PHYS Module 2 PhotoMaster

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Physics Module 2
Dynamics
This edition
Topic
Dynamics INCLUDES updated
Outline material to comply with the
syllabus changes
announced in Jan.2018.
1. Forces 3. Momentum,
Revision: Force & Newton’s Laws Energy & Collisions
Forces as vectors
Elastic & inelastic collisions
Forces in equilibrium
Concept of momentum
Revision: mass, weight & orbits
Reaction forces 2. Force, Conservation of momentum
in a collision
Forces on an inclined plane Acceleration Impulse & change of
& Energy momentum
Friction: types, coefficients & calculations
Energy: revision of basics
Kinetic energy Work & energy
Gravitational potential energy Conservation of GPE + KE
Power
What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S. Principle) this topic covers:
1. FORCES
Revision: Forces basic ideas & Newton’s Laws. Forces as vectors. Resultants & components.
Forces in equilibrium. More revision: mass, weight & orbits.
Reaction forces. Forces on an inclined plane
2. FORCE, ACCELERATION & ENERGY

Friction: types of friction, coefficients & calculations.
Revision of basics about energy. Calculating KE & GPE. Concept of work.
Conservation of mechanical energy. Power: concepts & investigations.
3. MOMENTUM, ENERGY & COLLISIONS

Elastic collisions & conservation of KE.
Momentum as a vector quantity. Conservation of momentum in a collision.
Impulse and change of momentum
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Dynamics
®
keep it simple science

In the previous module, “Kinematics”, you learnt about the Physics of motion without any consideration of
the cause of the movement. This topic is all about what causes the moving, the stopping & the
accelerations in between... FORCES & ENERGY.
1. Forces
We begin with a review of ideas you have studied in previous years.
When the
What is a Force? Simplest definition: A force is a push or a pull.
(A more technical definition follows later.)
club
strikes the
ball, a Force is measured in units called newtons (N).
force (Named in honour of Sir Isaac Newton, 1642-1727) 1N = 1 kg.ms-2
pushes to (Force involves mass (kg) and acceleration (ms-2)
make the
Most familiar forces are examples of Contact Forces which can only act
ball move.
when things are in contact with each. Contact forces need to be in physical touch to
transmit a force from one object to another.
Field Forces
Some forces, such as gravity, magnetism & electrical forces can push or pull on things
without touching them. To explain this “spooky action at a distance”, we imagine that
magnets, electrical charges & all masses (which have gravity) are surrounded by an
invisible “force field”. Anything susceptible which enters the field will experience a force.
The diagram (right)
N S “models” the force-field
S N by visualising a volume of
Opposite poles attract space in which “lines of
force” exist, weakening
N S
N N with distance, but
theoretically extending to
Same poles repel infinity.
Magnets exerting “force at a distance”.
Balanced & Unbalanced Forces

If you are riding a bike at constant speed on a level
road, all forces are equally balanced. Air Resistance
Falling at constant Force
speed, the forces
Friction Force acting on the
“Thrust” Force parachutist are
(from pedalling) equally balanced.
The force of gravity

pulling downwards
is exactly equal to
the air resistance
The force pushing you forward (from you pedalling) is force pushing
exactly equal to the forces of friction and air resistance upwards to stop the
parachute.
pushing backwards and trying to stop you. Force
of
Whenever the forces acting on anything are exactly balanced (i.e. they are equal and Gravity
opposite, and cancel out) the object will travel at a constant speed, or remain still.
When the forces are NOT balanced, acceleration occurs.

Unbalanced force causes acceleration. Acceleration can only happen when a “net force”
(the total unbalanced force) acts on a mass. The bigger the force, the greater the acceleration.
However, the bigger the mass, the less the acceleration.
®
Newton’s Laws of Motion
keep it simple science Sir Isaac Newton (English, 1642-1727) was the first to figure out the connection
between unbalanced forces and accelerations.
Newton’s 1st Law If there is no net force acting, an object will keep moving at a constant
velocity in a straight line. If not moving, it will remain at rest.
If the engine force (pushing the car forward) is the
same strength as friction (pushing backwards) then
Force from the Friction (including
the forces “cancel out” and the car travels at a
engine (through air resistance)
constant speed.
the tyres) pushes pushes car
Note that Newton’s 1st Law doesn’t mean there have to car this way this way
be NO forces acting, just no net force.
There may be many forces acting on something, but if

they are balanced and all cancel out (because they
push in opposite directions) then the object will keep
moving at constant velocity.
When a net (unbalanced) force acts, it causes an

Newton’s 2nd Law acceleration in the direction of the force.
The bigger the force the greater the acceleration.
This law describes what happens The larger the mass the smaller the acceleration.
when forces are unbalanced.
Mathematically: Fnet = m.a Example problems

1.If a net force of 10N pushes on a 4.0kg trolley, what is the
or a= F acceleration rate?
m
Fnet = net force, in newtons (N). Solution a = F/m = 10/4.0 = 2.5 ms-2.
m = mass of the object the force is acting on, The trolley will accelerate at 2.5 ms-2.
in kilograms (kg)
a = acceleration rate, in ms-2. 2. What net force is required to make a 1,000kg car accelerate
at 4.0ms-2?
Solution F = ma = 1,000 x 4.0 = 4,000 N.

Newton’s 3rd Law A 4,000 N net force is required.
Whenever a force acts, another equal & opposite force pushes back.
Action - Reaction
Newton’s 3rd Law is best explained by example, and by considering why rockets move and guns kick back.
Walking would be impossible

without Newton’s 3rd Law.
You push on the ground, and
the ground pushes back. That
“reaction force” propels you Reaction Action
forward.
Reaction
When a cannon fires, there is always a “recoil” or kick-back.
Action
A common mis-conception with 3rd Law is to think that the action force & the reaction force are equal &
opposite and therefore, should cancel each other out. Well, they would, IF they acted on the same object...
but they never do! The action & reaction forces always push on different objects.
At right, the person’s foot pushes (action force) on the ground. The ground pushes back (reaction).
The effect on the Earth of your push is negligible, so the action force is easy to ignore... be aware!
® Force is a Vector
Force is a vector quantity, the same as Force Vectors in 2-D
displacement, velocity and acceleration. To fully If the forces are acting at right angles, they can be
describe a force, you must state the direction of the added using Pythagorus, as you learned in the
force. previous topic.
Often, there are situations where 2 (or more) forces act Example: Force B
30N
on the same object at the same time. To find the NET
FORCE acting you need to add the vectors together to Force A southward
find their combined effect. 20N
pushing What “Resultant Force”
Force Vectors in 1 Dimension eastward will act on the object?
It’s very easy if their vector directions are in the
same line: Solution: A = 20
Example Use Pythagorus’s Theorem φ

