Relations, Mappings, Functions, Sequences v2.10.0

Relations, Mappings, Functions, Sequences
Lectures Notes for the Course in Mathematical Analysis 1

a.y. 2019-2020
silvio.mercadante@polito.it
v2.10.0
Disclaimer
I wrote these Lecture Notes as a support for the lectures of the Mathematical
Analysis 1 I give at Politecnico di Torino. They are freely available to Students who,
aware that they can’t be considered exhaustive, nevertheless find them useful.
A big, warm, thank you to all Students and Collegues kindly contributing to correct
all sort of mistakes (in particular English ones): you’re also contributing to make me
better.
Material released under license Creative Commons SA (Share Alike) .
silvio mercadante
Index 2/123
Index
Relations
Mappings (Maps), Functions
Sequences
Index 3/123
Section Index
Relations
Index 4/123
Relations in R2
We define (binary) relation between the two real variables x and y an association
(a link) between them, of whatever nature (although tipically expressed in a
mathematical way. . . ).
This link can be visualised by means of a very useful tool: its graph, defined as the
subset of R2 made of the points whose coordinates x and y respect the given
relation.
Example 1:
The geometric loci of Analytic Geometry, lines, conic sections, etc., are examples
of relations expressed in a strictly mathematical language: equations involving
the two variables x and y . Examples:
Index 5/123
Relations in R2
Example 2:
A relation may also be expressed by an inequality, or by a system of
equations/inequalities. Examples:
Index 6/123
Relations between two generic sets
We can generalise the concept of relation in R2 : we define (binary) relation
between two generic sets X and Y a link between their elements, which can be
graphically represented by a subset of their Cartesian product X × Y .
Index 7/123
Section Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Range (image) of a function
Function graphs
Elementary functions
Elementary transformations of elementary functions
Sheaf of functions
Preimage of a function
Restriction of a function
Composition of two functions
Injectivity - surjectivity - bijectivity
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Boundedness, extrema of Im f
Index 8/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 9/123
Mapping (Map)
We call mapping (map) (defined in X , with values in Y ), and use a notation like
⎧
⎪
⎪X → Y
ϕ∶⎨ ,
⎪
⎪ x ↦ ϕ(x ) = y
⎩
any relation ϕ between two generic sets X and Y , satisfying the property that to
any x ∈ X is associated one and only one y ∈ Y .
▸ The set X is called the domain or starting set or input set of the map,
denoted by Dom(ϕ) or Dom ϕ.
▸ The set Y is called the codomain or target set of the map, denoted by
Codom(ϕ) or Codom ϕ. This set contains the subset of all outputs, called
output set, range, image, denoted by Im(ϕ) or Im f , but may also contain
additional elements.
Index 10/123
Mapping (Map)
Example 3:
We’ll write
⎧
⎪
⎪R → R
sin ∶ ⎨ ,
⎪
⎪ x ↦ sin(x )
⎩
where it’s important to note that the starting set (domain) has to be the set of
all the possible inputs, while the target set (codomain) may be a superset of the
actual set of all outputs (output set, range, image).
So, in this example,
sin ∶ R → [−1, 1] ⊂ R
would be more precise, but
sin ∶ R → R
is still acceptable.
The reason why we want precision from the specification of the domain is that we
want to be able to define, e.g., a map like
⎧
⎪
⎪N → R
sinN ∶ ⎨ ,
⎪
⎪ n ↦ sin(n)
⎩
where the actual domain is a subset of the field of existence R (set of all inputs for
which the map makes sense). We’ll more often call natural domain what is
Index sometimes called field of existance. 11/123
Mapping (Map)
Example 4:
⎧
⎪
⎪Fruit → Colours
colourF ∶ ⎨
⎪
⎪ fruit ↦ colour(fruit) ∶= fruit colour
⎩
is a map defined on a domain Fruit which is a subset of the natural domain (the set
of all visible objects) of the map colour.
Index 12/123
Mapping (Map)
Observation 5:
Requiring that to any x ∈ X correspond

one and only one y ∈ Y prevents that:
▸ no y ∈ Y be associated to a given
x ∈ X;
▸ two (or more) distinct y1 , y2 ∈ Y be
associated to the same x ∈ X .
But it does not prevent that x1 , x2 ∈ X ,

