European Journal of Operational Research, 268(12), pp.555-578.

Norazah, M.S. (2013a). Green awareness effects on consumers' purchasing decision: some insights
from Malaysia. International Journal of Asia Pacific Studies, 9(2), pp.49-63.

Norazah, M.S., (2013b). Consumer ecological behaviour: Structural relationships of

environmental knowledge, healthy food, and healthy way of life. J. Sustain. Sci. Manag, 8(2),
pp.100-121.

81
Ogba, I., E. and Tan, Z. (2009). Exploring the impact of brand image on customer loyalty and
commitment in China. Journal of Technology Management in China, 4(2), pp. 132-144.

O’Hara, K., Massimi, M., Harper, R., Rubens, S., Morris, J. (2014). Everyday dwelling with
WhatsApp. In Proceedings of the 17th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative
Work & Social Computing (pp. 1131–1143). New York, NY: ACM.

Orth, U. R., McDaniel, M., Shellhammer, T., and Lopetcharat, K. (2004). Promoting Brand
benefits: the role of consumer psychographics and lifestyles. Journal of consumer marketing,
21(2), pp.97-128.

Padgett, D., and Allen, D. (1997). Communicating experience: a narrative approach to creating a
service brand image. Journal of Advertising, 26(4), pp.49-72.

Pangaribuan, C. H., Yandi, M., and Ardiansyah, M. (2018). Analyzing the effects of product
quality, packaging, promotional offer, availability, and variety toward brand loyalty of “Mie
Sedaap”. Journal of Business and Entrepreneurship, 6(1), pp.1-24.

Pappu, R., and Quester, P. (2006). A consumer-based method for the retailer equity measurement:
results of an empirical study. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 13(5), pp.317-339.

Parboteeah, K.P., and Cullen, J.B., (2003). Social institutions and work centrality: Explorations
beyond national culture. Organization Science, 14(2), pp.137-158.

Pitta, D. A., and Katsanis, L. P. (1995). Understanding brand equity for successful brand extension.
Journal of Consumer Marketing, 12(4), pp.51-74.

Ramasamy, K, and Kalaivanan, G (2005), "Consumer Behaviour towards Instant Food Products”,
International Journal of Marketing, 35(6), pp.24-58.

Rashid M. Mamunur (2003). Moulic Pusti Parichiti (Fundamentals of Nutrition). Bangla

Academy, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Available at: https://www.everyculture.com/A-
Bo/Bangladesh.html#ixzz6KZMZTRyJ (Accessed on 4/25/2020).

82
Rahman, M. S. (2012). Dynamics of consumers’ perception, demographic characteristics, and
consumers’ behaviour towards the selection of a restaurant: an exploratory study on Dhaka city
consumers. Business Strategy Series, 13(2), pp.75-98.

Rijnsoever, V., Farla, F. J., and Dijst, M. J. (2009). Consumer Car Preferences and Information
Search Channels. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 14(5), pp.334-
352.

Roberts, J. H., and Lattin, J. M. (1991). Development and testing of a model of consideration set
composition. Journal of Marketing Research, 28(4), pp.429-440.

Romaniuk, J., and Sharp, B. (2003). Measuring brand perceptions: testing quantity and quality.
Journal of Targeting, Measurement, and Analysis for Marketing, 11(3), pp.218-239.

Rubio, N., Oubiña, J., and Villaseñor, N. (2014). Brand awareness–brand quality inference and
consumer’s risk perception in-store brands of food products. Food Quality and Preference, 32(4),
pp.289-302.

Rundle-Thiele, S. R., and Mackay, M. M. (2001). Assessing the performance of brand loyalty
measures. Journal of Services Marketing, 15(7), pp.529-546.

Sanclemente-Téllez, J.C. (2017). Marketing and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Moving
between broadening the concept of marketing and social factors as a marketing strategy. Spanish
Journal of Marketing - ESIC, 21(9), pp.4-25.

Saunders, M., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A. (2009). Research Methods for Business Students, 5th
edition, UK: Pearson Education.

Schiffman, L.G., Kanuk, L.L., and Wisenblit, J., (2000). Consumer Behaviour. Upper Saddle
River. J: Prentice-Hall.