to find the size of the
B = 30
Force A
Re
Force B “Resultant” force:
su
20N east 30N west
lta
R2 = A2 + B2 = 202 + 302 = 1300
n
The sum of these 2 vectors is a single force: ∴R = 1300
t
“Resultant” ≅ 36N (approx)
Vector
10N west and find the angle ( φ ) by Diagram
Mathematically, you should assign (+ve) and (-ve) signs Trigonometry:
to the opposite directions, then simply add the values: Tan φ = opp/adj = 30/20 = 1.5
∴ φ ≅ 56o
e.g. let East be (+ve), and West (-ve)
Then, Force A = +20 and Force B = -30 So, the resultant force R = 36N, direction
So the Resultant = +20 +(-30) = -10N (i.e. 10N west) 56o S of E (bearing from north=146o)
Forces in Equilibrium
It is often the case that 2 (or more) force vectors might all cancel each other out so the “resultant” is zero.
In fact, this is always the case when something is moving in a straight line with a constant velocity or
standing still. (Newton’s 1st Law)
Since it is NOT accelerating, then the net force acting must be zero. If there are forces acting,
then it follows they must be cancelling each other out.
A Kinetic (Moving) Example A Static (Stationary) Example
Consider an aircraft flying straight and level at You may do laboratory work to measure some
constant velocity. force vectors in equilibrium and their zero vector
“Lift” Force sum. A common experiment is shown in the photo:
(on wings)
Tension forces
Three Force Vectors in strings A &
Thrust in Equilibrium B measured by
spring
Force balances.
from
Air Weight force C
engines
Resistance can be
(“Drag”) calculated.
These 3 forces
Force A The angles
Weight Force B must be in between
equilibrium strings A, B &
C because C need to be
The vector diagram for this aircraft must be: nothing is
measured
with a
moving. protractor.
Thrust
The 3 vectors
Lift Weight F=mg can then be
analysed.
Drag
The vectors can be analysed either by accurate scale
The vectors all cancel out... resultant is zero... drawing, or by resolving each into horizontal & vertical
NO NET FORCE... no acceleration will occur, components. It will be found (within experimental error)
so it continues in a straight line at constant velocity. that these vectors add to zero. They are in equilibrium.
®
Resolving a Force Vector into Components
You learned in the previous topic how to resolve a vector into 2
Let’s see how to use this...
perpendicular components. Resolving force vectors is often more A small rocket was launched from a
useful to solve problems than resolving other types of vectors. ramp so that it rises at an angle of 70o
above the horizontal. While its motor is
Here’s a quick revision. Imagine a force vector “F” as follows: burning, the thrust force acting on it is
4,200N.
component “Fy”
What are the vertical & horizontal
F” components of this force?
tor “
vec
θ Solution:
θ
Fy = F sinθ and Fx = F cosθθ
component “Fx”
= 4,200.sin70 = 4,200.cos70
Fy = 3,950 N (approx) Fx = 1,440 N
These imaginary “components” of “F” add together to be exactly
equivalent to F. In fact, there are an infinite set of possible
components which can add up to F; we chose these 2 because
0N
they are at right angles to each other. “Fx” is horizontal (or east)
4,20
while “Fy” is vertical (or north).
Fy
F=
The magnitudes of each component can
be found from the right-triangle as Warning! If the angle is
measured between the 70o
follows:
vector and y-axis, the link
to the sine or cosine ratio Fx
θ = Fy / F
sinθ θ
so Fy = F sinθ is reversed. Always
and consider the diagram After this page, try
carefully!
θ = Fx / F
cosθ θ
so Fx = F cosθ worksheets 1 & 2
With force vectors, a common situation is when multiple forces are

Fo
acting on a single object and you need to find the resultant. 45o
rc
Example:
e
A
=1
Force B = 20N (west)

0N
Imagine this situation where 3 forces are pushing on an object

simultaneously. What is the resultant NET force acting?
The vector diagram is shown below. N

N
20
W E
C=
One way to solve this would be to

S
accurately construct a scaled vector
rce
Resultant diagram and measure the length (and

Fo
direction angle) of the resultant. Note: in the solution below,

C 60o north is +ve, south is -ve.
A east is +ve, west is -ve.
But how can this be done algebraically?
B
Vector Fy Fx
Well, it takes a while, but is quite simple. θ
F.sinθ θ
F.cosθ
1. Resolve each vector into components.
2. Add together all the N-S components. A 10.sin45 10.cos45
Add together all the E-W components. (Table at right) = -7.07 = +7.07
2.93N (south) (east)
3. Add the totals (as vectors) using Pythagorus, etc.
B 0 -20
Res
R2 = 13.22 + 2.932 = 182.8

13.2N
ulta
R = 182.8 = 13.5 N φ C 20.sin60 20.cos60

= +20.3 = +10.0
nt
(north) (east)
Tanφ = 2.93/13.2 = 0.2219... Totals +13.2 -2.93
φ ≅ 13o (north) (west)
Net Force = 13.5N directed 13o W of N. (bearing 347o)
Mass and Weight

®

Before we go any further we need to make sure you understand the concepts of MASS & WEIGHT clearly.
Gravity pulls on all objects because of their “mass”. Mass is a Astronaut on the Moon
measure of how much matter, or how much “substance”, an object Mass = 100 kg Weight = 160 N
contains. (Moon’s gravity less than Earth’s)
Mass is measured in kilograms (kg). Mass is a scalar quantity.
Unfortunately, in everyday life there is confusion about “mass” and

“weight”. When a person says “I weigh 65 kg” they really should say
“My mass is 65 kg... my weight depends on where I am”.
Weight is the force of gravity acting on your mass.

Since weight is a force it is measured in newtons (N).
The strength of this force depends on where you are within a Astronaut in Orbit
gravitational field, so the same object can have different weights in Mass = 100 kg
different places Weight = zero N
Mass is always the same. Weight changes. Astronaut on Earth

Mass = 100 kg
Calculating Weight
Weight = 980 N
Newton’s 2nd Law Equation is F = ma.

If we’re talking about gravity, then “a” is the acceleration of gravity “g”.
So the equation becomes F = mg.
This is the force due to gravity, acting on the mass... this means the
weight of the object.
Example Calculations From here on we shall take the

a) What is the weight of a 65 kg girl on Earth? acceleration due to gravity
b) What is her weight on the Moon? (g =1.6 ms-2) (on or near Earth’s surface) as
g = 9.8 ms-2
Solutions
a) F = mg = 65 x 9.8 b) F = mg = 65 x 1.6
Try worksheet 3
= 637 N. = 104 N
She weighs 637N on Earth, but only 104N on Moon.
Her is mass 65kg in both places. Orbits & Being Weightless
Most people know that when the astronauts are
When fired, a cannon ball curves downwards up in orbit they are weightless. Many think that
until it hits the surface. If fired faster, it goes this is because there is no gravity up there in
further before hitting the ground. space. WRONG!
If fired fast enough, the Without gravity, they would not even be able to
cannon ball curves stay in orbit and would fly off into deep space.
downwards at the same
rate as the Earth’s Gravity & Orbiting
curve. It was Sir Isaac Newton (again!) who first
figured out how orbiting is possible. He
It will now circle the imagined a cannon on a very high mountain,
EARTH whole Earth! It is falling firing cannon balls horizontally. Study the
down, but cannot hit the diagram on the left.
surface.
This is how satellites are put in orbit, but using
If there is no air rockets, not cannons. They are not fired straight
resistance (no air in up, but up at an angle to eventually get them
space!) it can orbit flying parallel to the ground at orbital speed.
around and around the
Earth, always falling due Then, turn off the engines and let them fall...
to gravity. gravity holds them in orbit.
Orbital Speed needed to orbit the Earth varies with height, but is about 25,000 km/hr
® Weightless in Free Fall