with x1 =
/ x2 , correspond to the same
y ∈ Y.
Index 13/123
Mapping (Map)
Observation 6:
Some Authors, instead of requiring that to any x ∈ X correspond one and only
one y ∈ Y , require that to any x ∈ X correspond at most one y ∈ Y , so admitting
an x ∈ X with no corresponding y ∈ Y .
In this case, X doesn’t coincide anymore with Dom ϕ, but rather is Dom ϕ ⊆ X .
And that’s why X can still be called starting set of the map, but not domain.
We won’t follow this convention.
Index 14/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 15/123
Function
In the particular case that Y is a numeric set, the map f ∶ X → Y is called a
function.
Example 7:
▸ In Example 3 we have a map which is also a function.
▸ In Example 4 we have a map which is not a function.
Observation 8:
Not all Authors adopt this linguistic convention: many of them call function even
what we called a map.
In the sequel, we’re going to focus our attention almost exclusively on functions
f ∶X ⊆R→Y ⊆R ,
called real functions (because their codomain is a subset of R) of one real variable
(as their domain is a subset of R). They are synthetically called functions R → R.
Index 16/123
Function
To be precise, for us a function is identified by three pieces of information:
▸ a domain Dom f = X (not just a starting set);
▸ a codomain Codom f = Y (not necessarily a range);
▸ a well defined transformation law f , that can be thought of as a “black box”
spitting-out one and only one output y ∈ Y for any given input x ∈ X .
The notation:
⎧
⎪
⎪X → Y
f ∶⎨
⎪
⎪ x ↦ f (x ) ∶= . . .
⎩
expresses these three things.
Example 9:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪R → R
f ∶⎨ .
⎪
⎪ x ↦ f (x ) ∶= x + sin x
⎪
2
⎩
Index 17/123
Function equality
What we said about functions implies that the two functions f1 ∶ X1 → Y1 and
f2 ∶ X2 → Y2 are to be considered equal iff all of the following conditions hold:
▸ X1 = X2 ,
▸ Y1 = Y2 ,
▸ they share the same transformation law.
Example 10:
The functions
⎧
⎪ ⎧
⎪ ⎧
⎪
⎪Q → Q ⎪Q → R ⎪R → R
1QQ ∶ ⎨ , 1QR ∶ ⎨ , 1RR ∶ ⎨ ,
⎪
⎪ q↦q ⎪
⎪ q↦q ⎪
⎪ x ↦x
⎩ ⎩ ⎩
are profoundly different (even though they share the same transformation law).
For example, the first and the last “fill” all their codomains, while the second one
leaves its codomain “full of holes”!
Index 18/123
Functions R → R
Sometimes both the domain and the codomain are omitted. In these cases:
▸ the natural domain is assumed as the domain,
▸ R is assumed, ad abundantiam, as the codomain.
Example 11:
√
Writing simply f (x ) = x , one assumes that:
√
▸ Dom f = R∗ (natural domain of x ),
▸ Codom f = R (even though the actual range is R∗ ).
Index 19/123
Transformation laws
Observation 12:
In the definition of function, we required a well-defined transformation law. But
this does not mean that we need to be able to express that law in an analytic
form, i.e. by means of “known-functions” (powers, trigonometric functions,
exponential functions, logarithmic functions, etc.). It could be impossible!
That’s why we called it a “black box.”
As far as a “black box” returns exactly one y ∈ Y for any given x ∈ X , it must be
considered a good transformation law.
↦[What is a function?.ggb]
Index 20/123
Piecewise-defined function
One of the possible form a “black box” (transformation law) may take is called
piecewise, because it’s made of different “pieces.”
The only requirement we ask in this case is that these different pieces are not
overlapping.
Example 13:
A very important example of a piecewise-defined function is the absolute value
function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ R → R∗
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎧
⎪
∣●∣∶⎨ ⎪−x x < 0 .
⎪
⎪
⎪ x ↦ ∣x ∣ = ⎨
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ +x x ≥ 0
⎪
⎪ ⎩
⎩
In this definition, the transformation law is given by two different and alternative
analytical descriptions (−x and +x ).
Index 21/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 22/123
Image through a function
By writing y = f (x ), we mean that the function f takes a real number
x ∈ X = Dom f and transforms it in a (one and only one) real number
y ∈ Y = Codom f called image of x through (or under) f .
Exercise 14:
Q Is this a graphical representation of a function?
A No, it isn’t. (It can be called a multivalued function. In this Course, we’re not
interested in them, though.)
Index 23/123
Exercise 15:
Q Is this a graphical representation of a function?
A Yes, it is. We’ll just call not injective (see later) such a function.
Index 24/123
The set of the images through a function f of the elements of a subset A ⊆ Dom f
is commonly denoted as f (A):
f (A) ∶= {f (x ) ∈ Codom f ∣ x ∈ A} .
We also say that f (A) is the image of A through (or under) f .
Example 16:
The image of a function f is defined as
Im(f ) ∶= {y ∈ Codom f ∣ ∃x ∈ Dom f ∣ y = f (x )} ,
but it’s easier to think of it as Im f = f (Dom f ):
(Actually, it could not fill Y = Codom f .)

Index 25/123
Exercise 17:
Q Can you tell why the notation f (A) is actually an abuse? (Although a very handy
and universally used one.)
A Because f , by definition, eats elements of X ∶= Dom f , while A, being a subset of

X , belongs to P(X ), not to X !
We should use a different symbol for this different mathematical object, e.g. fˆ , but
in this context nobody does.
Index 26/123
Exercise 18:
√
Q Let’s define f (x ) ∶= x . What is f ([−1, 1])?
A f ([−1, 1]) is meaningless, since [−1, 1] ⊆

/ Dom f .
But we can give it a meaning, by defining
f (A) ∶= {f (x ) ∈ Im f ∣ x ∈ (A ∩ Dom f )} .
Index 27/123
Functions
In conclusion, to recap, writing f ∶ X → Y we’re assuming that
▸ X = Dom f ;
▸ Y = Codom f ;
▸ Im f ⊆ Y .
Index 28/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 29/123
Graph of a function X → Y
We call graph of the function f ∶ X → Y the set
Graph(f ) ∶= {(x , f (x )) ∈ X × Y ∣ x ∈ X } .
Example 19:
The graph of a function R → R is a subset of R2 .
Example:
Index 30/123
Usefulness of the graph of a function R → R
We’re very interested in graphs (in this first Course in Mathematical Analysis, just
in the case of functions R → R).
The reason is that while the knowledge of Dom f and Im f is not so informative
(essentially, it just tells us the “rectangle” inside which the function “lives”), the
knowledge of Graph f gives a lot of information (Dom f and Im f included: it’s
enough to project Graph f on the two axes).
But we need to learn how to read it.
Index 31/123
How to read the graph of a function

In the graph of a function f ∶ R → R, we can read many information.
Among them:
▸ Dom f , Im f : it’s enough to project Graph f on the X -axis and on the Y -axis,
respectively.
▸ The (unique, since we’re talking about functions) value f (x ) assumed by f
for a given x (that is what we called image of x through f ).
▸ The value(s) (they may be more than one) that the indipendent variable x
must assume to let f (x ) equate a given y . This set will be called the
preimage of y through (or under) f , denoted by f −1 (y ).
▸ Qualitative information as (each of them will be precisely defined in the
sequel):
▸ possible parities;
▸ possible periodicities;
▸ monotonicity intervals;
▸ possible asymptotes;
▸ possible maxima, minima, inflection points.
But, first of all, we need to be sure about when a subset of R2 may be the graph of
a function.
Index 32/123
How to recognise whether a relation is a function, from its
graph
It’s very easy to recognise, from its graph, when a relation is a function: it’s enough
to count the number of intersections between Graph(f ) and the possible vertical
lines: The relation f is a function iff any possible vertical line crosses Graph(f ) at
most one time.
Exercise 20:
Q Which of these graphs is that of a function?
A Only f and g are; e is not.

