Numeric Sets v1.12.1

Numeric Sets
Lectures Notes for the Course in Mathematical Analysis 1

a.y. 2019-2020
silvio.mercadante@polito.it
v1.12.1
Disclaimer
I wrote these Lecture Notes as a support for the lectures of the Mathematical
Analysis 1 I give at Politecnico di Torino. They are freely available to Students who,
aware that they can’t be considered exhaustive, nevertheless find them useful.
A big, warm, thank you to all Students and Collegues kindly contributing to correct
all sort of mistakes (in particular English ones): you’re also contributing to make me
better.
Material released under license Creative Commons SA (Share Alike) .
silvio mercadante
Index 2/234
Index
Numbers vs numeric representations
N, Z, Q, R, C
Index 3/234
Section Index

Numbers vs numerals
Numeral systems
Index 4/234
Minimum goal: to understand the joke
Index 5/234
SubSection Index

Numbers vs numerals
Numeral systems
Index 6/234
Number vs numeral
Numbers are abstract mathematical entities (number =quantity ), that don’t have
to be confused with their representations (which are a form of encoding).
Example 1:
Example of number : the quantity of white dots on the sides of these two dice.
Examples of representations of the previous number :

(a) 12
(b) XII
(c) “dozen”
(d) ●●● ●●● ●●● ●●●
(e) 1100
(f) C
We’ll call numeral the representation of a number.
Index 7/234
SubSection Index

Numbers vs numerals
Numeral systems
Index 8/234
Numeral systems
An encoding that associates to each and every number a precise numeral is called a
numeral system.
There are essentially two kinds of numeral systems:
▸ additive/subtractive;
▸ positional.
Index 9/234
Additive/subtractive numeral systems

A numeral system is additive/subtractive if to each symbol is associated a value,
and the represented number is given by the sum or the difference of the values of all
the symbols involved.
Example 2 - Roman numeral system:
I V X L C D M
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
Example 3 - Egyptian numeral system:
Index 10/234
https://www.easycalculation.com/funny/numerals/egyptian.php
Positional numeral systems
A numeral system is called positional if the value of each symbol depends on its
position inside an ordered string of symbols, called digits.
The position determines the weight, as in the following Example.
Example 4:
2024 = 2 ⋅ 103 + 0 ⋅ 102 + 2 ⋅ 101 + 4 ⋅ 100 .
The significance of a digit decreases from left-to-right.

(Curiously, even in Arabic, which is written right-to-left. . . )
In a positional system, is necessary to have a symbol for the quantitiy “zero.” (Not
so for an additive/subtractive system, since adding/subtracting zero is pointless.
Nevertheless, late Ancient Egyptians had a symbol for the zero, to denote a
“starting point.”) Ancient Arabs called it sifr (void), hence the Italian word cifra.
The number of symbols used in a positional numeral system is called number base.
Example 5:
The decimal numeral system is also called base-ten numeral system.
Index 11/234
Base-b numeral system

In a base-b (positional) numeral system, any whole number n admits a
representation (numeral) like
nb = dk−1 dk−2 ⋯ d2 d1 d0 ,
where each of the k digits composing the numeral has a weight given by its index:
the digit di has weight i.
The value [nb ] of the numeral nb , i.e. the number n it represents, is obtained in a
decoding process (because it’s the opposite of the encoding of the number into its
numeral representation) multiplying any digit di by the number b i , and adding up:
n = [nb ] = dk−1 ⋅ b k−1 + ⋯ + d2 ⋅ b 2 + d1 ⋅ b 1 + d0 ⋅ b 0 .
Exercise 6:
Q How the previous formula reads for “decimal point” numbers? What is, e.g.,
[123.457 ]? Is it still meaningful to call decimals the digits after the dot?
A For a numeral nb = dk−1 dk−2 ⋯ d2 d1 d0 . d−1 d−2 , the formula becomes
n = [nb ] = dk−1 ⋅ b k−1 + ⋯ + d2 ⋅ b 2 + d1 ⋅ b 1 + d0 ⋅ b 0 + d−1 ⋅ b −1 + d−2 ⋅ b −2 ,

and then [123.457 ] = 1 ⋅ 72 + 2 ⋅ 71 + 3 ⋅ 70 + 4 ⋅ 7−1 + 5 ⋅ 7−2 .
Index 12/234
Periodic numbers
Q What is a periodic number ?
Q Is 10/3 a periodic number ?
Exercise 7:
Q Encode “three” and “ten” in base 3. (In other words: Find the numerals for “three”
and “ten” in base 3.)
A
[310 ] = [103 ] ; [1010 ] = [1013 ] .
Exercise 8:
Q Compute 10/3 in base 3. Is it still periodic?
A
[1013 ]/[103 ] = [10.13 ] Not periodic!
Index 13/234
Periodic numbers
Exercise 9:
Q Draw a conclusion from the previous Exercise.
A Since the same number may have a periodic representation w.r.t. a numeral system
and a non-periodic one w.r.t. a different numeral system, we must conclude that
periodicity does not refer to numbers, but to numerals. There are no periodic
numbers, just periodic numerals!
Index 14/234
Section Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
Index 15/234
God made the integers,

all else is the work of man.
– Leopold Krönecker (1823-1891)
Index 16/234
Programme
We are going to study here the main numeric sets: N, Z, Q, R, C.
On the first three, we’ll say the bare minimum we need to go rapidly to R, on which
we’ll spend more time, for its importance in Mathematical Analysis.
Some properties of R hold in N and/or Z and/or Q as well. We leave to the
interested reader to recognise what holds where.
Index 17/234
SubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
N as a set
Operations in N
Order relation in N
Inadequacy of N
Z
Q
R
C
Index 18/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
N as a set
Operations in N
Order relation in N
Inadequacy of N
Z
Q
R
C
Index 19/234
N as a set
The set of natural numbers, denoted as N, is defined as
N ∶= {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} .
Observation 10:
It’s quite useful to define the following set, sometimes called the set of counting
numbers:
N+ ∶= N ∖ {0} = {1, 2, 3, . . .} .
Of course we have N = {0} ∪ N+ .
Index 20/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
N as a set
Operations in N
Order relation in N
Inadequacy of N
Z
Q
R
C
Index 21/234
Operations in N
In N, two inner binary operations are defined:
▸ addition
⎧
⎪
⎪N × N → N
+N ∶ ⎨
⎪
⎪ (x , y ) ↦ x +N y = . . .
⎩
From now on, +N will be denoted simply as +, except where, for the sake of
clarity, we’ll prefer the whole (cumbersome) symbol.
Addition enjoys the following properties:
▸ associativity: ∀x , y , z ∈ N, x + (y + z) = (x + y ) + z;
▸ commutativity: ∀x , y ∈ N, x + y = y + x ;
▸ existence of the identity (neutral) element (0): ∀x ∈ N, x + 0 = x ;
▸ multiplication
⎧
⎪
⎪N × N → N
⋅N ∶ ⎨
⎪
⎪ (x , y ) ↦ x ⋅N y ∶= . . .
⎩
From now on, ⋅N will be denoted simply as ⋅, except where, for the sake of
clarity, we’ll prefer the whole symbol.
Multiplication enjoys the following properties:
▸ associativity: ∀x , y , z ∈ N, x ⋅ (yz) = (xy ) ⋅ z;
▸ commutativity: ∀x , y ∈ N, x ⋅ y = y ⋅ x ;
▸ existence of the identity (neutral) element (1): ∀x ∈ N, x ⋅ 1 = x .
Index 22/234
Operations in N
Addition and multiplication are also “tied together” by the distributive property:
∀x , y , z ∈ N, x ⋅ (y + z) = x ⋅ y + x ⋅ z .
Index 23/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
N as a set
Operations in N
Order relation in N
Inadequacy of N
Z
Q
R
C
Index 24/234
Order relation in N
The equation a + x = b is not always solvable in N. (Example: 5 + x = 3.)
If, from the one hand, this fact urges an extension (enlargement) of N (see later),
from the other hand it gives us the opportunity to define an order relation in N:
whenever the equation a + x = b admits a solution in N, we say that a is less than
or equal to b, and write a ≤ b.
Furthermore, if a + x = b admits a solution in N+ , then we say that a is (strictly)
less than b, and write a < b.
Example 11:
We can write 3 ≤ 5 because the equation 3 + x = 5 admits a solution in N: x = 2.
Exercise 12:
Q Is it T that 3 ≤ 3?
A Yes, it is, because it’s enough to take x = 0 to have 3 + x = 3.
Index 25/234
Order relation in N
The introduction of the symbol ≥, that is redundant (not necessary) w.r.t. the
symbol ≤, is nevertheless very handy.
Analogously for >.
Index 26/234
Properties of the order relation in N
The order relation defined in N by ≤ is called total because, for any given
{a, b} ∈ N, is always possible to say whether a ≤ b OR b ≤ a.
The order relation is also said strong, since it results to be compatible with the
algebraic operations:
▸ ∀a, b, c ∈ N, a ≤ b ⇔ a + c ≤ b + c;
▸ ∀a, b ∈ N, ∀c ∈ N+ , a ≤ b ⇔ a ⋅ c ≤ b ⋅ c.
(We’ll meet order relations not satisfying this property.)
Index 27/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
N as a set
Operations in N
Order relation in N
Inadequacy of N
Z
Q
R
C
Index 28/234
Inadequacy of N
In N, there are many “impossible” operations, i.e. operations that produce, as a
result, non-natural numbers (i.e. ∉ N). The search for the solution to the simple
equation a + x = 0 is just the easiest among those operations. . .
Index 29/234
SubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
From N to Z
Operations in Z
Order relation in Z
Inadequacy of Z
Q
R
C
Index 30/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
From N to Z
Operations in Z
Order relation in Z
Inadequacy of Z
Q
R
C
Index 31/234
From N to Z
The set of integer numbers
Z ∶= {0, ±1, ±2, . . .} (1)
is built to make it always solvable the equation a + x = 0 (not always solvable in N):
∀a ∈ Z, ∃x ∈ Z ∣ a + x = 0 .
The number x that solves the equation a + x = 0 is said the opposite (or the
additive inverse) of a, commonly written as −a.
Index 32/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
From N to Z
Operations in Z
Order relation in Z
Inadequacy of Z
Q
R
C
Index 33/234
Operations in Z
As in N, two inner binary operations are defined in Z as well:
▸ addition
⎧
⎪
⎪Z × Z → Z
+Z ∶ ⎨
⎪
⎪ (x , y ) ↦ x +Z y ∶= . . .
⎩
▸ multiplication
⎧
⎪
⎪Z × Z → Z
⋅Z ∶ ⎨
⎪
⎪ (x , y ) ↦ x ⋅Z y ∶= . . .
⎩
And, of course, also in this case we’ll use the simplified notation + and ⋅, except
where we’ll prefer the whole symbols for the sake of clarity.
The addition +Z and the multiplication ⋅Z enjoy the same properties (adapted to Z)
enjoyed by +N and ⋅N . In addition to those, we have:
▸ addition
▸ existence of the symmetric element: the opposite number, as we
defined it previously.
And again, as for N, +Z and ⋅Z are connected by the distributive property :
a ⋅ (b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c .
Index 34/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
From N to Z
Operations in Z
Order relation in Z
Inadequacy of Z
Q
R
C
Index 35/234
Order relation in Z
In Z, we have an order relation analogous to the one defined in N.
Thank to it, the integer numbers, excluded 0, can be divided into two subsets:
▸ Z− ∶= {a ∈ Z ∣ a < 0}, called set of negative integers;
▸ Z+ ∶= {a ∈ Z ∣ 0 < a}, called set of positive integers.
Obviously we have Z = Z− ∪ {0} ∪ Z+ .
Index 36/234
Properties of the order relation in Z
The order relation defined in Z (as well as the one defined in N) is total and strong:
▸ for any given a, b ∈ Z, is always possible to say whether a ≤ b OR b ≤ a;
▸ the order relation results to be compatible with the algebraic operations:
▸ ∀a, b, c ∈ Z, a ≤ b ⇔ a + c ≤ b + c;
▸ ∀a, b ∈ Z, ∀c ∈ Z+ , a ≤ b ⇔ a ⋅ c ≤ b ⋅ c;
▸ ∀a, b ∈ Z, ∀c ∈ Z− , a ≤ b ⇔ a ⋅ c ≥ b ⋅ c.
Index 37/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
From N to Z
Operations in Z
Order relation in Z
Inadequacy of Z
Q
R
C
Index 38/234
Inadequacy of Z
Z has been built to extend the set of number operations allowed.
But it’s not enough: an operation still impossible in Z is the one that is needed to
solve the equation ax = 1 (for a =
/ 0).
Index 39/234
SubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
From Z to Q
Operations in Q
Order relation in Q
Inadequacy of Q
R
C
Index 40/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
From Z to Q
Operations in Q
Order relation in Q
Inadequacy of Q
R
C
Index 41/234
From Z to Q
The set of rational numbers
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ p ⎪
⎪
Q ∶= ⎨numbers that can be written as , with p, q ∈ Z⎬
⎪
⎪
⎩ q ⎪
⎪
⎭
⎧ ⎫
⎪p
⎪ ⎪
⎪
= ⎨ ∣ p, q ∈ Z; q =
/ 0; p, q coprime⎬
⎩q
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎭
is built to make it always solvable the equation ax = 1 (for a =

