t-

I
T
I
I CHAPTERTWO: THE SMALL GROUP
IE

I The small group is a self-containedensemble,usually with one to three leads

F i
(horns, synthesizers,etc.) and rhythm (tfuee or more). Over the years, the majority
of great jazz sorllrldshave emanated from the small group. Most often, the small
group features a combination of sounds. Small group sounds play a vital role

FI
within the orchestrationof larger jazz ensemblemusic, and small group is also the
most frequent scoring choice for good and aggressivevocal backing charts.

F I
Writing creatively for the small group is as challenging as any music writing can be.
This ensembleis totally transparent: orchestration cannot hide problems that exist.
Lastly, writing for the small group makes efficient use of learning time: there is only
T
I
a fraction of the copywork and other logistics associatedwith learning to write!

F I
STEPONE: FORMSAND LAYOUT

T 1A:SONGFORMS(thispage)
lB: LAYING OUT A CHART (page45)
lC: WORKING THE TUNE (page46)

F
li
Song forms are the structures on which most of music is built. Chapter Two will
focus only on two (AABA and ABAB) and how they impact upon the processof

F arranging. Stay with these two forms at first: they are most easily understood, thus
freeing more of your creativity for profitable application.

Appendix I containsa list of standards,both older and contemporary, grouped

F!
-li according to song form.
tt

-t l THE ABAB SONGFORM contains two eight-bar periods (AB) that repeat to
complete the song form. (AB-AB) In the typical 32-barsong, each AB section is 16
bars long. As the music passesfrom A into B, the emotional level (contour) should
F rise. This usually occurs within the tune. If not, the arranger should make a change
ll

F
to accommodatethe form. (An increasein orchestration or in rhythm section)

tl

F
Ir
A}.TSWEN.ING REUSEORIGINAL AIISWEn, ENDING

Fli
Il
Important: before the second period (B) can effectively contrast or answer the first
period (A), music in the A section must feel like it has been developed at least once.

F Listen to the headsof Black Orpheus and Devil's Island (listening tape) and watch
their lead sheets(Appendix 7). Answering and contouring occurs within the tune
itself; in both cases,the chart wrote itself.

F l1

Fl{
u
 Form and Layout

The contour of an ABAB song looks like this:

The dotted line

rePresentsthe
---
level of interest
(tension, energy)
already built into
the tune. Hnutd.l af

TheAABA soNGFoRM operates

differentlyfromtr Thefirst two periodsare
virtually the same, except for their cadences.This sets up the need for a contrasting
section,called the bridge. Here, the arranger must decide how to provide a senseof
departure for the contrasting bridge.

Listen to Skylark and to You Don't Know What Love Is (listening tape) and watch
their charts (Appendix 7) In both tunes, the A section will have a feeling of
development before reaching the cadence. This is a must; it is the arranger's
responsibility.

The contour of an AABA song looks like this:

AA B

The feeling of departure is usually causedby changesboth in the range and the
characterof the melody itself.

. The bridge melody may go higher (as in Skylark) or lower (as in Down In The
Depths). SeeAppendix 7.

. Or the departure may be very subtle, as in Black Nile (Appendix 7). The melody
line is chorded to strengthen the contrast, the feeling of departure. I
I
t
t
I
 Form and Layout
OUTER FORM (THE EXTERNAL FORM)

Song forms describethe structure of mo-rethan just the tune. An

arrangement has
form of its own. The outer form shows the larger sections
.hory of a complete
arrangement relate to each other. In a simple head fhart, the tune itself (first and
last playing) are representedas "A", the soios as ,,8,,. The outer
form, is ,,ABA,,.

A A
DEVEI'PMENT . SOI'S, SOUS.

A q9o{ arrangementwill introduce the tune, develop it (in various

ways)
and bring it back briefly at the end. (This same outline is quite
common in
classicalsymphonic music: exposition - development - recipitulation.)

I n r n o stj a zzch a rts,th e tu neitselfusua1lyoccur s@.

solos, solis, and other developments,ociupy the B section.

see the following section,and also Appendix 6.1 Layout.

LAYING OUT A CHART.

You must first answer this important question: How much clock time
should be
taken ,rp the performunce of the chart? of the tune,
i. l-e1sth best tempo, etc.,
together determine the elapsed time for each .li'orr,s of play.
The ideal clock-length for a chart is influenced by these factors:

1) The length of the original material helps determine the overall

length of a
chart' Longer tunes can survive long& arrangements. Shorter tunes
should
not last as long.

2) The application of an arrangement also influences its best length.

' Performancesthat include the lyric are usually shorter than those that
are purely instrumental. A lyric tune can susiain only so much musical
. In this case,the arranger must specifically determine the
L J
length of the chart, and write it accorlingly.

' Performancesthat are purely intrumental can be sustained longer,

if
the solos t"lu.- interesting and vital. In this, the compor", oi
arranger
writes a qogd he_adchart (with introduction and optional endings), leXving
the overall length up to the performers.

' Head charts (above)that are sure to take extreme clock time should also
include written transitions that can be inserted between solos from
time to
time to break ug unending rhythm groove. The players themselves will
lhe
provide some of the relief through changesin rhythm texture during
solos.
pg 45
 Form and Layout

WORKING THE TUNE

"Working the fune" refers to a process of experimentation, and usually involves the
piano. During this time, ideas are worked out against the framework of the tutre
being arranged.
lhis process is indispensable in both composing and arranging, and
does not need to bgin tempo. (Rubato experimentation w-orks dut ideas thit y"ou are
beginning to hear.)

1. Play the cadences. what happens when you substitute cadences?

2. Isolate the ii-V progressions. What happenswhen they sequencewhere they

shouldn't? What happens when ii-V progressions are placed over a pedal point?

3. Find the sequences(and other imitations). Can you carry these into new ideas?

4. Improvise with the non-harmonic leaps. Push them farther than they are
written. Do the results suggest other developmental ideas?