Since you and the scales are falling at
Your weight is the force the same rate, you are not pressing on
pulling you downwards due them at all, so they read zero.
to gravity. To measure your Parachute
weight you allow your The same thing happens to the
weight-force to push against astronauts in orbit. They are in a free-
the springs in (say) a set of fall orbit and while falling they are
bathroom scales. weightless. They still have their mass,
and gravity is still pulling on them, but
What if you stood on these there is no weight force.
scales in an aircraft, then
jumped out feet-first with the scales glued to You can get small changes in your
the soles of your feet? Falling feet-first with weight by standing on scales in a lift.
the scales still in position, you read your As the lift first begins to move down,
weight. your weight becomes slightly less. As
the lift first moves upwards your
The scales read zero! Why? weight becomes a little more.
(they would read zero if there was no air
resistance) If you can’t arrange to have scales
with you in a lift, just feel the weight
Simple! You and the scales are both falling at changes... it really happens.
the same rate due to gravity.
Reaction Forces
Reaction forces arising from Newton’s 3rd Law are not Object “A” Weight Force
always obvious and are easy to overlook. You need to be pushes on
aware of them. the Earth. F = mg
Take a very simple situation: an object sitting perfectly still mass

on solid ground. “m”
Here we are depicting the “object” as a simple box, but it

could be a truck, or you, a bridge, a skyscraper building, or Object “B”
(the Earth) Reaction Force.
one of the Egyptian pyramids... the Physics is just the same.
pushes back
on “A”. Equal &
Mathematically: FAB = -FBA Opposite
This simple relationship is a statement of Newton’s 3rd Law and may seem trivial, but has
profound importance & must not be ignored.
As long as the part of the Earth involved is stronger than the weight force of the object,
absolutely nothing happens. This may seem pretty boring, but is vital to (say) a Civil
Engineer in charge of constructing a bridge or building. The whole idea is that the
structure must NOT move & certainly not fall down. It is the 3rd Law Reaction Forces
which hold up all our structures!
Forces on an Inclined Plane

®

Weight Force
What if the situation is not static (previous page) but potentially
kinetic, with the possibility that the object might be able to move? F = mg
We will deal with friction soon in this topic, but this diagram shows
an object on a “smooth” (ie no friction) ramp.
ss
ma ”
“m
on
Its weight force vector acts vertically down, but we can rati
see what will happen... the object will slide down the c ele
ac On a ramp, or
slope. In fact, it will accelerate down the slope.
“inclined plane”
Therefore, a force must be acting down the incline. the object may
slide down the
Please explain!? θ incline.
The explanation requires the object’s weight force

to be resolved into 2 components; one acting
down the incline, the other perpendicular to it.
It can be shown by geometry that the angle in the vector
triangle is equal to the angle of the incline “θ”. Applying trigonometry to the vector diagram
(left) shows that:
FN = “Normal” Force. -F N θ and
Fi = mg.sinθ θ
FN = mg.cosθ
Component of Weight Force
“m”
perpendicular to the incline. ss
ma Only the component Fi of the object’s weight
Fi = Component of Weight can cause it to accelerate down the incline.
Force acting down the incline.
Assuming the incline is strong enough, the

Weight Force
-FN = “Normal Reaction θ

Force” due to Newton’s FN component FN cannot result in any motion.
F = mg
3rd Law.
However, FN becomes very important later
when you study the force of friction.
θ Fi Ignore it for now.
Prac Work: Acceleration Down an Incline

You may be able to carry out an After this page, try
investigation as suggested by the diagram. worksheet 4
From above, the force accelerating the

trolley is Fi = mg.sinθ θ Ramp.
The angle of incline must
Now, F = ma, so θ
mai = mg.sinθ be measured or calculated.
θ
Dividing both sides by mass gives Use a laboratory trolley or air-track glider.
θ
ai = g.sinθ Its acceleration must be measured using ticker-timer, or
sonar, or other method.
Measure the actual acceleration to see if this is true. (Within expt. error)
Does the mass of the trolley matter? That may need discussion!

2. Force, Acceleration & Energy
A Special Force: Friction acceleration
Often in Physics problems we ignore friction to keep things simple
(KISS Principle). In reality, when anything moves on or near the
Earth, there is always friction... you need to know about it.
Friction (including air resistance) is a force which always Thrust

acts in the opposite direction to the motion of an object. Force
Friction Force
Generally, you may consider the force of friction as a
negative value, assuming that the direction of motion is considered positive.
An example of dealing with friction: This 500kg car is accelerating at 2.5ms-2. The “thrust” force from the
engine is 1,700N. What is the force of friction acting against it?
Solution This net force is the vector sum of all the forces acting:
The net, unbalanced force causes acceleration, Net Force = Engine thrust + Friction
so the net force is 1,250 = 1,700 + Ff
F = m a = 500 x 2.5 = 1,250N Ff = 1,250 - 1,700
∴ Friction = -450N
Things to Know About Friction (the negative value simply means that friction is in the
opposite direction to the car’s motion)
• Friction always acts AGAINST motion.
• The size of a friction force is very much
• The size of a friction force is generally NOT related dependent on the exact nature of the materials in
to the surface area of contact between the moving contact. For example, rubber in contact with
object and the friction surface. (“Common sense” concrete can create a lot of friction, while teflon
suggests that the more surface area of contact, then plastic on glass creates very little.
the greater the friction... NOT GENERALLY TRUE!)
For each pair of materials in contact we can
• Friction force is related to the perpendicular force μ”).
measure a “coefficient of friction” (symbol “μ
(the “normal force”, FN) pressing the surfaces This is a numerical value (no units) which allows
together. On a horizontal plane this is simply the friction forces to be calculated.
weight of the object.
Types of Friction • There are different TYPES of FRICTION.
Static Friction (“Static” means “not moving”)

Static friction is the force which opposes any force attempting to make a Static Friction
force opposes Force attempting to
stationary object begin to slide across a surface. If the object does NOT move, any motion move stationary box
then there must be no net force acting. Therefore, the friction force must be
equal to the applied force and so they cancel out.
As more force is applied, the friction force increases to match the applied force and
maintain an equilibrium... up to a certain maximum value of the friction force.
Once the applied force exceeds the maximum static friction force, the object begins to slide across the surface. Now, a
different type of friction kicks in... Kinetic Friction (“Kinetic” means “moving”)
As you might have noticed in real-life situations, once you overcome static friction and get an object moving, it actually
becomes easier to keep it moving. For any object sliding across a given surface, Kinetic Friction is less than Static
Friction.
And, of course, if you put some wheels under the object it becomes even
easier to keep it moving. There is still friction acting against the motion, but
now it is “Rolling Friction” which is generally much less than “sliding
kinetic friction”. This is why the wheel stands out as one of the greatest
human inventions of all time!
Lubricated Friction
Fluid Friction Placing a liquid (oil, grease, or even water) between
There is also a type of friction force which acts within a liquid an object and a friction surface lubricates the
(or gas) which opposes any flowing of the fluid. The amount system and generally reduces the friction forces
of fluid friction is related to a property called “viscosity” significantly. This is because the surfaces become
which measures how thick & “sticky” a liquid is. (partly) separated by the liquid, so fluid friction
(which is weak) replaces some of the solid-solid
Generally, fluid friction forces are very small compared to
the friction forces which occur between solid objects and
friction. Most of our motors & machinery would be
surfaces. useless without lubricating oils.