Index 33/123
SubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Polynomial functions
Rational functions
Exponential functions
Logarithmic functions
Trigonometric functions and their inverses
Hyperbolic functions
Absolute value function
Sign function
Floor (Integer part) function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Index Injectivity - surjectivity - bijectivity 34/123
Invertibility
It’s really important to know the graphs and the properties of the main elementary
functions:
▸ powers x α , α ∈ R;
▸ exponential and logarithmic functions, in different bases;
▸ trigonometric functions and their inverses;
▸ hyperbolic functions;
▸ absolute value function;
▸ sign function;
▸ floor function;
▸ mantissa function.
A very useful tool to learn the graphs of the elementary functions is the free
software GeoGebra. But be careful: some theoretical knowledge is required to
check the results. Example: 1. Powers_slider.ggb, with a = 1/3.
Index 35/123
SubSubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Rational functions
Sign function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
xα
Let’s see here the power functions, i.e. the functions
x α, α ∈ R .
Observation 21:
Pay attention: b n corresponds to repeated multiplication of the base b just for
n ∈ N+ . For any x ∉ N+ , we must abandon this interpretation!
Index 37/123
x0
Sui generis case:
▸ Thanks to the possibility of giving

to the expression 00 (which has no
meaning on its own) the
conventional value 1, is
Dom(x 0 ) = R.
▸ Im(x 0 ) = {1}.
▸ As all other cases, it passes through
(1, 1).
Observation 22:
WolframAlpha gives Dom(x 0 ) = R. But it also gives:
▸ 00 undefined;
▸ Dom(0x ) = R+ .
Index 38/123
x1
“Watershed” case:
▸ Dom(x 1 ) = R.
▸ Im(x 1 ) = R.
▸ As all other cases, it passes through (1, 1).
▸ It passes through (0, 0).
Index 39/123
x q , q ∈ Q+
q ∈ Q+ ⇒ q can be written as n/m with n, m ∈ N+ .
▸
⎧
⎪
⎪R m odd
Dom(x n/m
)=⎨ .
⎪
⎪ [0, +∞) m even
⎩
▸
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ R m odd, n odd
⎪
Im(x n/m
) = ⎨[0, +∞) m odd, n even .
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ [0, +∞) m even, ∀n
⎩
▸ As all other cases, they all pass through (1, 1).
▸ They all pass through (0, 0).
Index 40/123
x q , q ∈ Q+ - Examples
Index 41/123
x q , q ∈ Q+ - Examples
Index 42/123
x α , α ∈ R+ ∖ Q+
For α ∈ R+ ∖ Q+ , we have the following.
▸ Dom(x α ) = [0, +∞).
▸ Im(x α ) = [0, +∞).
▸ They all pass through (0, 0).
Index 43/123
x α , α ∈ R−
Negative exponents produce these two possible situations.
▸
⎧
⎪
⎪R ∖ {0} α = − mn ; n, m ∈ N+ ; m odd
Dom(x ) = ⎨
α
.
⎪
⎪ (0, +∞) otherwise
⎩
▸
⎧
⎪
⎪R ∖ {0} α = − mn ; n, m ∈ N+ ; n, m odd
Im(x ) = ⎨
α
.
⎪
⎪ (0, +∞) otherwise
⎩
▸ Not only they do not pass through (0, 0), but in 0 they’re not defined!
Index 44/123
x n - Comparisons
Index 45/123
x n - Comparisons
Index 46/123
SubSubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Rational functions
Sign function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Polynomial function
We call polynomial function (or simply polynomial) in the variable x whatever
linear combination of integer x powers:
p(x ) ∶= an x n + an−1 x n−1 + ⋯ + a1 x + a0 .
The greatest i for which ai =

/ 0 is said the degree of the polynomial.
Polynomials have:
▸ natural domain coincident with R;
▸ defined parity (see later) iff just the odd powers or the even powers are
present.
Index 48/123
SubSubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Rational functions
Sign function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Rational function
We call rational function a function that can be expressed as a ratio of two
polynomials:
p(x )
q(x ) ∶= .
q(x )
The natural domain of such a function coincides with R ∖ {denominator zeroes}.
Index 50/123
SubSubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Rational functions
Sign function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Exponential function
We call exponential function (in base a) a function
f (x ) ∶= ax , a ∈ R+ .
We have:
▸ Dom(ax ) = R;
▸ Im(ax ) = R+ ;
▸ they all pass through (0, 1);
▸ depending on the value of the base a, we have the following situations:
Index 52/123
SubSubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Rational functions
Sign function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Logarithmic function
We call logarithmic function (in base a) the inverse function (see later) of the
exponential function ax (obviously just for a > 0, a =
/ 1):
f (x ) ∶= loga (x ) , a ∈ R+ ∖ {1} .
We have:
▸ Dom(loga (x )) = R+ ;
▸ Im(loga (x )) = R;
▸ they all pass through (1, 0);
▸ depending on the value of the base a, we have the following situations:
Index 54/123
SubSubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Rational functions
Sign function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
See 4. Trigonometric functions.ggb
Index 56/123
SubSubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Rational functions
Sign function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
We define
▸ hyperbolic cosine the function
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ R→R
⎪
cosh ∶ ⎨ ex + e−x ;
⎪
⎪
⎪ x ↦ cosh(x ) ∶=
⎪
⎪ 2
⎩
▸ hyperbolic sine the function
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ R→R
⎪
sinh ∶ ⎨ ex − e−x .
⎪
⎪
⎪ x ↦ sinh(x ) ∶=
⎪
⎪ 2
⎩
See 5. Hyperbolic functions.ggb
Index 58/123
SubSubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Rational functions
Sign function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
We already defined it as an example of piecewise defined function:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ R→R
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎧
⎪
∣●∣∶⎨ ⎪−x x <0 .
⎪
⎪
⎪ x ↦ ∣x ∣ = ⎨
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ +x x ≥0
⎪
⎪ ⎩
⎩
In this definition, the transformation law (of x es into corresponding y s) is given by

