J. Gm<r’numics Vol. 25. No. 3;4. pp.

303 325, 1998

8,: 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd
Pergamon All rights reserved. Prmted in Great Britain
PII: SO264-3707(97)0003~1 02643707/9X $19.00+0.00

STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE

EURASIAN-AFRICAN/ARABIAN PLATE BOUNDARY
SYSTEM: OBJECTIVES, TASKS AND RESOURCES OF
THE WEGENER GROUP

HANS-GERT KAHLE’* and STEPHAN MUELLER2

‘Geodesy and Geodynamics Lab, ET’H Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
‘Geophysics. ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

(Rewird 13 S~ptwnher 1995; wrised 2 Fehruar!, 1997; 3 March 19971

Abstract-The Mediterranean-Alpine region marks the broad transition zone between the
African/Arabian and Eurasian plates. In a generalized scheme, the recent major tectonic
processes there can be understood as a direct consequence of active sea-floor spreading in
the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea/Gulf of Aden and NW Indian Ocean spreading centres.
The higher spreading rate in the South Atlantic compared to that in the North Atlantic
leads to a gradual counterclockwise rotation of the African plate resulting in a north-
northwestward directed push against Eurasia, which in turn leads to a lithospheric short-
ening of about 5 mm/a increasing to 40 mm/a in active subduction zones. With northwest-
southeastward oriented spreading in the North Atlantic the zone of Eurasian/African plate
contact is, therefore, to a large extent under compression thus providing the framework for
mountain building processes accompanied by active rifting in preconditioned zones of
lithospheric weakness. NC 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

INTRODUCTION

Seismic activity in the eastern hemisphere and in the Mediterranean-Alpine regions as

summarized for the period 1964-1987 is depicted in Fig. la (Spakman et al., 1993). The
locations of epicenters outline the plate boundaries between North America and Africa
against Eurasia, the dimensions of the Adriatic and Aegean-Anatolian microplates as well
as the occurrence of widespread intraplate seismicity. Three main types of stress distribution
(Fig. 1b) dominate the Mediterranean-Alpine area (Udias, 1982). All are manifestations of
the compressional stress regime governing the zone of plate contact between the Eurasian,
African and Arabian plates. The stress map for Europe (Miiller et ul., 1992; Zoback, 1992)
is based on 1500 determinations of horizontal stress orientations. Finite-element modeling

*Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed

304 H.-C;. Kahle ad S. Mueller
 Structure and dynamics of the Eurasian-African/Arabian plate boundary system 305

of the stress field in Europe (Griinthal and Stromeyer, 1992) provides a consistent gen-
eralized state of stress in the European-Mediterranean lithosphere.
With modern space-geodetic techniques it has become possible to determine the kinematic
field and constrain the geodynamic models. For more than 15 years, relative movements in
the central and eastern Mediterranean have been measured with Satellite Laser Ranging
(SLR) using permanent and mobile tracking equipment. SLR measurements from 18
tracking sites were analyzed with data from the global tracking network (Smith et uf.,
1994a, 1994b). From this study it could be seen that the kinematic field in the eastern
Mediterranean is characterized by the westward motion of Anatolia and the SW motion of
the Aegean. Incorporating also the SLR results from Noomen et al. (1995), Le Pichon et al.
(1995) interpreted the velocity field of the Anatolian-Aegean region as a counterclockwise
rotation (2.4”/Ma) about a pole located in northern Egypt.
In this paper we outline the geophysical structure of the Alpine-Mediterranean plate
boundary system and define the objectives, tasks and resources of the WEGENER group
(Working group of European Geoscientists for the Establishment of Networks for Earth-
quake Research; compare also Zerbini, 1998, this issue) to determine geodetic and geo-
physical parameters relevant to crustal dynamics aspects.

GEODYNAMIC FRAMEWORK

General aspects
The map of geodynamic features is shown in Fig. 2 (Rebai’ et al., 1992). It demonstrates
how the Mediterranean is made up of an assemblage of lithospheric blocks with a wide
range of thicknesses and rheologies leading to a variety of kinematic processes including
subduction, back-arc spreading, rifting, thrusting, reverse faulting and strike-slip faulting.
The Eurasia/Africa collision is closely related to continental subduction and the evolution
of foreland fold and thrust belts (e.g. eastern Anatoiia, Carpathians, Alps, Apennines, Tell
and Atlas mountains, Betic Cordillera). It has been noted (Royden, 1993) that these zones
(Fig. 3) can be divided into two distinct groups that display pronounced differences in
structural style, topographic elevation, metamorphism, post-collisional convergence and
foredeep basin geometry. The differences are linked to the relative rates of subduction and
convergence. At retreating subduction boundaries, the transmission of compressive stress
across the plate boundary is small and horizontal extension in the form of a back-arc basin
occurs in the overriding plate. Examples of such retreating subduction zones are: The
Gibraltar Arc, the Calabrian and Hellenic Arcs and the Pannonian Basin (Fig. 3).
At advancing subduction boundaries, the transmission of compressive stress across the
plate boundary is large and horizontal shortening occurs in the overriding plate. Examples
are the Alps in Europe and the Himalayas in Asia. Earthquakes in convergence zones where
plates collide exhibit a compressive mechanism, as for example thrust (or reverse) faulting
presently observed in the Gulf of Cadiz, across North Africa (Tell and Atlas mountains)
and in the Alps. The belts of compressional deformation and mountain building are mostly
accompanied by convergent processes which can be traced around the Adriatic block
(Apennines, Alps, Dinarides and Hellenides) including the Calabrian and Hellenic arcs
(Fig. 3).
The WEGENER project offers the unique opportunity to study in detail the kinematic
pattern of these major types of collisional features and thus provides the necessary boundary
conditions to understand the driving forces and associated seismic activity.
 306 H.-C;. Kahle and S. Mueller