/ 0) (not always
solvable in Z):
∀a ∈ Q ∖ {0}, ∃x ∈ Q ∣ ax = 1 .
The number x that solves the equation ax = 1 (for a =

/ 0) is said the reciprocal (or
the (multiplicative) inverse) of a, commonly written as a−1 .
Index 42/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
From Z to Q
Operations in Q
Order relation in Q
Inadequacy of Q
R
C
Index 43/234
Operations in Q
As in N and in Z, two inner binary operations are defined in Q as well:
▸ addition
⎧
⎪
⎪Q × Q → Q
+Q ∶ ⎨
⎪
⎪ (x , y ) ↦ x +Q y ∶= . . .
⎩
▸ multiplication
⎧
⎪
⎪Q × Q → Q
⋅Q ∶ ⎨
⎪
⎪ (x , y ) ↦ x ⋅Q y ∶= . . .
⎩
usually simply denoted as + and ⋅. They share the same properties (adapted to Q)
holding for the corresponding operations defined in Z. In addition, we have:
▸ multiplication
▸ existence of the symmetric element: the reciprocal or inverse, as we
defined it previously.
And again, as for N and Z, +Q and ⋅Q are connected by the distributive property :
a ⋅ (b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c .
Index 44/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
From Z to Q
Operations in Q
Order relation in Q
Inadequacy of Q
R
C
Index 45/234
Order relation in Q
In Q, we have an order relation analogous to the ones defined in N and in Z.
Thank to it, the rational numbers, excluded 0, can be divided into two subsets:
▸ Q− ∶= {a ∈ Q ∣ a < 0}, called set of negative rationals;
▸ Q+ ∶= {a ∈ Q ∣ 0 < a}, called set of positive rationals.
Obviously we have Q = Q− ∪ {0} ∪ Q+ .

It’s also convenient to define Q∗ ∶= {0} ∪ Q+ . (Not a very standard definition,
though.)
Index 46/234
Properties of the order relation in Q
The order relation defined in Q (as well as the onse defined in N and in Z) is total
and strong:
▸ for any given a, b ∈ Q, is always possible to say whether a ≤ b OR b ≤ a;
▸ ∀a, b, c ∈ Q, a ≤ b ⇔ a + c ≤ b + c;
▸ ∀a, b ∈ Q, ∀c ∈ Q+ , a ≤ b ⇔ a ⋅ c ≤ b ⋅ c;
▸ ∀a, b ∈ Q, ∀c ∈ Q− , a ≤ b ⇔ a ⋅ c ≥ b ⋅ c.
Index 47/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
From Z to Q
Operations in Q
Order relation in Q
Inadequacy of Q
R
C
Index 48/234
Inadequacy of Q
The set Q is perfect for the four elementary operations of Arithmetics (just two of
whom are, however, also fundamental).
But it’s still unsatisfactory, because if on the one hand Theorem 13 holds, on the
other hand we also have Observation 14 (next slide).
Theorem 13:
Let O and U be two (distinct) points on a line, and let’s associate the number 0
to O and the number 1 to U (so that the distance OU may play the role of unit
of measurement).
Is then possible, ∀q ∈ Q, to find one and only one point Q on the line
corresponding to q.
Index 49/234
Inadequacy of Q
Observation 14:
The vice versa is F : not all points of a line correspond to a rational number!
Example 15:
As Pythagoreans already observed, the lenght of the diagonal of a unitary

square is not a rational number. Indeed, there is no rational number n/m such
2
that mn 2 = 2. (The Textbook gives a classical proof of this, which is also a nice
example of a proof by contradiction.)
Example 16:
Another famous example of an operation giving rise to an irrational number is
the ratio between the diameter and the circumference of the same circle, well
known as π.
Index 50/234
SubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
From Q to R
Irrational numbers
Order relation in R
Density of R
Decimal representation of real numbers
Operations in R
Subsets of R
Real n-th roots
Inadequacy of R
C
Index 51/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
From Q to R
Irrational numbers
Order relation in R
Density of R
Operations in R
Subsets of R
Real n-th roots
Inadequacy of R
C
Index 52/234
From Q to R
The set R of real numbers is built upon the goal of “completing” the (incomplete)
correspondence between the elements of Q and the points of a line. It is then
natural to call completeness this property of R.
Observation 17:
The completeness of R may be expressed in several different (but equivalent!)
ways. One of them is the sovability, in R, of some classes of equations. Like, e.g.,
the algebraic equations x 2 = 2 or x 3 = 5 (which are not solvable in Q!).
A line whose points are in correspondence to the elements of R is called a real line.
Index 53/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
From Q to R
Irrational numbers
Order relation in R
Density of R
Operations in R
Subsets of R
Real n-th roots
Inadequacy of R
C
Index 54/234
Irrational numbers
√
Real numbers that are not rational as well (like, e.g., 2, π, e) are called irrational
numbers. Their set may be denoted as R ∖ Q.
Q There really exist such irrational numbers?
A Yes, they exist (see Example 15). And one of the easiest that can be proven irrational
is log2 3. In fact we have that if it were rational instead, then would exist p, q ∈ Z such
that
p
log2 3 = ,
q
which is equivalent to
3 = 2p/q ,
or
3q = 2p .
But the last one is absurd, because the r.h.s. is even, while the l.h.s. is odd. Then
log2 3 can’t be rational. Therefore it’s actually irrational.
Index 55/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
From Q to R
Irrational numbers
Order relation in R
Density of R
Operations in R
Subsets of R
Real n-th roots
Inadequacy of R
C
Index 56/234
Order relation in R
In R we have an order relation analogous to the ones defined in N, Z, and Q.
Thank to it, the real numbers, excluded 0, can be divided into two subsets:
▸ R− ∶= {a ∈ R ∣ a < 0}, called set of negative reals;
▸ R+ ∶= {a ∈ R ∣ 0 < a}, called set of positive reals.
Obviously we have R = R− ∪ {0} ∪ R+ .

