TOPIC 3.

- ELECTROSTATICS IN
CONDUCTORS & DIELECTRICS.
 Two classifications of solid materials:
Conductors and Insulators (dielectrics)

• Conductors: one electron (or more) from every atom is free

to move (“to wander”) through the solid
• We say that these free electrons form an “electron gas” in all of
the solid
• When we apply an external electric field to a piece of conductor
(for example, by connecting a battery), the free electrons begin to
move in the opposite direction of the field: We produce an
“electric current”
 Two classifications of solid materials:
Conductors and Insulators (dielectrics)
• Insulators are materials with no free electrons
• Therefore, when we apply an electric field to a piece of insulator (for
example, a piece of wood), practically there is no electric current
produced

• In general, materials which are good electrical insulators

are also good thermal insulators

 But there are exceptions, such as the

mineral “mica” which is a good thermal
conductor and good electrical insulator
 Electrostatic equilibrium in a conductor.

Case 1: Conductor in the presence of an external electric field

Let’s consider the effect of an external

electric field on a conductor that is
electrically neutral….
Initially we have a uniform electric field
We position a spherical (neutral) conductor in the
field… What happens?

e
e
e
Free electrons
begin to move in
the opposite
direction of the
field
 The free electrons move to the left surface of the
sphere, leaving a deficiency of negative charge on the
right surface

 e+
 e +
 +
e
The left surface The right surface
acquires a acquires a (net)
negative charge positive charge
 Finally, the charged surfaces produce their own electric field, which
cancels the external field inside the material, and therefore the
displacement of free electrons towards the left stops.

The conductor has reached an electrostatic equilibrium: The electric field in its interior is
zero, and the electric potential is (therefore) constant over the entire conductor.
 For the case of a conductor, without net charge, that’s in
electrostatic equilibrium in the presence of an external electric
field:
• At all positions in the interior of the conductor the (total) electric
field is zero and the (electric) potential is constant.
• At the surface of the conductor there is positive net charge in
some areas and negative net charge in others.
• In the exterior and close to the surface, the electric field lines are
perpendicular to the surface. This can be understood from the fact
that the surface of the conductor will be an equipotential surface,
and electric field is always perpendicular to such a surface.

Example:

Finally: the conductor is in electrostatic

Initially: the conductor is not in electrostatic
equilibrium because its free electrons have
equilibrium because its free electrons experience a
repositioned themselves such that the
net force due to the internal electric field
external field is cancelled in the interior
Case 2: A Charged Conductor

What happens if we prepare a

conductor with a net charge? (without
applying an external electric field)
 For example, what happens if we remove free
electrons from all the points in the conductor,
producing a net positive charge distributed
throughout the entire volume of the conductor?

++
++ +++
++ + + +
++ + ++
+++ ++
++++
+ +
 The net charge of a conductor in electrostatic
equilibrium is situated on the conductor’s surface. The
electric field in the conductor’s interior is zero and the
potential is constant at all points in the conductor.

++ + + ++++
++ +++ ++ +
++ + + + + ++
++ + ++ + +
+++ ++ ++ ++
++++ ++ ++
+ + +++++
Initially: the net charge is distributed uniformly in Finally: the conductor is in electrostatic
all the volume. The conductor is not electrostatic equilibrium because the net charge has
equilibrium because this charge produces an electric become situated on the surface, resulting in a
field in the interior. null electric field in the interior.

ATTENTION! Keep in mind that, in reality, it is always free electrons that reposition
themselves in a conductor, because protons are not free to move.
The electric field close to the surface of a
conductor in electrostatic equilibrium

Note: This formula is only valid when

we are “close” to the surface
For example: for a metallic sphere of radius
R = 1 m, it is valid at a distance r = 1.01 m
from its center, but not at r = 2 m.
 Charge accumulation at
protusions (Efecto de Puntas)
At the surface of a conductor with an irregular form,
there will be more accumulation (surface density) of
charge in the zones of larger curvature…
And therefore, the electric field will be of higher
intensity close to these zones.
Electric field screening
(Efecto Pantalla)

If there exists a cavity within a

(charged or neutral) conductor,
the electric field will be always
be zero inside the cavity
(independent of whether there
exists an electric field outside the
conductor) as long as there are
no charges located inside the
cavity
 Electrostatic influence.
Example 1: What will happen if we bring two
charged conductors, A y B, close together, if their
charges are of different sign and |qA| > |qB|?
 Ejemplo 2: A neutral conductor (B) can
be attracted by a charged conductor (A)
 Example 3: If we put a charged conductor (A) inside
the cavity of a neutral conductor (B), the conductor A
will induce a charge in the interior surface of B of the
same absolute value but opposite sign to its own charge
 Example 4: Charged conductors in
electrical contact with each other will
tend to reach the same electrical
potential (electrostatic equilibrium)
 A proof of the “Efecto de Puntas” using the previous
phenomenon (example 4)
• Let’s suppose we have two conductors, A y B, which are
spherical and have established electrostatic equilibrium
with final charges q and Q respectively.

A
r R

• Since the conductor A is of smaller radius (r < R), its surface has
larger curvature than that of B. Therefore, it is expected that the surface
charge density of A will be more than that of B: A > B (Efecto de puntas)
• Since the conductors are in equilbrium with each
other, their potentials are identical:
VA = VB . • Finally, A = q/( 4 r2)

Therefore, Kq/r = KQ/R = Q/( 4 Rr )

and thus, q = (r/R) Q > Q/( 4  R 2) = 
B
(Efecto de puntas)
3.11.- A conducting sphere of radius R1 and initial (net) charge Q is
connected by a thin conducting wire to another conducting sphere
of radius R1/2, initially uncharged. Assuming that the spheres are
sufficiently far from each other that “electrostatic influence”
phenomena are negligible, calculate (when equilibrium is reached):
a) The charge on each sphere. b) The potential of each. c) The
surface charge density of each.
3.5.
3.9.

