Linear Systems 1 Experiment (LS1) 09/03/21

Aim of the experiment

The aim of the first day of this two-day experiment is to study the frequency and time-domain
responses of first and second-order linear systems.
Preparation
To construct bode plots from transfer function analysis we need to follow the steps below;
1. Rewrite the transfer function, H(s), where the lowest order term in the numerator and in
the denominator are both unity (1 + s/ω0 ).
2. Identify the constant gain, zero/s (numerator) and pole/s (denominator)
3. Draw the Bode plot for each part and join together.
We need to simplify the numerator to help identify the zeros and we need to simplify the
denominator to help identify the poles.
When we get a Constant Term H(s) = K then the magnitude is K and is evidently
independent of frequency. This is also called dc gain. The phase will also be constant, If K is
positive the phase is 0 degrees (or an even multiple of 180 degrees ). So the bode diagram
would be a horizontal straight line on the magnitude in dB and same in the phase but on
zero.

Constant term bode plot when magnitude is 23.5dB (Figure 1)

When we get a Simple Pole H(s)= 1/(1+s/ωo) The frequency ω0 is called the break
frequency, the corner frequency or the 3 dB frequency and the magnitude is given by;

1
Case 1: When 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔0 then 𝜔/𝜔0 → 0 |H(jω)|dB = 20 log ⁡( ) →0
1
1
Case 2: When 𝜔 = 𝜔0 then |H(jω)|dB = 20 log ( )
√ 1+12
=−3 dB

Case 3: When 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔0 then 𝜔/𝜔0 → infinity

It is a straight line with a slope of -20 dB/decade going through the break frequency at 0 dB.
To draw a piecewise linear approximation, use the low frequency asymptote up to the break
frequency, and the high frequency asymptote thereafter. The resulting asymptotic
approximation is shown highlighted in magenta. The maximum error between the asymptotic
approximation and the exact magnitude function occurs at the break frequency and is
approximately -3 dB, An nth order pole has a slope of -20·n dB/decade.
 Asymptotic approximation of the Magnitude of a simple real pole (Figure 2)
The phase of a real pole is given by;

Case 1: When 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔0 then 𝜔/𝜔0 → 0 so -atan(𝜔/𝜔0) = 0

Case 2: When 𝜔 = 𝜔0 then -atan(𝜔/𝜔0) = -45 degrees
Case 3: When 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔0 then 𝜔/𝜔0 → infinity so -atan(𝜔/𝜔0) =-90
The piecewise linear asymptotic Bode plot for phase follows the low frequency asymptote at
0° until one tenth the break frequency (0.1ω0 ) then decrease linearly to meet the high
frequency asymptote at ten times the break frequency (10ω0 ).

Asymptotic approximation of the Angle of a simple real pole (Figure 3)

The plots for a real zero are like those for the real pole but mirrored about 0 dB or 0°. For a
simple real zero the piecewise linear asymptotic Bode plot for magnitude is at 0 dB until the
break frequency and then rises at +20 dB per decade. An n th order zero has a slope of
+20n dB/decade, and The phase plot is at 0° until 1/10th the break frequency and then rises
linearly to +90° at 10x times the break frequency. An n th order zero rises to +90°n.
s
As H(s) = 1+ then the magnitude is given by;
ω0
Case 1: When 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔0 then 𝜔/𝜔0 → 0 as 20log(1)=0dB

Case 2: When 𝜔 = 𝜔0 then 20log(√ 1+12) = +3dB

Case 3: When 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔0 then 𝜔/𝜔0 → infinity as 20log(𝜔/𝜔0)

And the phase angle is given by;

Case 1: When 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔0 then 𝜔/𝜔0 → 0 so atan(0) = 0

Case 2: When 𝜔 = 𝜔0 then atan(1)=+45degrees
Case 3: When 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔0 then 𝜔 𝜔0 → infinity
1st Order Systems
First order systems are, by definition, systems whose input-output relationship is a first order
differential equation. A first order differential equation contains a first order derivative but no
derivative higher than first order – the order of a differential equation is the order of the
highest order derivative present in the equation.
The first order system has only one pole as shown in the diagram below;

C( s) 1
=K
R( s) Ts+1
Where K is the DC Gain and T is the time constant of the system.
Time Constant is a measure of how quickly a 1 ௦௧ order system response to a unit step
input.
DC gain of the system ration between the input signal and the steady state value of output.
K 1
Step response of a first order system, lets say R(s) = 1/s and C(s) = in order to
Ts+1 s
represent the response of the system in time domain we need to compute the inverse
Laplace transform of the above equation, we have;
−t
c(t) = Ku(t) - e T if u(t)=1 and t=T then c(t) = 0.632K, The step response of the first order
system takes five time constants to reach its final value.
2nd Order Systems
The dynamic behavior of the second-order system can then be description in terms of two
parameters Damping ratio (ζ) and natural frequency (𝜔n). They have transfer functions of
the following form;

Depending upon the factors of the denominator we get four categories of responses.
Underdamped Case (0< ζ<1); In this case, the closed-loop poles are complex conjugates
and lie in the left-half s plane. The C(s)/R(s) can be written as;

Where ωd =ωn √ 1−ζ 2, the frequency 𝜔d is called damped natural frequency. For a unit
step-input, C(s) can be written;

By apply the partial fraction expansion and the inverse Laplace transform for equation
above, the response can give by;

If the damping ratio ߞ is equal to zero, the response becomes undamped and oscillations
continue indefinitely. The response c(t) for the zero damping case may be obtained by
substituting ζ=0 in Equation above, yielding;

Critically Damped Case (ζ=1); If the two poles of C(s)/R(s) are equal, the system is said to
be a critically damped one. For a unit-step input, R(s)=1/s and C(s) can be written;

By apply the partial fraction expansion and the inverse Laplace transform for equation
above, the response can give by;

Overdamped Case(ζ>1); In this case, the two poles of C(s)/R(s) are negative real and
unequal. For a unit-step input, R(s)=1/s and C(s) can be written

By apply the partial fraction expansion and the inverse Laplace transform for equation 6, the
response can give by;
Thus, the response c(t) includes two decaying exponential terms.