It’s also convenient to define R∗ ∶= {0} ∪ R+ . (Not a very standard definition,
though.)
Index 57/234
Properties of the order relation in R

The order relation defined in R (as well as the ones defined in N, Z, and Q) is total
and strong:
▸ for any given a, b ∈ R, is always possible to say whether a ≤ b OR b ≤ a;
▸ ∀a, b, c ∈ R, a ≤ b ⇔ a + c ≤ b + c;
▸ ∀a, b ∈ R, ∀c ∈ R+ , a ≤ b ⇔ a ⋅ c ≤ b ⋅ c;
▸ ∀a, b ∈ R, ∀c ∈ R− , a ≤ b ⇔ a ⋅ c ≥ b ⋅ c.
Observation 18:
The last two motivate the well known sign rule (obviously already valid in Z and
in Q):
▸ a < 0, b < 0 ⇒ ab > 0;
▸ a < 0, b > 0 ⇒ ab < 0;
▸ a > 0, b < 0 ⇒ ab < 0;
▸ a > 0, b > 0 ⇒ ab > 0.
Index 58/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
From Q to R
Irrational numbers
Order relation in R
Density of R
Operations in R
Subsets of R
Real n-th roots
Inadequacy of R
C
Index 59/234
Density of R
Theorem 19:
Let x1 and x2 be two rational numbers. Independently of how close they are,
i.e. of how small their distance (difference) is, there are infinitly many real
numbers between them. In particular, infinitely many rationals and infinitely
many irrationals.
Observation 20:
Theorem 19 is referred to when one says that rationals are dense into the reals.
Theorem 21:
Let x1 and x2 be two irrational numbers. Independently of how close they are,
there are infinitly many real numbers between them. In particular, infinitely many
rationals and infinitely many irrationals.
Observation 22:
Theorem 21 is referred to when one says that irrationals are dense into the reals.
When we talk tout court about density of R, we refer to both these properties,
altogether.
Index 60/234
Density of R
As a consequence of the density of R:
Corollary 23:
There are no intervals (see later, for the definition of interval) made of just
rational/irrational numbers.
Corollary 24:
We can approximate an irrational number as well as we please with rational
numbers (and vice versa).
Index 61/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
From Q to R
Irrational numbers
Order relation in R
Density of R
Operations in R
Subsets of R
Real n-th roots
Inadequacy of R
C
Index 62/234
In the following, we’ll refer to a base-ten representation of numbers.
We call decimal representation of a real number x a string of digits
x = dk−1 dk−2 ⋯ d2 d1 d0 . d−1 d−2 ⋯
representing x in the following sense.

▸ If x ∈ Q, then x admits a finite representation, meaning with that the two
following cases.
▸ The representation has a finite number of digits (this happens iff 2
and/or 5 are the only prime divisors of the denominator). Example:
1/50 = 0.02;
▸ The representation needs infinitely many digits, but it’s periodic.
Example: 10/3 = 3.3.
▸ If x ∈ R ∖ Q, then x does not admit a finite representation. Nevertheless, the
density of R ensures that x can be approximated with whatever precision by a
finite representation (of appropriate length).
Such an approximation may be achieved, e.g., truncating the (infinte) string
of
√ decimals when the desired precision is reached (rounding down). Example:
2 = 1.4142 . . ., π = 3.1415 . . ..
Index 63/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
From Q to R
Irrational numbers
Order relation in R
Density of R
Operations in R
Subsets of R
Real n-th roots
Inadequacy of R
C
Index 64/234
Operations in R
As in N, Z, and Q, two inner binary operations are defined in R as well, with the
same properties.
Index 65/234
Absolute value
An important numeric operation (doable “starting from” Z) is that of extracting the
absolute value of a number. In R, it’s defined as follows.
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ R → R∗
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎧
∣●∣∶⎨ ⎪
⎪−x x <0 .
⎪
⎪ x ↦ ∣x ∣ ∶= ⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ +x x ≥0
⎪
⎪ ⎩
⎩
Observation 25:
The absolute value ∣x ∣ of a number x can clearly be interpreted as its distance
from 0.
Index 66/234
Properties of the absolute value
The following properties hold:
▸ ∣x ∣ ≥ 0; moreover, ∣x ∣ = 0 ⇔ x = 0
▸ ∣ − x ∣ = ∣x ∣
▸ ∣x ⋅ y ∣ = ∣x ∣ ⋅ ∣y ∣
▸ ∣x + y ∣ ≤ ∣x ∣ + ∣y ∣ (I triangular inequality)
▸ ∣x − y ∣ ≥ ∣∣x ∣ − ∣y ∣∣ (II triangular inequality)
The two triangular inequalities due their names to the fact that in a triangle the
lenght of a side is always
▸ ≤ the sum of the lenght of the other two;
▸ ≥ their difference.
Index 67/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
From Q to R
Irrational numbers
Order relation in R
Density of R
Operations in R
Subsets of R
Real n-th roots
Inadequacy of R
C
Index 68/234
Intervals
Making use of the order relation ≤, we can define a very important kind of subsets
of R: the so-called intervals.
There are 9 different types of intervals:
▸ bounded intervals:
▸ [a, b] ∶= {x ∈ R ∶ a ≤ x ≤ b} - closed;
▸ [a, b) ∶= {x ∈ R ∶ a ≤ x < b} - L-closed, R-open;
▸ (a, b] ∶= {x ∈ R ∶ a < x ≤ b} - L-open, R-closed;
▸ (a, b) ∶= {x ∈ R ∶ a < x < b} - open.
▸ unbounded intervals:
▸ (−∞, b] ∶= {x ∈ R ∶ x ≤ b} - L-unbounded (or unbounded from
below), R-closed;
▸ (−∞, b) ∶= {x ∈ R ∶ x < b} - L-unbounded, R-open;
▸ [a, +∞) ∶= {x ∈ R ∶ x ≥ a} - L-closed, R-unbounded (or unbounded
from above);
▸ (a, +∞) ∶= {x ∈ R ∶ x > a} - L-open, R-unbounded;
▸ (−∞, +∞) ∶= R - unbounded from both sides.
The two numbers appearing in the representation of an interval are called the
boundaries of the interval. Any other number/point belonging to the interval is
said an internal point.
Index 69/234
Intervals
Observation 26:
As a notation, e.g., (a, b] =]a, b].
Index 70/234
−∞, +∞
The two symbols −∞ and +∞ are not numbers: ±∞ ∈/ R.
They’re just shortcuts for not bounded from below/above, respectively.
Thus writing, e.g., x ≤ +∞ or [−∞, b], would be conceptually wrong!
−∞ and +∞ are related to real numbers by the relation
−∞ < x < +∞ , ∀x ∈ R .
Observation 27:
While −∞ and +∞ are pure symbols, numbers are not! Numbers are abstract
concepts, Platonic ideas. The way we represent them has nothing to do with
numbers themselves!
Index 71/234
Intervals
About intervals, we have the following very important property, that characterises
intervals (as opposed to other generical subsets of R):
Theorem 28:
A given subset I ⊆ R is an interval iff
∀a, b ∈ I, ∀x ∈ R, a ≤ x ≤ b ⇒ x ∈ I .
In other words, intervals are subset of R “without holes”.
Index 72/234
Bounded subsets of R
Let S be a subset of R. We then say that S is:
▸ bounded from above iff there exists a real number b ∈ R such that
x ≤ b, ∀x ∈ S; any such b is called a majorant or upper bound of S (if they
exist, they are infintely many);
▸ bounded from below iff there exists a real number a ∈ R such that
a ≤ x , ∀x ∈ S; any such a is called a minorant or lower bound of S (if they
exist, they are infintely many);
▸ bounded if it is bounded both from above and from below.
Index 73/234
It’s easy to prove that:
Theorem 29:
A subset S ⊆ R is
▸ bounded from above iff there exists an interval (−∞, b] containing it;
▸ bounded from below iff there exists an interval [a, +∞) containing it;
▸ bounded iff there exists an interval [a, b] containing it.
Theorem 30:
▸ Any bounded from above subset S ⊂ R can contain at most one of its
(infintely many) majorants. Whenever this happens, let’s call it b, we say
that S admits a maximum and that this b is the maximum of S:
b = max(S).
▸ Any bounded from below subset S ⊂ R can contain at most one of its
(infintely many) minorants. Whenever this happens, let’s call it a, we say
that S admits a minimum and that this a is the minimum of S:
b = min(S).
Index 74/234
Theorem 31:
▸ If a subset S ⊂ R admits a max, then S is bounded from above;
furthermore max(S) coincides with the min of its majorants.
▸ If a subset S ⊂ R admits a minimum, then S is bounded from below;
furthermore min(S) coincides with the max of its minorants.
Observation 32:
The vice versa is not necessarily T : a subset S ⊂ R may be, e.g., bounded
from above without admitting a max. Example: S ∶= {x ∈ R ∣ x < 3}.
Index 75/234
As a consequence of the completeness of R, the following theorem holds.
Theorem 33:
▸ The set of all majorants of a bounded from above subset S ⊂ R admits a
min b ∈ R (Dedekind’s property). Such b is called the supremum of S:
b = sup(S). If b ∈ S, then it coincides with max(S).
▸ The set of all minorants of a bounded from below subset S ⊂ R admits a
max a ∈ R (Dedekind’s property). Such a is called the infimum of S:
a = inf(S). If a ∈ S, then it coincides with min(S).
Observation 34:
Dedekind’s property (that doesn’t hold in Q) is one of the many forms that may
assume the completeness of R.
Index 76/234
Theorem 35:
If
▸ b = sup(S), then (both):
▸ ∀x ∈ S, x ≤ b (i.e. b is a majorant of S);
▸ ∀x < b, ∃y ∈ S ∣ x < y (i.e. b is the smallest of its majorants: if such
y didn’t exist for a given x ∈ S, then x would be a majorant less than
b, and then b couldn’t be the sup);
▸ a = inf(S), then (both):
▸ ∀x ∈ S, a ≤ x (i.e. a is a minorant of S);
▸ ∀x > a, ∃y ∈ S ∣ y < x (i.e. a is the largest of its minorants: if such
y didn’t exist for a given x ∈ S, then x would be a minorant greater
than a, and then a couldn’t be the inf).
Observation 36:
These conditions are the ones used in practice to recognise whether a certain
number be a sup / inf of a given S ⊂ R.
Index 77/234
Observation 37:
It should be completely clear now that:
▸ a = inf[a, b] = min[a, b];
▸ a = inf[a, b) = min[a, b);
▸ a = inf(a, b];
▸ a = inf(a, b);
▸ b = sup[a, b] = max[a, b];
▸ b = sup(a, b] = max(a, b];
▸ b = sup[a, b);
▸ b = sup(a, b).
Index 78/234
Unounded subsets of R
If S ⊆ R is
▸ unbounded from below, then we write inf(S) = −∞;
▸ unbounded from above, then we write sup(S) = +∞.
Index 79/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
From Q to R
Irrational numbers
Order relation in R
Density of R
Operations in R
Subsets of R
Real n-th roots
Inadequacy of R
C
Index 80/234
An inital test
Let’s begin this topic (that should be well known from prior mathematical studies)
with a test.
Which is true?
√
(a) 9=3
√
(b) 9 = ±3
√
(c) x2 = x
√
(d) x 2 = ∣x ∣
√
(e) x 2 = ±x
√
6
(f) x 18 = x 3
√
6
(g) x 18 = ∣x 3 ∣
√
6
(h) x 12 = x 2
√
6
(i) x 12 = ∣x 2 ∣
√
4
(j) 16 x 8 y 12 = . . .
Index 81/234
An inital test
with a test.
Which is true?
√
(a) 9=3 T
√
(b) 9 = ±3 F
√
(c) x2 = x
√
(d) x 2 = ∣x ∣
√
(e) x 2 = ±x
√
6
(f) x 18 = x 3
√
6
(g) x 18 = ∣x 3 ∣
√
6
(h) x 12 = x 2
√
6
(i) x 12 = ∣x 2 ∣
√
4
(j) 16 x 8 y 12 = . . .
Index 82/234
An inital test
with a test.
Which is true?
√
(a) 9=3 T
√
(b) 9 = ±3 F
√
(c) x2 = x F
√
(d) x 2 = ∣x ∣ T
√
(e) x 2 = ±x F
√
6
(f) x 18 = x 3
√
6
(g) x 18 = ∣x 3 ∣
√
6
(h) x 12 = x 2
√
6
(i) x 12 = ∣x 2 ∣
√
4
(j) 16 x 8 y 12 = . . .
Index 83/234
An inital test
with a test.
Which is true?
√
(a) 9=3 T
√
(b) 9 = ±3 F
√
(c) x2 = x F
√
(d) x 2 = ∣x ∣ T
√
(e) x 2 = ±x F
√
6
(f) x 18 = x 3 F
√
6
(g) x 18 = ∣x 3 ∣ T
√
6
(h) x 12 = x 2
√
6
(i) x 12 = ∣x 2 ∣
√
4
(j) 16 x 8 y 12 = . . .
Index 84/234
An inital test
with a test.
Which is true?
√
(a) 9=3 T
√
(b) 9 = ±3 F
√
(c) x2 = x F
√
(d) x 2 = ∣x ∣ T
√
(e) x 2 = ±x F
√
6
(f) x 18 = x 3 F
√
6
(g) x 18 = ∣x 3 ∣ T
√
6
(h) x 12 = x 2 T
√
6
(i) x 12 = ∣x 2 ∣ T
√
4
(j) 16 x 8 y 12 = . . .
Index 85/234
An inital test
with a test.
Which is true?
√
(a) 9=3 T
√
(b) 9 = ±3 F
√
(c) x2 = x F
√
(d) x 2 = ∣x ∣ T
√
(e) x 2 = ±x F
√
6
(f) x 18 = x 3 F
√
6
(g) x 18 = ∣x 3 ∣ T
√
6
(h) x 12 = x 2 T
√
6
(i) x 12 = ∣x 2 ∣ T
√
(j) 4
16 x 8 y 12 = 2 x 2 ∣y 3 ∣
Index 86/234
Definition of (real) n-th root
∀a, b ∈ R, ∀n ∈ N+ (i.e. n > 0), if an = b then a is called an n-th root of b.
Example 38:
52 = 25 ⇒ 5 is a 2nd root (square root) of 25.
But since (−5)2 = 25, +5 isn’t the only square root of 25: −5 is another one
(there are no more).
Example 39:
(−2)3 = −8 ⇒ −2 is a cube root of −8. In this case, it is the only one.
Index 87/234
Definition of principal (real) n-th root