Calculating Friction Forces
The diagram shows a block of solid material sitting still on a Solid Block
flat, horizontal surface. mass “m”.
The block exerts a downward weight force on the surface. Weight FN = mg

In this situation we shall call it the “normal” force (FN).
This can be calculated:
FN = m.g Friction Force Force
resists movement applied to
where “g” is the acceleration due to gravity. (g = 9.8ms-1)
Because of Newton’s 3rd Law, the surface pushes upwards on

Ffriction make
block
the block with reaction force -FN. (On horizontal surfaces move
these forces are simply equal to the weight force, but look out
for non-horizontal situations!) 3rd Law
Reaction
The (maximum) force of static friction can be calculated as: Force
Ffriction = μFN
where “μ μ” is the coefficient of -FN
static friction for these
materials in contact.
Study the following examples to get the idea.
In examples, we use “Ff” to mean Ffriction.
Problem 1 Problem 2
The block (diag above) is a smooth piece For the situation in problem 1:
of wood, with mass of 3kg sitting on a a) describe what will happen if a force of 10N pushes
polished steel table. In this case, the value horizontally on the wooden block.
of μ = 0.4 (static friction) or μ = 0.3 (kinetic b) If the applied force is increased to 15N what happens?
friction) c) What net force would now act on the block?
d) Predict any motion of the block according to
What is the maximum static friction force? Newton’s 2nd Law.
Solution Solution
Weight Force = FN = mg a) The block will not move because an equal & opposite
= 3 x 9.8 = 29.4 N static friction force will counteract the applied force.
Net force = zero.
Ff = μFN = 0.4 x 29.4 = 11.8N (max)
opposing applied force. b) The applied force now exceeds the maximum static
friction force. The block will begin to move. Friction will
Important Note: We have only considered instantly switch to kinetic.
the weight force as the force pressing the
surfaces together. c) Net Force = applied force - kinetic friction
F = 15 - (μ μFN) = 15 - (0.3 x 29.4) = 6.2 N
Be aware that if any additional applied
force(s) are acting, their effects must be d) The block is being pushed by a net force.
included in the calculation of FN. According to the 2nd Law it will accelerate so that F=ma.
∴ a = F / m = 6.2 / 3 = 2.1 ms-2
For example, if you push down on an
object, forcing it against the surface with The block will accelerate at 2.1 ms-2 in the direction of the
greater force, FN will increase net force.
& so will friction!
®
Friction on an Inclined Plane
keep it simple science Studying friction on inclined planes has been the favoured method of torturing Physics
students for over 100 years, so strap yourself in! Actually, it’s really pretty easy... just stick to the basics (KISS).
Significance of the “Normal” Force
What is this “normal” force all about? (diag. right) FN = “Normal” Force. -F N
Component of Weight Force “m”
perpendicular to the incline. ss
In Physics the word “normal” can have a special ma
meaning. It refers to forces (or beams of light, Fi = Component of Weight Force
etc) which are perpendicular to a surface. acting down the incline.
Weight Force
Below is the same diagram, with some vectors -FN = “Normal Reaction Force” θ
FN
F = mg
re-positioned and friction added. due to Newton’s 3rd Law.
)
tion
θ
Fi is the component of
the weight force acting (fric Fi
down the incline. You FN Ff
saw earlier that
The normal force is responsible for the friction
Fi = mgSinθ
Fi force according to:
Ffriction = μFN = μ.m.g.Cosθ

θ
The Normal Force FN is the force
pressing the surfaces together. where μ is the coefficient of friction (CoF)
You saw earlier that
for these surfaces in contact.
θ FN = mgCosθ
Example Problem
The diag. (above) shows a smooth piece of steel, with mass of 5kg sitting on a
polished steel table tilted at an angle θ = 30o.
The CoF values are: μ = 0.8 (static friction) or μ = 0.5 (kinetic friction)
a) Will the block slide down the incline under its own weight?
b) If an extra force is applied (downslope) to just get the block moving, will it then slide
under its own weight?
c) If so, find its final velocity after sliding 4m down-ramp.
Solution
a) Component of weight downslope: Fi = mgSinθ θ = 5x9.8xsin30 = 24.5N
Static Friction (max): Ff = μ.mgCosθ
θ = 0.8x5x9.8xcos30 = 33.9 N
∴ The block will NOT slide.
b) Component of weight downslope (from (a)) = 24.5 N

Kinetic Friction: Ff = μ.mgCosθ
θ = 0.5x5x9.8xcos30 = 21.2N ∴ The block WILL slide.
c) Net Force = weight component - kinetic friction = 24.5 - 21.2 = 3.3 N

This will cause acceleration: a = F/m = 3.3/5 = 0.66ms-2
Final velocity (from rest): v2 = u2 + 2aS = 0 + 2x0.66x4 After this page, try
worksheets 5 + 7
V2 = 5.3
∴ V = 2.3 ms-1
Note: For simplicity (KISS Priciple) numerical calculations & answers have been rounded-off, often in quite an
arbitrary way. You may be required to learn & apply the correct rules for expressing appropriate levels of precision.

Prac.Work & Investigations
Mathematical Investigation Prac. Investigation Idea
Lets “play around” with the maths of static This could be done qualitatively by simple
friction on an incline. observation, or quantitatively if you can devise a
way to accurately measure the angle of incline of a
Starting with Ffriction = μFN ramp.
Block of test material
∴ μ = Ff = mgSinθ
θ =? such as metal(s), wood,
solid plastics, ice.
FN mgCosθθ
Your challenges: Ramp angle must be
adjustable, preferably
on a free-moving
a) Simplify the maths statement above and
discuss the implications of this result.
θ hinge.
Then consider the suggested prac. work.

The Idea:
b) On a horizontal surface, the angle of Start with a test block on the ramp in its horizontal
incline is θ = 0. Considering the value of position. Gradually raise the ramp (increasing the
angle of incline) until the test block just begins to
Cos0o, what does this mean for the value
of FN? slide. Measure the incline angle.
Discuss whether this makes sense. From the maths challenge (left) you should be able
to relate this angle to the (static) CoF between the
test material & ramp.
This should have been suggested earlier in the topic,

Verifying Newton’s 2nd Law “but better late than never.”
The acceleration of the trolley is

determined by analysing the Extra masses on trolley
displacement & time data from Power Pack
the ticker tape (or data-logger)
record. Ticker-timer
device
This is repeated several times, Lab.Trolley
tranferring some of the “extra” Paper tape
masses from the trolley to the
hanging weight each time. Horizontal bench
This means that for each trial the total Weight on string
mass of the entire system stays causes trolley to
constant, but the force causing the accelerate.
acceleration (weight on the string) is Weight = mg
different each time. Analyse results
using a graph as shown.
Force v Acceleration Graph
Final Results & Conclusions
• Within expt. error, the graph shows a straight line. This proves there is a
Force (weight on string) (N)
direct relationship between the force applied, and the acceleration

T”
FI
produced.
T
ES
“B
• The gradient of the graph will be found to be equal to the mass of the Find
F
O
total system (i.e. trolley + masses) in kg. Gradient

E
N
of line
LI
Gradient = Force = Total Mass

Acceleration
F = m and therefore, F = m a
a
Acceleration (ms-2)

Energy Firstly, a quick review of what you
should already know.
What is Energy? Simple Definition: Energy is what causes changes to occur, as it transfers
from one thing to another, and often transforms into different forms.
There are many different types of energy. Here are just a few: Converting GPE into KE.
Type of Energy Changes Caused by this Energy

