MODULE 1 not necessarily between adjacent cells.

Within a small area, such as a building, Mobile hosts may

be connected by a wireless local-area network within a small area, which may provide lower-
INTRODUCTION cost connectivity than a wide-area cellular network. This will also reduce the overhead of
transfer of control.
Introduction
• It is possible for mobile hosts to communicate directly without the intervention of a mobile
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a computer or support station. However, such communication can occur only between the nearby hosts.
any other wireless enabled device without having to be connected to a fixed physical link. The main
concept involves: • The size and power limitations of many mobile computers have led to alterative memory
hierarchies. Flash memories may be used in such systems to save power. If the mobile host
 Mobile communication includes a hard disk, the disk may be allowed to spin down when it is not in use, to save energy.
The mobile communication refers to the infrastructure put in place to ensure that seamless and
reliable communication goes on. These would include devices such as protocols, services,
bandwidth, and portals necessary to facilitate and support the stated services. Since the media
is unguided/ unbounded, the overlaying infrastructure is basically radio wave-oriented.

 Mobile hardware
Mobile hardware includes mobile devices or device components that receive or access the
service of mobility. They would range from portable laptops, smartphones, tablet Pc's, Personal
Digital Assistants. These devices will have a receptor medium that is capable of sensing and
receiving signals. These devices are configured to operate in full- duplex, whereby they are
capable of sending and receiving signals at the same time. They don't have to wait until one
device has finished communicating for the other device to initiate communications.

 Mobile software
Mobile software is the actual program that runs on the mobile hardware. It deals with the
characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. This is the engine of the mobile device.

A Model of Mobile Computing:-

Advantages:-
• The mobile-computing environment consists of mobile computers, which are referred to
as mobile hosts, and a wired network of computers. • Location Flexibility - This has enabled users to work from anywhere as long as there is a
connection established. A user can work without being in a fixed position. Their mobility ensures
• The communication between the Mobile hosts and the wired network takes place through the that they are able to carry out numerous tasks at the same time and perform their stated jobs.
computers referred to as mobile support stations.
• Saves Time - The time consumed or wasted while travelling from different locations or to the
• A mobile support station manages the mobile hosts within its cell. office and back, has been slashed.