If a number b ∈ R
▸ has just one n-th root, this root is called principal;
▸ has two n-th roots, just the positive one is called principal.
(There are no other possible cases.)
Example 40:
(a) 8 has one cube root: 2. It is principal.
(b) −8 has one cube root: −2. It is principal (even though it is negative).
(c) 25 has two square roots: −5, +5. Only +5 is principal.
√
n
Well: the symbol b denotes the principal n-th root of b. Just the principal!
This should explain the results of the test.
Index 88/234
An inital test
with a test.
Which is true?
√
(a) 9=3 T
√
(b) 9 = ±3 F
√
(c) x2 = x F
√
(d) x 2 = ∣x ∣ T
√
(e) x 2 = ±x F
√
6
(f) x 18 = x 3 F
√
6
(g) x 18 = ∣x 3 ∣ T
√
6
(h) x 12 = x 2 T
√
6
(i) x 12 = ∣x 2 ∣ T
√
(j) 4
16 x 8 y 12 = 2 x 2 ∣y 3 ∣
Index 89/234
Some details about the (real) n-th root

Let’s now consider the equation
xn = b , (2)
where x , b ∈ R and n ∈ N.
The completeness property (Dedekind’s property) ensures that:
▸ for n odd, the equation (2) has one and only one real solution, that can be
√
n
denoted as x = b, or as x = b 1/n :
√n
b = b 1/n = sup {x ∈ R ∣ x n ≤ b} ;
▸ for n even, the equation (2) has:

▸ for b > 0, two solutions, with same absolute value, but opposite sign;
√n
only the positive one can ben denoted √as x+ = b, or as x+ = b 1/n ; the
n
negative one can be denoted as x− = − b, or as x− = −b 1/n ;
▸ for b = 0, the (only) solution x = 0;
▸ for b < 0, no solutions.
Observation 41:
√ 2
Writing 4 = ±2 would √ be wrong, but it’s correct to write that x = 4 has the
two solutions x1,2 = ± 4 = ±2.
Index 90/234
One more subtle issue
Exercise 42:
√ √ n
Q m an = ( m a) ∀a ∈ R, because both are equal to an/m . T or F ?
A Some matematicians say that it is T , provided a ≥ 0. This prevents, e.g.,

situations like this:
√ √ 2
6 6
(−8)2 = ( −8) ,
which is clearly unacceptable.

But there are many cases in which the formula holds even for a < 0! That’s why we
prefer to say that the formula holds whenever both sides make sense.
Observation 43:
√
n √
n
√
n
√ √ √
The same holds for the formula a⋅b = a⋅ b. (Example: 8=
/ −2 ⋅ −4.)
Observation 44:
We’re going to encounter a similar situation very soon in the sequel, when we’ll
be talking about limits.
Index 91/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
From Q to R
Irrational numbers
Order relation in R
Density of R
Operations in R
Subsets of R
Real n-th roots
Inadequacy of R
C
Index 92/234
Inadequacy of R
R is adequate for all sort of algebraic operations. . . except the computation of even
roots of negative numbers.
Q Is this an “honest” need?