24' 16' 8' 0' 8' 16' 24' 32' 40' 48' 56' 64. 72' 80'

PLATE

.
_ 3-i I \ I
16’ 24’ 32' 40' 48’
Fig. 2. Present-day geodynamic map al’ter Rehui C/ r/l ( I991I 1 0cea111c
ot-thinned continental crust of Mesorolc
age: 2 = oceamc crust: ? := thmned continentill uubt: -1 c~~ntinental crust; 5 = oceanic ridge; 6 = graben;
7 = thrust and reverse fault: 8 = fold: 9 \trlke-shp laull. ItI ~~ subduction trench: II = relative motion 01
Ai’ru and Arabia with respect to Euraala. II? = block movcmcn[\: I3 = Quaternary volcanoes. A = Apennineh.
ANA = AnatolL. BS = Black Sea. (‘.4 = <‘alahrlan Arc. (‘AR = (‘arpathians. CAU = Caucasus. GA = C;-
ibraltar ,41-c. HA : Hellenic Arc. PB 7~I’annonian Basin. ‘T/2 = Tell Atlas.

Argus VI rrl. ( 1989) deduced ;I kincm,tic model in which the closure of the current plate
motion circuit around the A/ores triple junctic~n has been enforced. The current relative
motion ofAfI_ica relkitive to Eurasia ih dcpictcd iu Fig. 3h. This motion belongs to the large-
talc, first-order pl:ttc boundal-!, \i h~ch predict\ :I right-l;lrcral slip of‘ about 4 mm per year
:lcroh\ the .ALores Gibralt:ir /one and ;I ~~est-nor~huc~~ convergence beneath the Gibraltar
nappc in the GulfofC’adir. The model ol‘.Argus C/ trl. ( I%c)) shows directions of plate motion
that agree consistently with north-~~cst-trending slip vectors from thrust-typeearthquakes in
North Africa. with rates increasing between Maroc and Libya from 4 to 7mmia.
The NW African continental margin is characterized by an active volcanic alignment
forming the C‘anarian Archipelago (Fig. 4b) (Watts. 1994). The islands are Neogene in age
and are located on Jurassic-age oceanic crust In close proximity to the Moroccan continental
margin. The apparent E W age progression of the volcanic rocks has led to the suggestion
that the islands were generated by a hot spot in the underlying mantle. The magmatic and
 Structure and dynamics of the Eurasian-African/Arabian plate boundary system 307

-15” -10” -5” 0” 5” 10” 15” 2o” 25” 30” 35”

45”

40”

35”

30”
-15” -10” -5” 0” 5” 10” 15” 20” 25” 30” 35”

- thrust belts (after Royden, 1993)

- expansion of basins (after Royden, 1993)
- regional movements (estimated rates in cmly after Kable et al., Kastens. Gilbert
et al., Noomen et al., Oral et al., Straub & Kahle)
plate movements (estimated rates in cm/y partly from geologic and partly from
c3 ratelbte geodetic considerations after( Argus, Noomen, Jackson, McKenzie,
Westaway. R&linger et al.)

Fig. 3. Tectonic map, thrust belts and tectonic movements of the Mediterranean region (courtesy of C. Straub).
AS = Aegean Sea, AD = Adriatic Sea, CA = Calabrian Arc, CC = Gulf of Cadiz, IS = Ionian Sea, KTF = Ke-
phalonia Transform Fault, NAFZ = North Anatolian Fault Zone, SC = Sicily Channel, SM = Sea of Marmara,
TS = Tyrrhenian Sea. Inset indicated in the Eastern Mediterranean between Italy and Greece outlines the area
shown in Fig. Sa.

volcanic history of the Arch’. olago is influenced by its emplacement within the African
plate, the oceanic-continental transition nature of the crust on which the islands developed
and by the relatively small motion of the African plate since the Miocene.
The largest recorded seismic event for the western Mediterranean area took place at El
Asnam, in the Telhan Atlas of Algeria (1980,M = 7.3). Among other large and moderate
sized seismic events, those of 1954 at Orleansville (M = 6.7) 1967 at Sig (M = 5.7) 1985
at Constantine (A4 = 5.9) and Tiaret (M = 5.5) and in 1989 at Tipaza (M = 6. I), illustrate
the homogeneous distribution of tectonic stresses along this mountain belt. The El Asnam
earthquake exhibited a 36-km NE-SW striking thrust fault with 2 m of average vertical co-
seismic displacement; the focal plane solutions of large and moderate-size earthquakes are
in agreement with thrust or reverse faulting mechanisms (Figs 1 and 4). They show a north-
south direction of the main compressional component of deformation.
Tectonic structures which are mostly composed of NE-SW to E-W trending active folds
and flexuresare the result of convergent movements between Africa and Eurasia. From
seismotectonic studies and paleoseismic investigations along the El Asnam fault, the late
Holocene north-south shortening rate in the Tellian Atlas, through the El Asnam section,
is estimated to be 4 mm/a.
During the convergence of the African and European plates, extensional basins developed
in the Neogene. The Vplencia Trough is one of a number of such basins (Banda and
 tl:Ci. Kahle and S. Muellet

