Module Ce 213

CE 213-STATICS OF RIGID BODIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Fundamental Concepts 1
Chapter 2
Resultants of Force Systems 10
Chapter 3
Equilibrium 26
Chapter 4
Analysis of Structures 39
Chapter 5
Friction 50
Chapter 6
Centroids and Centers of Gravity 56
Chapter 7
Moments of Inertia; Product of Inertia 72

MODULE
Title:
Chapter 1 – Fundamental Concepts
Overview/Introduction
Engineering Mechanics may be defined as the science which considers the

effects of forces on rigid bodies.
Learning Outcome/Objective
At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:

1. Differentiate statics and dynamics;
2. Understand the different axioms of mechanics;
3. Differentiate the use and concepts of parallelogram law and triangle law;
4. Familiarize the different units use in statics; and
5. Solve conversion of units.
Learning Content/Topic
Lesson 1-1 – Branches of Mechanics
The branches and sub-branches of mechanics are presented below.
Engineering Mechanics
Statics Dynamics
Force Systems Applications Kinematics Kinetics

Concurrent Structures Translation Translation
Parallel Friction Rotation Rotation
Non-Concurrent Plane Motion Plane Motion
Fundamental Concepts (Definition of Terms)

Rigid Body. A definite amount of matter the parts of which are fixed in
position relative to each other.
1
Statics of Rigid Bodies. A branch of mechanics that deals with the effect
and distribution of forces on rigid bodies which are and remain at rest.
Dynamics of Rigid Bodies. A branch of mechanics that considers the
motion of rigid bodies caused by the forces acting upon them.
Force. Force may be defined as that which changes, or tends to change
the state of motion of a body.
Inertia. A property of matter that resist the change in motion of a body.
Mass. The quantitative measure of inertia.
Principle of Transmissibility. The external effect of force on a body is the
same for all points of applications along its line of action.
Lesson 1-2 – Axioms of Mechanics

The axioms of mechanics are stated in lengthy discussion in subsequent
articles. At this time we shall merely collate them for reference and state them
I the following form:
1. Parallelogram Law states that the resultant of two forces is the
diagonal of the parallelogram formed on the vectors of these forces.
2. Two forces are in equilibrium only when equal on magnitude, opposite
in direction, and collinear in action.
3. A set of forces in equilibrium may be added to any system of forces
without changing the effect of the original system.
4. Action and reaction forces are equal but oppositely directed.
Lesson 1-3 – Parallelogram and Triangle Law
Parallelogram Law states that the sum of the squares of the lengths of the four
sides of a parallelogram equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two
diagonals. Consider the illustration below:
Y
F1
F2
X
2
Given the two forces above, the resultant or the vector sum of two forces
may be can be determined by parallelogram law as shown below.
Y
F2 R
F1
F1
F2
X
Triangle Law of forces addition states that when two forces are represented as
two sides of the triangle with the order of magnitude and direction, then the third
side of the triangle represents the magnitude and direction of the resultant
force.
F1
F2
X
Given the two forces above, the resultant or the vector sum of two forces
may be can be determined by triangle law in two ways as shown below.
Y
F1
F2
X
3
Y
F2 R
F1
Example Solve 1
Solve for the resultant force of the two forces shown below.
Y
F2
F1
X
Solution A: by parallelogram law

Y
F1
F2 R
F2
F1
X
4
Solution B: by triangle law
Y
F1
R
F2
Example Solve 2
Solve for the resultant force of the three forces shown below.
Y
F3 F2
F1
X
Solution A: by parallelogram law

Step 1: Solve for the resultant of F1 and F2 and label R1
Y
F1
R1
F2
F2
F1
X
5
Step 2: Solve for the resultant of R1 and F3
R Y
F3
R1
R1
F3
Solution B: by triangle law

Y
F2
R
F1
F3
Lesson 1-4 – Units and Conversion
Unit of Mass
The common unit of mass for metric system is kilogram (kg) and gram (g)
while the uncommon unit of mass in English system is slug. The unit slug is
rarely used in mechanics; the unit Pound (lb) is often used.
Units of Force and Weight
The common units used for force are Newton (N) for metric system of unit
and Pound Force (lb) for English system of unit. Newton is a combination of
units of kg-m/s2. Another unit use for force in metric system is Dyne (dyn) a
combination of g-cm/s2. Pound force (lb) is a English system has another
unit for large forces: Kips (kip) which is equal to 1000 pound force.
Units of Length
6
The common units for length used in mechanics Meter (m) and Centimeter
(cm) for metric and Feet (ft) and Inch (in) for English system.
Units of Moment
The unit used for moment is a combination of unit of for e and length such
as Newton-Meter (Nm) and Pound-Feet (lb-ft).
Units of Angle
There are two common units of angle used in mechanics: Degrees and
Radians.
Conversion of Units
Below are the equivalents of each unit in metric and English system of
unit.
1m = 3.28ft 1ft = 0.305m

1kg = 2.204lbm 1lbm =0.4545kg
1N = 0.2248lbf 1lbf = 4.4482N
1° = 0.0175rad 1rad = 180°/π
Example Solve 1
Convert 10kg to lbm
2.204 𝑙𝑏𝑚
10 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 = 22.04 𝑙𝑏𝑚
1 𝑘𝑔
Example Solve 2
Convert 10N to lbf
0.2248 𝑙𝑏𝑓
10 𝑁 𝑥 = 2.248 𝑙𝑏𝑓
1𝑁
Example Solve 3
Convert 10Nm to lb-ft
3.28 𝑓𝑡 0.2248
10 𝑁𝑚 𝑥 𝑥 = 7.306 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡
1𝑚 1𝑁
Teaching and Learning Activities
Answer the following questions:

1. Differentiate Statics and Dynamics.
2. Relate the axioms of mechanics to the laws of motion.
3. Convert 19lb-ft to Nm.
4. Convert 12lbm to kg.
7
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted
Google Classroom, TelEducation, Module
Assessment Task
QUIZ 1
Answer the following questions:
1. The pascal (Pa) is actually a very small unit of pressure. To show this, convert 1
Pa = 1 N/m2 to lb/ft2. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is in2 14.7 lb/in2 . How many
pascals is this?
a. 101.3 kPa
b. 4.885 kPa
c. 5119.456 kPa
d. 0.247 kPa
2. Who is this famous scientist who has a great contribution in the field of
engineering mechanics?
3. Wood has density of 4.650 slug/ft3. What is its density expressed in SI units? (1
slug = 14.594 kg)
a. 2394.687 kg/m3
b. 730.088 kg/m3
c. 1.923 kg/m3
d. 222.588 kg/m3
4. If a car is traveling at 78 miles per hour, determine its speed in meters per second.
Use the conversion factor 1 mile=5280 ft.
8
a. 2092.682
b. 34.878
c. 375.232
d. 22513.92
5. A rigid body has a mass but negligible shape/size. True OR False?
6. A furlong per fortnight is a facetious unit of velocity, perhaps made up by a student

as a satirical comment on the bewildering variety of units engineers must deal with. A
furlong is 660 ft. A fortnight is 2 weeks (14 nights). If you walk to class at 3 m/s, what
is your speed in furlongs per fortnight? Use 1 ft = 0.3048m.
7. The Porsche’s engine exerts 249 ft-lb (foot-pounds) of torque at 4600 revolutions
per minute (rpm). Determine the value of the torque in N-m (Newton-meters). Use
the conversion factor given in your module.
a. 6238.608
b. 17.06
c. 3633.096
d. 337.699
References
1. Engineering Mechanics by Ferdinand L. Singer
2. Other Physics and Engineering Mechanics Books
3. Mathematics and Allied Science Reviewers’ Books
9
MODULE
Title:
Chapter 2– Resultants of Force Systems
In this chapter, we study the effects of forces which act on engineering

structures and mechanisms. The experience gained here will help you in the study of
mechanics and in other subjects such as stress analysis, design of structures and
machines, and fluid flow. This chapter lays the foundation for a basic understanding
not only of statics but also of the entire subject of mechanics, and you should master
this material thoroughly.

1. Identify the properties of force(s);
2. Differentiate the different force systems;
3. Solve for the components of a force;
4. Solve for the resultant of concurrent force system;
5. Solve for the moment produced by a force; and
6. Solve for the resultant of a parallel and non-concurrent force system.
Lesson 2-1 – Properties of Force
Force is a vector quantity. Meaning, force has as magnitude and direction.

However, in the study of statics, there at more than 2 properties of force, these
are:
1. Magnitude – the intensity of the force (includes the numerical value and
unit)
2. Direction – the ways the forces acts
3. Line of Action – the line where the force acts or the line that the force
will move when draw continuously
4. Point of Application – the point on the body where the force is acted
Y 300N Magnitude
Direction – Northeast
X Point of application
Line of action
10
Lesson 2-2 – Types of Force System
Force system is classified into two categories:

1. According to line of action
2. Plane of action
Force systems classified according to line of action are the following:

1. Concurrent Force system – a type of force system where the lines of
action of forces meets on a single point.
Example 1
Y
F1
F2
X
F3
Example 2
Y
F2
F1
F4
F3
11
2. Parallel Force System – a type of force system where the lines of
action of forces does not meet on any point.
Example 3
Y
F2
F1
X
F3
Example 4
Y
F1
F3
F2
12
3. Non-Concurrent Force System – a type of force system where the lines
of action of forces meets on more than two points.
Example 5
Y
F1
F2
X
F4
F3
Lesson 2-3 – Resolution of Force by Trigonometric Function

Trigonometric method of resolving a force involves the use of basic
trigonometric functions to solve for the components of a force.
Useful Formulas
Where: F = The given force