▸ Z-numbers were introduced to compute, e.g., 3 − 5. An honest need.
▸ Q-numbers were introduced to compute, e.g., 1/2. An honest need.
√
▸ R-numbers were introduced to compute, e.g., 2. An honest need.
▸ Is the computation of even roots of negative radicands an honest need?
Index 93/234
SubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
re(z), im(z); Complex plane
Operations in C - Part 1
Complex number representations
Complex field C
Order relations in C
Exercises
Back to origins
Operations in C - Summa
Index 94/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
Complex field C
Exercises
Back to origins
Index 95/234
From R to C
We saw that R, e.g., was born to complete Q: it was apparent (from a genuinely
geometric point of view!) that the equation x 2 − 2 = 0 had to have a solution, even
though this solution didn’t belong to the set of known-until-then numbers (Q).
Indeed, something very similar was going on, this time, in the XVI Century, w.r.t.
equations like x 2 + 1 = 0. In facts, Italian algebrists (Niccolò Tartaglia, Gerolamo
Cardano,√ . . . ) noticed that the solving formulas they knew for some cubic equations
involved −1 even when the final results were well-known (following different
paths) to be R-numbers!
Example 45:
Tartaglia’s formula for a cubic equation of the form x 3 = ax + b gives, in the

particular case x 3 = x , solutions of the form
⎛√ ⎞
1 ⎛√6 1 ⎞ 1 ⎜3 √ 1 ⎟
√ −1 + √
6
or √ ⎜ −1 + √
3 √ ⎟,
3⎝ −1 ⎠ 3⎝ −1 ⎠
while it’s clear that x 3 = x admits

x1 = −1 , x2 = 0 , x3 = +1
as its solutions!
Index 96/234
From R to C
The mathematical world had to be enriched, one more time, with a new set of
numbers.
And in fact Italian algebrists of the XVI Century introduced a new number, denoted
by i and defined by someone a “monster,” such that
√
i ∶= −1 ⇒ i2 = −1 .
In 1637 René Descartes defined imaginary such a monster, and now we call it the
imaginary unit.
Observation 46:
Q
√ √ √
( −1)2 = ( −1) ⋅ ( −1) = i ⋅ i = −1 ,
but we also have that
√ √ √ √
( −1) ⋅ ( −1) = (−1) ⋅ (−1) = 1 = 1 .
So, which one is correct?
A Pay attention: the formula

√ √ √
ab = a ⋅ b
holds just for a, b ≥ 0. And we can’t use a formula outside its validity domain!
Index 97/234
From R to C
So we have to define a new numeric set, capable of including the imaginary unit i.
Actually, this set must satisfy the following three constitutive requirements:
▸ to be a field (a set endowed with two operations satisfying certain properties:
see later);
▸ to contain R (in the same way R contains Q, etc., or in a more general form,
see later);
▸ to contain the solutions of equations like x 2 + 1 = 0.
If the introduction ad hoc of the imaginary unit solved the issue from the practical
side, from the formal one it required a suitable theoretical framework, that couldn’t
be anything but axiomatic. And that is how C came to be.
Index 98/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
Complex field C
Exercises
Back to origins
Index 99/234
C as a set
As a set, C coincides with R2 . Hence its elements, for whom is often adopted the
letter z, are ordered pairs (x , y ) of real numbers.
For a reason that will be clear later, we also call this way of thinking of complex
numbers as Cartesian representation.
Index 100/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
Complex field C
Exercises
Back to origins
Index 101/234
re(z), im(z)
First of all, we define in C the following two operations:
⎧
⎪
⎪ C→R
re(●) ∶ ⎨ ;
⎪
⎪ z ∶= (x , y ) ↦ re(z) = x
⎩
⎧
⎪
⎪ C→R
im(●) ∶ ⎨ .
⎪
⎪ z ∶= (x , y ) ↦ im(z) = y
⎩
They are named after the fact that if z ∶= (x , y ), then:
▸ x ∈ R is called the real part of z;
▸ y ∈ R is called the imaginary part of z.
Index 102/234
Argand-Gauss plane
As an immediate consequence of the coincidence, as sets, between C and R2 , we
have that complex numbers may be represented as points of a Cartesian plane.
Since the labels of the two axes are not the usual x and y , but (re(z) and im(z))
instead, this plane deserves a particular name: Argand-Gauss plane or complex
plane.
Index 103/234
Pure real/imaginary
▸ A complex number of the form (x , 0) is called pure real, the reason being that
such a complex number lays on the re(z) axis, which is called the real axis.
▸ A complex number of the form (0, y ) is called pure imaginary, because the
im(z) axis is called the imaginary axis.
Index 104/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
Complex field C
Exercises
Back to origins
Index 105/234
In C, is defined in an obvious way the identity relation =C :
z1 ∶= (a, b), z2 ∶= (c, d) ⇒ z1 =C z2 ⇔ (a =R c) ∧ (b =R d) .
It enjoys the same properties (reflexive, symmetrical, transitive) enjoyed by all

identity relations.
Index 106/234
Moreover, we have the following two inner binary operations:
▸ addition
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ C×C→C
+C ∶ ⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪ ((a, b), (c, d)) ↦ (a, b) +C (c, d) ∶= (a +R c, b +R d)
⎪
⎩
▸ multiplication
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ C×C→C
⋅C ∶ ⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪ ((a, b), (c, d)) ↦ (a, b) ⋅C (c, d) ∶= (a ⋅R c − b ⋅R d, a ⋅R d + c ⋅R b)
⎪
⎩
(As we’ll see, remembering this formula is not required at all!)
Index 107/234
Observation 47:
While addition is very “natural”:
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d) ,
multiplication is not:
(a, b) ⋅ (c, d) = (ac − bd, ad + cb) .
But:
(a)
(a, 0) + (c, 0) = (a + c, 0) , (a, 0) ⋅ (c, 0) = (ac, 0) ,
then C-numbers of the form (a, 0) behave like R-numbers;
(b)
(0, 1) ⋅ (0, 1) = (−1, 0) ,
and then (0, 1) has the basic property of the imaginary unit i!
Which is also compatible with the introduced terminology for a given (a, b) ∈ C:
▸ a is the real part,
▸ b is the imaginary part.
And accordingly we say that:
▸ C-numbers of the form (a, 0) are pure real,
▸ C-numbers of the form (0, b) are pure imaginary.
Index 108/234
The two operations introduced in C enjoy the following properties:
▸ addition commutativity: z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 ;
▸ addition associativity: (z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 );
▸ existence of the neutral element of the addition: z + 0C = z
(0C = (0R , 0R ));
▸ existence of the symmetrical element of the addition: z + (−z) = 0C
(opposite: −z = (−x , −y ));
▸ multiplication commutativity: z1 ⋅ z2 = z2 ⋅ z1 ;
▸ multiplication associativity: (z1 ⋅ z2 ) ⋅ z3 = z1 ⋅ (z2 ⋅ z3 );
▸ existence of the neutral element of the multiplication: z ⋅ 1C = z;
▸ existence of the symmetrical element of the multiplication (∀z = / 0C ):
z ⋅ (z ) = 1C
−1
x −y
(inverse or reciprocal: z −1 = ( x 2 +y 2 , x 2 +y 2 ); as we’ll see, remembering this
formula is not required );

▸ distributivity of the multiplication over the addition:
z1 ⋅ (z2 + z3 ) = z1 ⋅ z2 + z1 ⋅ z3 .
Index 109/234
Modulus of a complex number

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ C → R∗
∣●∣∶⎨ √ .
⎪
⎪
⎪ z ∶= (x , y ) ↦ ∣z∣ ∶= x2 + y2
⎩
Observation 48:
Note that this definition makes always sense, since the involved radicand is
always non-negative.
Observation 49:
The notation used here is the same as the one used for the absolute value of a
R-number. Indeed, when z is pure real we have
√
∣(x , 0)∣ = x 2 = ∣x ∣ .
Index 110/234
Modulus of a complex number
Properties:
▸ ∣z∣ ≥ 0, and ∣z∣ = 0R ⇔ z = 0C .
▸ ∣z1 ⋅ z2 ∣ = ∣z1 ∣ ⋅ ∣z2 ∣;
▸ ∣z1 + z2 ∣ ≤ ∣z1 ∣ + ∣z2 ∣ (I triangular inequality);
▸ ∣∣z1 ∣ − ∣z2 ∣∣ ≤ ∣z1 − z2 ∣ (II triangular inequality).
Index 111/234
Conjugation
In C, we also define the so-called conjugation:
⎧
⎪ C→C
∗⎪
● ∶⎨ .
⎪
⎪ z ∶= (x , y ) ↦ z ∗ ∶= (x , −y )
⎩
The number z ∗ , denoted also as z, is called the complex conjugate of z.
Index 112/234
Properties of the conjugation
(a) z ∗ ∗ = z;
(b) ∣z ∗ ∣ = ∣z∣;
(c) (z1 + z2 )∗ = z1∗ + z2∗ ;
(d) (z1 ⋅ z2 )∗ = z1∗ ⋅ z2∗ ;
(e) z + z ∗ = (x , y ) + (x , −y ) = (2x , 0);
(f) z − z ∗ = (x , y ) − (x , −y ) = (0, 2y );
(g) z ⋅ z ∗ = (x , y ) ⋅ (x , −y ) = (x 2 + y 2 , 0).
Observation 50:
z + z∗
▸ From (e) we get that z + z ∗ is pure real, and furthemore re(z) = .
2
▸ From (f) we get that z − z ∗ is pure imaginary, and furthemore
z − z∗
im(z) = .
2
▸ From (g) we get that z ⋅ z ∗ is pure real. We’ll use this result to express z −1
in an easy way.
Index 113/234
Exponentiation
Since in C is defined a multiplication, it is also possible to define the operation of
exponentiation: in the exact same way as we define it in R.
The formula for the n-th power of a z ∈ C, if z is represented in the Cartesian form,
is unnecessarily complicated.
Q Why unnecessarily ?
A For the same reason why we don’t need to remember the multiplication and the
reciprocal formulas: since complex numbers may be represented in several different
ways (the Cartesian form is just one of these possible representations!), and there are
some of them much more convenient for expressing z1 ⋅ z2 , z −1 , z n .
So it’s time to introduce these other representations.
Index 114/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
Complex field C
Exercises
Back to origins
Index 115/234
Cartesian form of complex numbers