• A cell is defined as the geographical area covered by a mobile support station.
• Mobile hosts may move between cells, thus, necessitating a transfer of control from one mobile
support station to another. Since mobile hosts may, at times, be powered down, a host may
leave one cell and re-materialize later at some distant cell. Therefore, moves between cells are
• Enhanced Productivity - Users can work efficiently and effectively from whichever location
they find comfortable. This in turn enhances their productivity level.
• Ease of Research - Research has been made easier, since users earlier were required to go to
the field and search for facts and feed them back into the system.
 • Entertainment - Video and audio recordings can now be streamed on-the-go using mobile
computing. It's easy to access a wide variety of movies, educational and informative material.
• Streamlining of Business Processes - Business processes are now easily available through
secured connections.
Applications:-
Vehicles
 transmission of news, road condition, weather, music via DAB
 personal communication using GSM
 position via GPS
 local ad-hoc network with vehicles close-by to prevent accidents, guidance system, redundancy
 vehicle data (e.g., from busses, high-speed trains) can be transmitted in advance for
maintenance
Medical - Nurses/Doctors in Medical offices are now using Wireless Tablet PCs/WLAN to collect and
share patient information.
Sales - Sales representatives are using Tablet PCs with Smart phones for presentation,
transmitting/access information among office, hotel, and customer location.
Emergencies
 Early transmission of patient data to the hospital, current status, first diagnosis
 Provide mobile infrastructure in dealing with Natural Disaster (earthquake, hurricane, fire),
terrorist attacks, war, ...
Issues in mobile computing
Range and bandwidth :- Mobile Internet access is generally slower than direct cable connections,
using technologies such as GPRS and EDGE, and more recently HSDPA, HSUPA, 3G and 4G networks and
also the proposed 5G network. These networks are usually available within range of commercial cell
phone towers. High speed network wireless LANs are inexpensive but have very limited range.
Security standards :- When working mobile, one is dependent on public networks, requiring careful use
of VPN. Security is a major concern while concerning the mobile computing standards on the fleet. One
can easily attack the VPN through a huge number of networks interconnected through the line.
Power consumption :- When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile computers
must rely entirely on battery power. Combined with the compact size of many mobile devices, this
often means unusually expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery life.
Transmission interferences :- Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest signal point can all
interfere with signal reception. Reception in tunnels, some buildings, and rural areas is often poor.
Potential health hazards :- People who use mobile devices while driving are often distracted from
driving and are thus assumed more likely to be involved in traffic accidents. (While this may seem
obvious, there is considerable discussion about whether banning mobile device use while driving
reduces accidents or not.) Cell phones may interfere with sensitive medical devices. Questions
concerning mobile phone radiation and health have been raised.
Human interface with device :- Screens and keyboards tend to be small, which may make them hard to
use. Alternate input methods such as speech or handwriting recognition require training.
Wireless Communication Technologies:
The term wireless communication was introduced in the 19th century and wireless communication
technology has developed over the subsequent years. It is one of the most important mediums of
transmission of information from one device to other devices. In this technology, the information can be
transmitted through the air without requiring any cable or wires or other electronic conductors, by using
electromagnetic waves like IR, RF, satellite, etc. In the present days, the wireless communication
technology refers to a variety of wireless communication devices and technologies ranging from smart
phones to computers, tabs, laptops, Bluetooth Technology, printers.
In the present days, wireless communication system has become an essential part of various types of
wireless communication devices, that permits user to communicate even from remote operated areas.
There are many devices used for wireless communication like mobiles, Cordless telephones, Zigbee
wirelss technology, GPS, Wi-Fi, satellite television and wireless computer parts.
The different types of wireless communication mainly include, IR wireless communication, satellite
communication, broadcast radio, Microwave radio, Bluetooth, Zigbee etc.
Celluar Wireless networks:
Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal communication systems,
wireless networking etc. The technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to replace high power
transmitter/receiver systems. Cellular networks use lower power, shorter range and more transmitters
for data transmission.
Features of Cellular Systems:- Wireless Cellular Systems solves the problem of spectral congestion and
increases user capacity. The features of cellular systems are as follows −
  Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.
 Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
 Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of users by reusing the
channel throughout the coverage region.
 Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directly between mobiles).
 Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small geographic area
called a cell.
 Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
 By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the channel groups may be
reused to cover different cells.
 Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
 Frequency reuse or frequency planning.
 Organization of Wireless Cellular Network.
Cellular network is organized into multiple low power transmitters each 100w or less.
Shape of Cells:-
The coverage area of cellular networks are divided into cells, each cell having its own antenna for
transmitting the signals. Each cell has its own frequencies. Data communication in cellular networks is
served by its base station transmitter, receiver and its control unit.
The shape of cells can be either square or hexagon −
Square:
A square cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at distance Root 2 d
 Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
 Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna
Hexagon:
A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy coverage and calculations. It offers the
following advantages −
 Provides equidistant antennas
 Distance from center to vertex equals length of side
Frequency Reuse:-
Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same radio frequencies within a given area, that are
separated by considerable distance, with minimal interference, to establish communication.
Frequency reuse offers the following benefits −
 Allows communications within cell on a given frequency
 Limits escaping power to adjacent cells
 Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
 Uses same frequency for multiple conversations
 10 to 50 frequencies per cell
For example, when N cells are using the same number of frequencies and Kbe the total number of
frequencies used in systems. Then each cell frequency is calculated by using the formulae K/N.
In Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS) when K = 395 and N = 7, then frequencies per cell on an
average will be 395/7 = 56. Here, cell frequency is 56.
Features:-
• More capacity than a single large transmitter, since the same frequency can be used for
multiple links as long as they are in different cells.
• Mobile devices use less power than with a single transmitter or satellite since the cell towers
are closer.
• Larger coverage area than a single terrestrial transmitter, since additional cell towers can be
added indefinitely and are not limited by the horizon.
A Cellular Network:- Cellular Operation:-

Mobile switching center (MSC): Sets up and maintains calls made over the network.

Base station controller (BSC): Communication between a group of BSTs and a single MSC is controlled
by the BSC.

