Department of Mechanical Engineering

FLUID MECHANICS

LAB MANUAL
Experiment
Name of Experiment
No.
1 To find out Reynolds Number

2 To verify Bernoulli’s Theorem

3 To measure the discharge through a venturimeter

4 Orifice Meter

5 Rectangular Notch

6 Friction in Pipe

7 Impact of Jet

8 Meta Centric Height

 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
Aim
To find out Reynolds Number.

Apparatus Required
Experimental set up which consists of Acrylic tube (transparent) of suitable length, Supply tank and die
tank with die needle, flow control valve, measuring jar, stop watch for flow measurement.

Theory
The distribution of water from reservoir from a city is through closed conduits or pipes. Channels or used
to convey water to agriculture fields. The flow in open channels is exposed to atmospheric pressure. The
flow in pipe becomes atmospheric if it is running partially, full as in sewer pipes and pipe culverts. If the
pipe is running full, the water is under pressure. The water rises against gravity and reaches the upper
floors of building due to this pressure.

Types of flow in pipe:

Uniform flow
Non - uniform flow Streamline or laminar flow Turbulent flow
Steady flow
Unsteady flow
Steady uniform flow

Fluid friction:
Fluid friction depends upon the type of water. For turbulent flow the resistance is as follows.
 Proportional to the square of the velocity
 Independent of pressure.
 Proportional to the density of fluid.
 Varies slightly with temperature.
 Proportional to the area of the surface in contact.
 Depends upon the nature of the surface in contact.

The Reynolds’s number:

Laminar flow is defined as flow in which the fluid moves in layers, one layer gliding smoothly over an
adjacent layer with only a molecular interchange of momentum. Any tendencies towards instability and
turbulence are damped out by viscous shear force that resists relative motion of adjacent fluid layers.
While turbulent flow has very erratic motion of fluid particles with a violent transverse interchange of
momentum. The nature of flow i.e., whether laminar or turbulent and its relative position along a scale
indicating the relative importance of turbulent to laminar tendencies are indicated by the Reynolds
number.

Reynolds number (Re) is the ratio of the inertia force per unit volume to the viscous force per unit
volume.
The inertia force is due to the mass and velocity of the fluid particles trying to diffuse the fluid particles.
The viscous force is the frictional force due to the viscosity of the fluid.
Re = pVd/µ
p
= VdIv coz,(v = µI p )
= Qd/v.A
Qd where V = Q I A
= 4Q I πdv where A = π d2 I 4

d in kg I m3
p = density of the liquid
l
µ= Viscosity o the liquiid in N -s/m2
ty of
Q = Discharrge in m3/secc
d = Diamete
ameter of circula ar pipe in m
v = Kinemat ity of the liquiid in m2/sec
nematic viscosity
V = mean velocity of flow in n a pipe in m/sec

Procedure
 First fill the supply
supp y tank with water up to the he die
di tank.
 Then fill
ill the dye into
nto the
th dye tank.
tank
 Start the
he flow of wateer from supp pply tank.
 Start thee flow of
o dye..
 For gettiing the diffferent pattern ern of dye in the acryliccrylic tube,
tube cont
ontrol the floow of water
ater flowing
f ing
through the acrylic
a tu
ube.
 The disch
scharge must be b varied gradadually.
 The moment when wh dye d deviates tes from
f its strraight linee pattern
pa correspondence
respondence to the condi
con itions, then
the
 Flow in thet acrylicc tube is no longe
onger in laminar
minar conditionsions.
 The dischharge (Q) flowing
flow in the
he acrylic
rylic tube at that mom oment is measu
easured. Repeat the above
bove procedure
3-44 times and obtain
obta n an average
avera value
v of the
he lower critical
tical Reynolds
Reynol s number.
numb
Precautions and tips
1) Water should be filled more than half tank.
2) Don’t apply excess pressure on the tap.
3) Flow measuring pipe should be in horizontal position.
4) Reading should take 20 minutes after the start of the flow.