Šerić, M., and Gil-Saura, I. (2012). ICT, IMC, and brand equity in high-quality hotels of Dalmatia:
an analysis from guest perceptions. Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management, 21(8),
pp.821-851.

83
Shafiee, M., Gheidi, S. and Khorrami, M.S., (2020). Proposing a new framework for personal
brand positioning. European Research on Management and Business Economics, 26(1), pp.45-64.

Shore, B., and Cross, B. J. (2005). Exploring the role of national culture in the management of
large-scale international science projects. International Journal of Project Management, 23(1),
pp.55-74.

Silayoi, P., and Speece, M. (2007). The importance of packaging attributes a conjoint analysis
approach. European Journal of Marketing, 41(11-12), pp.1495-1517.

Sisson, Richard, and Leo Rose (1991). War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of
Bangladesh. Available at:

https://www.everyculture.com/A-Bo/Bangladesh.html#ixzz6KZMZTRyJ (Accessed on
4/25/2020).

Smith, S.A., Patmos, A. and Pitts, M.J., (2018). Communication and teleworking: A study of
communication channel satisfaction, personality, and job satisfaction for teleworking
employees. International Journal of Business Communication, 55(1), pp.44-68.

Smithson, E. (2015). What is branding and why is it important for the business. Available at:
Https://www.marshallstrategy.com/branding-vs-marketing. (Accessed on 24.04.2020).

Snape, D., and Spencer, L., (2003). Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science
students and researchers. Edited by Jane Ritchie and Jane Lewis.

Spieth, P., Roeth, T., and Meissner, S. (2019). Reinventing a business model in industrial
networks: Implications for customers' brand perceptions. Industrial Marketing Management,
83(7), pp.275–287.

Srinivasan, K. & Nirmala, R. (2014). A Study on Consumer Behaviour towards Instant Food
Products (With Special References to Kanchipurm Town). Journal of Business and Management,
16(11), pp.17-35.

Steenkamp, J. B. E. M., Batra, R., and Alden, D. L. (2003). How perceived brand globalness
creates brand value. Journal of International Business Studies, 34(1), pp.53-75.

84
Solomon, M. R. (2004). Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, and Being. Upper Saddle River,
N.J: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Thalhammer, R.R. (2007). Natural product packaging: reflecting a contemporary philosophy.

Global Cosmetic Industry, 175(12), pp.52-75.

Trompenaars, F. (1993). Riding the waves of culture: understanding cultural diversity in business.
London: The Economist Books.

Hampden-Turner, C. and Trompenaars, F., (2011). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding
diversity in global business. Nicholas Brealey Publishing, UK.

Twin, A (2019) Investopedia; What Is Marketing? Available at:

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marketing.asp. (Accessed on 24.04.2020).

Vanhonacker, F., Pieniak, Z. and Verbeke, W. (2013). European consumer perceptions and
barriers for fresh, frozen, preserved and ready-meal fish products. British Food Journal, 115(4),
pp.508-525.

Vyshnavi, P. V. S., and Rao, P. V. (2016). Factors influencing consumer behaviour: brand
preferences, usage patterns, and satisfaction levels of using mobile phones. International journal
of innovative research and development, 5(9), pp.9-31.

Wan Lee, J., Becker, K., and Nobre, H., (2012). Impact of culture on online management
education. Cross-Cultural Management: An International Journal, 19(3), pp.399-420.

WhatsApp. (2019). About WhatsApp. Available at: https://www.whatsapp.com/about/ (Accessed

on 20.05.2020)

Wigley, S., and Chiang, C.-L.R. (2009). Retail internationalization in practice: Per una in the UK
and Taiwan. International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, 37(3), pp.250-270.

Yin, R.K., (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (applied social research methods).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications.

Yoo, B., H., Donthu, N., and Leee, S.H. (2000). An examination of selected marketing mix
elements and brand equity. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(2), pp.195-211.

85
Yorkston, E., and Menon, G. (2004). A sound idea: Phonetic effects of brand names on consumer
Judgment. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(1), pp.43-67.