Fx = Horizontal Component of the force
Fy = Vertical Component of the force
Θ = The angle of inclination of the line of action of the
force w/ respect to x-axis
Note: Indicate the direction of the force
Example 1: Solve for the horizontal and vertical component of the 250N
force shown below.
Y
Fx 250N
Fy Fy
40°
X
Fx
13
Solution:
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠Ɵ = 250 cos 40° = 191.51 𝑁 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ = 250 sin 40° = 160.70 𝑁 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ
Example 2: Solve for the horizontal and vertical component of the 300N
force shown below.
Y
X
65°
300N
Solution: In this particular example, 65º is not the angle of inclination of

the force with respect to x-axis. Thus, we need to solve for the value of
θ.
Ɵ = 90° − 65° = 25°

𝐹𝑥 = 300 cos 25° = 271.89 𝑁 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝐹𝑦 = 300 sin 25° = 126.79 𝑁 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ
Lesson 2-4 – Similar Triangle

Similar Triangle method of resolving a force involves the use of ratio and
proportion of two similar triangles that can be produced from the given force to
solve for its components.
Y
F
Fy
h o
a
Fx
14
Useful Formulas
From the figure above, the following formulas were established:
𝑎
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹
ℎ
𝑜
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹
ℎ
𝑜
Ɵ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎
𝑜
𝑚=
𝑎
Where F = The given force

Fx = Horizontal Component of the force
Fy = Vertical Component of the Force
Θ= The angle of inclination of the line of action of the force w/
respect to x-axis
a = the “rise” component of the slope of the force o
o = the “run” component of the slope of the force
h = √𝑎2 + 𝑜 2
m = slope of the given force
Example 1: Solve for the horizontal and vertical component of the 100lb
force shown below. Solve also for the degree of inclination of the force.
Y
100lb
2
2.5
X
Solution:
ℎ = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = √2.52 + 22 = 3.202
𝑎 2.5
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 = −100 ( ) = 78.08𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
ℎ 3.202
𝑜 2
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 = −100 ( ) = 62.46𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ
ℎ 3.202
𝑜 2
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 38.66°
𝑎 2.5
15
Lesson 2-5 – Resultant of Concurrent Force System
Graphical Solution in solving resultant force involves the parallelogram law and
the triangle law. However, in terms of mathematical and practical solution, we
often use Analytical Solution. Analytical solution in solving resultant force
includes finding of component force of each force and solving for the sum of
components horizontally and vertically. The sum of horizontal and vertical
forces are then use to solve for the resultant of the forces by applying
Pythagorean Theorem and trigonometric function.
Notations (sign) on Forces

1. Upward forces are assigned with positive sign (+F)
2. Downward forces are assigned with negative sign (-F)
3. Forces towards right are assigned with positive sign (+F)
4. Forces towards left are assigned with negative sign (-F)
Useful Formulas
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑥𝑛
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦1 + 𝐹𝑦2 + 𝐹𝑦3 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑦𝑛
𝑅 = √∑ 𝐹𝑥 2 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 2
∑ 𝐹𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ∑
𝐹𝑥
Where: ƩFx = Sum of horizontal component of forces

ƩFy = Sum of vertical component of forces R
= Magnitude of the Resultant Force
Θ = The angle of inclination of the line of action of the force w/
respect to x-axis
Note: Indicate the direction of the force
Steps in solving the resultant of concurrent force system

1. Solve for the horizontal and vertical components of each force
2. Solve for the sum of horizontal and vertical forces
3. Solve for the magnitude of the resultant force
4. Solve for the direction of the resultant force
Example 1: Solve for resultant force of the forces given below.

Y
250N
40°
X
300N 65°
16
Solution:
Solve for the horizontal component of each of the force
Fx250 = 250 cos 40°= 191.51 N
Fx300 = 300 cos 25° = 271.89 N
Solve for the vertical component of each of the force
Fy250 = 250 sin 40°= 160.70 N
Fy300 = 300 sin 25° = 126.79 N
Y
160.70N
191.51N
X
271.89N
126.79N
Solve for the sum of horizontal components
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑥2 = 191.51 − 271.89
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = −80.38 𝑁 = 80.38 𝑁, 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡
Solve for the vertical component of each of the force
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦1 + 𝐹𝑦2 = 160 − 126.79
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 33.91 𝑁, 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ
Y
R
33.91N
17
Solve for the magnitude and direction of resultant
𝑅 = √∑ 𝐹𝑥 2 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 2 = √(80.38𝑁)2 + (33.91𝑁)2
𝑅 = 87.24 N
∑ 𝐹𝑦 33.91 N
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ∑ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝐹𝑥 80.38 N
𝜃 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟕° , 𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐡𝐰𝐞𝐬𝐭
R=87.24N
22.87°
X
Example 2: Solve for resultant force of the forces given below.

Y
100N
87.24N
2
2.5
22.87°
X
Solution:
2.5
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑥2 = 100 𝑁 ( ) − 87.24 𝑁 cos 22.87°
√2.52 + 22
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 70.08 𝑁 − 80.38 𝑁 = −𝟐. 𝟑 𝑵 𝑜𝑟 𝟐. 𝟑 𝑵, 𝒘𝒆𝒔𝒕
2
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦1 + 𝐹𝑦2 = 100 𝑁 ( ) + 87.24 𝑁 sin 22.87°
√2.52 + 22
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 62.46 𝑁 + 33.91 𝑁 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟑𝟕 𝑵, 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉
𝑅 = √∑ 𝐹𝑥 2 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 2 = √(2.3𝑁)2 + (96.37𝑁)2
𝑹 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟎 𝐍
∑ 𝐹𝑦 96.37 N
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ∑ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝐹𝑥 2.3 N
𝜃 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟔𝟑°
18
Lesson 2-6 – Moment of a Force
When a force is applied in a body on an adjacent point to its axis of rotation, the
force will produce a twisting/turning effect. The measure of the said
twisting/turning effect is called the Moment of a Force, (M). Moment of a force
is the product of the “force” and the “moment arm”. Moment arm is the
perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force to the axis of
rotation.
Notations (sign) on Moments

1. A clockwise moment is assigned with positive sign (+M)
2. A counter clockwise moment is given a negative sign (-M).
Useful Formulas
Where: M = Moment of force

F = Force given
d = Moment arm
Note: Indicate the direction of the moment
Steps in solving for resultant moment and moment arm of a given force
1. Resolve the force into its component
2. Solve for the moment of each component
3. Solve for the sum of the moments produced by the components
4. Solve for the moment arm by equating the resultant moment to the
moment of its components
Example: Solve for resultant moment and moment arm (about point O) of the
force given below.
Y
2m
200N
1m
line of 2m
action d
X
O
19
Solution:
Solve for the horizontal and vertical component of the force
1
𝐹𝑥 = 200 𝑁 ( )= 178.89 N, east
√12 +0.52
10.5
𝐹𝑦 = 200 𝑁 ( )= 89.44 N, north
√12 +0.52
Y 89.44N
line of 1m
action 178.89N
2m
X
O
line of
action
Solve for the moment of each component
𝑀𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑑 = 178.89 𝑁 ∗ 2𝑚 = 357.78 𝑁𝑚, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

𝑀𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦 𝑑 = 89.44 𝑁 ∗ 1𝑚 = 89.44 𝑁𝑚, 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Solve for the resultant moment of the force
∑ 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑀𝑦 = 357.78 𝑁𝑚 − 89.44 𝑁𝑚 = 268.34 𝑁𝑚, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Solve for the moment arm of the given force by equating its moment to
the sum of moments of its components
𝑀 = ∑𝑀
𝐹𝑑 = 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑀𝑦
200N * d = 357.78 𝑁𝑚 − 89.44 𝑁𝑚
357.78 𝑁𝑚−89.44 𝑁𝑚
d= = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎
200 𝑁
20
Lesson 2-7 – Resultant of Parallel Force System
When parallel forces acts on a single body on different points, the resultant
force will create a single force with a twisting/turning effect. Thus, the resultant
of a parallel force system has a resultant force and a moment arm.
Notations
Forces
Moments
Steps in solving for resultant of parallel force system

1. Solve for the summation of all forces
2. Solve for the summation of all moments produced by each force
3. Solve for the moment arm by equating the resultant moment to the sum
of all moments of each force
Example: Solve for resultant of the parallel forces (with respect to the origin)
shown below.
Y
1foot
300lb
200lb
400lb
Solution:
Solve for the sum of all forces
R = 200 lb – 400 lb + 300 lb = 100 lb, north
Solve for the sum of all moments produced by each force
∑ 𝑀 = 200 𝑙𝑏(5𝑓𝑡) + 400 𝑙𝑏 (4𝑓𝑡) − 300 𝑙𝑏(8𝑓𝑡)

= 200 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Solve for moment arm of the resultant force
𝑅𝑑 = ∑ 𝑀
100 lb * d = 200 lb-ft
d = 2 ft
The resultant of the parallel forces is 100lb upward located 2ft on the
left of the origin to create a 200lb-ft clockwise resultant moment.
21
Lesson 2-8 – Resultant of Non-Concurrent Force System
Non-concurrent force system is a group of forces where lines of action don’t

meet in a single point. When non-concurrent forces are applied to a body, the
resulting force will create a turning/twisting effect to the body. In solving for the
resultant of non-concurrent force system, we apply both steps in solving
concurrent and parallel force systems.
Notations
Forces
Moments
Steps in solving for resultant of parallel force system

1. Solve for summation of horizontal components of the given forces
2. Solve for summation of vertical components of the given forces
3. Solve for the resultant force and its direction
4. Solve for the resultant moment of the given forces
5. Solve for the moment arm by equating the moment produced by the
resultant to the sum of all moments produced by forces.
Example: Solve for resultant of the non-concurrent forces (with respect to the
origin) shown below.
Y
100N 1m
200N
45°
X
300N
Solution:
Solve for the sum horizontal component of forces
2
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = −200 𝑁 ∗ + 100𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45°
√22 + 12
(Note: 300N force doesn’t have horizontal component)

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = −178.89𝑁 + 70.71𝑁 = −108.17𝑁
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 108.17 𝑁, 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡
22
Solve for the sum vertical component of forces
1
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 200 𝑁 ∗ + 100𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45°- 300N
√22 + 12
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 89.44𝑁 + 70.71𝑁 − 300 = −139.85𝑁
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 139.85 𝑁, 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ
Solve for the resultant force and its direction
2 2
R = √∑ 𝐹𝑥 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = √(108.17𝑁)2 + (139.85)2 = 176.01 N
∑ 𝐹𝑦 139.85N
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 52.28°, 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡
∑ 𝐹𝑥 108.17N
Y
1m
70.71N
89.44N
178.89N 70.71N
X
300N
Solve for the sum of all moments (about origin) produced by

components of each force
∑ 𝑀 = 70.71𝑁 ∗ 1𝑚 − 70.71𝑁 ∗ 2𝑚 − 300𝑁 ∗ 2𝑚
∑ 𝑀 =-670.71 Nm, counter clockwise
Solve for moment arm of the resultant force
𝑅𝑑 = ∑ 𝑀
176.01𝑁 ∗ 𝑑 = 670.71 𝑁𝑚
𝑑 = 3.81 𝑚
The resultant of the non-concurrent forces is 176.01N with an inclination

of 52.28° towards southwest. The resultant force is 3.81m from the origin
located at the fourth quadrant.
23
Lesson 2-9 – Force Couple
When two forces have a zero resultant force, but has a moment, these forces
are called “force couple. These forces are basically equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction but not collinear in action.
Y 1m
100N
100N
The example forces above has a zero resultant force when summed but has
400Nm (200Nm+200Nm) of counter clockwise moment.
Solve for the following problems.