HEAT Change in temperature.
e.g. a stove causes food to get hot & cook.
LIGHT Chemical changes in your eye which allow you to see
things.
SOUND Vibrations in your ear which allow you to hear.
ELECTRICITY Can cause a light bulb to glow and produce light, or a stove element to get hot and
produce heat.
RADIO WAVES Can cause electrical vibrations in an antenna for reception of mobile phone, radio & TV
programs.
NUCLEAR Energy in the nucleus of atoms released by an “atom bomb”, or nuclear power station.
For this module of work, there are 2 types Gravitational PE (GPE) is energy stored in an object
of energy which are especially important: in a high position. The energy is not apparent until the
object falls down due to gravity. As it falls, the energy
Kinetic Energy (“KE” or Ek ) converts into KE.
KE is the energy of a moving object. It
causes the object to change its position by Chemical PE is energy stored in chemicals.
moving. The energy is not apparent until a chemical change occurs
which releases the energy. Chemical PE is stored in
If the moving object hits something, the KE chemicals like candle wax (can burn to release heat & light)
can cause other changes, such as the or in a battery (can make electricity) or in petrol (can make a
damage done when moving cars collide. car move with KE).
Potential Energy (“PE” or Ep ) Elastic PE is energy stored in objects which have been
stretched, compressed or twisted out of shape. When
PE is energy stored in things, and not released, the elastic PE transfers, often causing something
always obvious or apparent. There are 3 to move with KE.
types: (at right) e.g. When released, a stretched bow makes the arrow fly.
Conservation of Energy
The word “conservation” simply means to keep things the same. When applied to energy it refers to the fact
that, whenever a change occurs and energy is transferred and transformed into another type, the total
amount of energy after the change is exactly the same amount as there was before the change.
You cannot get energy from nothing... it cannot be created. You

always get energy from something that has energy in it, often stored
off as Potential Energy (PE). When you use energy, it doesn’t just
AC
on “disappear” and cease to exist.... it transforms into other types of
- + energy, but it is never destroyed.
DC For example, in this simple circuit, electricity is being converted into
light and heat energy. If you measured the amount of electrical
energy being used, and the amount of light and heat energy being
produced, the total is the same.
Amount of Electrical = Amount of Light & Heat

Energy used Energy Produced
This concept is one of the most important basic principles of Science. It is often expressed in this way:
“Energy cannot be created, nor destroyed. When energy is transformed, the total energy before
is equal to the total energy after the change.”
This is called the “LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY”

Calculating Kinetic Energy
Energy of a Moving Object
Firstly, note that Energy is a Scalar. Energy has no direction associated with it.
“Northbound” energy does NOT cancel “southbound” energy. If 2 vehicles collide head-
on, their opposite directions do NOT cancel out any energy. That’s why so much damage
can be done in a head-on collision!
Secondly, note that the unit of energy is a joule (J).
This unit is named in honour of James Prescott Joule

(English, 1818-89) who was instrumental in developing our
understanding of energy.
The amount of KE in a moving object depends on its

mass and its velocity:
Kinetic Ek = 1 mv2
Energy 2
Ek = Kinetic Energy, in joules ( J )
m = mass of the object, in kg
v = velocity, in ms-1
Mass Velocity
1,000kg 10ms-1
Effect of Mass & Velocity on KE

Some simple example calculations can make an important point:
Calculation 1 Calculation 2 Calculation 3

How much Ek does the What if you double the What if you double the
vehicle (above right) have? mass? (same velocity) velocity? (same mass)
Ek = 0.5mv2 Ek = 0.5mv2 Ek = 0.5mv2

= 0.5 x 1,000 x 102 = 0.5 x 2,000 x 102 = 0.5 x 1,000 x 202
= 50,000 J (or 50 kJ) = 100,000 J = 200,000 J
(or 100 kJ) (or 200 kJ)
So, 2X the mass gives So, 2X the velocity gives 4X

2X the Kinetic Energy. the Kinetic Energy !!!
®
The Concept of “Work”
This means we can now calculate the effects of a
In Physics, “work” does NOT mean employment for net force in various ways:
money. “Work” has a very specific mathematical
meaning. If a (net) force acts over a distance, then Initial velocity
Work is done. u=0 m= 500kg
F = 1,000N
Work W = Fnet.s Net Force
Fnet is net Force in newtons (N) acting
on car Force is applied over a
s is displacement (in metres) displacement of 100m.
Time taken = 10 s.
From this equation you would expect that

Force causes Force acting over a distance
acceleration
the units of work would be “newton- does work which increases the
metres” (Nm). You can use “newton- car’s Kinetic Energy (& velocity)
metres” as the unit, but it turns out that a
“newton-metre” is equivalent to a joule of F = ma
1,000 = 500 x a Work, W = Fs
energy... = 1,000 x100
∴ a = 2.0 ms-2
Work & Energy are Equivalent = 100,000 J
WORK = ENERGY Acceleration lasts for 10s,
so we can calculate final Work = Gain of Ek
Done
velocity: Ek = 0.5 m v2
Notice how 2 totally different 100,000 = 0.5x500x v2
calculations (at right) give the same v = u + at
= 0 + 2 x 10 v2 = 400
result... don’t you just love it when ∴ v = 20 ms-1
things work?! v = 20 ms-1
Work is Done to Slow Down, Too

In the previous example, the force applied by the car’s engine was used to increase the car’s
Kinetic Energy and velocity. What about when the car slows down?
Initial mass=500kg Final Velocity

Velocity Displacement = 100m v = 10 ms-1
u = 30 ms-1 BRAKES APPLIED during braking
What Change of Energy Occurred? Interpretation

What do the negative quantities mean?
Change in = Final Ek - Initial Ek
Kinetic Energy Negative Ek means that the car has LOST Kinetic Energy.
Remember that
the Greek letter (For a SCALAR, negative means a loss of value.)
ΔEk = 0.5mv2 - 0.5mu2
delta ( Δ ) is
= 0.5x500x102-0.5x500x302 Negative Force means that the force of braking was in
= 25,000 - 225,000 often used to
mean a change the opposite direction to the motion.
ΔEk = -200,000 J (For a VECTOR, negative means the opposite direction.)
in a quantity.
This energy change must equal the WORK
DONE by the brakes to slow the car down. You could also calculate the acceleration:
F = ma
Work W = Fs -2000 = 500 x a Now try worksheet 8
-200,000 = F x 100 ∴ a = -4.0 ms -2
∴ F = -2,000N The negative shows that this is a deceleration.
The brakes applied a force of -2,000N
A Syllabus Change Complication

®

In January 2018, corresponding precisely with the implementation of the new stage 6
Physics syllabus, numerous changes to the syllabus were announced.
This edition of the module has been updated to include these changes.
A New Formula for “Work” So, when are the vectors NOT in the same
One of the most profound changes is the following: direction?
In a later topic you will study the Physics of
On the previous page, the formula to calculate the “circular motion”. We will not go into detail now,
work done by a net force acting over a but suffice to say that objects in circular motion
displacement, was presented as (eg a satellite in a circular orbit) are moving so that
the force involved is at right angles to the direction
W = Fnet.s of motion.
Now, however, the syllabus requires you to deal Since cos90o = 0, it follows that although a force is
with it in this form: being applied and the object is moving through a
distance, NO WORK IS DONE by the force.
θ
W = F||s = F.s.cosθ Similar situations can also arise with electrical and
magnetic forces.
Explanation In simple Dynamics, there are some situations