5. Create an interesting pattern in the rhythm accompaniment.

Can you maintain the groove against the tune?

6. Find the keynotes in your tune. (Seepage 42.)

Improvise melodic ideas on the changesthat move around the keynotes.

The Keynotes of a tune are the notes that form the structure on which the tune is
built. All good tunes may be reduced to the outline of their keymotes.

In much of the standard repertoire, the strong interval relationships of 2nd, 3rd,
7th, 9th, etc. connect the kelmotes and the fundamental bass. Intervals of 5th and
8ve are weaker,
Tore commonly found in cadenceareas,where the energy levels
dlop anywfY, and in modal or pentatonic music, where a lower energy le-velis
idiomaticallv correct.

' Keynotes provide a structure around which the writer can add
or change melodic material without compromising the tune.

pg46
 Form and Layout

KEYNOTES alone are found on this leadsheetof 'Just Friends."

The standard changesappear above the tune. Alternatives appear below, on the bass
staff. Notice how much easier it is to visualize the reharmonization, when only the
keynotesare present. It becomesmuch easier to concentrateon the interval
relationshipsbetween the melody (keynote) and the bassof the changes.

. KEYNOTES AGAINST FUNDAMENTAL BASS is the critical two-part

relationship that influences the "right" and "wrong" choices to be made when
reharmoniztng a tune. (SeeStep 3, this chapter.)
Cma17 Lm/ E m7

Ag

?I Gma17

A5 AM? D9

4t,h 6th

8ve I
31 pg47
 Form and Layout

SKETCHING THE LARGER GROUP

Sketchingrefers to the processof outlining an idea, to be filled in and developed

later. To sketch music is to write the most important ideas down as they occur,
without allowing thoughts of orchestration to impede the flow. Vertical thoughts
noted non-musically (abbreviations,shorthand,
- etc.) may be
(chords, voicings,
rhythms, etc.). Melodies and chord symbols,,when accompaniedby this system of
personal shorthand, may quickly capture the beginnTry of a chart. Detail,
-orchestration,
and fine-tuned development may be addressedafter the linear
structure of a chart begins to take on shape.

SKETCHING IS ALWAYS IN CONCERT KEY.

pg 48
 Melody-2

STEPTWO: MELODIC DEVELOPMENT

2A ADDING NOTESTO TI{E MELODY
2B CONTRAPUNTALLINES (page86)

In most arrangements,the original melody is developed in some way. No tune has

been written that fits every style without adjustment of some variety.

Developmentoccurs when a melody is treated one of three ways:

. The rhythm of a melody may be changedfor the sake of style. (page 19)
. Notes may be added to the melody. (this page)
. The melody itself may be changed. (Compositional:page 52.)

2A ADDING NOTES TO THE MELODY

A melody line may need to have additional notes (or rhythms) added when the
tempo increasesor when the style is more rhythmic. (latin, funk, etc.) When this
occurs/ the keynote structure itself should not be altered. (page 47)

Adding notes to a melody is made easy through the use of non-harmonic shapes.
(so named after LTth century non-harmonic tones) Added notes do not disrupt a
tune when they maintain a stepwise relationship to the original. This is the logic of
non-harmonic shapes.

Nowadays, we don't think of "non-harmonics"as dissonant. It is the shapes of

thesedevicesthat are important. By adding notes according to theseshapes,we
leavethe basic messageof a melody intact.

THE NON-HARMONTC SHAPESMOST COMMON TO JAZZ.

PassingTone
(stepwise movement)

Auxiliaries
(neighboring tones)

Appoggiatura
(jump then step)

EscapeNote
(step then jump)
Adding notes to a melody increasesits interest at different levels.

1st level: embellishing the melody. (lowest level of increase)

. Add notes to provide a lift in the energy level of a phrase. When the added
notes conform to non-harmonic patterns, they act like embellishments. The
choice of embellishment depends on the selection of horns (or leads) Different
instruments sound best on different embellishments. ( Listen and imitate.)

original

developed

. Add notes to combine two four bar phrasesinto one eight bar phrase. *

original

o's'5,o'rJ4!tae
developed

Add notes and increasethe activity, to provide a strong boost in energy level
at the end of a section. (Add some arpeggiation to the non-harmonic shapes.)
(The broken chords facilitates the rise in meiodic activity.)

original

adjusted

added notes
 MelodY-2

2nd level: adding notes to the keynote structure

of key'
. When the energy level has already been raised.(faster tempo'-change
effective'
etc.) melodic d"evelopmentmust be more flamboyant to be
upon
The successof adding to a melody at a higher energy level depends
the tune, but without altering the keynotes'
moving farther
"*"y"fro^

Keynotesat
the start of
JustFriends

Added notes
anchored to
the keynotes.

structure
At a still higher energy level, broken chords added to the keynote
(and/or alterations) found in the chord changes'
may outlinJ the
*uy be added before or after a kelmote') The resulting
(Thesenew notes"*i"i"io"s
developed through
melody begins to sound like a new tune, so it must also be
the use of iepeats, answers,seguencesand other such devices.

Keynotes and
first changes.

o/t
New line: NH ncQItt
shapesand
broken chords
added to keynotes.

Two common iazzernbellishments may be notated with symbols'

wfuttfar) Sgt/uilt'J.6 -
L.

2.

pg 51
 Melody-2

3rd level: compositional. The melody itself may be changed for a few bars.

In the arrangement of an AABA tune, development of the first two A sectionsmay

be so complete that a third use (after the bridge) would be detrimental. In this case,
new material should be written to replace the first four bars of the 3rd A section.
From that point, at least bar five of the original tune should be used before the tune
is allowed to cadence.

This new material should contrast the original, but remain true to the keynotes! In
the following example,bars 1-4 of the last eight bars are replacedwith a more
aggressivemelody written around the keynotes, and even using the tune itself!