1. In a certain non-concurrent force system it is found that the summation of
forces along x-axis is -80lb, summation of forces along y-axis is 160lb, and
moment at point O is 480lb-ft in a counter-clockwise sense. Determine the
point at which the resultant intersects the x-axis.
Answer: 3 feet to right of origin
2. Compute the resultant of the three forces shown below. Locate its
intersection with the x and y axes.
Y 1ft
390lb
30°
300lb
X
722lb
Answer: R=957lb down to right at 32.2°; i y=1.38ft above O; ix=2.19ft right of O.
Online (asynchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, google classroom,
zoom, google meet, etc.
24
Remote (asynchronous)
module, activities, problems sets, etc.
Assessment Task
Solve for the following problems.

1. Determine completely the resultant of the forces acting on the step pulley
(relative to the axle) shown below.
750N
1.5m
60°
0.5m
1250N
2. The Howe roof truss showed below caries the given loads. The wind loads
are perpendicular to the inclined members. Determine the magnitude of the
resultant, its inclination with horizontal, and where it intersects AB.
1120lb
1120lb
10ft 2000lb
1120lb
A 10ft 10ft 10ft 10ft B
3000lb 2000lb 1000lb

Red forces = Wind Loads
Blue forces = Vertical loads
Green forces = Horizontal loads
References
5. Breer, Ferdinand P. and Johnston, E. Russel Jr., Mechanics for Engineers,
McGraw Hill, latest edition
6. Hibbeler, R.C., Engineering Mechanics, Statics, , Amazon, 14th Edition
Online:
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=125330
25
MODULE
Title:
Chapter 3 – Equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium when the force system acting upon it has a
zero resultant force. The physical meaning of equilibrium, as applied to a body, is that
the body either is at rest or moving in a straight line with constant velocity.
In this chapter, the different methods and conditions of equilibrium for different
force systems will be discussed.

9. Learn the basics of free-body diagram;
10. Familiarize the different conditions of equilibrium;
11. Solve problems related to equilibrium of concurrent force systems;
12. Solve problems related to equilibrium of parallel forces; and
13. Solve problems related to equilibrium of non-concurrent force systems.
Lesson 3-1 – Free-Body Diagram
Free-Body Diagram (FBD) is an isolated view of a body which shows only the
external forces exerted on the body. These external forces are caused by direct
bodily contact or by gravitational or magnetic attraction.
The steps involved in drawing free-body diagram are:

1. Draw a diagram of the body completely isolated from all other bodies;
2. Represent the action of each body or support that is removed by a
force or its components; and
3. Label each force by its magnitude, if known, or by a symbol, if known.
26
Some of the more common types of bodily contact or support
Where:
W represents weight
T represents tension, which is the force exerted by a cable
N is the normal force, the reaction at the point of intersection that
is perpendicular to the point of intersection
R is the reaction force exerted by the support
Example 1: Draw for the FBD of each connection pin and the 200N block.
Support Bar
A B
D
200N
FBD of the 200N block:

Tension at pin D
200N
W=200N
27
FBD of pin D supporting 200N block:
Tension at CD
200N
FBD of pin C:
Tension CA Tension CB
Tension CD
FBD of pin A:
Vertical Reaction at A
Horizontal Reaction at A A
Tension CA
FBD of pin B:
Vertical Reaction at B
B Horizontal Reaction at B
Tension CB
FBD of support Bar:
Support Bar
B
Tension CA Tension CB
28
Example 2: Draw for the FBD of the boom and pin B of the structure
shown below.
Support
B
Column
Boom
600lb
FBD of the Boom:
Tension BC
Boom
600lb
Horizontal Reaction at A
Vertical Reaction at A
FBD at point B:
Tension BC
Compression at Boom AB
600lb
29
Example 3: Draw the FBD of the Support Bar AB, Support Bar CD and the
200lb Roller B as shown below.
D
B 3in
A
7in
30°
C
FBD of the 200lb Roller B:
W=200lb
AB B
30°
N
FBD of the Support bar AB:
A B
AB
Reaction at A
FBD of the Support bar CD:

Vertical Reaction at D
N
30° 3in Horizontal Reaction at D
7in
30°
Reaction at C
30
Lesson 3-2 – Equilibrium of Concurrent Force System
We already know that concurrent force systems are forces whose lines of action
meet at only one point. This implies that in order to have a zero resultant force,
the sum of all horizontal and vertical forces should be equal to zero.
Conditions of Equilibrium for Concurrent Force System

1. ƩFx=0
2. ƩFy=0
Steps in solving Equilibrium of Concurrent Force System

1. Resolve each forces into their horizontal and vertical components;
2. Solve for the sum of all horizontal and vertical forces by equating it to
zero;
3. Solve for the unknown force in order for the force system to be in
equilibrium.
Example: A system of cords knotted together at A and B support the weights

shown in figure below. Compute the tensions P, Q, F, and T acting in the
various cords.
90° B
Q P 75° 60° T
60° 75°
A
200lb
300lb
Solution: There are 4 unknown forces to be solved, however, we can only use
2 formulas from the conditions of equilibrium. Thus, in order to solve this
problem, we need to dissect each knot and solving first which knot has only
2 unknowns.
FBD of knot A:
Y
Q
P
60° 75°
30° 15° X
A
31
300lb
Solve for the unknown forces at knot A using the conditions of equilibrium:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
−𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠30° + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠15° = 0 --------- Equation 1
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑛30° + 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛15° − 300𝑙𝑏 = 0 --------- Equation 2
Solving the equations simultaneously:
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠30°
𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠15°
Substitute the equation of P to Equation 2:
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠30°
𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑛30° + ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛15° − 300𝑙𝑏 = 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠15°
𝑐𝑜𝑠30°
𝑄(𝑠𝑖𝑛30° + 𝑠𝑖𝑛15° = 300𝑙𝑏
𝑐𝑜𝑠15°
𝑸 = 𝟒𝟎𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝐥𝐛, 𝐓𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
Solve for P from either of the Equations
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠30° 410𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠30°

𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠15° = 𝑐𝑜𝑠15°
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟔𝟕. 𝟔𝟎𝒍𝒃, 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
FBD of knot B:
Y
X
75°
60°
P=367.60lb
T
200lb
32
Lesson 3-3 – Equilibrium of Parallel Force System
A Parallel force system produced a resultant force and a moment if the line of
action of the resultant force does not pass through the axis of rotation. Thus, in
order for a parallel force system to be in equilibrium, the resultant moment
should also be zero aside from net force being zero.
Conditions of Equilibrium for Concurrent Force System:
1. ƩF=0
2. ƩM=0
33
3.
Steps in solving Equilibrium of Parallel Force System
1. Solve for the sum of all moments produced from all forces by equating
it to zero
2. Solve for the sum of all horizontal or vertical forces by equating it to
zero;
Example: A beam, simply supported at the ends, carries a concentrated

load of 300lb and a load weighing 600lb as shown in FBD below. Determine
the beam reactions on both supports.
300N 600N
A 2m 5m 3m B
RA RB
Solution: Since there are two unknowns, we can solve for the unknown
reaction by solving the moment about one of its support to eliminate one
unknown.
34
Lesson 3-4 – Equilibrium of Non-Concurrent Force System
A Parallel force system produced a resultant force and a moment if the line of
action of the resultant force does not pass through the axis of rotation. Thus, in
order for a parallel force system to be in equilibrium, the resultant moment
should also be zero aside from net force being zero.
Conditions of Equilibrium for Concurrent Force System

1. ƩFx=0
2. ƩFy=0
3. ƩM=0
In solving the problems on equilibrium of non-concurrent force systems, we

combine the steps in solving equilibrium of concurrent and parallel force
systems.
Example: Solve for the reactions on the supports of the truss shown below.
1120lb
10ft 2000lb
A B
10ft 10ft 10ft 10ft
2000lb
Solution
FBD of the Truss:
1120lb
10ft 2000lb
A B
R
10ft 10ft 10ft 10ft BX
R
RA BY
2000lb
35
Moment about B: We start solving moment about B so that we will be able
to eliminate 2 unknowns. And if there is only one unknown, we can easily
solve for it.

Solve for the reactions at support A and B of the structure shown below.
600N
240N D
E
16m
C 12m A 12m 12m B

F
400N
Answer: RA=740N, RBX=240N, RBY=260N
36
Assessment Task
1. Solve for the required value of force P to move the 10 inches (radius) ball
through the 5 inches square block.
P
37
References
Online:
38
MODULE
Title:
Chapter 4 – Analysis of Structures

The analysis of structure is the process by which we determine how the loads
applied to a structure are distributed throughout the structure. Although there are many
types of structures, we limit ourselves here to pin-connected types (those that consist
of assemblages of bars fastened together by smooth bolts. After we learned how these
types of structures are constructed, we shall see that the internal forces holding their
various members in equilibrium create concurrent and non-concurrent force systems.
Consequently a force analysis of a structure consists of applying the conditions of
equilibrium studied in the preceding chapter to determine the internal forces that act
in or upon its various members.