two different and alternative analytical expressions (−x and +x ).
Index 60/123
SubSubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Rational functions
Sign function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Sign function
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ R ∖ {0} → R
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎧
⎪
sign ∶ ⎨ ⎪−1 x <0 ∶
⎪
⎪
⎪ x ↦ ⎨
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ +1 x >0
⎪
⎪ ⎩
⎩
Observation 23:
Some Authors define
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ R→R
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎧
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ −1 x <0
sign ∶ ⎨ ⎪ .
⎪
⎪
⎪ x ↦ ⎨0 x =0
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ +1 x >0
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎩
⎩
Index 62/123
SubSubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Rational functions
Sign function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
The floor function, a.k.a. integer part function, is defined as follows:
⎧
⎪
⎪R → N
⌊●⌋ ∶ ⎨
⎪
⎪ x ↦ ⌊x ⌋ ∶= greatest integer ≤ x
⎩
Index 64/123
SubSubSection Index
Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Powers
Rational functions
Sign function
Mantissa function
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Mantissa function
The mantissa function is defined as follows:
⎧
⎪
⎪R → R
M∶⎨
⎪
⎪ x ↦ M(x ) ∶= x − ⌊x ⌋
⎩
See 9. Manitssa.ggb
Index 66/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 67/123

See Function transformations v2.1.pdf
Index 68/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 69/123
Sheaf of functions
We already introduced the notion of equality between functions. It’s the first step
to build up the algebraic structure of what could be called the set of functions.
Indeed, functions form a set characterised by properties which make it a so-called
sheaf. We can’t go into the details of this in this Course, so we’ll be restricting
ourselves to the case in which two functions f and g share the same domain X .
In this case, we can define, on the sheaf of functions F (R, R), simply denoted by
F in the sequel, the operations reported in the next slide.
Index 70/123
Sheaf of functions
▸ Function addition:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ F ×F →F
+F ∶⎨
⎪
⎪(f (x ), g(x )) ↦ (f +F g)(x )
⎪
⎩
where
⎧
⎪
⎪X → R
f +F g ∶ ⎨ .
⎪
⎪ x ↦ f (x ) +R g(x )
⎩
Example: (sin + cos)(x ) = sin x + cos x .
▸ Function multiplication:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ F ×F →F
⋅F ∶⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪ (f (x ), g(x )) ↦ (f ⋅F g)(x )
⎩
where
⎧
⎪
⎪X → R
f ⋅F g ∶ ⎨ .
⎪
⎪ x ↦ f (x ) ⋅R g(x )
⎩
Example: (sin ⋅ cos)(x ) = (sin x )(cos x ).
Index 71/123
Sheaf of functions
Observation 24:
The multiplication between a constant and a function is simply a particular case
of function multiplication, where one of the factors is a constant function.
Example: 3 cos x = (3 ⋅ cos)(x ).
Exercise 25:
Q What about, e.g. in the case of the function, f ⋅ g, if Dom f =

/ Dom g?
A f ⋅ g is a function defined on Dom f ∩ Dom g.
Example:
sin x sin ⎛ 1 ⎞
tan x = = (x ) = sin ⋅ (x ) .
cos x cos ⎝ cos ⎠
And since sin is defined on R, but 1/ cos is defined on R ∖ { π2 + k2π}, tan is defined
in their intersection (that is still R ∖ { π2 + k2π}).
Index 72/123
Sheaf of functions
It’s almost obvious that:
▸ the neutral element of the function addition is the null function 0(x ) = 0;
▸ the symmetric element of the function addition is the opposite function
−f ;
▸ the neutral element of the function multiplication is the unit function
1(x ) = 1.
The symmetric element of the function multiplication, instead, requires more

attention.
We’ll be calling it the reciprocal, not the inverse (among numbers, these two terms
are considered synonyms), to avoid a bad mistake. We’ll be using the word inverse
for something else.
Moreover, it’s clear that only those functions f that don’t vanish in their domain X
admit a reciprocal still defined on X . Vice versa, functions that vanish for some
xi ∈ X will admit a reciprocal defined just on X ∖ {xi }.
Observation 26:
Be careful: the reciprocal of the function f is commonly denoted as f −1 , even
though the same symbol is also used to denote:
▸ the preimages through f (see later);
▸ the possible inverse function (see later).
In general, the actual meaning is clear from the context.
Index 73/123
Sheaf of functions
A further operation defined on the sheaf of functions F (R, R) is the so-called
composition of two functions. See later.
Index 74/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 75/123
The “job” of a function is that of returning a (one and only one) point of the
codomain for any given point of the domain.
This situation can be “reversed.” We could ask: given a point y ∈ Codom f , what
point(s) of Dom f is it the image of? This is what we call the preimage of y
through f , denoted by f −1 (y ).
It’s clear that we have to follow the same diagrams used for the definition of a
function, but in the opposite direction. And we need to be very carefull about some
details:
▸ y must ∈ Im f (belonging to Codom f is not enough!);
▸ since we saw that this situation
is allowed for a function f (we just called it a non-injective function), it’s