We saw that, as a set, C coincides with R2 , and then its elements are ordered pairs
(x , y ) of real numbers.
In many circumstances, however, it’s preferable to use different representations,
because this is a lot easier! Let’s list them:
▸ algebraic representation,
▸ polar representation,
▸ trigonometric representation,
▸ exponential representation.
Observation 51:
C and R2 are “relatives,” but they are not the same set: C is made of scalars, R2
of vectors (see the forthcoming Course in Linear Algebra)!
Index 116/234
Algebraic representation
First of all, let’s observe (simply using the definitions of +C and ⋅C ) that
(x , y ) = (x , 0) + (0, 1) ⋅ (y , 0) .
Therefore, if we put
▸ i ∶= (0, 1) (imaginary unit),
▸ (x , 0) ≃ x (the symbol ≃ meaning a representaton),
we can write
(x , y ) ≃ x + i y .
This is the so-called algebraic representation of complex numbers.
Observation 52:
We wrote i ∶= (0, 1) because, as we already have pointed out, we have
(0, 1) ⋅ (0, 1) = (−1, 0) ≃ −1 !
Index 117/234
Observation 53:
▸ Computing the sum of two complex numbers in algebraic form is as easy as
it is in Cartesian form:
(a + i b) + (c + i d) = (a + c) + i(b + d) .
▸ Computing the product of two complex numbers in algebraic form does not
require any mnemonic effort: it’s enough to manipulate (x + i y ) as it was a
normal binomial, just rememebering that i2 = −1:
(a + i b) ⋅ (c + i d) = a c + a i d + i b c + i2 b d
= (a c − b d) + i(a d + b c) .
▸ To compute (x + i y )n it’s enough to remember the formula for the n-th

power of a binomial. . . but we have a better option here, as we’ll see.
Index 118/234
Observation 54:
The symbol + that is used in the notation x + i y does not express a true
addition. It is not a +C , nor a +R (indeed x , y ∈ R, but i y ∈/ R!). (A symbol like
this + will be denoted as ⊕ in Linear Algebra, and called direct addition. But
nobody writes x ⊕ i y , even if it would be more correct.)
Nevertheless, the “game” of the algebraic representation is to treat it as if it
would express a true addition.
In this “game,” the imaginary unit i is used to specify that the term it multiplies
is an imaginary part:
(x + i y ) ⇒ x is a real part, while y is imaginary.
And in facts (x + i y ) ≃ (x , y ).
Index 119/234
Polar representations
The graphical represenation of complex numbers on a complex plane suggests
another possible rappresentation of complex numbers: the so-called polar
representation:
Clearly, it’s defined except for the periodicity of the angle θ.
Index 120/234
Polar representations
The angle θ of the polar representation is also called the argument of the complex
number: θ = arg(z).
From Trigonometry we have:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ y
⎪
⎪
⎪ arctan( ) if x > 0
⎪
⎪
⎪ x
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ y
⎪
⎪
⎪ arctan( ) + π if x < 0 ∨ y ≥ 0
⎪
⎪
⎪ x
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ y
arg(z) = ⎨arctan( ) − π if x < 0 ∨ y < 0
⎪
⎪ x
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ π
⎪
⎪
⎪ if x = 0 ∨ y > 0
⎪
⎪
⎪ 2
⎪
⎪
⎪ π
⎪
⎪
⎪ − if x = 0 ∨ y < 0
⎪
⎪
⎪ 2
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ indeterminate if x = 0 ∨ y = 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
Index 121/234
Trigonometric representation
Remembering the formulas linking the Cartesian and the polar coordinates,
⎧
⎪ √ ⎧
⎪
⎪ρ = x 2 + y 2
⎪ ⎪x = ρ cos θ
⎪
⎨ , ⎨ ,
⎪
⎪
⎪ θ = arctan ( yx ) ⎪
⎪ y = ρ sin θ
⎪
⎩ ⎩
from the algebraic form x + i y we easily get the so-called trigonometric

representation: ρ(cos θ + i sin θ).
It turns out to be very convenient for the operations of exponentiation and
root-finding.
Observation 55:
We clearly have that ρ = ∣z∣.
Index 122/234
Euler’s formula - Exponential representation
A famous and very important formula, known as Euler’s formula, says that
∀x ∈ R , ei x = cos x + i sin x
(it will be proved later).

It can be used to get the so-called exponential representation of complex
numbers:
z = ρ ei θ .
This representation, like the trigonometric one, is particularily well suited to

compute exponentiations and root-findings (see later).
Index 123/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
Complex field C
Exercises
Back to origins
Index 124/234
Exponentiation
Let’s go back to exponentiation.
As far as the computation of the n-th power of a complex numer is concerned, the
best representations are, for sure, the trigonometric and the exponential ones. In
facts the following rule, known as De Moivre’s formula, holds:
z n = ρn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) ;
and similarily
z n = ρn ei nθ .
Index 125/234
Exponentiation
Observation 56:
It’s important to note (and remember) that ∀k ∈ Z we have:
▸ i0+4k = 1;
▸ i1+4k = i;
▸ i2+4k = −1;
▸ i3+4k = − i.
Example 57:
i27 = i24 ⋅ i2 ⋅ i = − i .
´¸¶ ´¸¶
1 −1
Index 126/234
Root-finding
The operation of root-finding, among complex numbers, is much more complicated
than among reals.
And, like in the case of exponentiation, the most convenient representations are the
trigonometric and the exponential ones.
By inverting De Moivre’s formula, we get:
√
n √ ⎛ θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ ⎞
z= n
ρ cos + i sin .
⎝ n n ⎠
This formula gets exactly n different roots. (It actually yields infinitely many roots,
but just n of them are different, the other ones are just “repetitions.”)
Observation 58:
√
In this context, the symbol is used for all of these n roots, since they are all
called principal roots.
Index 127/234
Root-finding
√
The n roots n z are located, in the complex plane, as the vertices of a regular
√
n-polygon inscribed into the circle centered at the origin and having radius n ρ.
Example 59:
√
n
The n n-th roots of the unity, 1, for n = 3, 4, 5, are:
Index 128/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
Complex field C
Exercises
Back to origins
Index 129/234
Complex field C
The set C, with the operations we have introduced, satisfies the three constitutive
requirements:
▸ C, with the operations we have introduced, is a field, known as the complex
field:
▸ there are two inner binary operations + and ⋅;
▸ + is commutative, associative, it admits a neutral element (0C = (0, 0)),
and any z ∈ C admits an additive inverse (the opposite);
▸ ⋅ is commutative, associative, it admits a neutral element (1C = (1, 0)),
and any z ∈ C ∖ 0 admits a multiplicative inverse (the reciprocal);
▸ the distributive property holds.
▸ C “contains” R in the sense specified in the next slide.

▸ In C, the equation z 2 + 1 = 0 is solvable. Indeed, if z = (x , y ) and 1 ≃ (1, 0)
(see more on this later), we have
z 2 + 1 = (x , y )2 + (1, 0) = (x 2 − y 2 + 1, 2xy ) ,
and this quantity is = (0, 0) for z1 = (0, 1) and z2 = (0, −1).
More generally, it’s proven that C contains the solutions of all algebraic equations
(polynomials equated to 0). In facts, an immediate corollary to the wonderful
fundamental theorem of Algebra states that any algebraic equation of degree
n ≥ 1 admits, in C, exactly n solutions (when they are counted with their
multiplicities). In other words: C is an algebraically closed field.
Index 130/234
C “contains” R
We already observed that for complex numbers of the form (x , 0) we have that:
▸ (a, 0) + (c, 0) = (a + c, 0);
▸ (a, 0) ⋅ (c, 0) = (a ⋅ c, 0).
Then we conclude that operating (with + and ⋅) on the complex numbers of the
form (x , 0) we get complex numbers of the same form.
In “Mathematicsh” we may then say that the subset
R ∶= {(x , y ) ∈ C ∣ y = 0}
(R, not R!) is closed under the operations defined in C. Hence this R is called a
subfield of C.
Moreover we may observe that
(a, 0) ⋅ (c, d) = (a ⋅ c, a ⋅ d) ,
and then the multiplication
(a, 0) ⋅ (c, d)
´¹¹ ¸¹¹ ¶ ´¹¹ ¹¸ ¹ ¹ ¶
∈C ∈C
can be reasonbly written as
a ⋅ (c, d) .
´¸¶ ´¹¹ ¹¸ ¹ ¹ ¶
∈R ∈C
(We haven’t yet defined such an operation, but its meaning is obvious.)
Index 131/234
C “contains” R
The subset
R ∶= {(x , y ) ∈ C ∣ y = 0}
of pure real complex numbers has a clear 1-1 correspondence with R:
x ↔ (x , 0) .
´¸¶ ´¹¹ ¸ ¹ ¹ ¶
∈R ∈R
Moreover, this correspondence respects the operations defined in C, since we saw

that the algebraic structure (see later) (R, +C , ⋅C ) is a subfield of C.
We may express all this stuff by saying that R may be regarded as a copy of R
inside C.
Index 132/234
C “contains” R
Exercise 60:
Q Verify that the set

I ∶= {(x , y ) ∈ C ∣ x = 0}
of pure imaginary complex numbers, endowed with the operations +C and ⋅C , is not
a subfield of C. Hence, even though I has a 1-1 correspondance with R as well, it
can’t be regarded as a copy of R inside C.
A It’s enough to observe that
(0, y1 ) ⋅ (0, y2 ) = (−y1 ⋅ y2 , 0) = / (0, y1 ⋅ y2 ) .