4. Determine whether the member of a structure is a two-force or three-force
member;
5. Solve for the internal force that acts on the member of structure by method
of joints; and
6. Solve for the internal force that acts on the member of structure by method
of sections.
Lesson 4-1 – Method of Joints
The assumption that all members of a truss are two-force members carrying
axial loads means that the free body diagram of any joint is a concurrent force
system in equilibrium. Two force members are members of trusses or structures
that are subjected to only either tension or compression forces.
39
Steps involved in analysis of structure by method of joints:
3. Draw the FBD of the structure. (simply substitute the supports with their
equivalent direction of reaction forces)
4. Solve for the reactions on the supports.
5. Choose a pin on which no more than two members act. (we normally
start with the pin on the supports)
6. Draw the FBD of the chosen pin.
7. Solve for the forces acting on the chosen pin.
8. Choose another pin on which no more than two members act. (we
normally choose the pin adjacent to the first pin)
9. Repeat step 4 to 6 until all the pin have been solve or until the force
that acts on the desired pin was computed.
Example: Solve for the forces acting on the members of the truss shown
below.
1120lb
C 10ft G 2000lb
A B
10ft D 10ft F 10ft H 10ft
2000lb
Solution
1. FBD of the Truss:
E
1120lb
C 10ft G 2000lb
A 26.57° B
R
BX
R R
A BY
2000lb
40
Solve for the reactions on the supports:
∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
2000(5) − 2000(20)— 1120sin63.43°(30) + 1120cos63.43°(5) + 𝑅𝐴 (40)
=0
𝑹𝑨 = 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟖. 𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒍𝒃
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
1120(5√5) + 2000(5) + 2000(20) − 𝑅𝐵𝑦 (40) = 0
𝑹𝑩𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟑. 𝟎𝟓 𝒍𝒃
Check by summing up forces vertical:

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵𝑦 − 2000 − 1120 sin 63.43° = 0
1438.666 + 1563.05 − 2000 − 1120 sin 63.43° = 0
0=0
Solve RBx by summing up force horizontal:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
2000 + 1120 cos 63.43° − 𝑅𝐵𝑥 = 0
𝑹𝑩𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟔 𝒍𝒃
FBD of pin A:
RA=1438.666
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
1438.666 − 𝐴𝐶 sin 26.57 = 0
𝑨𝑪 = 𝟑𝟐𝟏𝟔. 𝟑𝟗𝟗 𝒍𝒃 -compression
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐴𝐷 − 𝐴𝐶 cos 26.57 = 0
𝐴𝐷 − 3216.399 cos 26.57 = 0
𝑨𝑫 = 𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟔. 𝟕𝟏𝟏 𝒍𝒃 - tension
41
FBD of pin D:
AD = 2876.711 lb
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
DF − AD = 0
DF − 2876.711 = 0
𝐃𝐅 = 𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟔. 𝟕𝟏𝟏 𝐥𝐛, 𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝐃𝐂 = 𝟎, 𝐫𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐦𝐞𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫
FBD of pin C:
AC = 3216.399 lb
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
AC cos 26.57 + 1120 cos 63.43 − CE cos 26.57 − CF cos 26.57 = 0
3216.399 cos 26.57 + 1120 cos 63.43 − CE cos 26.57 − CF cos 26.57 = 0
3377.676 − CE cos 26.57 − CF cos 26.57 = 0
3377.676 − CE cos 26.57
CF =
cos 26.57
CF = 3776.52 − CE
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
AC sin 26.57 − 1120 sin 63.43 − CE sin 26.57 + CF sin 26.57 = 0
3216.399 sin 26.57 − 1120 sin 63.43 − CE sin 26.57 + (3776.52 − CE) sin 26.57 = 0
𝐂𝐄 = 2376.701 lb, compression
CF = 3776.52 − 2376.701
𝐂𝐅 = 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝟗 𝐥𝐛, 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
42
FBD of pin E:
CE =2376.701 lb
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
2376.701 cos 26.57 − 𝐸𝐺 cos 26.57 = 0
𝐄𝐆 = 𝟐𝟑𝟕𝟔. 𝟕𝟎𝟏 𝐥𝐛, 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
2376.701 sin 26.57 + 𝐸𝐺 sin 26.57 − 𝐸𝐹 = 0
2376.701 sin 26.57 + 2376.701 sin 26.57 − 𝐸𝐹 = 0
𝑬𝑭 = 𝟐𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟏𝟓𝟑 𝒍𝒃, 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
*For the remaining members of the given truss, we simply repeat the
process until we are able to solve for the forces acting on all members
of the truss.
Note: Redundant members are members that do not support

compression or tension. These are members that are not carrying any
load on the truss. Thus, these members are safe to be remove on the
truss. However, redundant members are normally place for aesthetics
purposes only.
Lesson 4-2 – Method of Sections
Unlike the method of joints, that utilizes only two conditions of equilibrium (for
concurrent forces), method of sections utilizes the “conditions of equilibrium of
non-concurrent force system” to easily solve directly to the member in question.
Meaning, that in method of sections, we do not need to solve pin-by-pin to solve
for the force acting on a member place at the middle of the structure.

43
4. Cut the structure into two sections, such that the members in question
are also cut.
5. Draw the FBD of the section where the unknown members are part.
6. Solve for the forces on the members in question by applying the
conditions of equilibrium of non-concurrent force system.
Example: Solve for the forces acting on members DF and CF of the truss
shown below.
1120lb
C 10ft G 2000lb
A B
2000lb
Solution
E
1120lb
C 10ft G 2000lb
A 26.57° B
R
10ft D 10ft F 10ft H 10ft BX
R
RA BY
2000lb
Solve for the reactions on the supports:

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
2000(5) − 2000(20)— 1120sin63.43°(30) + 1120cos63.43°(5) + 𝑅𝐴 (40)
=0
𝑹𝑨 = 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟖. 𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒍𝒃
44
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
1120(5√5) + 2000(5) + 2000(20) − 𝑅𝐵𝑦 (40) = 0
𝑹𝑩𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟑. 𝟎𝟓 𝒍𝒃
Check by summing up forces vertical:

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵𝑦 − 2000 − 1120 sin 63.43° = 0
1438.666 + 1563.05 − 2000 − 1120 sin 63.43° = 0
0=0
Solve RBx by summing up force horizontal:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
2000 + 1120 cos 63.43° − 𝑅𝐵𝑥 = 0
𝑹𝑩𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟔 𝒍𝒃
Cut the truss into two sections such that members CE, CF, and DF are also cut.
Then draw the FBD of the sections.
1120lb CE
CF
A 26.57°
DF
10ft D
RA= 1438.666 𝑙𝑏
Solve for DF by ∑ 𝑀 = 0 at pin C:

∑𝑀 = 0
1438.666(10) − 𝐷𝐹(5) = 0
𝑫𝑭 = 𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟕. 𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝒍𝒃, 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
Solve for CF by ∑ 𝑀 = 0 at pin A:

∑𝑀 = 0
1120(5√5) − 𝐶𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠 63.43 (10) − 𝐶𝐹 sin 63.43 (5) = 0
𝑪𝑭 = 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝟎𝟗 𝒍𝒃, 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
Note: the discrepancy on the answers with the use of this method is a
result of rounding-off numbers. But, it is clearly shown that the answers are
considerably equal.
45
Lesson 4-2 – Method of Sections
Unlike the method of joints, that utilizes only two conditions of equilibrium (for
concurrent forces), method of sections utilizes the “conditions of equilibrium of
non-concurrent force system” to easily solve directly to the member in question.
Meaning, that in method of sections, we do not need to solve pin-by-pin to solve
for the force acting on a member place at the middle of the structure.

9. Cut the structure into two sections, such that the members in question
are also cut.
10. Draw the FBD of the section where the unknown members are part.
11. Solve for the forces on the members in question by applying the
conditions of equilibrium of non-concurrent force system.
Example: Solve for the forces acting on members DF and CF of the truss
shown below.
1120lb
C 10ft G 2000lb
A B
2000lb
Solution
E
1120lb
C 10ft G 2000lb
A 26.57° B
R
10ft D 10ft F 10ft H 10ft BX
R
RA BY
2000lb
46
3. Cut the truss into two sections such that members CE, CF, and DF
are also cut. Then draw the FBD of the sections.
1120lb CE
CF
A 26.57°
DF
10ft D
RA=1513.53lb
47
Note: the discrepancy on the answers with the use of this method is a
result of rounding-off numbers. But, it is clearly shown that the answers are
considerably equal.
From the example given above, Solve for the forces acting on the members
EG, FG, and FH by method of joints and check your answers by method of
members.
48
Assessment Task
From the above example, solve all members by method of joint and check
your answers by method of sections.
References
Online:
49
MODULE
Title:
Chapter 5 – Friction
Friction may be defined as the contact resistance exerted by one body upon a
second body moves or tends to move past the first body. From this definition, it should
be observed that friction is a retarding force always acting opposite to the motion or
the tendency to move. As we shall see, friction exists primarily because of the
roughness of the contact surfaces. If the contact surfaces are perfectly smooth, as
assumed in some earlier problems, friction can be neglected.

