Topics
Mehdi Bakhshi
Verya Nasri
New ACI 533 guide on general design and construction
aspects of precast concrete tunnel segments
American Concrete Institute (ACI) is aiming to publish its first
guide (ACI 533.2R) on general aspects of precast tunnel seg-
ments. This paper presents salient features of the guide including
the most recent developments on major aspects of design, manu-
facturing and construction. This document is drafted based on
the knowledge and the experience gained on projects in Asia,
­Europe, and North America, and available national and interna-
tional recommendations. Procedures to perform structural design
during production, transportation, construction and final service
stages are explained. Details of segmental ring geometry and
systems, concrete strength, curing, and reinforcement detailing
are discussed. Gasket design, segment connection devices,
­anchorage systems, tolerances, measurement and dimensional
control, and repair of defects are among other topics that are
covered. This document also addresses durability and degrada-
tion mechanisms of tunnel linings and their mitigation methods.
While some parts of this guide may only consider the procedures
adopted by ACI, they can be extended to other national and inter-
national codes and used worldwide.
1 Introduction
Precast concrete segments are installed to support the exca­
vation behind the tunnel boring machine (TBM) in soft
ground, weak rock and fractured hard rock applications.
Segments are designed to resist the permanent loads from
the ground and groundwater as well as the temporary loads
from production, transportation, and construction. Cur­
rently, very little guidance is provided for tunnel designers
and contractors by local or international authorities. ACI
533.2R [1] guide is intended to provide procedures required
for the structural design as well as detailed design considera­
tions such as concrete strength and reinforcement. Gasket
design and connection devices are introduced, followed by
segment tolerances, measurement, and dimensional control
systems. Durability of segmental lining with respect to ma­
jor degradation mechanisms and their mitigation methods
are also covered. This document will be the first guide in the
world published by an international code agency that covers
major aspects of design, manufacturing and construction of
the segments all together in a single publication.
2  Design philosophy
Concrete precast tunnel segments should be designed us­
ing load and resistance factor design (LRFD) method. The
478 © 2019 Ernst & Sohn Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin · Geomechanics and Tunnelling 12 (2019), No. 5
DOI: 10.1002/geot.201900024
current practice in the tunnel industry is to design seg­
mental tunnel linings for the governing load cases present­
ed in Table 1. Strength reduction factors are defined by
structural codes such as ACI 318 [2], and the design
strength of segments is compared with required strength
against all critical load cases.
3  Segmental ring geometry and systems
3.1  Internal diameter
The dimension of the tunnel intrados is determined by
considering the internal space requirements, which de­
pends on the intended use of the tunnel and client re­
quirements. ACI 533.2R [1] classifies intended use of tun­
nels in four main categories of railroad and subway tun­
nels, road tunnels, utility tunnels, and tunnels for water
and wastewater. Major governing requirements and ele­
ments that impact the internal size of tunnels for each
category are explained in the Guide. Figure 1 shows typi­
cal interior space of road tunnels.
3.2  Thickness, length and system of segmental ring
The recommendation on thickness is given in the format
of the ratio of internal tunnel diameter (ID) to the lining
thickness and falls in the range of 18 to 25 for tunnels
with an ID of more than 5.5 m, and 15 to 25 for tunnels
with an ID of 4 to 5.5 m. Ring length of 1.5 m is recom­
mended for tunnel diameters of 6 to 7 m, increasing to a
ring length of 2 m for tunnels larger than 9 m in diameter.
Different systems exist for tunnel segmental rings;
these include parallel rings, parallel rings with corrective
rings, right/left-tapered rings, and universal ring systems
(Figure 2). Parallel ring system (Figure 2a) is not inherently
suitable for curves and is problematic where packing bet­
ween the rings is required to restore line and grade result­
ing in reduction of the compression in the gasket and
sealing deficiencies. The right/left ring system (Figure 2b)
generally consists of tapered rings with one circumferential
face perpendicular to the tunnel axis and the other one in­
clined to the tunnel axis. A sequence of alternating right-ta­
pered and left-tapered rings produces a straight drive. This
ring system provides good sealing performance but the re­
quirement for different types of formwork set is a disadvan­
tage. Currently, the universal ring system (Figure 2c) is the
most conventional system, where often two circumferen­
 M. Bakhshi/V. Nasri · New ACI 533 guide on general design and construction aspects of precast concrete tunnel segments

Table 1.  Governing load cases, and their factored load combinations

Stage Load case Required strength in terms of factored loads (U)

Production and transient Load case 1: stripping (demolding) U = 1.4 w

stages
Load case 2: storage U = 1.4 (w + F)

Load case 3: handling U = 1.4 (w + F) or 1.4w

Load case 4: transportation U = 1.4 (w + F)