Public switched telephone network (PSTN): Section of the network that is land based

Incoming to mobile :

– call goes from PSTN to MTSO

– on control channel, MTSO searches for mobile by PAGING every active mobile

– If found, MTSO rings it and establishes voice channel connection

– uses transceiver with strongest signal from mobile

Cellular Network Organization:-

• Base Station (BS)

– includes an antenna, a controller, and a number of receivers

• Mobile Telecommunications Switching Office (MTSO)

– connects calls between mobile units

Two types of channels available between mobile unit and BS

• Control channels - used to exchange information having to do with setting up and

maintaining calls (out-band or in-band through stealing bits)

• Traffic channels - carry voice or data connection between users

Cellular System Overview:-  Range ( Distance between Access Point and WLAN client) depends on structural hindrances and RF
gain of the antenna at the Access Point
 To service larger areas, multiple APs may be installed with a 20-30% overlap
 A client is always associated with one AP and when the client moves closer to another AP, it
associates with the new AP (Hand-Off)
 Three flavors:
802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g

Wireless(802.11)

• The proliferation of laptop computers and other mobile devices (PDAs and cell phones) created an
obvious application level demand for wireless local area networking.

• Companies jumped in, quickly developing incompatible wireless products in the 1990’s. Basic 802.11 Operation:-

• Industry decided to entrust standardization to IEEE committee that dealt with wired LANS – • WLAN network topology
namely, the IEEE 802 committee!! • Channel scanning and synchronization
• Authentication and association
• IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for
• Data transfer mechanism
implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication in the 900 MHz and
2.4, 3.6, 5, and 60 GHz frequency bands. Wireless LAN Security:-

• They are the world's most widely used wireless computer networking standards, used in most • WEP: Wired Equivalent Privacy.
home and office networks to allow laptops, printers, and smartphones to talk to each other and
access the Internet without connecting wires. – A basic wireless LAN security mechanism.

• They are created and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics – Easy to set up, commonly used.
Engineers (IEEE) LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802). The base version of the standard was
– Don’t rely on WEP for wireless security. There are a number of flaws in the WEP.
released in 1997 .
• Many wireless home networks don’t even use WEP, which makes bad situation worse.
802.11 Wireless LAN:
• MAC address based access control mechanism doesn’t work.
 Provides network connectivity over wireless media.
 An Access Point (AP) is installed to act as Bridge between Wireless and Wired Network. • Use other security mechanisms such as VPN, PEAP and TTLS.
 The AP is connected to wired network and is equipped with antennae to provide wireless
connectivity. – Research project on PEAP / TTLS in our research group in University of Colorado.
Wireless Ad Hoc Network:- – A foreign agent (FA) stores information about mobile nodes visiting its network. Foreign
agents also advertise care-of addresses, which are used by Mobile IP. If there is no foreign
• Wireless Ad Hoc Network (peer to peer) agent in the host network, the mobile device has to take care of getting an address and
– A collection of autonomous nodes that communicate with each other by forming a advertising that address by its own means. The FA acts as a router on a MH’s visited
multi-hop radio network in a decentralized manner. network which provides routing services to the MH while registered. FA detunnels and
delivers datagrams to the MH that were tunneled by the MH’s HA
– No infrastructure, no default router available
• The so-called Care of Address is a termination point of a tunnel toward a MH, for datagrams
– “every” node needs to be a router forwarded to the MH while it is away from home.

• Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET) • Foreign agent care-of address: the address of a foreign agent that MH registers with

– Host movement frequent • co-located care-of address: an externally obtained local address that a MH gets.

– Topology change frequent • A Mobile Node (MN) is responsible for discovering whether it is connected to its home network or
has moved to a foreign network. HA’s and FA’s broadcast their presence on each network to which
• Wireless Ad Hoc Sensor Networks
they are attached. They are not solely responsible for discovery, they only play a part. RFC
– A number of sensors spread across a geographical area. 2002 specified that MN use agent discovery to locate these entities. When connected to a foreign
network, a MN has to determine the foreign agent care-of-address being offered by each foreign
– Limited resources on sensors agent on the network.