1. Understand the different types of friction;
2. Understand what is angle of friction; and
3. Solve problems related to friction such as wedges, screws, belt, and rolling
resistance.
Lesson 5-1 – Types of friction
https://byjus.com/physics/types-of-friction
50
Static Friction
Static friction is defined as the frictional force that acts between the
surfaces when they are at rest with respect to each other.
The magnitude of the static force is equal in the opposite direction
when a small amount of force is applied. When the force increases, at some
point maximum static friction is reached.
Sliding Friction
Sliding friction is defined as the resistance that is created between
any two objects when they are sliding against each other.
Rolling Friction
Rolling friction is defined as the force which resists the motion of a
ball or wheel and is the weakest types of friction.
Fluid Friction
Fluid friction is defined as the friction that exists between the layers
of the fluid when they are moving relative to each other.
Lesson 5-2 – Angle of Friction
When two bodies have contact with each other, it produces friction. However,
friction is not the only force created between the two, we also have Normal force.
As discussed earlier, normal force is a force that is perpendicular to the contact
point of two objects. In other words, friction and normal force are two reactions
created in the contact of objects, thus, we can express them in only one force as
illustrated below. The angle between the resulting force and the Normal force is
called the angle of friction.
P
F
Φ
N R
Where: W= Weight of the block

P= Forces applied to the block
F= Friction between the two objects
N= Normal force between the two objects
Φ= Angle of friction
51
Thus, angle of friction is also called as the coefficient of friction. Coefficient of
friction (or angle of friction) acts as its maximum value of Φ only when motion
is impending.
Example 1: Solve for the normal force, friction and angle of friction of the bodies
as shown below.
50N
100N
F
Φ
N
R
Solution: Apply conditions of equilibrium to solve for N and F, and later

solve for the angle by trigonometry.
Example 2: Solve for the normal force and friction between the bodies if the
object is impending to move down and the coefficient of friction is 20%.
Y’
50N X’
20°
P
F Φ
6.
N
Solution: Apply conditions of equilibrium to solve for N, and later solve for F
by using the formula for frictional coefficient. For easier calculations, we
assume rotated axes (X’ and Y’) so that the horizontal/vertical components
of some of the forces will be eliminated.
52
Lesson 5-3 – Wedges
The principles of friction involved in dealing with wedges are no different from those
previously described. The contact reactions between the block at the common
surfaces are not only equal and oppositely directed on the free-body diagram of
each block; they also act so that their tangential or frictional components along the
common contact surface oppose the impending motion of each block.
Example: As shown in figure below, two blocks, each weighing 150lb and
resting on a horizontal surface, are pushed apart by a 30° wedge. The angle of
friction is 15° for all contact surfaces. What value of P is required to start the
movement of the blocks?
P
15°
150lb 150lb
Solution:
FBD of each block

150lb P 150lb
RW
RW
30° 30°
30° 30°
RW RW
RS RS
15° 15°
53
From the examples given above, solve each examples again but this time
reverse the direction of the objects with impending movement.
Assessment Task
Solve the problem given in learning activities with the use of force triangle
to solve for unknown forces.
54
References
Online:
55
MODULE
Title:
Chapter 6 – Centroids and Center of Gravity
The center of gravity is a point where whole the weight of the body act is
called center of gravity.
As we know that every particle of a body is attracted by the earth towards
its center with a magnitude of the weight of the body. As the distance between
the different particles of a body and the center of the earth is the same, therefore
these forces may be taken to act along parallel lines.
A point may be found out in a body, through which the resultant of all
such parallel forces acts. This point, through which the whole resultant (weight
of the body acts, irrespective of its position, is known as center of gravity (briefly
written as C.G). It may be noted that everybody has one and only one center of
gravity.

4. Understand the concept of center of gravity;
5. Understand the different methods in obtaining the center of gravity of
different shapes and solids; and
6. Solve problems related to center of gravity of flat plates, simple figures and
solid bodies using different methods.
Lesson 6-1 – Center of gravity of a two-dimensional body; flat plate
Centroid
The plane figures (like triangle, quadrilateral, circle etc.) have only areas,
but no mass. The center of area of such figures is known as Centroid. The
method of finding out the Centroid of a figure is the same as that of finding out
the center of gravity of a body.
Axis of reference
The center of gravity of a body is always calculated with referrer to some
assumed axis known as axis of reference. The axis of reference, of plane
figures, is generally taken as the lowest line of the figure for calculating y and
the left line of the figure for calculating x.
Lesson 6-2- Methods for center of gravity of simple figures
56
The center of gravity (or Centroid) may be found out by any one of the
following methods
1. By geometrical considerations
2. By moments method
3. By graphical method
1. Center of Gravity by Geometrical Considerations
The center of gravity of simple figures may be found out from the geometry of the
figure.
For each two-dimensional shape below, the area and the centroid coordinates are given:
Shape Figure 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅ Area
𝑏 ℎ
rectangle 𝑏ℎ
2 2
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 ℎ 𝑏ℎ
2 3 2
triangle
Where, x1, x2,

x3 are the
locations of
vertices
𝑙 ℎ 𝑏ℎ
Isosceles-triangle 2 3 2
57
Right- 𝑏 ℎ 𝑏ℎ
triangular area 3 3 2
𝑑 𝑑 𝜋𝑟 2
Circle 2 2
4𝑟 4𝑟 𝜋𝑟 2
Quarter-circle 3𝜋 3𝜋 4
𝑑 4𝑟 𝜋𝑟 2
Semi-circle 3𝜋 2
2
58
2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 0 𝛼𝑟 2
Circular sector 3𝛼
4𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 𝑟2
0 (2𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼)
Circular segment 3(2𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼) 2
The points on the circle 𝑥 2 + 2𝑟 2𝑟 𝜋𝑟

Quarter- 𝐿=
circular arc 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 and in the first 𝜋 𝜋 2
quadrant
The points on the circle 𝑥 2 +

2𝑟 𝐿 = 𝜋𝑟
Semicircular arc 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 and above the x- 0
axis 𝜋
The points on the curve (in 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

Arc of circle polar coordinates) 𝜌 = 𝑟, 0 𝐿 = 2𝛼𝜌
𝛼
from 𝜃 = −𝛼 𝑡𝑜 𝜃 = 𝛼
59
0 0 𝜋𝑎𝑏
elliptical area
4𝑎 4𝑏 𝜋𝑎𝑏
Quarter-elliptical
area 3𝜋 3𝜋 4
4𝑏 𝜋𝑎𝑏
Semielliptical area 0
3𝜋 2
The area between the

ℎ
Parabolic area curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the 0 3ℎ 4𝑏ℎ
𝑏2
line 𝑦 = ℎ 5 3
60
Semi parabolic
area
3𝑏 3ℎ 2𝑏ℎ
The area between 8 5 3
the curve and
the axis, from to

ℎ 3𝑏 3ℎ 𝑏ℎ
curve 𝑦 =
𝑏2
𝑥 2 and
Parabolic spandrel 4 10 3
the axis, from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 =
𝑏
ℎ
curve 𝑦 =
𝑏𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 and 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑏ℎ
General spandrel 𝑏 ℎ
the axis, from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 𝑛+2 4𝑛 + 2 𝑛+1
𝑏
3-D Centroids
For each three-dimensional body below, the volume and the centroid coordinates
(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧̅ are given:
Shape Figure 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅ 𝑧̅ Volume
a, b = the sides of the

cuboid's base 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Cuboid 𝑎𝑏𝑐
c = the third side of the 2 2
2
cuboid
a, b = the sides of the

Right-
base 𝑎 𝑏 ℎ 𝑎𝑏𝑐
rectangular pyra
h = the distance is from 2
mid 2 4 3
base to the apex
61
see
b = the base side of the
above ℎ 𝐿 𝑏ℎ𝐿
prism's triangular base,
General for 3 2 2
h = the height of the
triangular prism general
prism's triangular base
triangul
L = the length of the prism
ar base

prism's triangular base, 𝑏 ℎ 𝐿 𝑏ℎ𝐿
Isosceles
h = the height of the 2 3 2 2
triangular prism
prism's triangular base

prism's triangular base,
Right- h = the perpendicular side 𝑏 ℎ 𝐿 𝑏ℎ𝐿
triangular prism of the prism's triangular 3 3 2 2
base
r = the radius of the

Right cylinder
0 0 ℎ 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
circular cylinder h = the height of the
2
cylinder
r = the radius of the

Right
cone's base
circular solid 0 0 ℎ 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
h = the distance is from
cone 4 3
base to the apex
r = the radius of the 4𝜋𝑟 3

Solid sphere 0 0 0
sphere 3
Solid hemispher r = the radius of the 3𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 3

0 0
e hemisphere 8 3
Solid semi-
ellipsoid of a = the radius of the base 3ℎ 2𝜋𝑎2 ℎ
0 0 3
revolution circle 8
around z-axis h = the height of the semi-
62
ellipsoid from the base
circle's center to the edge
a = the radius of the base

Solid paraboloid circle ℎ 𝜋𝑎2 ℎ
of revolution h = the height of the 0 0 2
3
around z-axe paraboloid from the base
circle's center to the edge
a, b, c = the principal 4𝜋𝑎𝑏𝑐

Solid ellipsoid 0 0 0
semi-axes of the ellipsoid 3
a, b = the principal semi-

Solid semi- axes of the base ellipse 3𝑐 2𝜋𝑎𝑏𝑐
ellipsoid around c = the principal z-semi- 0 0 8 3
z-axe axe from the center of
base ellipse
a, b = the principal semi-

axes of the base ellipse 𝑐 𝜋𝑎𝑏𝑐
Solid paraboloid
c = the principal z-semi- 0 0
around z-axe 3 2
axe from the center of
base ellipse
CENTER OF GRAVITY BY MOMENTS
The center of gravity of a body may also be found out by moments as discussed below.
Consider a body of mass M whose center of gravity is required to be found out. Now
divide the body into small strips of masses whose centers of gravity are known as
shown in figure:
X1
X2
X3
𝑥̅
x
63
̅
Let
m1, m2, m3………= mass of strips 1, 2, 3, ….
x1, x2, x3…………= the corresponding perpendicular distance or the center of
gravity of strips from y-axis
According to principle of moment:

𝑀𝑥̅ = 𝑚1 𝑥1 +𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑥3
𝑀𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑚𝑥
∑ 𝑚𝑥
𝑥̅ = 𝑀 ------------------ 1
Similarly,
∑ 𝑚𝑦
𝑦̅ = ------------------ 2
𝑀
The plane geometrical figures (such as T-section, 1-section, L-section etc.)