.mb>4
Omb > 6.5

Santanach. Ic)U?; Watts and Tornti, 1992). The trough difrers from the Tyrrhcnian and
Balearic basins in that extension was not sulticient to have generated oceanic crust,
However, the subsidence:uplift history. the tilted fault blocks, the crustal thinning. and
volcanism suggest that the Valencia Trough is at least in part a continental rift, of the type
that sometimes precedes continental separation and the generation of oceanic crust. The
origin of the extension is not clear. but there arc suggestions that it may be related to
formation of it back-arc basin abo~c a subduction /one or the rotation of the Balearic
Archipelago.
 Structure and dynamics of the Eurasian-African/Arabian plate boundary system 309

Central and eastern Mediterranean

In addition to the overall shortening of the region between the African and Eurasian
plates, other active tectonic processes are superimposed. Examples are rifting in the Straits
of Sicily, extension in the Tyrrhenian Sea and rapid motion of the Anatolian/Aegean region
towards the W-SW. These regional processes are considered as second-order plate boundary
features which, however, contribute significantly (of the order of a few cm/a) to the global-
scale rotational pattern of Africa’s movement.
The Central Mediterranean is a very complex region which makes it difficult to under-
stand the present kinematic displacement field (Albarello et al., 1995). In the Calabrian Arc
and Ionian area, there is a heterogeneous distribution of compressional and tensional stress
regimes. In particular the presence of extrusional tectonics in the Sicily Channel, which lies
along the North African compressional boundary indicates that the tectonic pattern in this
region cannot easily be explained. Computer modeling to simulate deformation and faulting
processes in the central Mediterranean was performed by Ben-Avraham et al. (1995).
The Eastern Mediterranean is a region of high seismic activity and distributed crustal
deformation. The relationship between seismic moment tensors and rates of deformation
was discussed by Jackson and McKenzie (1988). Taymaz et al. (1991a) showed that dis-
tributed right-lateral strike-slip is prevalent in the central and eastern Aegean region, on
faults trending NE to ENE, and with slip vectors directed NE. This faulting ends in the
western Aegean against NW- and EW-trending normal faults in central and northern
Greece (Fig. 5a).
A pronounced motion of the Aegean microplate is postulated, oriented towards the SW,
relative to a Europe fixed reference. The boundaries of the deforming and moving Aegean
region have been the subject of debate. While it is generally agreed that the northern Aegean
trough and the northern margin of the Marmara Sea form the boundary in the NE,
considerable uncertainty exists as to where the boundary passes through northern Greece,
how it connects with the West Hellenic subduction zone and what the relative displacement
rates are. Reuther et al. (1993) have argued that this area is occupied by a neotectonic
transform-pull apart mechanism (Fig. 5b). How the E-W trending faults connect the active
dextral Kephalonia fault (Kahle et al., 1995, 1996) (Ionian Islands) with the active trans-
tensional dextral North-Aegean fault zone and the Sea of Marmara (Straub and Kahle,
1994, 1995; Straub, 1996) will be studied by analyzing continuous GPS networks.
Because of the northward-directed movement of Africa, the Levant oceanic segment is
subducted beneath the Tauric arc south of Cyprus. Figure 2 shows the plate-tectonic setting
of the Anatolian microplate within the framework of the Eastern Mediterranean, the
Arabian Plate, the Black Sea and the Caucasus region (Rebai’ et al., 1992). New aspects of
collisional processes were presented by Robertson (1996). A transect of several holes was
drilled during ODP drilling leg 160 between Eratosthenes seamount and Cyprus. Light was
shed on the collision history of the Eratosthenes seamount which was affected by the
overriding Cyprus plate during the initial collision between the African and Eurasian plates.
The active subduction of the African plate under the Cyprean arc was discussed by Liu
et al. (1996) who presented new results on the deep crustal structure based on marine
seismic investigations. Marine operations in the Levant basin using ocean bottom seis-
mometers were reported by Ben-Avraham et al. (1996). Seismic refraction profiles, gravity
and magnetic models indicate that a transition from continental to oceanic crust is taking
place along the Levant margin. The results suggest the existence of oceanic crust under the
Levant basin and continental crust under the Eratosthenes seamount.
310
 Structure and dynamics of the Eurasian-African/Arabian plate boundary system 311