"YOU DON'T KNOW WHAT LOVE IS" (Last"A" - seeAppendix 7.)

ADDSACNVITT. .d-fiil.\
DEI'ETIPMES?

ON.TGIIIAL

PEUSEOPEROKEN FOP CONTINUITY

Important guidelines:

' Development of an existing melody by adding or deleting notes should not

alter the keynote structure of the tune.

' Different developmental techniques increase the energy levels of the tune in
different amounts. More aggressivedevelopment should be saved for later
in the arrangement, when the rhythm or harmonic energy is also on the rise.

pE52
 Melody-2

28 CONTRAPUNTAL LINES

Adding a second line against the melody can enhancethe overall arrangement.
Counterpoint is simply the act of moving one line against another.

For the counterpoint to be effective, and non-competitive, the second line must be
subordinate to the first. That is, the first line must remain the primary melody; the
second(added) line must move well against it, but remain a secondaryline.

Good secondarylines have two characteristicsin common:

1) Their rests or sustainednotes are a little too long; they breathe too well.
2) A note or rhythm is reused a little too much for the line to sound good as a
primary melody. In low energy settings,the note is in the middle or at the
bottom; in higher energy settings, this note can be the upper threshold.

Secondary

Primary and
Fund. Bass
n +lJ9 r

a
r lT- ,-1
4 -4 J l

Counterpoint is most effective when the lines don't "touch each other". That is, the
important notes in the secondarymelody should not walk acrossor double the
important notes in the primary melody.

Good counterpoint Faulty counterpoint

Em E m/O

pg 53
 Melody-2

Contrapuntal BassLines

Basslines can become part of the contrapuntpl structure as well. When repetitive
arpeggiatedbass figures are used, they must relate well to the melody at all times,
even when the two part structure briefly suggests a harmony not that of the changes.

In the following example, the bass suggestsfour bars of Dm, and four bars of Bb. In
bar two, the two part structure (bassagainst melody) does not make Dm. The
implied harmony (Am) is compatible, though, and the bass remains consonant
against the melody.

From "INDIGO" (Seealso Appendix 7.20)

Drfil 0,.€{no3) Bh1eilm3}

Fmal?trc31,r4

An active basscan fit well against a powerful melody. For this technique to be
effective,more than just the bass guitar must be assignedto the bottom line. A
synthesizerand (perhaps)a low reed instrument together can balance the energy
level required. Note the blank areas in the following example: they permit the
drums to come through.

From "JOY RYDER" (Seealso Appendix 7.23)

 Harmony-2

STEPTHREE:HARMONY-2 (Reharmonization)

3A LEVELS OF COLOR
3B ADDING CHORDS(page60)

There is a level of harmonic color "just right" for any chart. When the level is too
low, the product will sound boring or naive; with too much color, most any chart
will be overbearing and unenjoyable enjoyable to hear, to perform.

Jazz harmony is normally more colorful and diverse than harmony used in other
areasof popular music. Harmonic color is present (to varying degrees)in all tunes:
notes and chords borrowed from other keys raise the level of harmonic color in all
styles. Even the common chord extensionshelp to createa richer harmonic fabric.

CHANGING THE AMOUNT OF HARMONIC COLOR

As a set of changesis treated with extensions,alterations and borrowed

chords, harmonic color increases. Conversely,the removal of some of these
alterations will certainly bring the color level down, and with it the tension.

Seepage 25

By substituting a few change-bassvoicings, the arranger can slow the

fundamental bass without changing the color level. This causesan
increasein the transparencyof the chart.

Seepage 26, and page 57 (bars1 and 2).

Major can be changed to minor. Through the use of pedal point and
substitutions, a harmonization can be changed from major to modal.

SeeAppendixT - secondversion of Skylark, bars 1.- 6.

Note: the techniqueof shifting the modality of a set of changesis most

successfulwith ballads and gentle latins; such shifting of modality is
less appropriate for swing tunes that were originally written in major.

pg 55
REHARMONIZATION begins with the decision that a good tune has changesthat
need help. In contemporary use, "SKyLARK"is such a tune. Enhancementof
"SKYLARK" involves chord substitutes (page 27) and pedal point (page59)

SI(YLARK
Lttt&rmrbr
h*tltrgyCiSr-

l,l*rdt
E6 Fo? Go? AM7 Co? Ca?

stt Lrl
-
ln t! t.il b t W-t FJ r rlt t
skt l-t
-
ln F- -. r rr. lt -t
lEr|| rltryH .
-t
FE7 F'

hc h?- lrl!.r r.arb L rL! ril-l. r t Ut

j[.rt'l- ..Et.b.tbrdL -
- -.-t

D6 bd B? AtbT Er'

D b a 5.--.d A..l b F b-! l ul .- l n..tt- H lb

-?- -. -
alt? Do?15 CE lS Ct Fo? brt E 15 AX,

bl. 1rtr-- w-.L-tu a-r .'tl .d f ti' c.t!rh,

-..o
6 A7 D7 GI' Da F7

t E.a d.h. t n- O. rrt-

DM' Gr? A,XT Gd C!7

I ta-t fr 1 E d f.a t- oIL- b rthn I rt.i. tr rir.-

-

t7D E5 B? 19 E6

tlyr - t-rbq ri
--.

1. Beginning: The changesare outdated, due to a combination of the first

Maj. 6th chord, and the stepwiseprogressionin bars L and 2. (Great tune, but
Playersnowadays do not use such changesas these!) The changesneed help!

Solution: The Ab change (bar 4) becamea target chord, and was approached
by borrowed ii-V progressionsbuilt over an appoggiatura. (Seeadd-chord
on Page60.) New changesfor bars L and 2 were placed over a Bb pedal point,
providing a better interval relationship between melody and bass.

Note also the interesting sound from bar 2 into bar 3. Seetargets on page 58.