have only areas but no mass the center of gravity of such figures is found out in the
same way as that of solid bodies. Therefore the above two equations will become:
∑ 𝑎𝑥
𝑥̅ =
𝐴
Or
𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + 𝑎3 𝑥3 …
𝑥̅ =
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 …
∑ 𝑎𝑦
𝑦̅ =
𝐴
Or
𝑎1 𝑦1 + 𝑎2 𝑦2 + 𝑎3 𝑦3 …
𝑥̅ =
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 …
Example:
1. Find the center of gravity of a 100 mm x150 mm x 30 mm T-section as shown in the

figure:
100 mm
2 30 mm
150 mm
1
30 mm
64
Solution:
Area (a) mm2 Distance (y) mm ay
1 a1 = 30(150-30) = 3600 (150-30)/2 = 60 3600(60)=216000
2 a2 = 30(100) = 3000 150-15=135 3000(135)=405000
∑ = 6600 ∑ = 621000
Put in the working formula:
∑ 𝑎𝑦 621000
𝑦̅ = = = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝒎𝒎
𝐴 6600
The center of gravity is at 94.091 mm from the bottom, also 𝑥̅ can be located by
inspection since the section given is symmetrical.
2. Find the center of gravity of a channel section 100mmx50mmx15mm as shown:
100 mm
15 mm
50 mm
Solution 1:
100 mm 2
1 15 mm
50 mm
65
Area (a) mm2 Distance (x) mm ax
1 a1 =50(15) = 750 50/2 = 25 750(25)=18750
2 a2 = (100-30)(15) = 1050 15/2=7.5 1050(7.5)=7875
3 a1 =50(15) = 750 50/2 = 25 750(25)=18750
∑ = 2550 ∑ = 45375
∑ 𝑎𝑥 45375
𝑥̅ = = = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟗𝟒 𝒎𝒎
𝐴 2550
The center of gravity is at17.794 mm from the right, also 𝑦̅ can be located by inspection
since the section given is symmetrical.
Solution 2:
1 2
100 mm
15 mm
50 mm

1 a1 =50(100) = 5000 50/2 = 25 5000(25)=125000
2 a2 = -(50-15)(100-30)= -2450 15+(50-15)/2=32.5 -2450(32.5)=-79625
∑ = 2550 ∑ = 45375
∑ 𝑎𝑥 45375
𝑥̅ = = = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟗𝟒 𝒎𝒎
𝐴 2550
66
Lesson 6-3 – CENTER OF GRAVITY OF UNSYMMETRICAL SECTIONS
Sometimes, the given section, whose center of gravity is required to be found

out, is not symmetrical either about x-axis or y-axis. In such cases, we have to find out
both the values of center of gravity of x and y which means with reference to x axis
and y axis.
Example:
Find the centroid of an unequal angle section 100 mm x 80 mm x 20mm.
100 mm
20 mm
80 mm
Solution:
100 mm 1
2 20 mm
80 mm

1 a1 =20(100) = 2000 20/2=10 2000(10)=20000
2 a2 = (80-20)(20)= 1200 20+(80-20)/2=50 1200(50)=60000
∑ = 3200 ∑ = 80000
∑ 𝑎𝑥 80000
𝑥̅ = = = 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒎 from the right
𝐴 3200
Area (a) mm2 Distance (y) mm ay

1 a1 =20(100) = 2000 100/2=50 2000(50)=100000
2 a2 = (80-20)(20)= 1200 20/2=10 1200(10)=12000
∑ = 3200 ∑ = 112000
∑ 𝑎𝑦 112000
𝑦̅ = = = 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒎 from the bottom
𝐴 3200
67
Lesson 6-4 – CENTER OF GRAVITY OF SOLID BODIES
The center of gravity of solid bodies (such as hemisphere, cylinder, right circular
solid cone etc) is found out in the same way as that of the plane figures. The only
difference between the plane and solid bodies is that in the case of solid bodies we
calculate volumes instead of areas
EXAMPLE
A solid body formed by joining the base of a right circular cone of height H to
the equal base of right circular cylinder of height h. Calculate the distance of the center
of gravity of the solid from its plane face when H = 120 mm and h = 30 mm
Solution:
Consider the cylinder with h=30 mm and radius r:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 30𝜋𝑟 2
c.g of cylinder = y1 = 30/2 = 15 mm
Now consider the circular cone of H=120 mm and radius r:

𝜋𝑟 2 𝐻 120𝜋𝑟 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 3 = = 40𝜋𝑟 2
3
c.g of cone=30+120/4 = 60 mm from the bottom of composite solids
Put the values in the formulas:

∑ 𝑣𝑦 𝑣1𝑦1+𝑣2𝑦2+𝑣3𝑦3…
𝑦̅ = =
𝑉 𝑉
30𝜋𝑟2(15)+40𝜋𝑟2 (60)
𝑦̅ = = 40.714 mm
30𝜋𝑟2 +40𝜋𝑟2
68
Lesson 6-5 – CENTER OF GRAVITY OF SECTIONS WITH CUT OUT HOLES
The center of gravity of such a section is found out by considering the main
section; first as a complete one and then deducting the area of the cut out hole that
is taking the area of the cut out hole as negative. Now substituting the area of the cut
out hole as negative, in the general equation for the center of gravity, so the equation
will become:
𝑎1𝑥1 − 𝑎2𝑥2 …
𝑥̅ =
𝑎1 − 𝑎2
Or
𝑎1𝑦1 − 𝑎2𝑦2 …
𝑦̅ =
𝑎1 − 𝑎2
Example:
A semicircle of 90 mm radius is cut out from a trapezoid as shown in figure, find the
position of the center of gravity.
a=200 mm
h=120 mm
r=90 mm
b=300 mm
Solution:
𝑎+𝑏 200+300
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑 = ℎ= (120) = 30000
2 2
𝑏+2𝑎 ℎ 300+2(200) 120

𝑐. 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑 = (3) = ( ) = 56
𝑏+𝑎 300+200 3
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋(90)2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = = = = 4050𝜋
2 2
4𝑟
𝑐. 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 3𝜋 = 38.197
Put the values in the working formula:
30000(56) − 4050𝜋(3.197)
𝑦̅ = = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝐦𝐦
30000 − 4050𝜋
69
Solve the following:

1. Find the center of gravity of a semicircular section having outer and inner
diameters of 200 mm and 160 mm respectively as shown in figure:
Ans: 57.5 mm
2. A body consists of a right circular solid cone of height 40 mm and radius 30 mm

placed on a solid hemisphere of radius 30 mm of the same material find the position
of the center of gravity of the body
Ans: 28.4 mm
70
Assessment Task
Solve the given problems:

1. An I section has the following dimensions in mm units. Top flange = 150 x 50
Bottom flange = 300 x100 Web = 300 x 50 Find the center of gravity (centroid).
2. A hemisphere of 60 mm diameter is placed on the top of the cylinder having 60

mm diameter. Find the center of gravity of the body from the base of the cylinder if its
height is 100 mm.
3. A circular hole of 50 mm diameter is cut out from a circular disc of 100 mm

diameter as shown in figure, find the center of gravity of the section.
References
Online:
71
MODULE
Title:
Chapter 7 – Moment of Inertia; Product of inertia
The moment of inertia is a physical quantity which describes how easily a
body can be rotated about a given axis. It is a rotational analogue of mass, which
describes an object's resistance to translational motion.
Inertia is the property of matter which resists change in its state of motion.
Inertia is a measure of the force that keeps a stationary object stationary, or a moving
object moving at its current speed. The larger the inertia, the greater the force that is
required to bring some change in its velocity in a given amount of time. Suppose a
heavy truck and a light car are both at rest, then intuitively we know that more force
will be required to push the truck to a certain speed in a given amount of time than will
be needed to push the car to that same speed in the same amount of time.
Similarly, moment of inertia is that property where matter resists change in its
state of rotatory motion. The larger the moment of inertia, the greater the amount
of torque that will be required to bring the same change in its angular velocity in a
given amount of time. Here, torque and angular velocity are the angular analogues of
force and velocity, relating to moment of inertia in the exact same way that force and
velocity relate to mass.
Unlike inertia, moment of inertia depends not only on the mass but also the
distribution of mass around the axis about which the moment of inertia is to be
calculated. An object can have different moments of inertia about different axes. That
is, to rotate an object about different axes with an equal angular acceleration, different
torque (or effort) is required. This concept is relevant and highly necessary throughout
mechanics. While life would be simple if nothing rotated, realistically we need to have
a way to deal with both translation and rotation (often at the same time). This is a
necessary piece in analyzing more complex motion

7. Understand the concept of moment of inertia by perpendicular axis and
parallel axis theorem;
8. Calculate the moment of inertia for uniformly shapes and compound areas;
and
9. Calculate the product of inertia of shapes.
72
Lesson 7-1 – General Properties and Ideas
 Moment of inertia is a tensor quantity. It has different values for different axes.
 It depends upon the mass as well as the mass's distribution around its axis.
 A body can have different moments of inertia about different axes.
 It is an inherent property of matter by which it tries to maintain its state of
angular motion unless and until it is compelled by external torques.
 It is an extensive (additive) property: the moment of inertia of a composite
system is the sum of the moments of inertia of its components' subsystems
(all taken about the same axis).
Perpendicular Axis Theorem
The moment of inertia (MI) of a plane area about an axis normal to the plane is
equal to the sum of the moments of inertia about any two mutually perpendicular axes
lying in the plane and passing through the given axis.
That means the Moment of Inertia Iz = Ix+Iy
Lesson 7-2 – Parallel Axis Theorem
The moment of area of an object about any axis parallel to the centroidal axis
is the sum of MI about its centroidal axis and the product of area with the square of
distance of from the reference axis.
Essentially, IXX= IG+Ad2
Where,
A is the cross-sectional area
d is the perpendicular distance between the centroidal axis and the parallel
axis.
Parallel Axis Theorem – Derivation
73
• Consider the moment of inertia Ix of an area A with respect to an axis AA’. Denote by
y, the distance from an element of area dA to AA’.
𝑰𝒙 = ∫ 𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝑨 ⇒ Moment of inertia about the x-axis

𝑰𝒚 = ∫ 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝑨 ⇒ Moment of inertia about the y-axis
 Consider an axis BB’ parallel to AA’ through the centroid C of the area, known as the
centroidal axis. The equation of the moment inertia becomes:
𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = ∫(𝑦 ′ + 𝑑)2 𝑑𝐴
𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦′2 𝑑𝐴 + 2 ∫ 𝑦 ′𝑑 𝑑𝐴 +∫ 𝑑 2 𝑑𝐴
The first integral is the moment of inertia about the centroid.