Observations
1. Diameter of the acrylic tube (ID) = 25mm
2. Kinematic viscosity of water = 1 X 10-6 m2/sec

Tabulation:

S. No. Discharge Time Discharge, Reynolds’s Type of flow

(Liters) (sec) Q (m3/sec) number ( Re)
1
2
3
4
5

If Reynolds' number < 2000, then flow is laminar

If Reynolds' number> 2000, then the flow is turbulent.

Result/ Conclusions
The value of the Reynolds no. is…………. And it shows that the flow is ……………….

Viva Questions
1) What is Reynolds number?
2) Define laminar flow.
3) Define turbulent flow.
4) Can we use dye other than KMnO4 in Reynolds experiment.
5) Why Water tank should be kept clean?
6) What is transition flow?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

Aim
To verify Bernoulli’s Theorem

Apparatus
Bernoulli’s Apparatus
Experimental setup which consists of flow channel 700 mm long, transparent acrylic, Supply with control
valve, Manometric tubes (11 no)fixed over flow channel with separate scale, Sump tank, Measuring tank
and inlet and outlet pipe (150mm diameter) with stop watch and accessories .
Theory
Kinetic Energy:-
The kinetic energy of an object is the energy which it possesses due to its motion. It is defined as the
work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this
energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. The same
amount of work is done by the body in decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest.
Potential Energy:-
The potential energy is the energy of an object or a system due to the position of the body or the
arrangement of the particles of the system. The SI unit for measuring work and energy is the joule
(symbol J). If the work of forces of this type acting on a body that moves from a start to an end position
is defined only by these two positions and does not depend on the trajectory of the body between the two,
then there is a function known as a potential that can be evaluated at the two positions to determine this
work. Furthermore, the force field is defined by this potential function, also called potential energy.
Pressure Energy:-
Pressure in a fluid may be considered to be a measure of energy per unit volume or energy density. For a
force exerted on a fluid, this can be seen from the definition of pressure. Pressure in a fluid can be seen to
be a measure of energy per unit volume by means of the definition of work. This energy is related to
other forms of fluid energy by the Bernoulli equation.
Bernoulli’s theorem:-
Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states that, in a
steady flow, the sum of all forms of mechanical energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all
points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy remain
constant. Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs proportionately with an increase in both its
dynamic pressure and kinetic energy, and a decrease in its static pressure and potential energy. If the fluid
is flowing out of a reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because in a
reservoir the energy per unit volume (the sum of pressure and gravitational potential ρ g h) is the same
everywhere.
Experimental procedure
(1) Start the motor.
(2) Open the bypass valve fully.
(3) Control the gate valve for steady flow.
(4) Allow some time to raise the water level in manometer tubes.
(5) Take the height level in manometer tubes.
(6) Take the time required for 100 mm rise in water level of measuring tank.

Precautions & Tips

1) Carefully kept some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.
2) When fluid is flowing there is fluctuation in the height of piezometer tubes, note the mean position
carefully.
Observations
Size of the sump tank = 1 x 0.5 x 0.4(height) m3
Size of the measuring tank = 0.5 x 0.4 x 0.4(height) m3
Width of channel = 0.05 m

Tabulation:

Height of the C/s area of

Tubes Head h P/w+
S. no. channel in channel. P/w V2/2g
No. in meters V2/2g
mts A in m2
1
2
3
4

Working Sheet
1. Discharge, Q = Area of measuring tank x rise in water level of measuring tank / Time required
= ------------------m3/sec.
2. Velocity, V = Q/A = ----------------m/sec
3. Pressure, P = ρ. g. h = ---------------- N/m2
Where,
ρ=Density of the liquid, kg/m3
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m2/sec
h = Head in meters.
4. Pressure head = P/w =-----------------meters.of water.
Where,
w = Specific weight of water, 9810N/m3

Results & conclusions

On the basis of above results it concludes that the sum of kinetic, potential and pressure energy of fluid is
same at any point in the tube. Hence Bernoulli’s theorem is verified.