Total charge = x
Potential = 20 kV
Every shell is an equipotencial volume
Therefore, any point “a” on the
external surface of the last shell will be
at the same potential asany point “b” on
c b internal surface of this same shell
a
( )
And any point “c” on the external
surface of the intermediate shell will be
at the same potential ( c =20 kV) as any
other point on this same shell.
 Solution to Exercise 3.9 using the relationship between
electric field and electric potential
Let’s begin with the determination of the potential of the last shell
Gaussian Surface (r > R6)
Qinside   

Therefore (Gauss’s Law)

R4
Remembering
R5 b 𝒓
a
𝒓

Potential in a point “a”:

R6
=
 Again, from
Gauss’s law
Gaussian
Surface Qinside 

R4 Remembering 𝒓
R5 c b again
𝒓

Therefore the potential difference

Vc  Vb is given by the integral
Substituting numerical values (K = 9109 Nm2/C2, C
R4 = 0.05 m,R5 = 0.1 m, R6 = 0.22 m, Vc = 2104 V)
C
 Solution to Exercise 3.9: using the method of
superposition of potentials
First we determine the charge distributions of the surfaces of the shells
• Inside every conductor, there is
NO electric field…
• Therefore there is NO NET CHARGE inside
a Gaussian surface, drawn inside any shell:
(i) Therefore there cannot be any charge on
the surface of radius R1… All the charge on
the small shell (all 108 C) must be found
distributed over the surface of radius R2.
(ii) There will be a “reflected charge” of
108 C distributed on the surface of radius
R3… Since the total charge of the
intermediate shell is “x”, there must be a
charge of (x + 108) C distributed on the
surface of radius R4
(iii) There will be a “reflected charge” of (x + 108) C on the surface R5.
Since the total charge of this shell is 1.2  108 C, there must be a charge of
1.2  108 + (x + 108) = (2.2  108 + x) C on the surface R6.
 Summarizing, there is:
• Zero charge on the surface R1.
• 108 C on the surface R2
• 108 C on the surface R3
• (x + 108) C on the surface R4
• (x + 108) C on the surface R5.
• (2.2  108 + x) C on the surface R6.
• The potential created by a spherical surface
of radius and uniformly charged with q
for & for
where s the distance from the center
of the sphere to the point where we calculate V.

• We choose any point on the intermediate shell, for example ,

and its potential is 20 kV (= 2  104 V). By superposition of the potentials
created by the different shells:
8 8 (x + 8) (x +108) (2.2  108 + x)
 4
R4 R5 R6
 (x + 8) (x +108) (2.2  108 + x)
 4
R4 R5 R6

R5R6(x + 8) R4R6(x + 8)+R4R5(2.2108 + x)}

 4
R 4R 5R 6

 4R
4R5R6 x R 5R 6 R4R6 + R4R5}+108 R 5R 6 R4R6 + 2.2R4R5}

 4R
4R5R6 108 R5R6 R4R6 + 2.2R4R5}
R 5R 6 R 4 R 6 + R 4 R 5 }

Substituting numerical values

(K = 9109 Nm2/C2, R4 = 0.05
C
m, R5 = 0.1 m, R6 = 0.22 m) C
3.13.
Solución detallada del Ejercicio 3.13
(Solución Ejercicio 3.13)
(Solución Ejercicio 3.13)
(Solución Ejercicio 3.13)
(Solución Ejercicio 3.13)
Effects of E field on dielectrics
 Unpolarized and polarized molecules in a dielectric (insulator)

Unpolarized dielectric Polarized dielectric

A dielectric material will become polarized in the
presence of an external electric field

DIELECTRIC MATERIAL IN UNIFORM E-FIELD

 p p

The polarization of a
sample of dielectric
material leads to the
creation of surface
charge densities of
different signs

p p
The degree of polarization is strongly affected by temperature

Maximum electric field tolerated: DIELECTRIC RIGIDITY

(RIGIDEZ DIELECTRICA)

If E > Emax the dielectric material will breakdown

e.g., For air: Emax = 3 MV/m = 3 MN/C = 3 x 106 N/C

Degree of polarization  Electric Polarization (vector)

dp
P 
dV
If the polarization is homogenous:
P = np
where n = number of electric dipoles (p) per unit volume
Relationship between the Polarization Vector and the
Surface Charge Density of the Dielectric

dielectric
“slab”

P dS dl   p dS dl  P p

p  P  u n
The electric susceptibility (e) of a dielectric gives the
relationship between P and E at any point within the material:

P = 0 e E

Electric susceptibility is related to the relative permittivity ( ):

e = 

Material  e
Vacuum 1 0
Air 1.0006 6 104
Paper 3.9 2.9
Mica 4.5 3.5
Silica (SiO2) 3.9 2.9
Silicon nitride (Si3N4) 8 7
D  oE + P
Electric displacement It only depends on the presence of
net or “free” charge (example: )
΄ is the relative permittivity of the
D  ε o εE  εE
dielectric material
 is the permittivity of the dielectric
Example: The D field outside and inside a sphere made of
a homogenous dielectric material (without net charge*)

*The D field is not produced by the

dielectric (since it has no net charge)
3.16.
Detailed solution to exercise 3.16
(Solución Ejercicio 3.16)
(Solución Ejercicio 3.16)
(Solución Ejercicio 3.16)
(Solución Ejercicio 3.16)
Gauss’s Law applied to dielectrics.

q q
  E  dS  
S  o  

S
E  dS 

S
D  dS  q
3.19.