The notation “F||” means the net force which is θ factor would be important:
where the cosθ
acting in the same line as the displacement vector. vector direction
(The “||” suffix means “parallel”.) of displacement
The angle θ refers to the angle between the wind
displacement vector direction and the direction of
the net force vector.
θ vector direction
If the net force IS acting in the same line as the of applied force
displacement occurring, then θ = 0, and cosθ θ = 1.
In this case, the formulas become the same: yacht sailing in a cross-wind
θ = F.s
W = F||s = F.s.cosθ If you had to calculate the work done by the force,
if θ = 0o then the cosine of angle θ would have to be used.
In keeping with our dedication to the KISS Principle, all of our examples & worksheet
exercises involve situations in which only the simple formula W = F.s is needed.
Your teacher may have additional expectations & requirements.
A New Formula for “Power” As was the case above, this is to cover situations in
which the vector directions of the net force and the
A few pages further on in this topic, you will study
velocity are not the same.
the concept of “power”.
If they ARE the same direction, then the angle
One of the the formulas to calculate power is
between the vectors is zero. Since cos0o = 1, the
formula reverts to the simpler form.
P = F.v
If these vectors are at right angles, then cos90o = 0,
However, the changed syllabus requires the so the entire calculation becomes zero.
following new version:
As for the situation for Work (above) our examples
& worksheet exercises stick entirely to the simpler
P = F||v = F.v.cosθθ case where the vectors act in the same direction.
Long Live the KISS Principle!!

®
Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE or “U”)
Note: the following reasoning assumes that the gravitational field

is uniform and that the acceleration due to gravity has a constant
value. Be aware, this is only true on or near the Earth’s surface.
height = h
Imagine lifting an object vertically up against gravity.
To move it upwards, you must exert a force to overcome its weight

force. F = mg
You move it upwards (from any given starting point) through a height
Force required = mg
Height raised = h
“h”. You have just applied a net force acting over a distance...
WORK = F.s
In this case, Work = mg.h

At a higher position, the object now has more gravitational potential
energy (GPE) than it had before.
Since WORK = ENERGY

then the work done must be equivalent to the object’s increase in GPE.
mass = m
This can be expressed as:
ΔU = change in GPE (J) height = 0
ΔU = mgΔ
Δh m = mass (kg)
g = gravity accel. (ms-2)
Δh = change in vertical elevation (m)
Example Problem 1 Example Problem 2

A 2 kg brick has been accidentally
An aircraft with a mass of 5,500 kg takes
dropped from the roof of a house and
off from sea level and climbs to an
falls 3 m to the ground.
altitude of 8,000 m.
What is its change in GPE?
By how much has its GPE increased?
Solution Solution
ΔU = mgΔ
Δh = 2 x 9.8 x (-3) = -58.8 J
ΔU = mgΔ
Δh = 5,500 x 9.8 x 8,000
= 431,200,000 J This means it has lost 58.8 J of GPE
≅ 431 MJ

Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Mechanical Energy refers to max. GPE, min. KE
the sum of KE + PE involved in a
particular situation or “system”. max. KE,
min. GPE
In the absence of friction, KE can be
converted to GPE as an object climbs
higher (trading speed for height) and
then GPE converts back to KE by
falling down again (trading height to
gain speed).
As a rollercoaster rolls down from the top of a loop it gains velocity as its KE increases.
The energy has been converted from the loss of some of the GPE it had at the top. As it
climbs the next hill it slows down as KE is converted back to GPE.
Without friction, this conversion of energy back & forth can continue indefinitely. The total
energy (KE + GPE) remains constant, and simply switches back & forth...
mechanical energy is conserved.
Of course, in a real rollercoaster there IS friction. Some mechanical energy is converted to

waste heat & sound which dissipates into the surroundings and is “lost” from the system.
Total energy is still conserved, but some mechanical energy is lost. That is why the
“peaks” of the ride become progressively lower.
After this page, try
In the laboratory you might study a pendulum. worksheets 6 + 9
On each swing it reaches its lowest point

(minimum GPE) at maximum velocity and
max. KE. As it moves outwards it rises
in height (increasing GPE) & loses v=0
KE = 0
speed. For an instant it stops GPE = max
(KE = zero) at its highest point
(max. GPE) before swinging back the other way... v = max, KE = max
GPE = min.
it’s rollercoaster Physics!
Example Problem
A loaded rollercoaster car (mass = 2,000 kg) is at the top of a loop of track. It is barely moving, so take its
initial velocity as zero. It accelerates down the track, losing 50m of vertical height.
a) How much GPE will it lose? c) Ek = 0.5mv2 so v2 = Ek / 0.5m

b) How much KE will it gain? (assume NO friction) = 980,000/0.5 x 2,000
c) What velocity will it have at its lowest point?
v2 = 980 ∴ v = 31.3 ms-1 (about 110km/hr!)
d) It then climbs another “hill” of vertical height 45m.
What velocity will it have at the top? d) To climb 45m, ΔU = mgΔ Δh = 2,000 x 9.8 x 45
= 882,000 J
Solution This energy is supplied by converting some of its
a) ΔU = mgΔ Δh = 2,000 x 9.8 x (-50) = -980,000 J. KE. KE remaining at top = 98,000 J
(ie it loses almost 1 MJ of GPE) Velocity at top: v2 = Ek / 0.5m
= 98,000/0.5x2,000 = 98
b) With no friction, Mech.Energy will be conserved.
∴ v = 9.9 ms-1
∴ it will gain the same amount of KE.

The Concept of Power
Power is the rate at which energy is At the mention of the word “power”,
transferred & transformed. many people think of enormous
engines, huge machines or atom
bombs. However, you must
It doesn’t matter what type of energy... in later remember that it is all about the
topics you will study heat & electrical power & RATE of energy transfer. A small AA
energy, but here it is appropriate to deal only with battery contains a very modest
mechanical (KE+GPE) energy. amount of total energy. However, if
that small energy store was released
Mathematically, P = ΔE in (say) 0.001s, the resulting
Δt explosion could easily blow your
hand off. Conversely, if the energy of
P = power, in “watts” (W).
ΔE = Amount of energy transformed, in joules (J) a small atom bomb could be trickle-
fed to a light bulb over billions of
Δt = time (sec.) over which the energy is years, the power release might be
transformed.
just enough to read by.
The unit of power, the watt, is named in honour of The point is that even a small
James Watt (Scottish, 1736-1819) amount of energy can produce a lot
whose pioneering work on of power if it converts in a very short
steam engines not only helped time.
set off the Industrial
Revolution, but led to greater A large amount of energy can result
understanding of the Physics in low power if it transforms very
of energy & power. slowly over a long time.
Note that 1W = 1 Js-1.
Example Problem 1 Example Problem 2

A rocket-powered trolley (mass = 500kg) A man of mass 80kg walked steadily up a
running on frictionless rails on level mountain slope. Over a period of 3 hours
ground accelerated from rest he gained 1,000m of vertical elevation.
(u = 0) to a final velocity of 150ms-1 in 3.2s. What was the average power output of his
muscles to achieve this?
a) What KE did it gain?
b) What power was delivered by its rocket Solution
engine? The man has gained GPE:
ΔU = mgΔ
Δh = 80x9.8x1,000
Solution = 784,000 J
a) Ek = 0.5.m.v2 = 0.5x500x1502
≅ 56 MJ)
= 56,250,000 J (≅ P = ΔE / t = 784,000 / (3x60x60) = 72.6 W
b) P = ΔE / t = 56,250,000/3.2 ≅ 1,758,000 W (This is a fairly gentle walk. Competition