Viva questions
1) Briefly Explain the various term involve in Bernoulli’s Equation.
2) What is Piezometer tube?
3) What Assumptions made to get Bernoulli’s equation from Euler equation?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

Aim
To verify Bernoulli’s Theorem

Apparatus
Bernoulli’s Apparatus
Experimental setup which consists of flow channel 700 mm long, transparent acrylic, Supply with control
valve, Manometric tubes (11 no)fixed over flow channel with separate scale, Sump tank, Measuring tank
and inlet and outlet pipe (150mm diameter) with stop watch and accessories .
Theory
Kinetic Energy:-
The kinetic energy of an object is the energy which it possesses due to its motion. It is defined as the
work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this
energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes. The same
amount of work is done by the body in decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest.
Potential Energy:-
The potential energy is the energy of an object or a system due to the position of the body or the
arrangement of the particles of the system. The SI unit for measuring work and energy is the joule
(symbol J). If the work of forces of this type acting on a body that moves from a start to an end position
is defined only by these two positions and does not depend on the trajectory of the body between the two,
then there is a function known as a potential that can be evaluated at the two positions to determine this
work. Furthermore, the force field is defined by this potential function, also called potential energy.
Pressure Energy:-
Pressure in a fluid may be considered to be a measure of energy per unit volume or energy density. For a
force exerted on a fluid, this can be seen from the definition of pressure. Pressure in a fluid can be seen to
be a measure of energy per unit volume by means of the definition of work. This energy is related to
other forms of fluid energy by the Bernoulli equation.
Bernoulli’s theorem:-
Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states that, in a
steady flow, the sum of all forms of mechanical energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all
points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy remain
constant. Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs proportionately with an increase in both its
dynamic pressure and kinetic energy, and a decrease in its static pressure and potential energy. If the fluid
is flowing out of a reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because in a
reservoir the energy per unit volume (the sum of pressure and gravitational potential ρ g h) is the same
everywhere.
Observations
Diameter of Venturimeter at inlet, d1 = meters
Diameter of Venturimeter at throat, d2 = meters
Specific gravity of manometer liquid, Sm = 13.6 (Hg)
Specific gravity of water, Sw =
Area of the measuring tank, A= meters
Rise in level of water in measuring tank, y = meters

Tabulations:

Manometer reading Head,(h) Time taken

Mts. of Hg X=X1-X2 Qthe Qact
S. no. mts of for 2 cm rise, Cd Avg. Cd
mts of Hg m3/sec m3/sec
X1 X2 H2O sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Specimen Calculations:
1. C/ S area of venturimeter at inlet A1 = π. (d1 )2/4 = ----------m2
2. C/ S area of venturimeter at throat A 2 = π. (d2 )2/4 = ----------m2
3. Reading differential manometer, X = X1 - X2 = -----------------------mts of Hg.
4. Head in mts of water, h = X[(Sm/ Sw)-1] = ----------mts of water.
5. Theoretical Discharge, Q theo. = {A1A2(2gh)1/2] / [ A12 – A22]1/2
6. Actual discharge, Q act = Ay/t
7. Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Q act /Q theo.

Results & Conclusion

From the experiments it concludes that the mass flow rate of fluid is constant. By using the
venturimeter we calculate the difference of manometer reading & coefficient of discharge for different
sets of reading.

Viva questions
1. Venturimeter are used for flow measuring. How?
2. Define coefficient of discharge?
3. Define parallax error?
4. Define Throat?
5. Define diverging part?
 EXPERIMENT NO .4

AIM
To measure discharge through orifice meter.

Apparatus
Experimental setup.

Theory
1. Explain the principle on which orifice meter works.
2. Derive an expression for the theoretical discharge through the orifice meter starting
from Bernoulli’s equation

Experimental procedure

1. Start the Centrifugal pump which supplies water to the orifice meter.
2. Regulate the supply of water to the orifice meter by adjusting the valve to a particular Discharge
position.
3. Note down the time (t) taken for a given amount to rise (y mts) in the level of water in the measuring
tank.
4. Note down the manometer reading.
5. Repeat the procedure Nos. (1) to (4) for different discharge through the orifice meter.
6. Tabulate the result and determine the average value of the coefficient of discharge.

Precaution & Tips

1. Take the reading of discharge accurately.
2. Take value of h without any parallax error
3. Set the orifice and mouthpiece.
4. Take reading from hook gauge carefully.