2. The bridge: Original changeswere kept in the first 4 bars of the bridge. Note
the several ii-V chord movements in the bridge: a gentle and consonant'
melody at slow tempo requires some activity in the fundamental bass.
pg 56
 Harmony-2
"SKYLARK": REHARMONIZED. (Seealso Appendix Z.1Z)
T-argetchords are vital to good reharmonization. Two targets
are circled below.
the stepwise and traditional ii-v movement used to Xpprou.i-tt,"r"
Nrl" targets.
Both targets are vital to the successful rehar*orrir"tior,.

llE lrl.rr.{.r V.EbAl

llclctclrEaaE

Fm cmrah4 aln"jz Gm.J7 Eml a? Dg GmaJT

-lg7(lel

c tab aFnl *tab 6f7lfe) o.7 6?

abma,z Fm7 obg eb alns ahuab EbmrJz

pg 57
 Harmony-2

The TARGET CHORD is a chord to which other chords move. Target chords are
more important to the changesthan the chords lead to them. In "SKYLARK- (Jazz
Messengerschanges),target #1 is the Ab major, a characteristicharmony for the
tune, one which is not replaced. The result is substitute changes.which move to
the same target as the original changeshad moved. Successfulreharmonization
depends upon this technique!

c /ab aFnr zbnb Efrthr E m? A7 afmat Dt1 G?

The successof substifute changes is measured by

their ability to progress effectively to a designated target.

The Color Shift is another important tool in contemporary harmonization.

Unexpected movement across a bar line from a "flats" key center to a "sharps" key
center releasesa significant amount of musical energy. This is called color shift.

The progressionin bars 2 and 3 (circled above) is a good example. Movement across
from the sound of three flats (Eb and Bb7) to the sound of two sharps (Em7 and A7)
is exciting, and attracts immediate attention. Clever use of the color shift enhancea
set of jazz changesmore quickly than almost any other harmonic technique
available to the contemporary arranger.

Check the color shift in the following example from "Canto Triste"
(Brazil '66) as the Gm7 - C7 (bar 8) moves suddenly to F#m7 (bar 9).
This tune set trends in the cross-overworld of the early 70's.

Eo? \ 6m/A 4 7(fr)

u?rn., I i ,;7r hlY ,

6674 4 7()e)

Color shifts should not be overused.

pg 58
 Harmony-2

PEDAL POINT is a held or repeatednote piaced below a seriesof moving chords.

Moving chords that make little sensetogether, on their own, can be made to sound
logical when placed over (or under) the right pedal point. (Abbreviation: PP)

The Bb pedal in bars one and two of "SKYLARK" (JazzMessengerchanges)causes

the moving harmonies above it to sound logical to the melody, and at the same
time to form change-basschords.

Together,the pedal point c nb ahr ebtab 6l7thr Em?

and the moving chords
produce a rich harmonic
environment in which the
sudden color shift to E min.
is not disruptive, but exciting.

Pedal point is most useful to jazz and popular music three ways:

1) As an approach to a major cadence,to signal the closing of a section. The

pedal in this caseis usually the IV or the V, if the cadenceis normal. Such
a pedal point justifies progressionsthat under other circumstanceswould
not sound appropriate so closeto a cadencearea.

2l At the beginning of a section of music, pedal point can hold unusual

changes together, and also help to punctuate progression of the fcrm itself.
Example: From "SKYLARK" (UNT Singers changes
The A pedal supports the chanees responsible modal reharmonization.
-

pg 59
 Harmony-2
ADDING CHORDS TO THE CHANGES (,Add Chord,,)

Even the best changesmay not h1rt"

9n9ugh harmonic motion to satisfy special
needs in an arrangement. When this is thJcase, additional chords may'be'added
without changing the messageor flow of the changes.

The processis called add chord. The selectionof notes and chords is made from
non-harmonic shaPesadded to the fundamental bass. Providing theseadded bass
note(s) aPPear in non-harmonic shapes, the chords built on"r tliu* will enhance,
not alter, the sound of the changes.

Exlmple: This bass line cannot support harmonies on each note

in the melody withou.t repeating the same chord over and over.
Dm7 en7 A+7bs Dm7
vl

. t) A
a

a) a

/' L Il
It

Fundamental Bass

But a note or two added to the fundamental basscan provide the foundation
for additional chords. Thesenew note(s) should be aided via non-harmonic
llupu-t, g.B.-passingor leading tones,-auxiliaries,appoggiatura or escapenote.
Chords built over non-harmonic additions need 66 in the originll
changes in order to sound right in the context of "ot
the arrangementl
I

Dm7Am7Ab9 en7 Bbg"us+A+7be @ ISQV Dm7

You can effectively use add chord:

1) When a cadenceneeds more motion.
2) I4/hen the changes go by too slowly to balance a colorful melody

pg 60

L-
 Harmony-2

1) When a cadenceneeds more motion:

Increasethe harmonic motion by adding additional ii-V movement. This
addition can occur while the melody is still moving....

original

with the
additions

.......OR, when the melody itself cadences. (Example:"BLACK ORPHEUS")

DbmajT 667 ahnorbmajz

sbmajz

\- 16
passingtoneshanes{
2) When the changesgo by too slowly to balance a colorful melody:
Add chords to a new non-harmonic bass line. The new non-harmonic bass
line will enable some great chordal sounds; therefore, it should not depart
unnecessarilyfrom the original key center. By using a variety of chord types,
the new changesdo not becomepredicable.

the original

When there is
reasonaltempo
fewer add-chords Cwq Fql"
areneeded.

In a slower
tempo,the need
for add-chord Bbq),/r 6,2Eb7,
is greater.
 Horns-2

STEPFOUR: HORNSAND HARMONIC DENSITY

_30
_20
if fi3N3SH,BlffiiT,:
Most jazz perform.rncesfeature brass and woodwind instruments in front line* or
backing instrumentation. (Trumpets, saxesand trombones are the most common.)
Sincemuch of the tradition in jazz is linked to the idiom of these horns, a writer
interestedin jazz should first concentratehis/her listening and writing on
combinations of these instruments.)