Construction stages Load case 5: TBM thrust jack forces U = 1.0 J (1.2 if machine thrust is unavailable)

Load case 6: tail skin grouting U = 1.25 (w + Pgr)

Load case 7: secondary grouting U = 1.25 (w + Pgr)

Final service stages Load case 8: earth pressure and groundwater load U = 1.25 (w + WAp) + 1.35 (EH + EV) + 1.5 P0

Load case 9: longitudinal joint bursting U = 1.25 (w + WAp) ± 1.35 (EH + EV) + 1.5 P0

Load case 10: additional distortion U = 1.4 Mdistortion

Notes: w is the segment self-weight (kN/m), F is the force acting on designed segment due to self-weight of segments positioned above when
segments are piled up within one stack during storage or transportation phases or handled by forklift (N), J is the TBM thrust jack forces
(kN), Pgr is the radial annular gap grouting pressure (MPa), WAp is the groundwater pressure (MPa), EH is the horizontal earth pressure
(MPa), EV is the vertical earth pressure (MPa), P0 is the surcharge load (N), Mdistortion is the bending moment due to additional distortion
­effect (N.m).

Fig. 1.  Schematics of interior space of road tunnels: a) section at low-point pump station; b) typical section

tial faces of each ring are inclined to the tunnel axis, and
alignment can be negotiated through the rotation of the
segmental ring. The main advantage of this system is that
only one type of formwork set is required [3].
3.3  Ring configuration
Rings generally contain a number of segments that yields
a segment slenderness ratio of 8 to 13. General recom­
mendation for tunnels with a diameter of up to 6 m is to
divide the ring into six segments and use 5+1 or 4+2 con­
figurations (the latter number represents the number of
key segments). When the tunnel diameter ranges between
6 to 8 m and 8 to 11 m, a seven-segment ring and an
eight-segment ring can be adopted, respectively. For tun­
nel diameters between 11 to 14 m a nine-segment ring can
be adopted. Finally, for tunnels larger than 14 m, a 9+1
configuration is the most common configuration.
3.4  Segment geometry
The geometry of individual segments, as shown in Fig­
ure 3, can be divided into four main categories or systems:
hexagonal, rectangular, trapezoidal, and rhomboidal. Be­
cause hexagonal segments (Figure 3a) prevent the effec­
tive use of gaskets, they compromise the watertightness of
the lining and are rarely used nowadays. With rectangular
systems (Figure 3b), staggered longitudinal joints cannot
always be guaranteed, and crucifix joints may present
themselves which may cause leakage. In trapezoidal sys­