A summary of the stress distribution in Turkey and Greece as illustrated by well-

determined earthquake focal mechanisms is shown in Fig. 6 (Straub, 1996). In eastern and
northern Turkey, the seismic activity is primarily associated with the East and North
Anatolian fault zones. The geology of a critical part of East Anatolia where the two faults
intersect has been described by Saroglu and Yilmaz (1991). The East Anatolian and Dead
Sea transform fault zones exhibit a predominantly left-lateral motion (Taymaz et al., 199 1b)
while the North Anatolian fault motion is governed by right-lateral strike-slip (Barka,
1992). Horizontal displacement on these transcurrent faults is determined by the relative
motion between the Eurasian, Anatolian and Arabian plates. The evolution of the SE
Anatolian erogenic belt is the subject of a review paper by Yilmaz (1993). The collision
process has generated late Miocene volcanism that occupies a 900-km long zone extending
from Turkey to Armenia.
The W-SW movement of the Anatolian microplate from the zone of maximum com-
pression has been confirmed and quantified by GPS measurements (Straub et nl., 1997;
Oral, 1994; Oral et al., 1995; Reilinger et al., 1997a). An internally consistent solution for
the kinematics of the major strike-slip faults in the Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean
has been derived by Westaway (1994).

Caucasus and eastern Balkans

The Caucasus as an actual example of the initial stages of continental collision has been
described by Philip et al. (1989). The entire region addressed is characterized by strong
earthquake activity which has produced large-scale devastation and loss of life during the
last century. Recent earthquakes such as the Racha (1991) sequence identify active thrust
fronts (Triep et al., 1995; Reilinger et al., 1997b). The Main Ridge of the Greater Caucasus
marks approximately the boundary separating Russia, to the north, from Georgia and
Azerbaijan to the south. Only the western section of the Greater Caucasus on the Russian
side of the Main Ridge has been addressed to date by WEGENER. There is an extensive
network of seismic stations, and detailed geologic investigations were made in support of
prospecting activities.
The region is characterized by magmatism, the age of which varies systematically from
about 38 Ma in the most westerly area to about 4Ma near the Elbrus. The formation of
collision-type structures commenced in the late Miocene and is continuing to the present.
The magmatism has been used by Afanasiev et al. (1971) to classify the Greater Caucasus
into four main structural zones: the Bechesynskaya, the Front Ridge, the Main Ridge, and
the Southern Slope.
The current block structure of the Greater Caucasus is marked by a combination of older
faults running approximately latitudinally joined by younger secondary faults oriented
longitudinally (Khain and Lomize, 196 1; Gurbanov and Sembatov, 1978). The Front Ridge
manifests all the evolutionary stages of the Variscan development, from the original oceanic
crust to the well developed island arc, between the Ordovician&jilurian and the final
orogenesis in the Middle Carboniferous-Permian. The last uplift took place here between
47 and 35 Ma ago, with transformation to the platform development commencing in the
Middle Carboniferous-Permian (320 to 286 Ma ago) and continuing into the Lower Jurassic
(208 Ma ago).
The Main Ridge acquired its anticlinorial structure in the Hercynian as the Front Ridge
developed into a graben syncline. Volcanogenic, terrigenous molasse accumulated in the
residual basins during the Carboniferous-Permian. It is supposed that in this time and on
(a)

2.5” .3a” 3.5” 40’ E

L Strtke
SlipFault KTF : Kepbalottia Trarsform Fault
‘I NAFZ : North AnatoUan Fault Zone
A Thrust Fault EAFZ : East Anatoliao Faolt Zone
DSF
- Normal Fault
SM
HA : Helhk Arc
TA : Taurtc Arc
KS : EratostbuKE Seamount
 Structure and dynamics of the Eurasian-African/Arabian plate boundary system 313

into the Permian, the Main Ridge anticline was subjected to intensive upward movement,
accompanied by early erogenic intrusion, a conclusion confirmed by radiological data
(Gurbanov et al., 1984). In the northernmost block, uplift took place 4434 Ma ago, in the
central block 32-22 Ma ago and in the southern block from 18 to 15 Ma ago.
Collision structures of continent-continent type were formed as the Arabian plate collided
and interacted with the Caucasian section of the Eurasian plate. These structures cross each
of the aforementioned structural formation zones, and it is in them that the main seismic
activity takes place. Recent investigations confirm that the youngest uplift occurs within
the collision structures.

MEASUREMENTS AND MODELING

Satellite laser ranging (SLR)

Fig. 7 gives an overview of the current VLBI and SLR stations. The current SLR network
that is used for crustal dynamics investigations in the Mediterranean area consists of 19
sites. Of these, four sites (Matera, Grasse, Bar Giyyora and Helwan) are occupied by
stationary laser systems, whereas the remainder have been visited by mobile SLR systems
up to four times during the period 19861992. In addition, sites in Greece and Italy have
been a part of dedicated GPS observation campaigns. The motion solutions that are
currently available give a good quantitative picture of the deformation taking place in this