clear that the preimage f −1 (y ) might be a single x ∈ Dom f , but in general
it’s a subset of Dom f . Then in general f −1 is not a function.
Index 76/123
As we defined the image of a A ⊆ R through f like
f (A) ∶= {f (x ) ∈ Im f ∣ x ∈ A ∩ Dom f } ,
we define the preimage of a B ⊆ R through f as
f −1 (B) ∶= {x ∈ Dom f ∣ f (x ) ∈ B} .
Exercise 27:
Q Find a counterexample to prove that in general we can’t say that f (f −1 (B)) = B,

but we have to say that f (f −1 (B)) ⊆ B.
A It’s enough to consider:
Index 77/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 78/123
Restriction of a function to a subset of its domain
Let f ∶ X → Y be a function.
We might be interested in evaluating f just on a W ⊂ X . In that case, we can
consider not f , but its restriction to W , denoted as f ∣ .
W
Example 28:
A very important example of restriction is represented by the so-called sequences.
Often (although not always) they are simply f ∣ .
N
Example:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ N→R
⎪
⎪
an ∶ ⎨ π
⎪
⎪
⎪ n ↦ sin (n )
⎪
⎪
⎪ 2
⎩
Index See later for further details. 79/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 80/123
It’s time to introduce the composition of two functions.
Let:
▸ X , Y , Z ⊆ R;
▸ f ∶ X → Y;
▸ g ∶ Dom g → Z ;
▸ Dom g ∩ Im f = / ∅.
In these conditions we can compose the two functions f and g, obtaining the
composition of g and f , or g composed (with) f , denoted by g ○ f , acting from a
suitable subset of X to Z (see next slide).
Index 81/123
Since we want to define g ○ f such that (g ○ f )(x ) = g(f (x )), it’s clear that:
▸ the subset of X suitable to be the domain of g ○ f is f −1 (Dom g); then, in
order to define g ○ f , we won’t use “the whole” f , but just its restriction to
f −1 (Dom g);
▸ even g won’t be “all used” to define g ○ f : it will be enough its restriction to
the set Im f ∩ Dom g.
Then we have:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪f (Dom g) → Z
−1
g ○f ∶⎨ .
⎪
⎪ x ↦ (g ○ f )(x ) ∶= g ∣ (f ∣ −1 (x ))
⎪
⎪ Im f ∩Dom g f (Dom g)
⎩
Index 82/123
Example 29:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎧
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪R∗ → R
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∶ ⎨ √
⎪
⎪
⎪
f
⎪ x↦ x ⎧
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪[e , +∞) → R
2
⎪ ⎩
⎨ ⇒ g ○f ∶⎨ √ .
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎧ ⎪
⎪
⎪ x ↦ g(f (x )) = − log( x)
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪[e, +∞) → R ⎩
⎪
⎪
⎪ g ∶ ⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ x ↦ − log x
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎩
⎩
Observation 30:
The composition of two functions f and g in general is not commutative: not
only g ○ f in general is different from f ○ g, but the existence of the former (i.e.
the fact that Dom(g ○ f ) = / ∅) does not imply at all the existence of the latter!
Example 31:
If f and g are defined as in Example 29, then the function f ○ g is not defined
(it has an empty domain).
Index 83/123

Exercise 32:
Q Sketch the graphs of the functions f (x ) ∶= M(x 2 ) and g(x ) ∶= M(sin(x )).
A To sketch the graph of the function M(f (x )), in general, we can start from the
graph of f (x ) (dashed), and then. . . we play Tetris!
Index 84/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 85/123
Function injective
It should be already clear that we call injective a function f for which the following
situation doesn’t happen.
(Indeed, we already defined not injective such a function.)

In more formal terms, a function f is injective iff
∀x1 , x2 ∈ Dom f , f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 ,
or, equivalently, iff
∀x1 , x2 ∈ Dom f , x1 =
/ x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) =
/ f (x2 ) .
Both these conditions, in facts, prevent the situation pictured above.

A third, very elegant way of expressing the injectivity condition is the following: the
function f is injective iff ∀y ∈ Im f , f −1 ({y }) = {x }.
Index 86/123
How to recognise the injectivity of a function, from its graph
Given a function f the graph of which is known, it’s immediate to recognise whether
f is injective or not: it’s enough to count the number of the intersections between
Graph f and the possible horizontal lines.
The function f is injective iff any possible horizontal line crosses its graph at most
once. (Please, compare this test with the one we may use to recognise, from its
graph, whether a relation is also a function.)
Exercise 33:
Q Which of these graphs is that of an injective function?
A Just g. f is not an injective function; e is not even a function.

Index 87/123
Algebra of injectivity
Exercise 34:
Q Is the sum of two injective functions always injective?
A Not at all!
Example 35:
Let f (x ) ∶= x and g(x ) ∶= −x . Then it’s clear that f and g are both injective,
but their sum is not.
Analogously, the product of two injective functions is not necessarily injective.
Example 36:
Let f (x ) ∶= x and g(x ) ∶= 1/x . Then f and g are both injective, but their
product is not.
Vice versa, it’s easy to prove that if f and g are both injective functions, then g ○ f
and f ○ g (if they exist) are injective as well.
Index 88/123
Surjective function - bijective function
A function f is called surjective iff its image coincides with its codomain, i.e. iff
Im f = f (Dom f ) = Codom f .
Example 37:
The functions
⎧
⎪ ⎧
⎪
⎪Q → Q ⎪Q → R
fQQ ∶⎨ , fQR ∶⎨
⎪
⎪ q↦q ⎪
⎪ q↦q
⎩ ⎩
of Example 10 are almost identical, except the codomain. And it’s clear that
while the former is surjective, the latter is not.
A function f ∶ X → Y is defined bijective iff it is both injective and surjective. In

this case it is also called a bijection of X in Y .
Its inverse (see later) exists for sure and is a bijection of Y in X .
If f is a bijection of X in Y , we also say that f puts X and Y in a 1 − 1
correspondence, or even that X and Y are in a 1 − 1 correspondence through f .
Index 89/123
“Fixing” surjectivity and injectivity