Geomechanics and Tunnelling 12 (2019), No. 5 479

M. Bakhshi/V. Nasri · New ACI 533 guide on general design and construction aspects of precast concrete tunnel segments
Fig. 2.  Different ring systems, tapering and curve negotiation schematics: a) parallel rings; b) right/left rings; c) universal rings
Fig. 3.  Main systems for segment geometry: a) hexagonal;
b) rectangular; c) trapezoidal; d) rhomboidal systems
tem (Figure 3c) because of staggered longitudinal joints,
the possibility of creating crucifix joints are eliminated but
the installation process makes it difficult to place several
key segments between the counter key segments. Rhom­
boidal system (Figure 3d) is currently the most common
system as it eliminates crucifix joints, has a good sealing
performance and allows for continuous ring erection.
Other major advantage is the angled segment joint which
prevents rubbing of the gaskets during segment insertion
and facilitates the use of fast connecting dowels in circum­
ferential joints.
4  Segment design
4.1  Production and transient stages
After casting and initial curing, segments are stripped from
formwork. The design considers the required strength
480 Geomechanics and Tunnelling 12 (2019), No. 5
when segments are demolded (i.e. 6 hours after casting)
under their own self-weight (w).
Segment demolding is followed by segment storage,
where segments are stacked to gain their required strength
before transportation to the construction site. Generally,
all segments comprising a full ring are piled up in one
stack. The design considers the self-weight and the dead
load of segments positioned above with an eccentricity of
e = 100 mm between the locations of the stack support
and the supports of the upper segments.
Segment handling is carried out by specially designed
lifting devices such as mechanical clamping, vacuum lift­
ers and forklifts. For handling by mechanical clamping
and vacuum lifters the design procedure utilized for seg­
ment demolding and for handling by forklifts a loading
scheme and eccentricity similar to segment storage is
adopted.
During the segment transportation phase, precast seg­
ments are transported to the construction site and ulti­
mately to the TBM trailing gear. Half or all segments of
each ring are transported to the TBM on one carriage. A
design procedure similar to storage phase and an eccen­
tricity of 100 mm is generally recommended for design.
In addition to load factors presented in Table 1, a dy­
namic impact factor of 2.0 is recommended for load cases
of handling and transportation. Figure 4 presents loading
schemes and support conditions for above-mentioned
load cases.
4.2  Construction stages
4.2.1  TBM thrust jack forces
As shown in Figure 5a and as part of the boring process,
the TBM jacks bear against the jacking pads placed along
the exposed circumferential joint. High compression
stresses develop under the jacking pads, bursting tensile
stresses develop deep within the segment, and spalling
tensile stresses are generated between adjacent jack pads
along the circumferential joint. As shown in Figure 5 dif­
ferent analytical and design methods are recommended
including simplified bursting equations for post-tensioned
anchorage zones in pre-stressed concrete [2] [4], the ana­
lytical method of Iyengar [5] diagram, and two- and
three-dimensional finite element (FE) simulations.
4.2.2  Back-grouting pressure
Loads on the lining are generated during filling the annu­
lar space between ground and segments with semi-liquid
grouts. This is modeled by applying radial pressure vary­
 M. Bakhshi/V. Nasri · New ACI 533 guide on general design and construction aspects of precast concrete tunnel segments
Fig. 4.  a) forces acting on segments during demolding and handling by lifters; b) and c) forces acting on segments during
storage, handling by forklifts, and transportation, d) scheme of handling by forklift
ing linearly from the minimum grout pressure at the
crown to the maximum grout pressure at the invert of the
tunnel. For the load combination of self-weight and grout
pressure, as shown in Table 1, a load factor of 1.25 is re­
commended for both loads.
4.3  Final service stages
4.3.1  Ground pressure, groundwater, and surcharge loads
Load factors shown in Table 1 (Load case 8) can be used
to compute the required strength. Among other methods,
this load case can be analyzed using elastic equations,
beam-spring models (Figure 6), FE and discrete element
methods (DEM).
4.3.2  Longitudinal joint bursting
Hoop forces developed in the lining are transferred
through a reduced cross-sectional area along the longitu­
dinal joints where gaskets and stress relief grooves are
present. Similar to load case of jack forces, simplified
bursting equations [2, 4] (Figure 7), the analytical method
of Iyengar [5] diagram, and 2D/3D FE simulations are the
most commonly used methods.
4.4  Detailed design consideration
ACI 533.2R Guide [1] summarizes available guidelines by
international authorities on the recommend compressive
strength of precast concrete tunnel segments. The rein­
forcement is categorized to three different types: a) trans­
verse reinforcement – the main reinforcement placed per­
pendicular to the tunnel axis, b) longitudinal reinforce­
ment – placed parallel to tunnel axis and often designed as
minimum temperature and shrinkage reinforcement, c)
joint reinforcement – placed in the vicinity of joints to re­
sist bursting and spalling stresses. Most common rein­
forcement details are presented in the Guide including
size of rebar, and recommended minimum concrete cover
and rebar spacing.
5  Servieability limit state (SLS)
Verifications for SLS in tunnel segments include stress
verification, deformation verification and cracking verifi­
cation. Special attention is paid to cracking as major con­
tributor to reduction in serviceability due to potential wa­
ter penetration. The design should ensure that flexural
crack width is not greater than allowable crack widths
presented in the Guide.
6  Design of gaskets
In one-pass segmental lining, the watertightness of the
tunnel is guaranteed by the segments and gaskets which
are placed between segments in longitudinal and circum­
ferential joints. In the Guide, procedures are provided for
selecting gasket materials, solutions for different water
Geomechanics and Tunnelling 12 (2019), No. 5 481
M. Bakhshi/V. Nasri · New ACI 533 guide on general design and construction aspects of precast concrete tunnel segments