TCP/IP in the mobile setting
• Mobile IP (or MIP) is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard
communications protocol that is designed to allow mobile device users to move from one network
to another while maintaining a permanent IP address.
• Mobile IP for IPv4 is described in IETF RFC 5944, and extensions are defined in IETF RFC
4721. Mobile IPv6, the IP mobility implementation for the next generation of the Internet
Protocol, IPv6, is described in RFC 6275.
• The goal of IP Mobility is to maintain the TCP connection between a mobile host and a static host
while reducing the effects of location changes while the mobile host is moving around, without
having to change the underlying TCP/IP.[1] To solve the problem, the RFC allows for a kind of proxy
agent to act as a middle-man between a mobile host and a correspondent host.
• A mobile node has two addresses – a permanent home address and a care-of address (CoA), which
is associated with the network the mobile node is visiting. Two kinds of entities comprise a Mobile
IP implementation:
– A home agent (HA) stores information about mobile nodes whose permanent home
address is in the home agent's network. The HA acts as a router on a mobile host's (MH)
home network which tunnels datagrams for delivery to the MH when it is away from home,
maintains a location directory (LD) for the MH.
• A node wanting to communicate with the mobile node uses the permanent home address of the
mobile node as the destination address to send packets to. Because the home address logically
belongs to the network associated with the home agent, normal IP routing mechanisms forward
these packets to the home agent. Instead of forwarding these packets to a destination that is
physically in the same network as the home agent, the home agent redirects these packets towards
the remote address through an IP tunnel by encapsulating the datagram with a new IP header using
the care of address of the mobile node.
• When acting as transmitter, a mobile node sends packets directly to the other communicating
node, without sending the packets through the home agent, using its permanent home address as
the source address for the IP packets. This is known as triangular routing or "route optimization"
(RO) mode
• If needed, the foreign agent could employ reverse tunneling by tunneling the mobile node's packets
to the home agent, which in turn forwards them to the communicating node. This is needed in
networks whose gateway routers check that the source IP address of the mobile host belongs to
their subnet or discard the packet otherwise. In Mobile IPv6 (MIPv6), "reverse tunneling" is the
default behaviour, with RO being an optional behaviour.
• In scenarios when both sides of communication are mobile nodes, communicating via Mobile IP
solutions adds additional overhead that decreases efficient packet payloads.
Mobile IP: Basic Idea:- Geolocation and Global Positioning System (GPS)

What does Geolocation mean?

Geolocation is the process of finding, determining and providing the exact location of a
computer, networking device or equipment. It enables device location based on geographical
coordinates and measurements.
Geolocation commonly uses Global Positioning System (GPS) and other related technologies to assess
and specify geographical locations.

Geolocation provides the location of a device but is generally used in a variety of applications to help
locate human users. Geolocation works through a pre-built GPS in a device that propagates the device's
longitudinal and latitudinal coordinates. The coordinates are identified on a map to provide a complete
address that usually includes a country, city, town/colony, building name and street address.
Besides GPS, geolocation also may be identified through an Internet Protocol (IP) address, media access
control (MAC) address, radio frequency (RF) systems, Exchangeable Image File Format (EXIF) data and
other wireless positioning systems.

What does Global Positioning System (GPS)mean?

GPS is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides location and time information in all
weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more
GPS satellites. It consists of 24 satellites, is maintained by the United States government and is freely
accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.

GPS is accurate to a very tight radius – current technologies can get a horizontal accuracy of ~1 meter (3
feet) and a vertical accuracy of ~1.5 meters. But GPS accuracy for most mobile phones and pads is
probably on the order of a 30-50 foot radius. Garmin, a maker of navigation systems, says its devices
are accurate to 15 meters, for example.

Most mobile devices have a GPS receiver built in, although it is not turned on by default due to the fact
it drains batteries very quickly. This default is, in fact, the biggest hurdle to accurately geolocating a
device, since GPS is by far the most accurate mechanism available.

GPS satellites transmit two low power radio signals, which travel by line of sight. As a result, they can
pass through clouds, glass and plastic but will not go through most solid objects such as buildings and
mountains.

A GPS signal contains three different bits of information – a pseudorandom code, ephemeris data and
almanac data.The pseudorandom code is simply an I.D. code that identifies which satellite is
transmitting information.