The example of the two functions fQQ and fQR shows clearly that whenever the
surjectivity of a function is needed, it’s enough to define its codomain accordingly:
Codom f ∶= Im f . Surjectivity is then easily “fixed.”
What about injectivity?
Injectivity can be “fixed” by modifying the domain of a function, in particular by
suitably restricting it. The following is a useful definition.
Index 90/123
Restriction of a function on a subset of its domain
Given a function
⎧
⎪
⎪X ⊆ R → Y ⊆ R
f ∶⎨ ,
⎪
⎪ x ↦ f (x )
⎩
we define restriction of f to X1 ⊂ X the function
⎧
⎪
⎪X 1 ⊂ X ⊆ R → Y ⊆ R
f∣ ∶⎨ .
X1 ⎪
⎪ x ↦ f (x )
⎩
Example 38:
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪R → R
f ∶⎨ ,
⎪
⎪ x ↦ f (x ) ∶= x
⎪
2
⎩
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪R → R
+
f∣ + ∶⎨ .
R ⎪
⎪
⎪ x ↦ x 2
⎩
Clearly, f ∣ + is injective, while f is not.

R
Index 91/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 92/123
Inverse function
Taking inspiration from the last way we used to express the injectivity condition,
f injective ⇔ ∀y ∈ Im f , f −1 ({y }) = {x } ,
let’s observe that the condition for a relation to be a function f can be expressed as
f function ⇔ ∀x ∈ Dom f , f ({x }) = {y } .
It is then obvious that

f injective ⇒ f −1 function .
Such a function f −1 we’ll be defined inverse function of f .

It is also clear that the injectivity condition coincides with the invertibility
condition.
Index 93/123
Inverse function
Theorem 39:
For any invertible function f we have
▸ Dom f −1 = Im f ,
▸ Im f −1 = Dom f ,
▸ f −1 (f (A)) = A.
Observation 40:
For a function f which is not injective (invertible), the condition f −1 (f (A)) = A
is in general false. Instead it’s true that A ⊆ f −1 (f (A)). For a not injective f we
may in fact have
Index 94/123
Algebra of invertibility
The algebra of invertibility coincides with the algebra of injectivity.
Index 95/123
Invertibility of a function composition

We already observed that if f and g are both injective functions, then the same
holds for g ○ f and f ○ g (if they exist).
Thus in these conditions not only are f and g invertible, but so are g ○ f and f ○ g
(if they exist), and we have
(g ○ f )−1 = f −1 ○ g −1 , (f ○ g)−1 = g −1 ○ f −1
(please, notice the order!).

Furthermore, whenever f is injective (invertible):
▸ the composite function f −1 ○ f coincides with the identity function on
Dom f :
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪Dom f → Dom f
f −1
○f ∶⎨ ;
⎪
⎪
⎪ x ↦ (f −1 ○ f )(x ) ∶= f −1 (f (x )) = x = 1Dom f (x )
⎩
▸ the composite function f ○ f −1 coincides with the identity function on Im f :
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪Im f → Im f
f ○f −1
∶⎨ .
⎪
⎪
⎪ y ↦ (f ○ f −1 )(y ) ∶= f (f −1 (y )) = y = 1Im f (x )
⎩
Index 96/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 97/123
Monotone function
The concept of monotone function corresponds to the intuitive idea of
growth/descent of a function, which is obvious from a graphical point of view.
More precisely, a function f is called:
▸ monotone increasing on a subset S of its domain iff
∀x1 , x2 ∈ S, x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 );
▸ monotone strictly increasing on a subset S of its domain iff
∀x1 , x2 ∈ S, x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 );
▸ monotone decreasing on a subset S of its domain iff
∀x1 , x2 ∈ S, x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 );
▸ monotone strictly decreasing on a subset S of its domain iff
∀x1 , x2 ∈ S, x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).
A function f is simply called monotone (on a subset S of its domain) if it presents

one of the aforementioned monotonicities. And, of course, strict monotonicity
implies monotonicity.
A subset S of the domain of a function on which it is monotone is called
monotonicity interval of f .
Index 98/123
Algebra of monotonicity
Theorem 41:
The sum of two functions sharing the same kind of monotonicity (both increasing
or both decreasing) shares the same kind of monotonicity. Moreover it is strict if
at least one of the two is so.
Observation 42:
About the product, the situation is more complicated, and a similar rule does not
hold.
Theorem 43:
About the composition we have the following situation (compare it with the sign
rule):
f g g ○f
inc inc inc
inc dec dec
dec inc dec
dec dec inc
Index 99/123
Monotonicity and injectivity

The following theorem is simple but important.
Theorem 44:
Proposition:
If a function f is strictly monotone on a subset S of its domain, then f is
injective on S.
Proof:
For the sake of simplicity, let f be strictly increasing on S. Then ∀x1 , x2 ∈ S
such that x1 =
/ x2 we’ll have, alternatively:
▸ x1 < x2 , in which case f (x1 ) < f (x2 );
▸ x1 > x2 , in which case f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).
In both cases we then have f (x1 ) =
/ f (x2 ).
Index 100/123
Observation 45:
Theorem 44 cannot be inverted: a function f can be injective on a set S ⊆ Dom f
unless f is strictly monotone on S.
Example: The function
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ R→R
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
1
⎪ ⎪
⎪ for x =
/0
f ∶⎨ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x ↦ ⎨x
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ for x = 0
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ 0
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎩
⎩
Index 101/123
is clearly injective, not strictly increasing, nor strictly decreasing on R.