´¹¹ ¹ ¹¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
∈I ∈I /I
∈
Index 133/234
Pure real and pure imaginary numbers

What we saw so far justifies the following:
▸ The complex numbers of the form (x , 0) (elements of R ⊂ C) are said not
only pure real complex numbers, but also, more simply, real numbers (this
denomination is actually abusive, but universally used and understood). In
particular:
▸ the complex number (0, 0) corresponds to the real number 0;
▸ the complex number (1, 0) corresponds to the real number 1; that’s
why it is also called real unit.
▸ The complex numbers of the form (0, y ) (elements of I ⊂ C) are said not only
pure imaginary complex numbers, but also, more simply, imaginary
numbers. In particular, (0, 1) corresponds to the “monstrous” imaginary unit
i.
Index 134/234
Usefulness of the abuse (x , 0) = x
We said that to put (x , 0) = x is an abuse (in a very precise mathematical sense),
but nevertheless it is really convenient in practical calculations.
Example 61:
We said that it is not necessary to remember the formula for the reciprocal (1/z).
In facts, using that abuse, we have:
z ⋅ z ∗ = (x , y ) ⋅ (x , −y ) = (x 2 + y 2 , 0) = x 2 + y 2 = ∣z∣2 ,
and then
1 1 z∗ z∗ (x , −y ) ⎛ x −y ⎞
= ⋅ ∗ = 2 = 2 = , .
z z z ∣z∣ x + y2 ⎝ x2 + y2 x2 + y2 ⎠
And, of course, this turns out to be also useful to compute z1 /z2 , simply as
1
z1 ⋅ .
z2
Index 135/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
Complex field C
Exercises
Back to origins
Index 136/234
It can be proven that C can not be totally ordered in a strong way, i.e. that does
not exist an order relation which is both total and strong.
Example 62:
In C may be defined the following ordering, called lexicographical (or simply
alphabetical) ordering:
(a, b) ≤ (c, d) ⇔ a < c ∨ ((a = c) ∧ (b ≤ d)) .
It’s easy to prove that it is total, but it is not strong: e.g. we have i > 0, but
i2 = i ⋅ i = −1 < 0.
Observation 63:
Note that z1 < z2 is meaningless, but ∣z1 ∣ < ∣z2 ∣ is perfectly meaningful: it means
that z1 is closer than z2 to the origin of the complex plane.
Index 137/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
Complex field C
Exercises
Back to origins
Index 138/234
Exercises
Exercise 64:
Q Compute
(a) i3250 ,
1
(b) ,
i15
(c) i−9 .
A ▸ (a) i3250 =
i3200
⋅ i50 =
i48 ⋅ i2 = −1.
1 i
▸ (b) = =i
i15 i16

▸ (c) i12 = i3 = − i.
i−9 = i−9 ⋅
Index 139/234
Exercises
Exercise 65:
Q Put in polar, trigonometric, exponential form the complex number z1 ∶= − i.
A We have:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ=1
⎪
⎪ 3 3 3
⎨ 3 , z1 = cos π + i sin π = − i , z1 = e i 2 π .
⎪
⎪
⎪ θ = π 2 2
⎪
⎪
⎪ 2
⎩
Index 140/234
Exercises
Exercise 66:
Q Put in polar, trigonometric, exponential form the complex number z2 ∶= −1 − i.
A We have:
⎧
⎪ √
⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ = 2
⎪
⎪ √ ⎛ 5 5 ⎞ √ 5
⎨ 5 , z2 = 2 cos π + i sin π = −1 − i , z2 = 2 ei 4 π .
⎪
⎪
⎪ θ = π ⎝ 4 4 ⎠
⎪
⎪
⎪ 4
⎩
Index 141/234
Exercises
Exercise 67:
1
Q Put in polar, trigonometric, exponential form the complex number z3 ∶= .
3 + 3i
A We have:
3 − 3i 1 − i
z3 = =
9+9 6
⎧
⎪ √ √
⎪
⎪ 1 1 2
⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ = 36
+ 36 = 6
⎧
⎪ √
2
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ = 6
⎨ρ cos θ = 1 ⇒ ⎨ .
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
6 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ θ = 74 π
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ sin θ = − 16 ⎩
Index ⎪ 142/234
⎩
Exercises
Exercise 68:
4i
Q Put in polar, trigonometric, exponential form the complex number z4 ∶= √ .
3+i
A We have:
√
4 i( 3 − i) √
z4 = = 1 + 3i .
3+1
⎧
⎪ √
⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ= 1+3=2 ⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ=2
⎪ ⎪
⎨ρ cos θ = 1 ⇒ ⎨ π .
⎪
⎪
⎪ √ ⎪
⎪
⎪ θ=
⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ sin θ = 3 ⎪
⎪
⎩ 3
⎪
⎪
Index ⎩
143/234
Exercises
Exercise 69:
Q Put in polar, trigonometric, exponential form the complex number

z5 ∶= (1 + i)(2 − 2 i).
A We have:
z5 = 2(1 + i)(1 − i) = 2(1 + 1) = 4 .
⎧
⎪
⎪ρ = 4
⎪
⎪
⎨ .
⎪
⎪
⎪ θ=0
⎪
⎩
Index 144/234
Exercises
Exercise 70:
Q Simplify the following expressions.

√ √
(a) ( 2 − i) − i(1 − 2 i)
⎛1 1 ⎞
(b) (3 + i)(3 − i) + i
⎝ 5 10 ⎠
5
(c)
(1 − i)(2 − i)(3 − i)
√ √ √ √
A ▸ (a) ( 2 − i) − i(1 − 2 i) = 2 − i − i + 2 i2 = −2 i
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞
▸ (b) (3 + i)(3 − i) + i = (9 + 1) + i =2+i
⎝ 5 10 ⎠ ⎝ 5 10 ⎠
5 5 5i 5i 1
▸ (c) = 2
= = = i
(1 − i)(2 − i)(3 − i) (2 − i −2 i + i )(3 − i) (3 + i)(3 − i) 9 + 1 2
Index 145/234
Exercises
Exercise 71:
Q Simplify the expression (1 − i)3 .
A First of all we observe that

3
(1 − i)3 = (1 − i) = (1 + i)3 .
Then, to compute (1 + i)3 , we may use the general formula for the cuve of a binomial:
(1 + i)3 = 1 + 3 i +3 i2 + i3 = −2 + 2 i .
As an exercise, we may also compute (1 + i)3 using De Moivre’s formula:

⎧
⎪ √
⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ = 12 + 12 ⎧
⎪ √
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ= 2 √
⎪ ⎪
z ∶= 1 + i ⇒ ⎨ρ cos θ = 1 ⇒⎨ π ⇒ z = 2 ei π/4 .
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ θ=
⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ sin θ = 1 ⎪
⎪
⎩ 4
⎪
⎪
⎩
Then:
√ √ 3 3
(1 + i)3 = ( 2)3 ei 3π/4 = 2 2 ( cos π + i sin π ) = −2 + 2 i .
4 4
´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¸¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
√ √
− 2 2
Index 2 2 146/234
Exercises
Exercise 72:
Q Compute the powers z 2 , z 6 , z 22 of the following complex numbers:
2 1 1+i
(a) z1 ∶= √ + , (b) z2 ∶= .
3−i i 2 − 2i
A ▸ (a)
⎧
⎪
√ √ √ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ρ=1
2( 3 + i) − i 3 + i −2 i 3 1 ⎪
⎪
z1 = + = = − i ⇒ ⎨ 11 .
3+1 1 2 2 2 ⎪
⎪
⎪ θ = π
⎪
⎪
⎪ 6
⎩
11 5 242 π
⇒ z12 = ei 3
π
= ei 3 π ; z16 = ei 11π = ei π = −1 ; z122 = ei 6
π
= ei 3 .
▸ (b)
1 1 + i 1 (1 + i)2 1 1
z2 = = = (1 + 2 i −1) = i .
2 1−i 2 1+1 4 2
1 −1 1 1 2 −1 1 1 −1
⇒ z22 = i2 = ; z26 = 6 i6 = i = ; z222 = 22 i22 = 22 i2 = 22 .
4 4 2 64 64 2 2 2
Index 147/234
Exercises
Exercise 73:
Q Compute the modulus ∣z∣ of the following complex numbers:
1 2i 3−i
(a) z1 ∶= + ; (b) z2 ∶= .
1 − i i −1 (1 + i)2
A ▸ (a)
1 − 2 i (1 − 2 i)(1 + 2 i) 3 i
z1 = = =⋯= − ,
1−i 1+1 2 2
√
9 1 1√
⇒ ∣z1 ∣ = + = 10 .
4 4 2
▸ (b)
3−i 3 − i 3 i +1
z2 = = = ,
1 + 2 i + i2 2i −2
√
9 1 1√
⇒ ∣z2 ∣ = + = 10 .
4 4 2
Index 148/234
Exercises
Exercise 74:
Q Compute the modulus ∣z∣ of the complex number