HORN COMBINATIONS

Project II involves three horns with rhythm. The horns should be chosenfrom
between trumpet, trombone, alto and tenor sax. Accessto these horns is usually
good, and these horns blend together well in most combinations. They are also
most easily found in good jazz recordings,your best source of model and perspective
while learning the idiom of jazz.

Common groupings of horns. (Easiestaccessfor researchlistening)

1) Trumpet* 2) Trumpet* 3) Trumpet* 4) Alto Sax

Alto Sax Alto Sax Tenor Sax Tenor Sax
Trombone Tenor Sax Trombone Trombone
(3-a Rhythm) (3-a Rhythm) (3-a Rhythm) (3-4 Rhythm)

* The Fluegelhorn may be substituted for trumpet if the style of your chart
is "pretty" (versusaggressive),e.8.,BossaNova or laid back "straight eight"
arrangements. Or, if the tempo is slow, and the cutting quality of trumpet
would overload the texture you want to achieve. (Rangesand characteristics
of the Fluegelhorn are found in Appendix 4.1.)

Front line refers to the lead instruments in a small group

(2 or 3 horns and rhythm), or in a "front line band" (4 to 5
horns and full rhythm). The name comes from positioning
horns acrossthe front of a performance area,standing in
front of the rhythm players. Nowadays, guitars and synths
can play the leads in any style equally well as horns, None-
the-less,"front line" refers to wind instruments.

pg 63
 Horns-2

48: HARMONIC DENSITY

when more than one instrument plays on the same line, or with the same
rhythms, the weight of the sound increases. The effect is measured in terms of
harmonic densiw.

The level of harmonic density ("density" for short) describesthe number of different
notes in the chords. including the melody (or lead). Density does not describethe
number of different horns playing on the same notes.

DENSITY LEVELS

-- 1o Unisons and octaves

The level of harmonic density
in unisons and octaves is "one"
regardlessof how many homs
or other instruments may be Both octavesand unisons
involved at the same time. have a densityT:evel
of one.

-- 2" Two different notes that

move together with the same or
similar rhythms have a density
level of two. (Ten horns may be
written on these notes, and the
density level is still two!) //
. Densitl-2 may involve a Doublingat the o-ctavedoesnot add
variety of intervals, but "ne'wnotes" (This is still density-2)
only two notes at a time;

-- 3o Three notes moving together

have a density level of three. Most
Density-3 is in close position, and
clustering is common.

Note

o Density describesonly those notes that move together on the same line.
a Density writing does not include music where two or more lines
move individually. That is Counterpoint. (Listen to the Fluegelhorn
improvisation during the head of "DE SAMBA".)

ps64
 lI
WHEN TO WRITE HORNS IN DENSITY, AND AT WHAT LEVEL:
Horns-2
I
Best decisions on the use of density are made on the basis of the characterof the
lead lines themselves.

Characterof the melody

o when the melody line is less active. chords are more appropriate.
This means a higher level of density.

You Don't Know what Love Is (bars r-4 - seealso Appendix z.)

When lead.sare more active (quickly moving a wide range), chords are
less appropriate. This means a lower level of density. (Unisons and 8ves)

"Take The'A Train" (Seealso Appendix 7.)

Note: In instrumental music, frequent changesin density tend to damage the

coherency of the music. However, where density-L is in use, it is not unirsual for
the density level to increasefor cadences,where the velocity of the music is at its
lowest.

pg 65
 Horns-2
DENSITY OF ONE (Unisons and octaves)
Unisons and octaveshave a density of one (density-l) regardlessof how many
instruments may be playing.

. Density-l lg a good choicefor lines that have a high level of activity.

Example: "IN CASE YOU MISSED IT" (SeeAppendix 7.10)

Density-I is also good for less active lines in low ranges, where the
higher densities would sound strange or forced.
Blample: "BLACK ORPHEUS" (SeeAppendix 7.02)

Uxtrsatr,l llzlNs

. Density.l is also good for slower and quieter tunes with rich changes,
Example: "DOLPHIN DAI.ICE" (SeeAppendix 7.01)

. Density-l is extremely powerful used in both the top and bottom of a

chart, when both top and bottom are active melodies!
Example: "JOY RYDER" (SeeAppendix7.24)

pg 66

L
 Il
iL
i
Horns-2 I
DENSITY OF TWO

Two-note harmonies written on the same line have a density of two. (Density-2)
Density-2 does not refer to octaves,or to counterpoint.

. 3RDSAND 4THS are the most conunon intervals used for density-2. Th"y
may be mixed, and are easily invertible. In the following example, take
note also of the additional movement in bars 13-1,5,which (used sparingly)
adds interest without compromising the harmonic density.
Example:"DEVIL'S ISLAND" (SeeAppendix 7.12)
3 --r^o A

6tt67g[be{$tt)

. Density-2 can also be used effectively with three horns. Briefly doubling the
lead one octave lower introduces a change of sound in 3-horn writing, away
from the normal concentration on 3-density and unisons. Such changesin
texture (brief and used sparingly) enhance the interest level of the music.
Example:"IN CASE YOU MISSED IT" (SeeAppendix 7.10)

F7sus4 F I Fil
 Horns-2

DENSITY OF THREE

Chords with three different notes have a density level of three. (Density-3)
A fourth instrument doubling the lead at the octave does not increasethe level of
density. Density-3 is typically found in close position, and in low to mid ranges;
density-3 written in the higher ranges is more aggressive and harder to handle.