Observation
Diameter of Orifice at inlet , d1 =
Diameter of Orifice at throat, d2 =
Specific gravity of manometer liquid, Sm =
Specific gravity of water, Sw = 1
Area of the measuring tank, A =
Rise in level of water in measuring tank, y =
Tabulation:

Manometer Head, h Time taken

X=X1-X2 Qthe Qact
S. no. reading Mts. of Hg mts of for 2 cm Cd Avg. Cd
mts of Hg m3/sec m3/sec
X1 X2 H2O rise, t sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Specification Calculations:
1. C/ S area of orifice meter at inlet A1 = π. (d1)2/4 = ----------m2
2. C/ S area orifice meter at throat A 2 = π. (d2)2/4 = ----------m2
3. Reading differential manometer, X = X1 - X2 = -----------------------mts of Hg.
4. Head in mts of water, h = X [(Sm/ Sw)-1] = ----------mts of water.
5. Theoretical Discharge, Q theo. = {A1A2 (2gh) 1/2] / [A12 – A22]1/2
6. Actual discharge, Q act = A y/t
7. Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Q act /Q theo

Result and conclusion

Orifice meter is used to measure the discharge through pipe flow system by using following formula
Q theo. = {A1A2 (2gh)1/2] / [ A12 – A22]1/2

Viva questions

1. Define orifice
2. Define mouthpiece
3. Define vena contracta
4. Define coefficient of velocity
Observations
Diameter of Venturimeter at inlet, d1 = meters
Diameter of Venturimeter at throat, d2 = meters
Specific gravity of manometer liquid, Sm = 13.6 (Hg)
Specific gravity of water, Sw =
Area of the measuring tank, A= meters
Rise in level of water in measuring tank, y = meters

Tabulations:

Manometer reading Head,(h) Time taken

Mts. of Hg X=X1-X2 Qthe Qact
S. no. mts of for 2 cm rise, Cd Avg. Cd
mts of Hg m3/sec m3/sec
X1 X2 H2O sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Specimen Calculations:
1. C/ S area of venturimeter at inlet A1 = π. (d1 )2/4 = ----------m2
2. C/ S area of venturimeter at throat A 2 = π. (d2 )2/4 = ----------m2
3. Reading differential manometer, X = X1 - X2 = -----------------------mts of Hg.
4. Head in mts of water, h = X[(Sm/ Sw)-1] = ----------mts of water.
5. Theoretical Discharge, Q theo. = {A1A2(2gh)1/2] / [ A12 – A22]1/2
6. Actual discharge, Q act = Ay/t
7. Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Q act /Q theo.

Results & Conclusion

From the experiments it concludes that the mass flow rate of fluid is constant. By using the
venturimeter we calculate the difference of manometer reading & coefficient of discharge for different
sets of reading.

Viva questions
1. Venturimeter are used for flow measuring. How?
2. Define coefficient of discharge?
3. Define parallax error?
4. Define Throat?
5. Define diverging part?
 form a couple force with the lever arm of b, which provides a righting moment. The distance between
the center of gravity and the point of intersection of line of action of buoyant force and symmetry
axis, is a measure of stability. The point of intersection is referred to as the metacentre, M, and the
distance between the center of gravity and the metacentre is called the metacentric height, zm. The
floating object is stable when the metacentric height zm is positive, i.e., the metacentre is located
above the center of gravity; else it is unstable. The position of the metacentre is not governed by the
position of the center of gravity. It merely depends on the shape of the portion of the body under
water. There are two methods of determining the metacentre position. In the first method, the center
of gravity is laterally shifted by a certain constant distance, xs , using an additional weight, causing
the body to tilt. Further vertical shifting of the center of gravity alters the heel angle, ɑ. A stability
gradient formed from the derivation dxs/dɑ is then defined which decreases as the vertical center of
gravity position approaches the metacentre. If the center of gravity and metacentre coincide, the
stability gradient is equal to zero and the system is stable. This problem is easily solved graphically
(see Fig. 4). The vertical center of gravity position is plotted versus the stability gradient. A curve is
drawn through the measured points and extrapolated as far as it contacts the vertical axis. The point
of intersection with the vertical axis .