0 lTo3osL.B
n MOBILE SLR

l FIXEDVLBI
0 MOBILEVLBI

Fig. 7. VLBl and SLR stations in Europe (courtesy of S. Zerbini)

area (Fig. X) (Noomen 1’1r/l.. 1995). The northward motion solution for Diyarbakir reflects
the movement of the Arabian plate. The westward movement of the Anatolian block is
documented by the solution for the motion of Yo~gat and Melengiclik. The majority of the
sites in Greece show a significant southward;southwestward motion, except for Askites and
Karitsa in northern Greece. The solutions clearly indicate how the motion of Anatolia is
propagated to the central and southern Aegean Sea and to the Peloponnesus. albeit in a
different direction. The solutions for the sites in the Italian part of the network suggest that
the motion there is governed by the collision of Eurasia and Africa, unlike the situation in
the eastern part. The uncertainty of the motion estimates is typically 5mm;a (30) for most
of the stations.
The current series of coordinate solutions h;ib been obtained with three mobile laser
systems and several GPS receivers. However. it is expected that in the future a smallet
number of mobile systems will bc available for observational campaigns. This means that
the sites in the Mediterranean will bc occupied lesh frequently by such instruments. In
addition, the SLR campaigns of the upcoming years will be increasingly supplemented by
information gathered from GPS campaigns.

In recent years. the European VLBI network has increased to nine stations, tive of these
are almost aligned in a north south direction. From north to south they are: Onsala,
Wettzell. Medicina, Matera and Noto. Most share l’acilities with astronomical VLBI and
other spatial activities (Madrid). Wett/cll and Matera antennas are fully dedicated to
geodetic VLBI and arc involved in many activities and projects. Three of the antennas
Medicina. Matera and Noto along the Italian peninsula and Sicily. cover the active area
 Structure and dynamics of the Eurasian-African/Arabian plate boundary system 315

of the Central Mediterranean very well. The two most southerly stations (Noto: June 1989;
Matera late 1990) in connection with the other stations of the network, have already
produced high-quality data. Nothnagel and Campbell (1996) presented recent results for
Matera, Noto, Madrid and Medicina near Bologna with respect to the stable European
sites of Effelsberg (near Bonn) and Wettzell. The relative movements of Noto and Matera
were described as statistically significant amounting to a rate of 5 mm/a towards the north.
This study also showed that the kinematic field of Madrid is characterized by an eastward
motion of l-2 mm/a.

GPS: Concept of a permanent WEGENER GPS network ( WEGNET)

Using information from SLR data, it has been logical to aim at resolving in finer
detail the kinematics in active earthquake belts by supplementing the network with GPS
measurements (see for instance Kahle et al., 1993; Denys et al., 1995; Kaniuth et al., 1995;
Kastens et al., 1997; Reilinger et al., 1997a,b). In hazardous areas, either continuous
monitoring or repetitive measuring campaigns at shorter time intervals were initiated. This
allows for the determination of the space and time variations of the regional strain and stress
tensors. For the required high precision positioning, detailed error budget management is
mandatory. Non-permanent measurements require atmospheric modeling (see e.g. Geiger
et al., 1995) including water vapor radiometry, in particular (see e.g. Glaus et al., 1995).
Over the past few years, a number of groups have completed GPS campaigns in the Central
and Eastern Mediterranean. Significant tectonic results include:

Detection of southwestward motion and counterclockwise rotation of the West Anatolian

block;
Quantitative estimates of present-day rates of strain accumulation along the North
Anatolian fault from the Karliova triple junction to the Sea of Marmara, and along the
East Anatolian fault;
Detection of northward motion of the Arabian plate;
Detection of coseismic and postseismic displacements for the Erzincan earthquake of
March 1992;
The role of the Kephalonia fault system as a major boundary between the Apulian and
the West Hellenic blocks.

Marine geophysics
Since most of the unknown structural features are located in water-covered areas, it is
necessary to include well-planned marine geophysical surveys possibly combined with deep
drilling, particularly in the crucial areas of the Central and Eastern Mediterranean and the
Alboran Sea. The Alboran Sea is underlain by a thinned continental crust (thickness 14
25 km; Banda et al., 1983) with Neogene extensional sedimentary basins superimposed.
Commercial and DSDP drilling has revealed basement strata similar to metamorphic
rocks exposed in the adjacent Betic and Rifean mountain belts. The present-day sea-floor
morphology suggests that the most recent faulting in the Alboran Sea occurred in Early
Pliocene time and is related to the basin subsidence during the Pliocene-Quaternary (Wood-
side and Moldano, 1992). Similar structures are exposed onshore in the Betic and Rifean
mountain chains where extensional detachment systems and fault-bounded sedimentary
basins of Miocene age are superimposed upon continental collision structures (Garcia-
Duenas et al., 1992).
 It is important to develop new instrumentation and improved measuring techniques
which will permit a more accurate interpretation of vertical movements. i.e. height changes
as they are associated with thrusting. rifting. subduction processes and mountain building.
In this respect, high precision gravity monitoring of the order of pgal is a powerful tool if
a complete knowledge of the gravity characteristics of a given site can be provided (Marson.
1994). These include:
The absolute value of/:
Model of earth tide effects:
Model of polar motion:
Model of loading effects (air pressure. ocean. snow. ice. etc.);
Monitoring and modeling of the attraction of water masses;
Monitoring and modeling of soil moisture.

From a gravimetric point of view. an ideal gravtty' sttc should be equipped with a cryogenic
gravimeter on a stable base measuring permanently for one or two years. Periodic absolute
measurements should be performed as well as relative measurements on a local control
network. Only complete inventories of actual three-dimensional situations will eventually
provide the scientific basis for predicting natural disasters.