MOSTCOMMON DENSITY-3VOICINGS
Dm? Dm? clo Alo r r cba br c r r c D/FI
1. Close position chords
and their inversions are
most effective when used
in unusual harmonies,
and with change-bass ,....but are best used in change$ass voicings
Triads canbe plain
chords. and straightahead, where harmonic clarity is mostimportant,

2. Close position chords

containing major + minor
2nds for color and power.
Whole steps are common Voicings with 2nds are the mostcommon choice in highenergy jazz,
at both top and bottom.
Half-stepsare better at
the bottom than at top.

3. Quartal chords
are most effective when the
tempo is slow, or when the
rhythm section reinforces
the voicing. Open voicings
encourage inner movement.
Densitjesbuilt in 4ths(iuartal ) bestsuggestmodalharmc:y ,
' Some are difficuit o describe with svmbol

4. Open position chords

Built by stacking fourths,
quartals provide a modal
'quality to the chart. Th"y
can easily be overused;
quartals combine well Open pcition densities are bestused whetr the mwamentis dow.

with tertian voicings

(triadic chords)

pg 68
Exceqpts below demonstrate the four typical density-3 voicings listed to the left.
Note that in each example, more than one voicing type is used. This is good.
(Each is found also in Appendix 7, and may be heard on the listening tape.)

Also: close position and faster movement go together. Wider and slower do, too.

Example 1a) from "KING COBRA" (Triadic voicings, close position

best use: on melody lines whose implied harmonies are
vague or obviously apart from the changes.

q 7/Db .A?

Example 2a) from "DAY IN VIENNA" (Close position voicines that contain 2nds.
Tlpical use: with a melody whose implied hannony is very
close to the changes)

4
Example3a) from TOU DONT KNOW WHAT LO\m IS" (Quartal voicings)
Best use is where the implied harmonyis closeto the changes
but you don't want densitywith 2nds. (Don't overuse!)

Example 4a) from "KING COBRA" (Open position voicings: slow movement)
Best use is with climaxing and reinforced chords (don't
overuse!), or slower lines where you want inner movement.

(
 Horns-2

PARTICULARLY GOOD USE OF DENSITIES IN THESE APPENDIX TUNES:

7.7 "DOLPHIN DANCE" Density-1 is used throughout. The changes are

diverse and colorful, tempo is slow, and rangesare never high.

7.5 "NIGHT DREAMER" Density-L is constant throughout the head. To keep

density-l from losing energy, enough activity and ornamentation was built
compositionally into the tune itself. (Bars 7,1'J.,1.4,L6, L9 of the lead sheet)

7.6 "REUNION"' Various 3-densitiesare used throughout the entire head. For
two reasonsthe unrelenting use of density-3 does not "get old":
1) The variation in the types of density-3 (seepage 94); and, ....
2) The melodic idiom (guitar/vibes) is enhancedby consistency.

7.9 "AU LAIT" Density-1 throughout is good when the time feel and harmonic
outline changes as continuously as on this tune. Higher densities would be
unhelpful; therefore, they would clutter the texture.

7.10 "IN CASE YOU MISSEDIT" Density shifts from 1oto 3o at the bridge. This
change in density to provide the contrast needed for the sake of form is
very good. Since this tune is basically a high energy density-l sound, the
bridge returns to density-L (octaves)as soon as the contrast is set by higher
densities. Final cadenceis a higher density: this is normal.

7.13 "YOU DON"T KNOW WHAT LOVE IS" Classicuse of varying densities.
The quartals at first give way in bar 9 to octaves,as the melody becomes
more active. All possiblecloseposition densitiesare used by the bridge;
therefore, the solo texfure provides the ideal relief for the AABA form,
where the bridge calls for a contrast. Note the return to A: compositional,
very active, to avoid overusing the diversity choice of densities in the A's.

7.1.5 "CATHAY" Interesting combination of category 2 and category 4 Density-3

voicings, all change-bassand doubled at the octave. The contemporary and
modal effect is due also in part to the combining of sax and synthesis.

pg70
 e Densities
ile voicings do exiqt containing six and seven d.ifferent notes, densities of -4 and
-5 are thought of as
.t:p""^1:::',1: j:::::l"la: consist
of .more tt" fir" ti;y"* fuLyinsdifferent
so densities,larger than -5 J1q:,:l'","bi:
are"usually a result of combining smaller aeniit6s.

-4 Four different notes,generallyfrom chords that would default to stackedthirds.

,sition(bottom note is root or bassof the
Slowmoving,with a pyramid,shapi Invers.ionrange (bottom note is 3rd or 7th of chord)
Usually open voiced, with an hourglassshape.

A 13 A m a 1 7 A m 4 7 l c f D 9 s r6 4 C mgT A m{ T/C $ D g:trs4 AmqiT

i7

rity'4.voicingsmay accommodate five instruments,by doublingthe lead one octavelower.

position (pvramid) Invened position lhoirglassl
Am7 A 13 A ma 1 7 Ama j T /C $D g s s a C m aj T A 13 A mdT AmaiT/CfiD9:trs4

voicingsresemblethe 4o voicings,aremore colorful, the resuitof addingan extensionor

alterationsto the 4o voicing.
position(pyramid) I nvened position (hourglass)
Am7 A 13 A m a j7 A m4 7/Ci Dgs'rs4 C maj7 A 13 A mai T A i7lc$ osi,sr

Blockvoicingsaredensity-4closepositionwith the leaddoubledone octavelower. They give a solid

and easilyplayedsoundfor saxes.
Blockvoicingsarebestusedwherethereis movement,and in a mediumrange. ExtensiJe-usewiiioate
the music.
Cmal7 Em7 c
Amg Cmaig Pm7 oDO G6
Dgsr64 Ags& Bbmaj9 Bot Em 7 3gf'

Drop+wovoicings
9J9pttt" 2nd voice one octave,pushingrhe soundinto openposition. Drop-two is used l) when the leadis at the
topor abovethe staff (concert), anilor 2) for a less-aggres*sive
sound. (Ope'nvoiced chords c6nform to fewerchord ,y*L"fil
Am9
Dgsq Am9 Bbmajg Bei Emz E*'#e Dm/E Bbma;s Erg D1r3 Drg *

10E
 voicinga movinglinefor saxes.requires
Compatible theuseof compatible chordswherethe.line
chorlsarerhosebu'r f;;;;;;r i" ;. ,-*i'.;p;;:H,';:"J1, *. chordis in stepwisc
movemenr
*)
't'rrsr,vorcerheopeningchord.rhen fi, in voicei;il;il;"
change.-(See
";i;i:l;ii compatibles.