Theorem 44 has an obvious corollary.
Corollary 46:
Proposition:
If the function f is strictly monotone on a subset S of its domain, then f is
invertible on S.
Proof:
It follows immediately from Theorem 44 and from the equivalence between
injectivity and invertibility.
Theorem 47:
The inverse function f −1 of a strictly monotone function f has the same kind of
monotonicity as f .
Index 102/123
SubSection Index

Mappings (Maps)
Functions
Function graphs
Sheaf of functions
Invertibility
Monotonicity
Index 103/123
Bounded function
For the image Im f of a function f ∶ R → R, as for any other subset S ⊆ R, we can
say whether it results bounded (from below, from above, tout court) or not. And, if
yes, whether it admits a minimum / maximum.
Correspondingly we’ll say that:
▸ the function f is bounded (from below, from above, tout court) if Im f is
bounded (from below, from below, tout court);
▸ the function f admits an absolute minimum if the set Im f admits a
minimum;
▸ the function f admits an absolute maximum if the set Im f admits a
maximum.
Later we’ll introduce the concepts of relative minimum / maximum.
Index 104/123
Section Index
Sequences
Important sequences
Index 105/123
Sequence
(Real) Sequences are a particular type of (real) functions: those whose domain is a subset
D ⊆ N.
Observation 48:
Although there is no conceptual problem in considering whatever D ⊆ N as the domain of a

sequence (see, e.g., Example 50 and Example 51), for the sake of simplicity it’s usual to
consider just domains of the form D ∶= {n ∈ N ∣ n > n0 }, for a given n0 ∈ N (see, e.g.,
Example 49).
The typical notation of a sequence is somewhat different from the notation of any other
function, starting from the typical name: a instead of f (but, after all, they’re simply names!).
Beside the complete notation, which is shown here on an example,

⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪N+ → R
⎪
⎪
⎪ n
a∶⎨ ⎛ 1⎞ ,
⎪
⎪
⎪ n ↦ an ∶= 1 +
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎝ n⎠
⎪
⎩
⎧
⎪ n⎫
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪⎛ 1⎞ ⎪⎪
⎪
the shorter notation {an } ∶= ⎨ 1 + ⎬ is often used. Or, even more simply:
⎪
⎪
⎪⎝ n ⎠ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭n>0
n
⎛ 1⎞
an ∶= 1 + , n > 0.
⎝ n⎠
Index 106/123
Sequences
Example 49:
an ∶= log(n − 4) is a sequence defined for any n ≥ 5.
Example 50:
1
bn ∶= is a sequence defined in N ∖ {5}.
n−5
Example 51:
√
cn ∶= (−1)n is a sequence defined just for even ns:
Dom cn = {n ∈ N ∣ n = 2k , k ∈ N} .
Observation 52:
As anticipated in Observation 48, general results often refer, for simplicity, to the
situation exemplified by Example 49, not to the most general situation (to wich
Example 50 and Example 51 belong).
Index 107/123
Sequences
As we said, sequences are particular functions. Thus they “inherit” from functions
some results, consistently with the fact that their domain is a discrete set.
Example 53:
The natural domain of the sequence an ∶= sin(nπ/2) is Z, its image is the set
{−1, 0, 1}, and its graph is the subset of Z × R ⊂ R2 defined by
Graph(an ) = {(n, y ) ∈ Z × R ⊂ R2 ∣ y = sin(nπ/2)} .
Focusing, as we often do, on the subdomain N, the graph becomes:
Index 108/123
Sequences
Example 54:
⎧
⎪ n⎫
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪⎛ 1⎞ ⎪⎪
⎪
The natural domain of the sequence {an } ∶= ⎨ 1 + ⎬ is N+ , its image is the
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭
⎧
⎪ ⎫
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎪
n
⎪
⎪
set ⎨y ∈ R ∣ y = 1 + ⎬, and its graph is the subset of N+ × R ⊂ R2 defined by
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭
⎧
⎪ n⎫
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎪
⎪
⎪
Graph(an ) = ⎨(n, y ) ∈ N+ × R ⊂ R ∣ y = 1 +
2
⎬ .
⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭
Index 109/123
Sequences recursively defined

Sometimes it’s convenient to define a sequence by giving:
▸ the initial term a1 ,
▸ a “recipe” to construct the n-th term (an ) starting from the previous one
(an−1 ).
In that case, the sequence is said recursively defined.
Example 55:
The sequence of odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . can be recursively defined, giving the
first term a1 = 1 and declaring that an = an−1 + 2.
Index 110/123
Monotone sequence
A sequence an is said
▸ monotone increasing iff an ≤ an+1 , ∀n ≥ n0 ;
▸ monotone decreasing iff an ≥ an+1 , ∀n ≥ n0 .
As for functions, we have strict monotonicity when inequalities are strict.
Index 111/123
Definitely verified property

We say that a property of a sequence an is definitely verified (for n ≥ N ∈ N) iff it
is verified ∀n ≥ N. In other words, if it is verified “from N on.”
Exercise 56:
n
⎛ 1⎞
Q Find a definitely verified property of the sequence an ∶= 1 +
⎝ n⎠
A Example: for n ≥ 74 we have an > 2.7.
Index 112/123
SubSection Index
Sequences
Important sequences
Arithmetic sequences
Geometric sequences
Napier’s sequence
Index 113/123
SubSubSection Index
Sequences
Important sequences
Geometric sequences
Napier’s sequence
Index 114/123
Arithmetic sequence
We call arithmetic sequence (or progression) of initial term a0 and common
difference d (a0 , d ∈ R) the sequence
an ∶= a0 + nd .
Its first terms are