2 2
z ∶= ei 3 π − e− i 3 π .
A Graphically we have:
Index 149/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
Complex field C
Exercises
Back to origins
Index 150/234
Back to origins
Example 75:
Let’s go back to XVI Century Italian algebrists’ dilemma, reconsidering the
formula (see Example 45)
1 ⎛√6 1 ⎞
√ −1 + √
6
.
3⎝ −1 ⎠
√
6
Now we know that −1 admits 6 roots:
π π 5 7 3 11
r1 ∶= ei 6 , r2 ∶= ei 2 , r3 ∶= ei 6 π , r4 ∶= ei 6 π , r5 ∶= ei 2 π , r6 ∶= ei 6
π
.
And it’s easy to recognise that
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ −1 for ri = r2 , r5
⎪
1 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎪ ⎪
⎪
√ ri + = ⎨0 for ri = r3 , r4 .
3⎝ ri ⎠ ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 1 for ri = r1 , r6
⎪
⎪
⎩
Index 151/234
SubSubSection Index
N, Z, Q, R, C
N
Z
Q
R
C
From R to C
C as a set
Complex field C
Exercises
Back to origins
Index 152/234
Operations in C 1 - 2 - 3 - 4
z re(z) im(z) z1 = z2
Graphic ● ● ● ●
Cartesian ● ● ● ●
Polar ● ● ● ●
Algebraic ● ● ● ●
Trigonometric ● ● ● ●
Exponential ● ● ● ●
Index 153/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● ●
Cartesian ●
Polar ● ●
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric ● ●
Exponential ● ●
Index 154/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 155/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 156/234
Graphic ● ● ●
Polar ● ● ● ●
Index 157/234
Graphic ● ● ●
Polar ● ● ● ●
Index 158/234
Graphic ● ● ●
Polar ● ● ● ●
Index 159/234
Graphic ● ● ●
Polar ● ● ● ●
Index 160/234
Cartesian (x , y ) ● ● ●
Polar ● ● ● ●
Index 161/234
Cartesian ● x ● ●
Polar ● ● ● ●
Index 162/234
Cartesian ● ● y ●
Polar ● ● ● ●
Index 163/234
⎧
⎪
Cartesian ● ● ● ⎪x1 = x2
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪ y1 = y2
⎪
⎩
Polar ● ● ● ●
Index 164/234
Polar (ρ, θ) ● ● ●
Index 165/234
Polar ● ρ cos θ ● ●
Index 166/234
Polar ● ● ρ sin θ ●
Index 167/234
⎧
⎪
⎪ρ1 = ρ2
⎪
⎪
Polar ● ● ● ⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪θ1 = θ2 + 2kπ
⎩
Index 168/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
Algebraic x + iy ● ● ●
Index 169/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
Algebraic ● x ● ●
Index 170/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
Algebraic ● ● y ●
Index 171/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
⎧
⎪
Algebraic ● ● ● ⎪x1 = x2
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪ y1 = y2
⎪
⎩
Index 172/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
Trigonometric ρ(cos θ+i sin θ) ● ● ●
Index 173/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
Trigonometric ● ρ cos θ ● ●
Index 174/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
Trigonometric ● ● ρ sin θ ●
Index 175/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
⎧
⎪
⎪ρ1 = ρ2
⎪
⎪
Trigonometric ● ● ● ⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪θ1 = θ2 + 2kπ
⎩
Index 176/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
Exponential ρ ei θ ● ● ●
Index 177/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
Exponential ● ρ cos θ ● ●
Index 178/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
Exponential ● ● ρ sin θ ●
Index 179/234
Polar ● ● ● ●
⎧
⎪
⎪ρ1 = ρ2
⎪
⎪
Exponential ● ● ● ⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪θ1 = θ2 + 2kπ
⎩
Index 180/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic PH-G12 ●
Cartesian ●
Polar ● ●
Algebraic ●
Exponential ● ●
Index 181/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● PH-G22
Cartesian ●
Polar ● ●
Algebraic ●
Exponential ● ●
Index 182/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● ●
√
Cartesian x2 + y2
Polar ● ●
Algebraic ●
Exponential ● ●
Index 183/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● ●
Cartesian ●
Polar ● ●
Algebraic ●
Exponential ● ●
Index 184/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● ●
Cartesian ●
Polar ρ ●
Algebraic ●
Exponential ● ●
Index 185/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● ●
Cartesian ●
Polar ● θ
Algebraic ●
Exponential ● ●
Index 186/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● ●
Cartesian ●
Polar ● ●
√
Algebraic x2 + y2
Exponential ● ●
Index 187/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● ●
Cartesian ●
Polar ● ●
Algebraic ●
Exponential ● ●
Index 188/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● ●
Cartesian ●
Polar ● ●
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric ρ ●
Exponential ● ●
Index 189/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● ●
Cartesian ●
Polar ● ●
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric ● θ
Exponential ● ●
Index 190/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● ●
Cartesian ●
Polar ● ●
Algebraic ●
Exponential ρ ●
Index 191/234
∣z∣ arg(z)
Graphic ● ●
Cartesian ●
Polar ● ●
Algebraic ●
Exponential ● θ
Index 192/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 193/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 194/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 195/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 196/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 197/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 198/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 199/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 200/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 201/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 202/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 203/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 204/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 205/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 206/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 207/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 208/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 209/234
z∗ = z −z 1/z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 210/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 211/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 212/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 213/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 214/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 215/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 216/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 217/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 218/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 219/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 220/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 221/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 222/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
(x1 + x2 ) +
Algebraic
i(y1 + y2 )
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 223/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 224/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 225/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
(x1 + x2 ) +
Algebraic
i(y1 + y2 )
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 226/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 227/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 228/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 229/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 230/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 231/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 232/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 233/234
√
z1 + z2 z1 ⋅ z2 zn n
z
Graphic
Cartesian
Polar
Algebraic ●
Trigonometric
Exponential
Index 234/234

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Numeric Sets

Lectures Notes for the Course in Mathematical Analysis 1

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Numbers vs numeric representations

Numbers vs numeric representations

Numbers vs numeric representations

Examples of representations of the previous number :

We’ll call numeral the representation of a number.

Numbers vs numeric representations

Additive/subtractive numeral systems

Example 2 - Roman numeral system:

Example 3 - Egyptian numeral system:

2024 = 2 ⋅ 103 + 0 ⋅ 102 + 2 ⋅ 101 + 4 ⋅ 100 .

The significance of a digit decreases from left-to-right.

Base-b numeral system

A For a numeral nb = dk−1 dk−2 ⋯ d2 d1 d0 . d−1 d−2 , the formula becomes

n = [nb ] = dk−1 ⋅ b k−1 + ⋯ + d2 ⋅ b 2 + d1 ⋅ b 1 + d0 ⋅ b 0 + d−1 ⋅ b −1 + d−2 ⋅ b −2 ,

Q Is 10/3 a periodic number ?

Q Compute 10/3 in base 3. Is it still periodic?

Q Draw a conclusion from the previous Exercise.

God made the integers,

Of course we have N = {0} ∪ N+ .

A Yes, it is, because it’s enough to take x = 0 to have 3 + x = 3.

Z ∶= {0, ±1, ±2, . . .} (1)

And again, as for N, +Z and ⋅Z are connected by the distributive property :

Obviously we have Z = Z− ∪ {0} ∪ Z+ .

is built to make it always solvable the equation ax = 1 (for a =

The number x that solves the equation ax = 1 (for a =

Obviously we have Q = Q− ∪ {0} ∪ Q+ .

As Pythagoreans already observed, the lenght of the diagonal of a unitary

Q There really exist such irrational numbers?

Obviously we have R = R− ∪ {0} ∪ R+ .

Properties of the order relation in R

x = dk−1 dk−2 ⋯ d2 d1 d0 . d−1 d−2 ⋯

representing x in the following sense.

In other words, intervals are subset of R “without holes”.

52 = 25 ⇒ 5 is a 2nd root (square root) of 25.

Definition of principal (real) n-th root

Some details about the (real) n-th root

▸ for n even, the equation (2) has:

A Some matematicians say that it is T , provided a ≥ 0. This prevents, e.g.,

which is clearly unacceptable.

Q Is this an “honest” need?

Tartaglia’s formula for a cubic equation of the form x 3 = ax + b gives, in the

while it’s clear that x 3 = x admits

A Pay attention: the formula

z1 ∶= (a, b), z2 ∶= (c, d) ⇒ z1 =C z2 ⇔ (a =R c) ∧ (b =R d) .

It enjoys the same properties (reflexive, symmetrical, transitive) enjoyed by all

(As we’ll see, remembering this formula is not required at all!)

formula is not required );

Modulus of a complex number

The number z ∗ , denoted also as z, is called the complex conjugate of z.

So it’s time to introduce these other representations.

Cartesian form of complex numbers

This is the so-called algebraic representation of complex numbers.

(0, 1) ⋅ (0, 1) = (−1, 0) ≃ −1 !

▸ To compute (x + i y )n it’s enough to remember the formula for the n-th

Clearly, it’s defined except for the periodicity of the angle θ.

from the algebraic form x + i y we easily get the so-called trigonometric

(it will be proved later).

This representation, like the trigonometric one, is particularily well suited to

z n = ρn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) ;