A comprehensive overview: of the significant evolutionary, structural and dynamic fea-

tures which characterize the broad transition /one between the African and Eurasian
lithospheric plates has been given by Mueller and Kahle (1993). The synthesis is based on
recent geologic. geophysical and geodetic data available on the MediterraneanAlpine
region. It was shown that superimposed on the large-scale counterclockwise rotation of
the African plate (first-order plate boundary) complex dynamic processes affecting the
tithospheric fragments (second-order plate boundaries) between the two major plates play
an important role. The results obtained so far can he considered as a first step towards a
better understanding of the complex evolution. structure and present-day dynamics in the
Mediterranean -Alpine region. In particular. most second-order deformation processes, and
the heignt component of recent plate tectonic movements and deformations arc not known
on a regional scale to this date.
Results from seismic tomography of the lithosphere and mantle below the European
Mediterranean region indicate the presence of subducted lithosphere below the entire
Alpine -Mediterranean collision belt (Spakman C/ t/l.. 19Y3). The Mesozoic and Cenozoic
evolution of the Mediterranean region haa recently been outlined by De Jonge C/ ctl.
(1994) from seismic velocity structures. There is only one region, the southern Hellenic arc
extending from the Peleponnesus to Rhodes. below which the subducted slab is imaged as
a continuous zone from the surface to great depth. In other regions, the subducted litho-
sphere seems to be detached (disconnected) from the upper part of the lithosphere. The
process of slab detachment. specifically the evolution of slab detachment in space and time
along strike of convergence zones. appears to be the main engine driving the kinematic and
tectonic evolution of the Alpine -Mediterranean region during the Tertiary to present
(Wortel and Spakman. 1992). Mapping the kinematic pattern (horizontal and vertical
motions) in specific areas where detachment stems to be active or may have faded out
 Structure and dynamics of the EurasianAfrican/Arabian plate boundary system 317

renders important kinematic data as boundary conditions for modeling the dynamics of
arc evolution and back-arc basin development.
Specific areas of interest are the Apennines-Calabrian Arc, the Hellenic Arc and the
Carpathian Arc. Since slab detachment may result in vertical motions, space-geodetic
measurements and gravity monitoring should provide information on the vertical compon-
ent. High-resolution reconstructions of the spatial and temporal relationships between
vertical motions put clear numerical geological constraints on geophysical modeling of
the evolution of slab detachment along the Mediterranean second-order plate boundary
regions.
An important feature for the assessment of the kinematic processes in this region is
the Mediterranean Ridge: an accretionary complex the southward growth of which was
elucidated by Kastens (1991). The geophysical role of the Hellenic trench is still unclear
(Camerlenghi, 1992) because unlike the typical Pacific subduction zones, the bathymetric
troughs-reaching to more than 5000m depth-are landward and not seaward of the
Hellenic accretionary complex. Other important new findings are the existence of a crustal
low-velocity layer in western Greece and Albania as well as the fact that the velocity
anomaly in the mantle under the Southern Aegean extends much farther and deeper to the
NE than the Benioff zone of the intermediate depth earthquakes indicates (Papazachos et
al., 1995).
Having passed through the stages from ocean-continent subduction to island arc and
back-arc basin, the total area of the Caucasus has now reached the collision phase and
subduction appears to have rolled back to a more southerly line corresponding to the
Lesser Caucasus. The Greater Caucasus now forms a region of compression and ongoing
overthrust with areas of extreme uplift (12-20mm/a). The Greater Caucasus is thus an
ideal region for studying the process of continent-continent collision in its early develop-
ment phases. For pragmatic purposes, the WEGENER investigations are presently con-
centrated on the western portion of the region. The ongoing efforts to provide numerical
evidence of the extent, magnitude and direction of the regional kinematic deformations
should be intensified and extended in their density. Equal priority should be given to the
determination of both horizontal and vertical motions. The coverage should be extended
southwards to Georgia, Armenia and linked to other measurements that have taken place
in the Anatolian plate. Furthermore, it will be desirable to relate the results to those derived
from other techniques included in the EUROPROBE investigations.
An important application of geodetically determined strain rates is the comparison with
seismically estimated moment tensors for seismic hazard assessment. Based on six SLR sites,
apparent deficits in seismically-released strain were localized in the Eastern Mediterranean
(Jackson et al., 1994), particularly in the SE Aegean and Central Greece. Strain rate tensor
and velocity tensor calculations based on seismic events were used to determine active
crustal deformation from the Azores triple junction to the Middle East (Kiratzi and
Papazachos, 1995) as well as for India/Asia (Holt et al., 1995). Here too, comparisons with
geodetically observed deformation rates are significant for assessing seismic hazards.
In summary the following scientific issues are to be addressed:
1. First-order plate boundary:
l Relative rotation Africa/Eurasia, Arabia/Eurasia and India/Eurasia;
l Continent/continent collision (Alps, Carpathians, Eastern Turkey/Caucasus, Tell-
Atlas);
31X H.-G. Kahle and S. Mueller

l Ocean/ocean convergence (Gibraltar Arc);

l Oceanic triple junction (Azores):
l lntracontinental mountain belt building (Tien Shari))

2. Second-order plate houndarq:

l Distributed strain across the HellenicsAdriatlc plate boundary zone;

l Lithospheric subduction along trenches (Cyprus Arc. Hellenic Arc. Calabrian Arc)
(in part also belonging to (I));
l Crustal extension in back-arc basins (Pannonian. Aegean. Tyrrhenian, Alboran);
l Rifting and graben formation (Sicily channel. C~ulf of Ayaba. Western Turkey);
l Volcanism and hot spots (Aegean. Tyrrhenian. Canaries. Azores):
l Crustal motion, block rotation and associated strike-slip faulting (Anatolian block).