(1,758 kW) athletes operate at well over 1,000 W of
(For comparison, a medium-sized car power when racing uphill.)
engine can develop max. power of about
500 kW) Now try worksheet 10

Investigating Power
Mathematical Investigation Example Problem
At a constant velocity of 16 ms-1 (about 60
Start with the equation for power: kmhr-1) the combination of air resistance,
P = ΔE / Δt mechanical friction & road friction (rolling
friction) causes a retarding force of -600N to
We also know that energy is equivalent to act on a car. To maintain its constant speed the
the “work” done by a force acting over a engine must supply an equal, opposite force.
displacement:
W = F.s a) What is the net force acting on the car?
b) Which of Newton’s Laws is “in-play” here?
Since work & energy are equivalent, we can c) What power is the engine providing to
substitute for the energy in the power maintain the constant velocity on level road?
equation:
P = F.s / Δt Solution
a) Net force is zero, since 2 equal, but opposite,
forces are acting on the car.
But s/t = velocity, so: P = F.vav
(Technically, s/t gives the average velocity.) b) Newton’s 1st Law.
(No net force >>> constant velocity)
This can be a useful relationship for solving
certain kinds of problems. c) P = F.v = 600 x 16 = 9,600 W (9.6 kW)
An Idea for a Practical Investigation

You might be able to When your team can get consistent “runs” in
use a radio-controlled a straight line over the course, then record
model car to carry out your measurements.
some measurements &
calculations. Possible Analysis of Results
Start by accurately Average Velocity vav = s / t
measuring out a “drag-
racing” course on Acceleration Use s = ut + 0.5at2
smooth level ground. It can be any convenient (If u=0, and you know S & t, this will allow you to
length, but perhaps 20m could be suitable. calculate the average acceleration.)
You need to measure the mass of the vehicle, Net Force (average) acting on car:
expressed in kg. use F = ma
Perhaps you can set up some sonar or radar Power developed use P = F.vav
technology to accurately measure the car’s (The car’s specifications may declare the power rating of
motion, but a simple stopwatch to measure the its motor. Comparison with your power calculation may
precise time of travel will do. be interesting.)
It is best to start the car at rest (u = 0) and KE gained: use P = ΔE / Δt

practice accelerating it in a straight line over (assuming all the energy gained was KE)
the 20m course, while timing each “run”.

3. Momentum, Energy & Simple Systems
Collisions An Idea for a Simple Investigation.
How “Elastic” are Different Balls?
If a “bouncy” ball is dropped onto a solid Compare (say) a tennis ball, golf ball & “super-ball” for
surface like concrete, it collides then conservation of KE in a collision. By simply dropping
bounces up again. A lot of its original each ball vertically from a measured height, you could
measure how high each ball rebounds after colliding with
Kinetic Energy is “conserved”, meaning a solid surface such as smooth concrete.
that after the collision, it is still in the
form of Kinetic Energy. You will actually be measuring the conservation of GPE,
but of course, you know about mechanical energy & the
A collision in which 100% of the KE is “rollercoaster” conversions.
conserved is said to be an “Elastic
Is it necessary to measure the mass of each ball?
Collision”. True elastic collisions occur Discuss.
only at the atomic level, such as the
particles in a gas bouncing off each other.
When a car is in a collision, there is rarely
much “bounce” involved. The collision is
(This is because they don’t physically
almost totally “Inelastic”, in that all of the
collide... they are repelled by their
KE of the moving vehicle is rapidly
electrical force fields & there is no
transformed into heat, sound and the
physical contact or friction. In a physical
damage done to vehicles and people.
collision, work is done against friction,
sound is produced, etc., so some KE is
transformed into non-mechanical energy.)
Sound &
Heat
Even a really “bouncy” ball will lose some
produced
of its KE with each bounce, and so is not
truly “elastic”. The energy itself is not lost,
Vehicle distorted by the energy transformation
but transformed into other energy types,
such as heat & sound which dissipate into Most of the energy is transformed into the
the environment. “Work done” on the vehicle and the
people involved.
Perhaps the closest thing to an elastic
collision you will observe in real life, is in Remember, that “work” means a force
a game like Pool or Billiards, or maybe acts over a distance. In a sudden collision,
you will be able to study the fascinating this often means a very large force acting
“toy” known as “Newton’s Cradle”. over a short distance, to permanently
distort, damage and destroy the vehicle
and the people.
And remember... double the speed means
4 times as much KE to be converted into
death and destruction!
As they say, “Speed Kills”.

Momentum Momentum is a vector quantity (i.e. direction counts)
which measures the combined effect of a moving
object’s mass and velocity.
Example MASS
Calculate the Momentum of 100kg Momentum = mass x velocity
these Vehicles Velocity ρ =mv
Bicycle 1.50ms-1 The symbol used for momentum ( ρ ) is the Greek
ρ =mv east
letter “rho”.
= 100 x 1.50
= 150 kgms-1 east Unit of momentum = kilogram-metre/sec (kgms-1)
600kg v = 25.0ms-1
south
Kinetic Energy also depends upon both mass and
velocity, but Momentum measures a totally different
Car property of a moving object.
ρ =mv
= 600 x 25.0
Momentum is a vector, whereas KE is a scalar.
= 15,000 kgms-1 south
KE is never conserved in a physical collision, but
Momentum always is.
Conservation of Momentum in a Collision

Kinetic Energy can only be “conserved” in an Now the balls collide. They re-bound from each other,
elastic collision, which only happens at the atomic each with a new, final velocity.
scale. In “real-life” collisions a lot of the kinetic
energy is transformed into heat, sound & Ball “A” Ball “B”
deformation of the colliding objects.
However, unlike KE, momentum is always

conserved.
For example, when 2 billiard balls collide: Mass = mA Mass = mB

Total Momentum = Total Momentum Final Velocity = vA Final Velocity = vB
before Collision after Collision
Ball “A” Ball “B”
Total Momentum after collision
Σ ρf = mA.vA + mB.vB
(Again, the same (+ve) and ( -ve) signs as before
Mass = mA Mass = mB need to be assigned for opposite directions)
Initial Velocity = uA Initial Velocity = uB
Conservation of Momentum means that when you do
Total Momentum before collision the calculation you will find that:
Σ ρi = mA.uA + mB.uB
Total Momentum = Total Momentum
Notes: before Collision after Collision
1. The Greek letter “ΣΣ” (sigma) is used to mean
“sum of”, or total.
2. Since momentum is a vector, you must assign Σ ρi = Σ ρf or Σmvbefore = Σmvafter
(+ve) and ( -ve) signs to show that these balls are
travelling in opposite directions. mA.uA + mB.uB = mA.vA + mB.vB
3. The collision of billiard balls is about as close to
“elastic” as you’ll see in the real world. Probably Conservation of Momentum
about 90% of KE is conserved.
Elastic Collision: KE and Momentum are both conserved.