Ephemeris data is information GPS satellites transmit about their location (current and predicted),
timing and ‘health’. This data is used by GPS receivers to enable them to estimate location relative to
the satellites and thus position on earth.
Almanac data tells the GPS receiver where each GPS satellite should be at any time throughout the day. Three Segments of the GPS:
Each satellite transmits almanac data showing the orbital information for that satellite and for every
other satellite in the system.

Each GPS satellite is located ~12,000 miles above the Earth and makes two complete rotations every
day. GPS receivers in mobile devices attempt to locate four or more of these satellites, calculate the
distance to each, and then use the information to geolocate a 3D position (latitude, longitude, altitude).
Once the user’s position is determined, the GPS receiver can calculate other information, such as speed,
bearing, track, trip distance and much more.

The calculation is based on trilateration, which is a mathematical model for determining the absolute or
relative position of points using the geometry of circles, spheres, and triangles. Unlike triangulation,
which is what most people think GPS uses to fix a location, it does not involve the measurement of
angles. To emphasize this, I have chosen a slightly more technical diagram to represent the concept.
Note that this calculation does not just involve calculating the intersection of the three radii (point B,
which is what we are geolocating) – there are also components that relate to the relative positions of
the three foci of the circles.

Third Generation (3G)

What is 3G?

3G is the next generation of wireless network technology that provides high speed bandwidth (high data
transfer rates) to handheld devices. The high data transfer rates will allow 3G networks to offer
multimedia services combining voice and data.

Specifically, 3G wireless networks support the following maximum data transfer rates:

– 2.05 Mbits/second to stationary devices.

– 384 Kbits/second for slowly moving devices, such as a handset carried by a walking user.
– 128 Kbits/second for fast moving devices, such as handsets in moving vehicles.

These data rates are the absolute maximum numbers. For example, in the stationary case, the 2.05
Mb/second rate is for one user hogging the entire capacity of the base station. This data rate will be far
lower if there is voice traffic (the actual data rate would depend upon the number of calls in progress).
Geometric Representation of Trilateration Model
The maximum data rate of 128Kbits/second for moving devices is about ten times faster than that
Four Primary Functions of GPS:
available with the current 2G wireless networks. Unlike 3G networks, 2G networks were designed to
carry voice but not data.
 Position and coordinates.

 The distance and direction between any two waypoints, or a position and a waypoint. 3G wireless networks have the bandwidth to provide converged voice and data services. 3G services will
seamlessly combine superior voice quality telephony, highspeed mobile IP services, information
 Travel progress reports. technology, rich media, and offer diverse content.