𝐼̅𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦′2𝑑𝐴
The second component is the first moment of area about the centroid
̅ 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 ′ 𝑑𝐴 ⇒ 𝑦′
𝑦′ ̅ =0
̅𝐴 = 0
⇒ 𝑦′
Modify the equation obtained with the parallel axis theorem:
𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦′2 𝑑𝐴 + 2 ∫ 𝑦 ′𝑑 𝑑𝐴 +∫ 𝑑 2 𝑑𝐴
𝑰𝒙 = 𝑰̅𝒙 + 𝒅𝟐 𝑨
Lesson 7-3 – Polar Moment of Inertia
74
The polar moment of Inertia, J, of a cross-section with respect to a polar axis,
that is, an axis at right angles to the plane of the cross-section, is defined as the
moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to the point of intersection of the
axis and the plane. The polar moment of Inertia may be found by taking the sum of
the moments of inertia about two perpendicular axes lying in the plane of the cross-
section and passing through this point.
It is basically the moment of inertia about the z-axis, and is calculated using
the formulas:
𝑱 = 𝑰𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚
𝑱 = ∫ 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝑨
Lesson 7-4 – Radius of gyration
Also termed as gyradius of a body about an axis of rotation is defined as the

radial distance to a point which would have a moment of inertia the same as the
body’s actual distribution of mass, if the total mass of the body were concentrated
there.
In some structural engineering applications, it is common practice to introduce

the radius of gyration of area. The radii of gyration of an area about the x-axis, the y-
axis, and the origin O are defined as:
𝐼
𝑘= √
𝐴
𝐼 𝑦𝐼 𝐼
𝑘𝑥 = √ 𝐴𝑥 𝑘𝑦 = √ 𝐴 𝑘𝑧 = √ 𝐴𝑧
The dimension of the radius of gyration is [L]. However, the radius of gyration
is not a distance that has a clear-cut physical meaning, nor can it be determined by
direct measurement; its value can be determined only by computation using the
above equations.
Moment of Inertia of Common Shapes
75
Shapes Moment of Inertia
Rectangle
Circle
Right triangle
Semicircle
76
Isosceles triangle
Triangle
Quarter Circle
Half Parabolic complement
77
Half parabola
Ellipse
𝝅𝒂𝒃𝟑
Ix = 𝟒
𝝅𝒂𝟑 𝒃
Ix =
𝟒𝟒
Ixy = 0
Quarter Ellipse
Circular sector
*for other shapes, it can be solve using the formulas given above by integration.
78
Lesson 7-5 – Method of Composite Areas
Consider a plane region, A, that has been divided into the subregions A1, A2,
A3, …. The moment of inertia of the area of A about an axis can be computed by
summing the moments of inertia of the subregions about the same axis. This
technique, known as the method of composite areas, follows directly from the property
of definite integrals: the integral of a sum equals the sum of the integrals. For example,
Ix , the moment of inertia about the x-axis, becomes
𝐼𝑥 = (∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴)𝐴 = (∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴)𝐴1 + (∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴)𝐴2 + (∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴)𝐴3 + ⋯
Which can be written as
𝑰𝒙 = (𝑰𝒙 )𝟏 + (𝑰𝒙 )𝟐 + (𝑰𝒙 )𝟑 + ⋯
Where (Ix )1 is the moment of the inertia of the area of the subregion A1 with respect
to the x-axis. Obviously, the method of composite areas also applies to the
computation of polar moments of areas:
𝑱𝒐 = (𝑱𝒐 )𝟏 + (𝑱𝒐 )𝟐 + (𝑱𝒐 )𝟑 + ⋯
Where (I𝑱𝒐 )1 is the moment of the inertia of the area of the subregion A1 with respect
to point O.
Examples:
1. The centroid of the plane region is located at C. If the area of the region is 2000
mm2 and its moment of inertia about the x-axis is Ix = 40 × 106 mm4, determine Iu.
Solution:
Note that we are required to transfer the moment of inertia from the x-axis to
the u-axis, neither of which is a centroidal axis. Therefore, we must first calculate 𝐼̅𝑥 ,
the moment of inertia about the centroidal axis that is parallel to the x-axis.
From the parallel-axis theorem we have 𝑰𝒙 = 𝑰̅𝒙 + 𝑨𝒅𝟐, which gives
𝑰̅𝒙 =𝑰𝒙 − 𝑨𝒅𝟏 𝟐 = (40𝑥106 ) − (2000)(90)2 = 23.8𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
79
After 𝐼̅𝑥 has been found, the parallel-axis theorem enables us to compute the
moment of inertia about any axis that is parallel to the centroidal axis. For I u we have
𝑰𝒖 = 𝑰̅𝒙 + 𝑨𝒅𝟐 𝟐 = (23.8𝑥106 ) + (2000)(70)2 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟒
A common error is to use the parallel-axis theorem to transfer the moment of

inertia between two axes, neither of which is a centroidal axis. In this problem, for
example, it is tempting to write Iu = Ix + A(d1 + d2) 2, which would result in an
incorrect answer for Iu .
2. For a rectangle with base b and height h, compute the following: (1) the moment
of inertia about the y-axis by integration; (2) the moment of inertia about the
centroidal axis that is parallel to the x-axis; and (3) the polar moment of inertia about
the centroid.
Solution:
Part 1
The area of the differential element shown in the figure is dA = b dy. Because
all parts of the element are a distance y from the x-axis, we can use:
ℎ ℎ
𝟐 2
𝑏𝑦 3 𝒃𝒉𝟑
𝑰𝒙 = ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝑨 = 𝑏 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = [ ] =
0 3 0 𝟑
*this result agrees with the information listed for rectangle in the table given above.
If we had chosen to use double integration with dA=dxdy , the analysis would
yield:
ℎ 𝑏
𝒃𝒉𝟑
𝑰𝒙 = ∫ 𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝑨 = ∫ ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 =
0 0 𝟑
which is identical to the previous result.
80
Part 2
We can calculate 𝐼̅𝑥 from the parallel-axis theorem and the result of Part 1.
Substituting Ix = bh3/3 into the parallel-axis theorem, and recognizing that the
transfer distance d (the distance between the x-axis and the centroidal x-axis) is h/2,
we find that
𝑏ℎ3 ℎ 2 𝒃𝒉𝟑
𝑰̅𝒙 =𝑰𝒙 − 𝑨𝒅𝟐 = − 𝑏ℎ (2 ) =
3 𝟏𝟐
*This answer also agrees with the result in the table.
Part 3
One method of computing 𝐽̅𝑐 is to use 𝐽̅𝑐 = 𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝐼̅𝑦 . From the results of Part
2 or from the given table above, we have,
𝑏ℎ 3 ℎ𝑏3 𝒃𝒉
𝐽̅𝑐 = 𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝐼̅𝑦 = + = (𝒉𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 )
12 12 𝟏𝟐
Another method of computing 𝐽̅𝑐 is to first compute the 𝐽𝑜 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 and then

transfer this result to the centroid. From the results of part 1, we have
𝑏ℎ3 ℎ𝑏 3 𝑏ℎ 2
𝐽𝑜 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 =+ = (ℎ + 𝑏2 )
3 3 3
The transfer distance is the distance between point O and the centroid of the
𝑏 ℎ
rectangle; that is, 𝑑 = √(2)2 + (2 )2 . From the parallel-axis theorem, we obtain
2
𝑏ℎ 𝑏 ℎ 𝑏ℎ 𝑏2 ℎ2
𝐽̅𝑐 = 𝐽𝑜 − 𝐴𝑑 = 2 2
(ℎ + 𝑏 ) - 2
𝑏ℎ [√(2)2 + ( 2 )2 ] .= (ℎ2 + 𝑏2 ) - 𝑏ℎ(4 + 4 )
3 3
𝒃𝒉
𝑱̅𝒄 = (𝒉𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 )
𝟏𝟐
Which agrees with the previous result.
3. For the area shown, calculate the radii of gyration about the x- and y-axes.
Solution:
81
We consider the area to be composed of the three parts shown below: a
triangle, plus a semicircle, minus a circle. The moments of inertia of each part are
obtained in two steps. First, the moments of inertia about the centroidal axes of the
part are found from Table. The parallel-axis theorem is then used to calculate the
moments of inertia about the x- and y-axes.
Triangle
𝑏ℎ 90(100)
𝐴= = = 4500𝑚𝑚2
2 2
𝑏ℎ3 90(100)3
𝐼̅𝑥 = = = 2.50 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4
36 36
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦̅ 2 = (2.50 𝑥 106 ) + 4500(66.7)2 = 22.5𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
ℎ𝑏3 100(90)3
𝐼̅𝑦 = = = 2.025𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
36 36
𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼̅𝑦 + 𝐴𝑥̅ 2 = (2.025 𝑥 106 ) + 4500(60)2 = 18.225𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
Semicircle
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋(45)2
𝐴= = = 3180.86 𝑚𝑚2
2 2
𝐼̅𝑥 = 0.1098𝑟 4 = 0.1098(45)4 = 0.450𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4

𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦̅ 2 = (0.450 𝑥 106 ) + 3180.86(119.1)2 = 45.57𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
𝜋𝑟 4 𝜋(45)4
𝐼̅𝑦 = = = 1.61𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
8 8
𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼̅𝑦 + 𝐴𝑥̅ 2 = (1.61 𝑥 106 ) + 3180.86(45)2 = 8.05𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
Circle
82
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(20)2 = 1256.637 𝑚𝑚2
𝜋𝑟 4 𝜋(20)4
𝐼̅𝑥 = = = 0.1257𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4
4 4
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼̅𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦̅ 2 = (0.1257 𝑥 106 ) + 1256.637(100)2 = 12.692𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
𝜋𝑟 4 𝜋(20)4
𝐼̅𝑦 = = = 0.1257𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4
4 4
𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼̅𝑦 + 𝐴𝑥̅ 2 = (0.1257 𝑥 106 ) + 1256.637(45)2 = 2.67𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
Composite Area
To determine the properties for the composite area, we superimpose the
foregoing results (taking care to subtract the quantities for the circle) and obtain
𝐴 = ∑ 𝐴 = 4500 + 3180.86 − 1256.637 = 6427.223 𝑚𝑚2

𝐼𝑥 = ∑ 𝐼𝑥 = ( 22.5 + 45.57 − 12.692 ) 𝑥106 = 55.378 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4
𝐼𝑦 = ∑ 𝐼𝑦 = ( 18.225 + 8.05 − 2.67 ) 𝑥106 = 23.605 𝑥 106 𝑚𝑚4
Therefore, for the radii of gyration we have
𝐼 55.378 𝑥 106
𝑘𝑥 = √ 𝐴𝑥 = √ = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟖𝟐𝟑 𝒎𝒎
6427.223
𝐼𝑦 23.605 𝑥 106
𝑘𝑦 = √ = √ = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝒎
𝐴 6427.223
Lesson 7-6 – Product of Inertia
The product of inertia of a plane area (also called the product of area) about
the x- and y-coordinate axes is defined by
𝐼𝑥𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝐴
where A is the area of the plane region shown in Fig. 9.3, and x and y are the
coordinates of dA.
83
The dimension of product of inertia is [L4], the same as for moment of inertia
and polar moment of area. Whereas moment of inertia is always positive, the product
of inertia can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on the manner in which the
area is distributed in the xy-plane.
If an area has an axis of symmetry, that axis and the axis perpendicular to it
constitute a set of axes for which the product of inertia is zero.
Transfer Formula for Product of Inertia
The parallel-axis theorem for products of inertia can be written as
𝑰𝒙𝒚 = 𝑰̅𝒙𝒚 + 𝑨𝒙
̅𝒚̅
To reiterate, the symbol 𝑰𝒙𝒚 is to be read as “the product of inertia relative to

centroidal x- and y-axes” (axes through the centroid and parallel to the x- and y-axes).
Example:
1. Calculate the product of inertia of the triangle shown (a) about the x- and y axes
using (1) single integration; and (2) double integration.
Solution:
For the horizontal element shown:
84
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑥
𝑥̅𝑒𝑙 =
2
𝑦̅𝑒𝑙 = 𝑦
̅ =0
𝑑𝐼𝑥𝑦 (By symmetry)
𝑥 𝑥2𝑦
𝑑𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 𝑑𝐴 𝑥̅𝑒𝑙 𝑦̅𝑒𝑙 = (𝑥𝑑𝑦) ( ) (𝑦) = 𝑑𝑦
2 2
By the property of similar triangle:

𝑥 𝑏
=
ℎ−𝑦 ℎ
𝑏
𝑥 = (ℎ − 𝑦)
ℎ
Substitute and integrate

𝑥 2𝑦
𝑑𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦
2
2
𝑏
ℎ [ (ℎ − 𝑦)] 𝑦
𝐼𝑥𝑦 = ∫ ℎ 𝑑𝑦
0 2
𝑏2 ℎ
𝐼𝑥𝑦 = ∫ (ℎ − 𝑦)2 𝑦𝑑𝑦
2ℎ2 0
𝒃𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝑰𝒙𝒚 =
𝟐𝟒
For the vertical element shown:
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑥̅𝑒𝑙 = 𝑥
85
𝑦
𝑦̅𝑒𝑙 =
2
̅ =0
𝑑𝐼𝑥𝑦 (By symmetry)
𝑦 𝑥𝑦 2
𝑑𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 𝑑𝐴 𝑥̅𝑒𝑙 𝑦̅𝑒𝑙 = (𝑦𝑑𝑥 )(𝑥 ) ( ) = 𝑑𝑥
2 2
By the property of similar triangle:

𝑏−𝑥 𝑏
=ℎ
𝑦
ℎ
𝑦 = (𝑏 − 𝑥)
𝑏
Substitute and integrate

𝑥𝑦 2
𝑑𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦
2
2
ℎ
𝑏 𝑥 [ (𝑏 − 𝑥)]
𝐼𝑥𝑦 = ∫ 𝑏 𝑑𝑥
0 2
ℎ2 𝑏
𝐼𝑥𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑏 − 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
2𝑏2 0
𝒃𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝑰𝒙𝒚 =
𝟐𝟒
̅ , the product of inertia of the

2. Using the result in the above example, calculate𝐼𝑥𝑦
triangle shown about centroidal axes parallel to the x-and y- axes.
Solution:
𝑏2 ℎ2
From the solution to the last example, we have 𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 24
. The parallel
axis theorem yields:
86
𝑏2 ℎ2 𝑏ℎ 𝑏 ℎ
̅ = 𝐼𝑥𝑦 − 𝐴𝑥̅ 𝑦̅ =
𝐼𝑥𝑦 − ( )( )
24 2 3 3
Which simplifies to
𝒃𝟐 𝒉𝟐
̅𝑰𝒙𝒚 =
𝟕𝟐
3. Calculate the product of Inertia for the angle shown by the method of composite
areas.
Solution:
We may view the angle as a composite of the two rectangles shown:
For each rectangle, 𝐼𝑥𝑦 can be computed using the parallel-axis theorem for products of
̅ = 𝐼𝑥𝑦 − 𝐴𝑥̅ 𝑦̅ . Note that 𝐼𝑥𝑦
inertia: 𝐼𝑥𝑦 ̅ = 0 for each rectangle, by symmetry.
For the 20mm x 140 mm rectangle,

𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 0 + (140𝑥20)(10)(70) = 1. 9𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
For the 160mm x 20 mm rectangle,

𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 0 + (160𝑥20)(100)(10) = 3.20𝑥106 𝑚𝑚4
Therefore, the product of inertia for the angle is:

𝐼𝑥𝑦 = ∑ 𝐼𝑥𝑦 = (1. 9 + 3.20) 𝑥106 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟒
87

1. For the area shown, calculate the radii of gyration about the x- and y-axes.
2. Compute the product of inertia with respect to the x- and y-axes.
88
Assessment Task
1. Compute the moment of inertia of the shade region about the y-axis by integration
and check answer by composite area method.
2. Determine 𝐼𝑥 for the triangular region shown. Use any method.
3. Calculate the product of inertia with respect to the x- and y-axes, knowing that 𝑥̅ =
25.86 𝑚𝑚 and ̅𝑦 = 68.54 𝑚𝑚.
References
89
Online:
90

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CE 213-STATICS OF RIGID BODIES

Resultants of Force Systems 10

Centroids and Centers of Gravity 56

Moments of Inertia; Product of Inertia 72

Chapter 1 – Fundamental Concepts

Engineering Mechanics may be defined as the science which considers the

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:

Lesson 1-1 – Branches of Mechanics

The branches and sub-branches of mechanics are presented below.

Force Systems Applications Kinematics Kinetics

Fundamental Concepts (Definition of Terms)

Lesson 1-2 – Axioms of Mechanics

Lesson 1-3 – Parallelogram and Triangle Law

Solution A: by parallelogram law

Solution A: by parallelogram law

Solution B: by triangle law

Lesson 1-4 – Units and Conversion

1m = 3.28ft 1ft = 0.305m

Answer the following questions:

Google Classroom, TelEducation, Module

5. A rigid body has a mass but negligible shape/size. True OR False?

6. A furlong per fortnight is a facetious unit of velocity, perhaps made up by a student

Chapter 2– Resultants of Force Systems

In this chapter, we study the effects of forces which act on engineering

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:

Lesson 2-1 – Properties of Force

Force is a vector quantity. Meaning, force has as magnitude and direction.

Force system is classified into two categories:

Force systems classified according to line of action are the following:

Lesson 2-3 – Resolution of Force by Trigonometric Function

Where: F = The given force

Solution: In this particular example, 65º is not the angle of inclination of

Ɵ = 90° − 65° = 25°

Lesson 2-4 – Similar Triangle

Where F = The given force

Notations (sign) on Forces

Where: ƩFx = Sum of horizontal component of forces

Steps in solving the resultant of concurrent force system

Example 1: Solve for resultant force of the forces given below.

Fx250 = 250 cos 40°= 191.51 N

Fx300 = 300 cos 25° = 271.89 N

Solve for the vertical component of each of the force

Fy250 = 250 sin 40°= 160.70 N

Fy300 = 300 sin 25° = 126.79 N

Solve for the sum of horizontal components

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑥2 = 191.51 − 271.89

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = −80.38 𝑁 = 80.38 𝑁, 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡

Solve for the vertical component of each of the force

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦1 + 𝐹𝑦2 = 160 − 126.79

Example 2: Solve for resultant force of the forces given below.

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 62.46 𝑁 + 33.91 𝑁 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟑𝟕 𝑵, 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉

Notations (sign) on Moments

Where: M = Moment of force

Solve for the moment of each component

𝑀𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑑 = 178.89 𝑁 ∗ 2𝑚 = 357.78 𝑁𝑚, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Solve for the resultant moment of the force

∑ 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑀𝑦 = 357.78 𝑁𝑚 − 89.44 𝑁𝑚 = 268.34 𝑁𝑚, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

200N * d = 357.78 𝑁𝑚 − 89.44 𝑁𝑚

Steps in solving for resultant of parallel force system

Solve for the sum of all moments produced by each force

∑ 𝑀 = 200 𝑙𝑏(5𝑓𝑡) + 400 𝑙𝑏 (4𝑓𝑡) − 300 𝑙𝑏(8𝑓𝑡)

Solve for moment arm of the resultant force