In short these goals are being pursued by the follou~ng direct and related techniques:

Direct

l VLBI:
l SLR;
l GPS:
l High-precision Icvclling:
l Absolute and relative gravity:
l Troposphere and ionosphere modeling Including WVR measurements:
l Deformation modeling including non-linear efrecta:
l Strain tensor determination.

Related

l Microearthquake survey>:
0 In-situ stress measurements;
l Magnetotellurics:

a Deep ocean drilling (ODP):

l Tomography:

l Marine seismic profiling;

l Stratigraphy. sedimcntology;
l Aeromagnetics. aero-gravimctry, acre-altimetr! :
l Spaceborne gravimetry:
l Geothermics;

l Fission track dating:

l Remote sensing:
l Neotectonic fault stud&.

With modern space-geodetic techmques described above it will become possible in the
future to provide significant data which ultimately will enable light to be shed on the plate
tectonic processes of the Mediterranean ,4lpine region. If only a few of these goals arc
achieved the group will justifiably be able to go by the name of Alfred Wegener.

.~l~~krl~l~l~ll~c~~/~~llll~~f~~
This paper \cas critically read bl nurcolleague~. IIr Alam Gclger and Dr C‘. Strauh, Geodesy
and Geodynamics Lab (CCL) of’ ETH Zurich. Their help i\ gratefully acknowledged. Dipl. Ing. M. Scaramurzn
is thanked for his asststance in preparing the figures. We also thank Mrs c‘. Hasler for her advice in editing the
Enghsh version of the manuscript The maltxial collecletf IS hasetl on inf’ormation provided by B. Ambrosius. A.
 Structure and dynamics of the Eurasian-African/Arabian plate boundary system 319

Camerlenghi, J. Carracedo, J. Klotz, I. Marson, M. Meghraoui, J. Meulenkamp, R. Noomen, J. Osorio, R.

Reilinger. C. Reuther, B. Richter, L. Royden, W. Spakman, P. Tomasi, P. Wilson and Y. Yilmaz. The contributions
of all these colleagues were essential in defining the major scientific issues discussed. F. Barlier, J. Bosworth, 1.
Kumkova, M. Pearlman, D. Smith, G. Veis, P. Wilson and S. Zerbini participated in nightlong discussions on
geodynamic processes and the deployment of space geodetic techniques in the Mediterranean region. Their help
and effort is also gratefully acknowledged. The chapter on SLR was provided by R. Noomen, and that on the
Caucasus region by P. Wilson, A.G. Gurbanov, A.V. Kopaev, 1.1. Kumkova, V.I. Makarov, A.G. Shempelev and
E. Velikhov. information on tomography was contributed by W. Spakman. Without their input, these parts of
the manuscript could not have been written.

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APPENDIX: CONSIDERATIONS FOR PROPOSED ACTIVITIES

SLR
It is necessary that a number of fiducial sites in the Mediterranean be selected, to serve
as benchmark points for SLR and GPS techniques, and in addition serve as reference points
for regional GPS campaigns. Regarding the important role of these sites, it is recommended
that the fiducial sites be occupied regularly, preferably once a year. The other sites can be
visited at intervals of 2-3 years by SLR systems, and by GPS systems in the intermediate
years. For the fiducial network, the following sites are recommended:
The site near Diyarbakir in eastern Turkey provides information on the motion of the
Arabian plate. Unfortunately, the Laser pad at this location was destroyed beyond repair,
which prevents further extension of the current series of observations. Because of its unique
location, it is recommended that a new pad be constructed there, which will host both
mobile SLR and GPS receivers. The information on the motion of Arabia is expected to
be augmented in the future by the new mobile Saudi-Arabian laser system SALRO which
will be deployed near Riad. Further to the west, a good tracking history is available at
Melengiclik, which was occupied in 1987, 1989 and 1992 (SLR) and 1992 and 1994 (GPS).
This site serves as a key reference point as far as the motion of the Anatolian block is
concerned.
The Hellenic network is extremely important from a geophysical point of view. It is
recommended that WEGENER continues to deploy SLR systems at regular intervals at
Dionysos and along the Hellenic Arc. Dionysos is located centrally in Greece, and can
serve as a perfect reference point for regional studies of the deformation in the Aegean
basin, the Hellenic Arc and western Greece. As for the Italian part of the network, the laser
operations in Matera are expected to continue. To further assess the deformation along the
Eurasia/Africa plate boundary, it is urged that the site in Punta Sa Menta be regularly
visited by one of the mobile systems. This site will also serve as a reference point for global
studies of the deformation in the central and western parts of the Mediterranean. The
stationary laser system at San Fernando, Spain, will make a significant contribution to the
deformation studies in this area of the transition from the Eastern Atlantic to the Western
Mediterranean.
Finally, it is recognized that one essential element in identifying the gross pattern of the
collision between Eurasia, Africa and Arabia is missing: Geodetic reference stations on the
stable part of Africa. It is, therefore, recommended that new fiducial sites be constructed
in the northwestern part of Africa. In addition, an SLR collocation of the SLR system in
Helwan is required for the calibration of the measurements taken by this system.