Zikmund, W.G., Babin, B.J., Carr, J.C., and Griffin, M., (2010). Business Research Methods,
South-Western, Cengage Learning. Mason, OH.

86
Appendices

Appendix 1: Interview Questionnaire

Background of the interviewee

I. You may introduce yourself.

II. How old are you?
III. What is your current occupation level?
IV. What is your nationality?

Research questionnaire

1. How does your cultural background influence your brand perception?

2. How can brand preference impact on your purchase decision of instant foods?
3. How are you influenced by marketing communication while determining a brand for
instant food?
4. How do the brand elements like brand name, logo, symbols, message, and characters
impact on your purchase decision of instant food?
5. How do you give importance on price while selecting a brand for instant food?
6. What are the most important areas (for example, price, quality, and packaging) that you
consider in terms of buying instant foods?
7. How does a brand can give you more value for instant foods?
8. Does the brand image matters while selecting a brand for instant food? Do you like to use
the same brand for lifelong or you would like to try new brands?
9. How do you differentiate a famous and non-famous brand product at the time of purchasing
instant foods?
10. How brand availability matters to you at the time of choosing a brand for instant food? If
your favourite brand is not available, then which things you consider most?

87
Appendix 2: Example of the interview protocol

Background of the interviewee

Interviewer: You may introduce yourself.

RP: I am Tabassum Haque.

Interviewer: How old are you?

RP: I am 30 years old

Interviewer: What is your current occupation level?

RP: Currently I am doing my masters in sociology at Dhaka University in Bangladesh.

Interviewer: What is your nationality?

RP: I am Bangladeshi.

Research questionnaire

Interviewer: How do your cultural background influence on your brand perception?

RP- Different cultural elements e.g. religion, tradition, etc. can influence my brand perception. For
example, for buying food I always prefer Halal one as it is instructed by the religion and never go
for any food that is forbidden by the religion. Sometimes I prefer those brands which I have
observed for long time as tradition.

Interviewer: How can brand preference impact on your purchase decision of instant foods?

RP- Brand preference has a great impact on me while purchasing instant foods, because I always
try to buy instant foods from renowned & established companies instead of from any newly
launched because it provides me more safety, satisfaction and assurance.

Interviewer: How are you influenced by marketing communication while determining a brand for
instant food?

88
RP- Marketing communication helps to know about the newly launched products, different offers,
values and benefits etc. It also helps to compare different instant food brands. Most important of
them are TV commercial, product announcement sections in newspapers etc.

Interviewer: How do the brand elements like brand name, logo, symbols, message, and characters
impact on your purchase decision of instant food?

RP- They are also important because they are preset in my mind. During purchase my subconscious
mind automatically leads me to choose instant foods of that established brands.

Interviewer: How do you give importance on price while selecting a brand for instant food?

RP- I am compelled to give importance on price while buying instant foods as a I am a student &
it’s not easy for me to choose an expensive brand. I usually prefer those brands which have a
combination of good quality and balanced price.

Interviewer: What are the most important areas (for example price, quality, and packaging) that
you consider in terms of buying instant foods?

RP- Quality gets priority above all factors and price is the second most important factor.

Interviewer: How does a brand can give you more value for instant foods?

RP- If I use a certain brand for instant food for a long time, then from my experience, I can say it
has provided me utmost satisfaction. This is how it can give me more value.

Interviewer: Does the brand image matters while selecting a brand for instant food? Do you like
to use the same brand for lifelong or you would like to try new brands?

RP- It matters a lot while selecting a brand for instant food. Though I prefer to stick to my
structured mindset mostly but my curious mind sometimes encourages me to try something new
also.

Interviewer: How do you differentiate a famous and non-famous brand product at the time of
purchasing instant foods?

89
RP- Famous are those which are mostly observed and heard, and non-famous are which are rather
newly launched.

Interviewer: How brand availability matters to you at the time of choosing a brand for instant food?
If your favorite brand is not available then which things you consider most?

RP- While purchasing instant foods I always look for certain brands which I generally buy first,
but if they are not available then I would like to prefer the next most famous brand which are also
budget-friendly.

90