Social

Psychology
Arun Kumar Singh
Social  Psychology

ARUN KUMAR SINGH

Former, Professor and Head
Postgraduate Department of Psychology
Patna University, Patna

Delhi-110092
2015
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Arun Kumar Singh

© 2015 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing
from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-5057-1

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited,
New Delhi-110020.
 To
My Wife
Kumud Rani
 Contents

Preface  xiii

1. INTRODUCING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 1–19

Learning Objectives    1
Key Terms  1
Definition and Nature of Social Psychology   2
Social Psychology: A Historical Perspective   4
Overview of Social Psychology in Indian Perspective    11
Social Psychology as a Science   12
Fundamental Axioms of Social Psychology   14
Relation of Social Psychology with Other Sciences   15
Summary and Review  18
Review Questions  19

2. RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 20–62

Learning Objectives    1
Key Terms  20
Objectives of Social Psychological Research   21
Basic Concepts of Research   22
Basic Research Methods   24
Validity of Experiment   44
Social Psychology of Experiment   46
Role of Theory in Social Psychological Research   50
Types of Research in Social Psychology   52
Summary and Review    59
Review Questions  61
v
vi  Contents

3. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 63–81
Learning Objectives  63
Key Terms    63
Role Theories   65
Motivational Theories   67
Learning Theories   69
Cognitive Theories   73
Symbolic Interaction Theories   75
Socio-Cultural Theories   77
Evolutionary Theories   78
Summary and Review  80
Review Questions  81

4. SELF AND IDENTITY 82–107

Learning Objectives  82
Key Terms  82
Meaning and Nature of Self   83
Development (or Sources) of Social Self   85
Self and Culture   88
Effects of Self Upon Thoughts, Behaviour and Emotions:
Process of Self-Regulation   91
Identity: The Self We Interact   93
Self-Esteem   96
Self-Serving Bias   103
Self as an Object of Prejudice   104
Summary and Review  106
Review Questions  107

5. SOCIAL COGNITION, SOCIAL PERCEPTION AND ATTRIBUTION 108–168

Learning Objectives  108
Key Terms  108
Meaning and Nature of Social Cognition   109
Components of Social Cognition: Schema and Prototype   110
Impact of Schema upon Social Cognition: Schematic Processing   113
Self-Fulfilling Nature of Schema   115
Cognitive Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts for Reducing Our Efforts in Social Cognition   116
Potential Sources of Errors in Social Cognition   119
Cognition and Affect: A Reciprocal Relationship   124
Field of Interpersonal Perception: Social Perception and Person Perception   126
Role of Non-verbal Cues in Person Perception: Forming Impression of Others   127
 Contents    vii
Recognising Deceptions in Non-verbal Cues   133
Impression Formation   134
Integrating Information about Others   136
Impression Management   144
Downside of Impression Management   147
Self-Perception   148
Attribution: Understanding the Causes of Others’ Behaviour   149
Theories of Attribution   149
Bias and Error in Attribution   158
Applications of Attribution Theory   162
Cultural Basis of Attribution   165
Summary and Review  166
Review Questions  168

6. SOCIALISATION 169–194
Learning Objectives  169
Key Terms  169
Meaning and Nature of Socialisation   170
Theoretical Perspectives of Socialisation   171
Process of Socialisation   179
Agents of Socialisation   181
Outcomes of Socialisation   187
Concept of Adult Socialisation   192
Summary and Review  193
Review Questions  194

7. SOCIAL ATTITUDES AND PERSUASION 195–256

Learning Objectives  195
Key Terms  195
Brief Historical Review   196
Defining Attitude and Its Components   196
Functions of Attitude   199
Attitude and Behaviour   200
How do Attitudes Guide Behaviour?   204
Formation and Maintenance of Attitudes   206
Attitude Change and Persuasion   209
Theories of Attitude Organisation and Change   222
Cognitive Consistency Theories and Attitude Change   222
Social Learning Theories of Attitude Change   235
Other Theories of Attitude Change   237
Conclusion Regarding Theories Attitude Change   241
When do Attitude Change and Persuasion Become Difficult?   242
Dimensions of Attitude   244
viii  Contents
Measurement of Attitude   245
Conclusion-Regarding Attitude Measurement   254
Summary and Review  254
Review Questions  256

8. STEREOTYPING, PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION 257–294

Learning Objectives  257
Key Terms  257
Nature and Contents of Stereotypes   258
Why do People Form and Use Stereotypes?   262
Activation of Stereotypes   264
Impact of Stereotypes on Judgements and Actions   265
Changing Stereotypes and Barriers to Stereotype Change   266
Gender Stereotypes   268
Shifting Standards: Does no Difference in Evaluations or Ratings Mean Absence of
Stereotypic Thinking?   272
Stereotypes Associated with Single and Married Persons   273
Concept of Prejudice and Discrimination   274
Forms of Prejudice and Discrimination   276
Origin, Development and Maintenance of Prejudice and Discrimination   278
Reduction of Prejudice and Discrimination   287
Measurement of Prejudice   291
Summary and Review  292
Review Questions  294

9. BEHAVIOURS IN GROUP 295–333

Learning Objectives  295
Key Terms  295
Meaning and Nature of Social Group   296
Group: Some Basic Features and Aspects   297
Why do People Join a Group?: Benefits and Costs of Joining   301
Types of Groups   302
Group Development   305
Effects of Presence of Others: Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition   306
Social Loafing   309
Effects of Being in Crowd: Deindividuation   311
Group Decision-making   313
Group Polarisation: Risky Shift Beyond Risk-Caution Dimension   314
Groupthink: Does Group Hinder or Assist Group Decision?   316
Biased Use of Information in Groups   319
Failure to Share Unique Information from Some Members   320
Ways of Improving Group Decisions   320
Guidelines for Effective Decision-making   321
 Contents    ix
Group Interaction: Cooperation versus Competition   321
Cooperation and Competition in Two-person Games   323
Determinants of Cooperation and Competition   326
Communication Network in Group   329
Summary and Review  331
Review Questions  332

10. SOCIAL NORMS AND CONFORMITY BEHAVIOUR 334–348

Learning Objectives  334
Key Terms  334
Concept of Social Norms   335
Formation of Social Norms   336
Early Experiments on Norm Formation   337
Meaning of Conformity Behaviour   339
Why do We Conform?   340
Factors Influencing Conformity   342
How can We Resist Social Pressure to Conform?   345
Summary and Review  347
Review Questions  348

11. LEADERSHIP AND SOCIAL POWER 349–385

Learning Objectives  349
Key Terms  349
Defining Leadership   350
Emergence of Leadership   351
Functions of Leaders   352
Transformational and Transactional Leaders: Differential Impact   353
Personal Characteristics of Leaders   356
Basic Dimensions of Leader Behaviour   359
Types of Leaders   360
How is a Leader Perceived by the Followers?   363
Theories of Leadership   365
Meaning and Bases of Social Power   378
Determinants of Social Power   381
Summary and Review  383
Review Questions  385

12. INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION AND RELATIONSHIP 386–410

Learning Objectives  386
Key Terms  386
Meaning and Nature of Interpersonal Attraction   387
Theories of Interpersonal Attraction   387
 Social Psychology

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