a0 , a0 + d, a0 + 2d, a0 + 3d, . . . .
Example 57:
The sequence of odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . is an arithmetic sequence an ∶= 1 + 2n.
The arithmetic sequence an ∶= a0 + nd can also be defined recursively as
a0 , . . . , an = an−1 + d .
Index 115/123
Arithmetic sequence
Exercise 58:
Q Prove (by induction) that the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence
an ∶= a0 + nd is given by the formula
n−1 n(n − 1)
∑ k (a0 + kd) = n a0 + d .
0 2
A First of all, let’s try “by hand” the first few cases:
▸ n = 0 ⇒ 0 = 0.
0
▸ n = 1 ⇒ ∑ (a0 + kd) = a0 .
k
0
1
▸ n = 2 ⇒ ∑ (a0 + kd) = a0 + (a0 + d) = 2a0 + d.
k
0
Now let’s prove the general formula.
(to be continued. . . )
Index 116/123
Arithmetic sequence
Exercise 58 (continuing):
A Hypotheses:
m−1 m(m − 1)
∃m ∈ N ∣ ∑ k (a0 + kd) = m a0 + d .
0 2
Thesis:
m (m + 1)m
∑k (a0 + kd) = (m + 1) a0 + d .
0 2
Proof:
m m−1
∑k (a0 + kd) = ∑ k (a0 + kd) +(a0 + md)
0 0
´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
m(m−1)
m a0 + d
2
m(m − 1) + 2m
= (m + 1) a0 + d
2
(m + 1)m
= (m + 1) a0 + d .
2
Index 117/123
Arithmetic sequence
Exercise 59:
Q Verify that the previous formula can also be used to sum the first n integer
numbers up, giving the famous formula
n (n + 1)
.
2
n (n − 1) n (n − 1) 2n + n2 − n n2 + n n (n + 1)
a0 = 1, d = 1 ⇒ na0 + d = n+ = = = .
2 2 2 2 2
Index 118/123
SubSubSection Index
Sequences
Important sequences
Geometric sequences
Napier’s sequence
Index 119/123
Geometric sequence
We call geometric sequence (or progression) of initial term a0 and common
ratio r (a0 , r ∈ R) the sequence
an ∶= a0 r n .
Its first terms are
a0 , a0 r , a0 r 2 , a0 r 3 , . . . .
Example 60:
The sequence of the powers of 2 is a geometric sequence an ∶= 2n .
The geometric sequence an ∶= a0 r n can also be defined recursively as
a0 , . . . , an = an−1 r .
Index 120/123
Geometric sequence
Exercise 61:
Q Prove that the sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence an ∶= a0 r n is given
by the formula
1 − rn
a0 .
1−r
Index 121/123
SubSubSection Index
Sequences
Important sequences
Geometric sequences
Napier’s sequence
Index 122/123
Napier’s sequence
The sequence of Example 54
⎧
⎪ ⎫n
⎪ 1⎪
⎪
an ∶= ⎨1 + ⎬
⎪
⎪ n⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎭
is actually an important one, known as Napier’s sequence.

We’ll come back to it in the sequel, but we can already say that it is
▸ strictly increasing;
▸ bounded from above (in fact an < 3, ∀n).
In a sense that has to be precised, this implies that it converges to a real value.
This number, universally denoted by e and called Napier’s number, turns out to be
irrational and approximated by 2.718 . . .
Napier’s number e is of great importance in Mathematics (see ex , loge (x )), and
we’ll see why.
Index 123/123

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Relations, Mappings, Functions, Sequences

Lectures Notes for the Course in Mathematical Analysis 1

Material released under license Creative Commons SA (Share Alike) .

Mappings (Maps), Functions

Mappings (Maps), Functions

Mappings (Maps), Functions

Requiring that to any x ∈ X correspond

But it does not prevent that x1 , x2 ∈ X ,

Mappings (Maps), Functions

Mappings (Maps), Functions

Q Is this a graphical representation of a function?

Image through a function

Q Is this a graphical representation of a function?

We also say that f (A) is the image of A through (or under) f .

(Actually, it could not fill Y = Codom f .)

Image through a function

A Because f , by definition, eats elements of X ∶= Dom f , while A, being a subset of

A f ([−1, 1]) is meaningless, since [−1, 1] ⊆

But we can give it a meaning, by defining

Mappings (Maps), Functions

How to read the graph of a function

Q Which of these graphs is that of a function?

A Only f and g are; e is not.

▸ Thanks to the possibility of giving

p(x ) ∶= an x n + an−1 x n−1 + ⋯ + a1 x + a0 .

The greatest i for which ai =

The natural domain of such a function coincides with R ∖ {denominator zeroes}.

See 5. Hyperbolic functions.ggb

In this definition, the transformation law (of x es into corresponding y s) is given by

Mappings (Maps), Functions

Elementary transformations of elementary functions

Mappings (Maps), Functions

Q What about, e.g. in the case of the function, f ⋅ g, if Dom f =

A f ⋅ g is a function defined on Dom f ∩ Dom g.

The symmetric element of the function multiplication, instead, requires more

Mappings (Maps), Functions

is allowed for a function f (we just called it a non-injective function), it’s

Q Find a counterexample to prove that in general we can’t say that f (f −1 (B)) = B,

A It’s enough to consider:

Mappings (Maps), Functions

Index See later for further details. 79/123

Mappings (Maps), Functions

Composition of two functions

Composition of two functions

Mappings (Maps), Functions

(Indeed, we already defined not injective such a function.)

∀x1 , x2 ∈ Dom f , f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 ,

or, equivalently, iff

Both these conditions, in facts, prevent the situation pictured above.

Q Which of these graphs is that of an injective function?

A Just g. f is not an injective function; e is not even a function.

Q Is the sum of two injective functions always injective?

Analogously, the product of two injective functions is not necessarily injective.

A function f ∶ X → Y is defined bijective iff it is both injective and surjective. In

“Fixing” surjectivity and injectivity

Clearly, f ∣ + is injective, while f is not.

Mappings (Maps), Functions

f function ⇔ ∀x ∈ Dom f , f ({x }) = {y } .

It is then obvious that

Such a function f −1 we’ll be defined inverse function of f .

Invertibility of a function composition

(please, notice the order!).