 Accurate time measurement. Some characteristics of 3G services that have been proposed are:
 – Always-on connectivity. 3G networks use IP connectivity, which is packet based.
– Multi-media services with streaming audio and video.
– Email with full-fledged attachments such as PowerPoint files.
– Instant messaging with video/audio clips.
– Fast downloads of large files such as faxes and PowerPoint files.
– Access to corporate applications.
Applications of 3G:
The bandwidth and location information available to 3G devices gives rise to applications not previously
available to mobile phone users. Some of the applications are:
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Location-based services
 Mobile TV
 Telemedicine
 Video Conferencing
 Video on demand.
What Applications will 3G enable?
3G represents a paradigm shift from the voice centric world of the previous generations of wireless
networks to the multi-media centric world of 3G. Reflecting the high 3G bandwidth and the fact that it is
packet based, 3G devices will offer capabilities that are a combination of a phone, PC, and a TV.
Examples of services that will be 3G networks can offer are:
– Always-on connection with users paying only when sending or receiving packets.
– Web surfing.
– Instant messaging and email with multimedia attachments.
– Location based services.
– Personalized services, where content can be pushed to users.
– Broadband multimedia data services like video conferencing and streaming video.
– Receiving faxes.
– Global roaming capability.
– Getting maps and directions with a multi-modal user interface.
– Customized entertainment.
– Simultaneous access to multiple services, each service offering some combination of voice,
video, data, etc.
Mobile Services:
Introduction to International Mobile Telecommunications 2000 (IMT 2000) vision
An initiative of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) to create a global standard for
wireless data networks. The goal of International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000)
is to support data transmission rates of up to 2 Mbps for fixed stations and 384 Kbps for mobile
stations. Note that the “2000” in the term “International Mobile Telecommunications -2000”
refers to the transmission speed (approximately 2000 Kbps), not the deployment date (which
might be several years beyond the year 2000).IMT-2000 consists of several sets of standards,
including the following:
 CDMA2000:
A proposed hardware upgrade to the existing Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
cellular phone systems used in the United States and in some parts of Asia
 W-CDMA:
A proposed upgrade to Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) networks that
provides an alternative air interface to CDMA2000 for upgraded CDMA systems in
Europe and Japan
 Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS):
A standard for 3G (third-generation) wireless networks proposed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
 Universal Wireless Communications (UWC-136):
A standard for 3G wireless networks proposed by the Telecommunications Industry
Association (TIA)
Because of the fundamental inoperability between the two major types of cellular
communication technologies - Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and CDMA - the ITU hopes
that this initiative will unify wireless mobile communication worldwide by upgrading both
TDMA and CDMA systems to a single global standard. However, the IMT -2000 initiative will not
immediately result in a single worldwide air interface for wireless communication.
The upgrade for CDMA bearers will be simpler and will move them directly from the current IS -
95a standard called CDMAone (the brand name used by the vendor consortium called the CDMA
Development Group for existing data transmission at 16 Kbps) to the proposed CDMA2000. The
upgrade for TDMA bearers can take several different paths - for example, from TDMA to
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) to Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) to
UMTS. Some industry watchers predict that GPRS and IMT-2000 will be widely adopted
worldwide in the next five years, which will give Europe and Asia an edge in high -speed wireless
data communication over the United States, where as many as five competing systems might be
deployed widely.
Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W-CDMA), and CDMA 2000
Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) is a third-generation (3G) standard that employs the
direct-sequence code division multiple access (DS-CDMA) channel access method and the frequency-
division duplexing (FDD) method to provide high-speed and high-capacity service. WCDMA is the most There are four different QoS classes:
commonly used variant of the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). It was developed
by Japan’s NTT DoCoMo and formed the basis of its Freedom of Multimedia Access (FOMA) 3G Network. 1. conversational class
2. streaming class
The WCDMA system is part of the UMTS. It is developed by the 3G Partnership Program, which is 3. interactive class
composed of evolved core cellular networks that belong to the Global System for Mobile (GSM) 4. background class
communications networks worldwide.

WCDMA features two modes:

 Frequency Division Duplex (FDD): Separates users by employing both codes as well as
frequencies. One frequency is used for the uplink, while another is used for the downlink.
 Time Division Duplex (TDD): Separates users by employing codes, frequencies and time,
wherein the same frequency is used for both uplink and downlink.

Although WCDMA is designed to operate on evolved GSM core networks, it uses code division multiple
access (CDMA) for its air interface. In fact, the majority of the 3G systems in operation employ CDMA,
while the rest use time division multiple access (TDMA). The TDD mode of WCDMA actually employs a
combination of TDMA and CDMA.

CDMA allows multiple users to share a channel at the same time, while TDMA allows users to share the
same channel by chopping it into different time slots. CDMA offers the benefits of multipath diversity
and soft handoffs.

As an air interface technology, WCDMA is able to artificially increase a signal's bandwidth. It does so by
modulating each baseband symbol with a binary or quaternary signature with a much higher rate than
that of the original data symbol.

Quality of services in 3G

Quality of Service:

1. Network Services are considered end-to-end, this means from a Terminal Equipment (TE) to
another TE. An End-to-End Service may have a certain Quality of Service (QoS) which is provided
for the user of a network service.
2. It is the user that decides whether he is satisfied with the provided QoS or not. To realise a
certain network QoS a Bearer Service with clearly defined characteristics and functionality is to
be set up from the source to the destination of a service.
3. A bearer service includes all aspects to enable the provision of a contracted QoS. These aspects
are among others the control signalling, user plane transport and QoS management
functionality.
4. A UMTS bearer service layered architecture is depicted below, each bearer service on a specific
layer offers it's individual services using services provided by the layers below.