Ebg",,"r ebg

The most convenientplaceto move from

blcck to drop_2is at a leap.

ebs.,*

Drop-2 voicings
Three li.nesketchfor saxes;middre
rine usesoctave cref

altos

tenors

bari

transposedfor aattb sares

Gm7 and its compatiblechords(drawn

from the reratedscare)
G m7
,l-
Compatible
Chords

7ob
 -\
ll
Rhythm-2 ilr i
STEP FIVE: THE RHYTHM SECTION I
5A. FUNCTIONS
1
58. SLASHRHYTHMS

!sffi=ff8T*,,
The rhythm section lays down the primary groove for a chart. For this to occur at its
best,rhythm players must play responsively to each other. The arrangementshould
give sufficient information, but leave as much freedom as possible. Always!

However, specific music should be written for the rhythm section when the chart
becomesunpredictable, and when horns and rhythm are integrated. (5C) In any
chart where either of these conditions exist, each member of the rhythm section
must receive an individual part!

Detailed information on each of the rhvthm section instruments is located in

Appendix 5. Also in Appendix 5 are style sheets for various Latin and
Contemporary grooves.

5A. FUNCTIONS OF THE RHYTHM SECTION

The rhythm section performs four basic functions within any ensemble.
Two were discussedin Chapter I, Step 5:
1,)Keeping time in the proper style. (As mentioned above)
2) Comping and establishing the changes.
In addition to these, the rhythm section also
3) Plays the form of the chart.
4) Integratesthe band.

58 SLASH RHYTHMS VERSUSSPECIFICNOTES

Slash rhythms with chord changes and style information tell the rhythm
sectionmost of what they need to know. In places where the rhythm section
should play specific rhythms together, the below style is effective.

In a three-line sketch, rhythm section may be written on the bottom line of

each system,with specifit bassnotes appearing onlv where needed.

pgTl
 Rhythm-2

PLAYING THE FORM (5A-3)

The rhythm section itself is responsible for varying the motion or rhythmic style to
portray the songform of the tune, and also to punctuate the overall form of the
arrangement itself.

Examples:
e In the arrangement of an AABA tune, the bridge should somehow contrast
the feeling of the "A" sections. In a chart on "Autumn Leaves),the rhythm
section may changethe rhythmic sfyle at the bridge. The resulting contrast
satisfies the need, thus reducing the need for the horns to change.

Example: "AUTUMN LEAVES" (not present in the Appendix)

The break in rhythm and the change from"2 FEEL"

to"WALK IN 4" are the arranger's responsibility.

When moving from the head to the next area of a chart, the rh5rthrn
section may lay out for a few beats preceding the next double bar. Ttris
short break helps to punctuate the oqfline of the fom of the ehart.
In the following slnmple, there is a brief break in the rhythm before the
first improvisation. Ohis is also an example of integration, which follows.)
Example: TOU DON1I KNOW WI{AII LO\IE IS" (SeeAppendix 7.13 )

pg72
 Rhvthm-2
INTEGRATING THE BAND (sA-4)

During the first three functions (time, changes

and form), rhythm and horns occupy
different space' At times,-the rhythm sectiJn
and horns join together rhythmically,
producing an integrated effect of one_ness.

1) Partial integrationinvolvespiano,guitar (if

present)and the bass.
2) Full integration involves the entire rhythm
section.

PARTIaL II\nEGRATIoN occurswhen all but

horn rhythms' ll'he dnrmmer may catchsome the drums-play on the horn line or the
keepthe feeling of time ana nus ofthe but will continueto
Joing throulho; thi. "rrythms,
effect.
' Partid integratigo i! goodfor slowerbut.rhythmic ensembleideas
needto be intense but lelvingroom rot r ai-L of that
integratedsgo^ri3g_need the contoui. bartially
not U6tou4:ust i"t"_*
ssarnpte:"posfcARDS"(seerd; 6;;"-iil. z.ro.i

tu
lartialintegration alwaysleadsto full integration, evenif the full
integration is a beat or tw6. lt is a matte" orinticip"tio'and
f,lample: "Al{fHEMo (Seealso climax.
6;;dili;;;"'"'

pE73
 Rhythm-2

Full Integration occurs when the entire rhythm section plays on the horn rhythms.

Fully integrated scoring is used to bring an entire chart to its climax. In the caseof
the following example, the introduction itself begins with partial integration, for
power, which then culminate in a fully integrated texture.

' Example: Beginning of "INTRIGUE" Partial integration leads to full

integration at the 1/2-note triplet section and following. (SeeAppendix7.24)

RhUthm t_3-

QUums fi l l i no l{ E n d set uD t A
I
-
I 3r

The amount of music needing to be fully integrated depends on the intensity of the
music leading up to that point:

o Music with slower tempo or with lower levels of intensity will require
only a few beats of full integration for the effect to feel complete.

' Music with faster tempo or higher intensity (ranges, rhythmic complexity,
etc.) will require more full integration. This music will also requirb a
longer area of partial integration leading up to the fully integratld sound.

5D. INDIVIDUAL RHYTHM PARTS

When the rhythm section players are given individual parts, these parts must
conform to individual horn parts, in every respect. (Format, bar numbers, etc.)