Fig. 5.  Load case of TBM jack forces: a) schematic view of
thrust jacks pushing on circumferential joints; b) schematics
of bursting tensile forces and corresponding parameters
when using simplified equations of post-tensioned anchor-
age zones in pre-stressed concrete; c) Iyengar diagram [5] as
a common analytical method; d) results of 3D FEA
Fig. 6.  a) double ring beam-spring model with radial springs
simulating ground, and joint springs simulating longitudinal
and circumferential joints; b) scheme of ring joint
482 Geomechanics and Tunnelling 12 (2019), No. 5
Fig. 7.  Force transfer recommended by [4] in longitudinal
joints using the simplified stress block concept
pressures, appropriate safety factors considering relax­
ation, and gasket profile considering tunnel size, toleranc­
es and required construction gap/offset. Watertightness
and load-deflection tests, and details of gasket groove de­
sign are discussed. Gasket short-term behavior is present­
ed, and discussion is made on design of connection sys­
tems for gasket load after short-term relaxation. New de­
velopments in gasket systems are introduced including
anchored gaskets and most recently developed fiber an­
chorage technology for gaskets; soft corner solutions to
eliminate point loading using pin-based cavities; and new
repair method for post sealing of segment joint based on
direct drilling and injection through gasket profile.
7  Connection devices and fasteners
Connections between segments within a ring and between
rings can be divided into three categories: bolts, dowels
and guiding rods. Bolt (Figure 8a) is generally used be­
tween segments within a ring, and between rings of rec­
tangular systems. Because of the kinematics of the assem­
bling process, dowel (Figure 8b) is only used between the
rings in circumferential joints. Guiding rods (Figure 8c)
can be used as a centering device that provides guidance
and centering during segment installation with locking
functionality. Guiding rods are usually utilized in conjunc­
tion with dowels. Latest developments in connection de­
vices include integration of a screw-able socket on one
side of dowel in order to reduce the installation tolerance
and provide the workers with a smoother assembly pro­
cess. Traditional fastening systems are post-installed an­
chors with drilling which may damage concrete, reinforce­
ment or segment gaskets with negative impacts on struc­
tural behavior, sealing performance, corrosion protection
and long-term durability. ACI 533.2R [1] presents new
cast-in fastening system for segments as a durable and sus­
tainable solution.
8  Tolerances, measurement and dimensional control
Tolerances are allowable deviations of actual dimensions
of segments either as individual components or as a sys­
tem from their design dimensions. In ACI 533.2R Guide
[1], tolerances are explained in two main categories of
production and construction tolerances. Production toler­
 M. Bakhshi/V. Nasri · New ACI 533 guide on general design and construction aspects of precast concrete tunnel segments
Fig. 8.  Segment connection devices: a) bolt systems in longitudinal joints; b) dowel systems in circumferential joints;
c) guiding rods in longitudinal joints
ances specified by guidelines and standards are presented,
and different measurement programs and their shortcom­
ings are discussed. 3D laser measurement using interfer­
ometer and tracker system is presented as the best prac­
tice. Test ring is explained as a system tolerance con­
trolling method, and ovalization and joint misalignment
as the two major construction tolerances.
9 Durability
Tunnels are typically designed for a service life of 100 to
125 years. In bored tunnels, durability of tunnel is directly
related to durability of segments. Most-frequent degrada­
tion mechanisms are discussed in the Guide. This includes
corrosion of reinforcement by chloride attack and car­
bonation, sulfate and acid attacks, alkali-aggregate reac­
tions, frost attack and freeze-and-thaw damages. Stray
current-induced corrosion as major durability concern
specific to railway/subway tunnels is discussed. Mitiga­
tion methods for different durability factor are also pre­
sented. Stray current corrosion mitigation methods in­
cluding use of FRC segments are presented and durability
of segments under coupling effects of stray current with
­other conventional degradation factors are explained. Pre­
scriptive approaches for the durability design are ex­
plained and exposure classes related to environmental ac­
tions as the main inputs to prescriptive approaches are
discussed. Recommendations to ensure typical service life
of tunnels are explained including concrete strength,
maximum water-to-cement (w/c) ratio, minimum cement
content and minimum air content.
10 Conclusion
ACI 533.2R Guide [1] consolidates most recent develop­
ments, international best practices, and state-of-the-art in­
formation on all aspects of design and construction of
precast segments, and can be used as a general guide for
segmental tunnel linings. In addition to structural design
rules, this guideline addresses details of segmental ring
geometries, shapes, configurations and systems, and de­
tailed concrete design considerations. Gasket design, con­
nection devices, tolerances, measurements, dimensional
control and durability are all discussed. Prepared Guide is
the state of the practice at the current time on a continu­
ously evolving technology field.
References
[1] ACI 533.2R: Guide for Precast Concrete Tunnel Segments.
American Concrete Institute (ACI), Farmington Hills, 2019.
[2] ACI 318: Building Code Requirements for Structural Con­
crete and Commentary. American Concrete Institute (ACI),
Farmington Hills, 2019.
[3] ÖVBB: Guideline for Concrete Segmental Lining Systems.
Austrian Society for Concrete and Construction Technology.
Austrian Society for Construction Technology (ÖVBB),
­Vienna, 2011.
[4] DAUB: Lining Segment Design: Recommendations for the
Design, Production, and Installation of Segmental Rings.
German Tunneling Committee (DAUB), Cologne, 2013.
[5] Iyengar, K.T.: Two-Dimensional Theories of Anchorage
Zone Stresses in Post-Tensioned Beams. ACI 59 (1962),
No. 10, pp. 1443–1466.
Mehdi Bakhshi, PhD, PE
AECOM
125 Broad St, 16th Floor
10004 New York
USA
mehdi.bakhshi@aecom.com
Verya Nasri, PhD, PE
AECOM
125 Broad St, 16th Floor
10004 New York
USA
verya.nasri@aecom.com
Geomechanics and Tunnelling 12 (2019), No. 5 483