VLBI
More VLBI antennas will be available in the future: Effelsberg in Germany has planned
one geodetic VLBI observation for every year. Westerbork has planned to build S/X
receivers for the array. At the moment no installation is available for applying this technique
to the east, but there are plans to put into operation the Simeiz antenna in the Crimea. A
new antenna of the QUASAR network, near St. Petersburg, is ready for operation. It is
possible that the situation will improve relatively fast in the east, but there is a lack of
324 H:Ci. Kahle and S. Muellet

suitable observations with any space technique on the stable African plate. In this respect.
a recommendation should be issued for observations with mobile VLBI and/or SLR on the
stable African plate.

GPS
It is proposed to seek the establishment oi ;I permanent GPS network within the general
area of interest of WEGENER, consisting of u limited number of stations. Details of this
network are outlined by Ambrosius rjt a/. (1997). Here we give only a short summary of the
concept. The goal is to realize the full potential of the GPS technique for geodynamic
investigations in Europe. providing the WEGENER investigators with:

l A highly accurate reference franc to enable prectslon of a few millimeters in absolute

positioning:
l The possibility to compare directly the resulta (coordinates and velocities) between the
various investigations and techniques:
l Easy access to the GPS network data needed ti)r liducial control:
l The means to systematically compare time \erieh of GPS solutions with other space-
geodetic techniques:
l The means for continuous monitorins of‘ crustal motions in the geotectonically active
regions in and around Europe:
l A database for atmospheric loading studIt’\.

Current capabilities arc:

l Experience with the analysis of the data ol‘ the IGS global network has shown that GPS
can now produce station coordinate solutions with high precision (Beutler (11(I/.. 1994):
l I-cm-level agreement with VLBI and SLR in Europe for all three components:
l 4-mm weekly repeatability of longitude and Iatitudc:
l X-mm weekly repeatability of height:
l Solutions are continuously generated within II week5 of data acquisition;
l A global network of more than X0 stations i\ operating and delivering data on a daily
basis to IGS data centers.

Foreseen results of the WEGNET arc:

l WEGNET may serve as one 01‘the densificution nclworks of IGS;

l The main product of WEGNET will bc station coordinates in the IERS Terrestrial
Reference Frame (ITRF), consistent with IGS practices:
l Regional analysis by WEGENER investigators can be simplified and improved using
products from IGS global analysis and WEGENER network analysis:
l Fiducial coordinates in a standard reference frame:
l Potential for monitoring the ionosphere. and atmospheric water vapor.

Management of W EGN ET:

l It is proposed that the network will have its own priorities and ob.jectives with respect to
the WEGENER community. similar to the PGGA in California. and the proposed
GPSjVLBI network in the USA. However. it hhould be integrated if possible with the
existing IGS global network.
 Structure and dynamics of the Eurasian-African/Arabian plate boundary system 325

l It is proposed that a WEGENER GPS Network (WEGNET) Subgroup should be

appointed to oversee the establishment and operations of such a network.
l A least one analysis center should enter into a long-term commitment to analyze the data
on a daily basis.
l WEGNET should organize intercomparisons and combination of results to define prod-
ucts which will be distributed to the WEGENER community.
The Network Design is considered in the following way:

l Collocation with other space-geodetic techniques;

l Spacing has to be such that local networks can be processed without the need of own
orbit improvements and reference frame maintenance. Recommendation: 300-l 000 km;
l Densify the existing IGS network, especially in the sparsely covered regions (Greenland,
Siberia) and in areas of particular geophysical interest (e.g. around the Mediterranean);
l Stations should be established on all significant plates/microplates;
l Network should be continuously operating;
l Network should take into consideration existing data management infrastructure already
in place for the global network;
l Network should use existing (IGS) standards for: monumentation, instrumentation, data
acquisition, data exchange, data storage/archive and data analysis.
Communications and data flow:
l It is important that data from permanent stations should be electronically accessible to
analysis groups within a few weeks of acquisition;
l WEGENER data center collects data of regional interest from local centers (should
preferably be an existing IGS center in order to use existing infrastructure);
l Data should be transferred between local center-WEGENER center by Internet;
l Data should be transferred from receiver to local data center by Internet or telephone
lines.
Notes added in proof: Some of the research plans described above date back to earlier
discussions within the WEGENER group. Because of a delay beyond the responsibility of
the authors we attempted to update the information in the revised version. In the meantime
many new results were achieved by GPS measurements which could not be fully integrated.
The references given might help to fill this gap.