Whether to write individual parts, or a composite rhythm part (to be photocopied

for each individual) is a very important discovery that must be made with every
chart that one writes. Material expectationson the part of both player and leader are
very important to the successof an arrangement!

pg74
 Formats-2

STEP SIX: MEDIUM FORMATS

6A. FULL 3-LINE SKETCHES

33Iffffi.!.i"Xt?,
In a full 3-line sketch for small band charts,horn and lead lines are completely
notated. But they fit on one or two lines, and not on separatelines for each hom.
Music for the rhythm section includes the changes,occasionalbass notes (as
needed),style instructions, and some information for drums and percussion
relating to style. (The primary aim at this point is still to provide music where
interaction between the rhythm players is as important as that which is written.)

\
t/hily P+!

Afut 7 i'u,? .--z

7 ".?x atLY-

11 ?
T, a

. Sketches should be written entirely in the concertkev

NOTATION SOFTWARE. Computer generated sketchesshould

conform to the same guidelines. Good notation programs provide
completecontrol of your layout. If your software is inflexible, you
should changeto different software, or handcopy your final sketch.

pg75
 Formats-2

THE FULL 3-LINE SKETCH (Seealso Appendix 6.L)

Three-line sketchesare good for final versions of charts with:

. Two to four horns with rhythm in styles that are not intricate,
o Vocal solo with rhythm and occasionalhorn fills. (Appendix 6.1)
. Vocal group with a rhythm section that will read from composite.

THE 3-LINE SKETCHCOMBINESA SINGLELINE WTTHA TWO-LINE GROUPING.

Horns or other leads may appear
on a singleline at top. The two
lines below show rhythm section.
section. @est when the chan
has simple horn lines and the
rhythm exceedsa composite)
(B) Hornsmay occupytwo lines,in whichcase
therhythmsectionappearson the bottomline..
(If duringthis part of thechartyour rhythm
notationbecomes too busy,thenyou should
be usinga 4-lineformat.)

Conllnuelatin

Vocal solo appear on the top (q) Vocal group occupiesthe top two lines,and
line, with rhythm sectionand the rhythm sectionis written to a one-line
occasionalhorn backgrounds compositeat the bottom. (The rhythm must
on the two line frame below. be uncomplicatedfor this format to work.)

FF7 B!td{

here'sthat'arn-y

'l

E b r (f t t t AlA 89

pE76
 formats -2

3.LINE SKETCH OF "HERE'S TI{AT RAII{Y DAY .. 3 HORNSAI{D RHNHM.

The chart calls for specifichorns,but may be copiedto any sizerhythm section.

A COMPLETEFORMATincludesclef,keyand Unisonand mediumto highmelodyis

time signature,and bracketsto show the notatedon the top statf, leavingtwo
divisionof space within a systemof staves. staves for the rhythm section.

r) \
uhils v+3

?Vu-o1is -

\\-/

T1t frr

BARNUMBEFIS shouldappearat the Lower horn lines move to the

bottomleft of each bar. They may middle statf; the rhythmthen
be placedabovedoublebars, occupieson the bottomstaff.
enclosedin a box. Arrows show changesin location

RHYTHMSECTIONis notatedon the bottomstaff (composite)

when the horns or leads occupy a two 2-staff group.

pg77
 Formats-2

A NEW FORMATlS REQUIREDat the beginningof each page. (excepttime signature,

of course.) Professionalcopyistsand notationsoftwarewill begin each line with this
information.ln pencilsketchestormatsare optionalafter the page top.

lr\|c, 3bn7 !i;- 6*/el

ARROWSmay be usedto indicatethe NOTE:clefsthat are minusa

new locationof an instrument. key signatureimply C Major.

pg 78

li
 'il
lf
li
Formats-2 ii

The 4-Line Sketch

:
i

The four-line format is useful for situations in your chart where both horns and
rhythm sectionrequire double staff systems. Each set of stavesshould be bracketed
wherever formats are establishedor restated. Each 4-line group is called a "scheme".
Typical 4-line sketchpageswill have three schemes. SeeAppendix 6.1: if you are
notating your music via computer software, you will want for your music to be
layed out properly. You should not assumethat the software will read your mind.
Somenotation templates are very good, some are not!

STOLN{ MOMET{TS

THE FULL SCOREFOR THE ABOVE SKETCH (next page) -l+

When your music is too complex to fit easily into a sketch format, the final version
should be a FULL SCORE. Each individual instrument receivesa separateline.
(Keyboardsare written on either one or two staves,depending upon the complexity
of their music.)

PLEASENOTE THESE CONYENTIONS:

o Instrument names (or their abbreviations) are placed in the left margin on
page one. Bracketsshould continue on subsequentpages;instrument names
or abbreviationsmay or may not continue, depending how normal or unusual
your scoreformat is to the situation in which the scorewill be read.

. Clef signs and key signaturesare recommended for the start of each page......
they are required when changesof key have occurred within a previous page.

. Eachbar should be numbered. When possible,place the numbers at the bottom

left of the bar being numbered.
pg79
 Formats-2

THE FULL SCORE REPRESENTEDON THIS PAGE CONTAINS THE

MUSIC FOUND IN THE 4-LINE SKETCH ON THE PREVIOUS PAGE.

BRACKETSare required at the beginning of each page of full scoreto identify and
group families or types of instruments. When it is feasible, bar lines should
be broken to group the staves identically as the bracketed format.

. "CoIl" (or "colla") meansto o Proper alignment of notes and rests

copy exactly. CoIl is used to to their respectivebeats is important
createunisons only within to the readability and professionalism
instruments using the same representedby your full score.
transpositions.

TPA|Fn

ilros*t'

r4vntut€

BIPI5{,I'

qAtA

(w i th b o s s )

txw6

Pleasenote:
. Clef signs and key signaturesare required at the start of each page of sketch,score,
and individual part. Th"y are also required at the beginning of a line after there
has been a change of key mid-page
. The time signature is never repeatedexcept to show a change in meter.
. Eachbar should be numbered on both score and individual parts.
pg 80