Inelastic Collision: Momentum is conserved. KE is not (fully) conserved.
®
Example Problems: Conservation of Momentum
Example 1 Example 2
Collision with a Stationary Vehicle Head-on Collision.
Car “A” Car “B” Vehicles “lock” together.
Car “A” Car “B”
east-bound (+ve) west-bound ( -ve)
Mass mA = 500kg Mass mB = 750kg

Initial Velocity Initial Velocity
uA = 20.0ms-1 uB = 0 Mass mA = 500kg Mass mB = 750kg
Initial Velocity Initial Velocity
When they collide, car A stops and Car B is uA= 20.0ms-1 uB= (-)25.0ms-1
pushed forward.
Cars lock What is the
What is Car B’s velocity after the collision? together Final Velocity?
Final Σ ρi = Σ ρf
Velocity
vB?
Stops mA.uA + mB.uB = mA.vA + mB.vB
Since the cars lock together, their final
Σ ρi = Σ ρf velocity is the same
mA.uA + mB.uB = mA.vA + mB.vB
500x20.0 + 750x (-25.0) = (500 + 750) x v
500x20.0 + 750x0 = 500x0 + 750x vB 10,000 - 18,750 = 1250 v
∴ v = -8,750/1250
10,000 + 0 = 0 + 750 vB
= -7.00ms-1
∴ vB = 10,000/750 = 13.3ms-1
Both cars move at 7.00ms-1 west
Car B moves forward at 13.3 ms-1 Now try worksheet 11
Conservation of Momentum sometimes goes against common sense.

After a vehicle collision, things usually stop moving almost immediately. This is because
of friction acting on damaged vehicles dragging broken axles, etc. However, in the
instant after the collision the momentum IS conserved.
Investigating Conservation of Momentum
One of the best ways to investigate the conservation of momentum is to use an “air-track”
®
system to study collisions between the gliders. Each glider needs to have its motion
measured... “light-gate” devices or sonars usually work well. Ideally, you should use 2
gliders of different (known) mass.
Physics Mod. 2 “Dynamics”

Each glider is equipped with either a
light-gate scale or sonar reflector
Velcro pad for
“hit & stick”
Spring “bumper” for rebound collisions
collisions
PhotoMaster
copyright © 2005-17 KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE
glider 1 glider 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Airtrack rail
Suggested Investigations Analysis of Results

Conservation of Momentum?
Allowing for some expt. error, can you confirm that:
Page 24
• One glider stationary, struck by the other, with “re-bound
bumpers”.
Σ ρi = Σ ρf
• One glider stationary, struck by the other, with velcro pads m1.u1 + m2.u2 = m1.v1 + m2.v2
so the gliders stick together on impact.
Conservation of KE?
• Both gliders moving, head-on collision, with “re-bound You should not realistically expect that these collisions are
bumpers”. “elastic” and that 100% of KE is conserved. However, it is a
worthwhile exercise to do the calculations:
• Both gliders moving, head-on collision, with velcro pads.
Σ Ek (before) = 0.5.m1.u12 + 0.5.m2.u22
Measurements Required and
• Mass of each glider, in kg.
• Initial velocity (pre-collision) in ms-1. Σ Ek (after) = 0.5.m1.v12 + 0.5.m2.v22
• Final velocity (after collision) in ms-1.
(Since velocity is a vector, you must decide on a rule to to determine if Σ1mv2before ≅ Σ1mv2after
allocate +ve & -ve signs to each velocity.) 2 2
(Notice that if any velocities are -ve, the mathematics makes all
energies +ve... appropriate for scalar KE.)
to the SITE LICENCE CONDITIONS only

Usage & copying is permitted according
Impulse of a Force
®

The “Impulse” of a force is the product of a net force and the time for which the force acts.
So what? Well, study the maths...
Impulse = Force x Time
Δt
I = Fnet.Δ Start with Newton’s 2nd Law, F = ma
If Force is in newtons (N),
and time is in seconds (s) Now a= v-u so F = m(v - u)
Then the units for Impulse t t
will be “newton-seconds” (N.s)
Multiply both sides by “t” F.t = m(v - u)
Impulse = Change in Momentum Impulse

Change in
F.t = mv - mu Momentum
F.t = mv - mu or Δt = Δρ
Fnet.Δ
This turns out to be a very
This means that the unit of Impulse (N.s) useful relationship.
must be the same as the unit of
Momentum (kg.ms-1)
These units are inter-changeable
Example
A car driver applied the brakes for 6.00s and slowed his 800kg vehicle from 25.0ms-1
down to 10.0ms-1.
What was the average force applied by the brakes?
Solution Impulse = Change in Momentum The braking force was -2,000N.

F.t = mv - mu = m(v - u) Note that the answer is
F x 6.00 = 800 (10.0 - 25.0) negative, indicating that the
∴ F = -12,000 / 6.00 force is acting against the
= -2,000N motion, causing deceleration.
Now try worksheet 12

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KISS Resources for NSW Syllabuses & Australian Curriculum.

® KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE

What is this topic about?

2. FORCE, ACCELERATION & ENERGY

3. MOMENTUM, ENERGY & COLLISIONS

keep it simple science

Balanced & Unbalanced Forces

The force of gravity

When the forces are NOT balanced, acceleration occurs.

There may be many forces acting on something, but if

When a net (unbalanced) force acts, it causes an

Mathematically: Fnet = m.a Example problems

Solution F = ma = 1,000 x 4.0 = 4,000 N.

Walking would be impossible

Example Use Pythagorus’s Theorem φ

With force vectors, a common situation is when multiple forces are

Force B = 20N (west)

Imagine this situation where 3 forces are pushing on an object

The vector diagram is shown below. N

One way to solve this would be to

Resultant diagram and measure the length (and

direction angle) of the resultant. Note: in the solution below,

R2 = 13.22 + 2.932 = 182.8

R = 182.8 = 13.5 N φ C 20.sin60 20.cos60

Mass and Weight

keep it simple science

Unfortunately, in everyday life there is confusion about “mass” and

Weight is the force of gravity acting on your mass.

Mass is always the same. Weight changes. Astronaut on Earth

Newton’s 2nd Law Equation is F = ma.

Example Calculations From here on we shall take the

® Weightless in Free Fall

Take a very simple situation: an object sitting perfectly still mass

Here we are depicting the “object” as a simple box, but it

Forces on an Inclined Plane

keep it simple science

The explanation requires the object’s weight force

Assuming the incline is strong enough, the

-FN = “Normal Reaction θ

Prac Work: Acceleration Down an Incline

From above, the force accelerating the

keep it simple science

Friction (including air resistance) is a force which always Thrust

Static Friction (“Static” means “not moving”)

keep it simple science

The block exerts a downward weight force on the surface. Weight FN = mg

Because of Newton’s 3rd Law, the surface pushes upwards on

Ffriction = μFN = μ.m.g.Cosθ

c) If so, find its final velocity after sliding 4m down-ramp.

b) Component of weight downslope (from (a)) = 24.5 N

c) Net Force = weight component - kinetic friction = 24.5 - 21.2 = 3.3 N

keep it simple science

Then consider the suggested prac. work.

This should have been suggested earlier in the topic,

The acceleration of the trolley is

direct relationship between the force applied, and the acceleration

total system (i.e. trolley + masses) in kg. Gradient

Gradient = Force = Total Mass

keep it simple science

Type of Energy Changes Caused by this Energy

You cannot get energy from nothing... it cannot be created. You

Amount of Electrical = Amount of Light & Heat

keep it simple science

Secondly, note that the unit of energy is a joule (J).