Sag (oie xe Stephen Gasiorowicz University of Minnesota 8 BN. 1 wstitura BE ee a are “ 919" Betty me pr eee John Wiley and Sons, Inc. new york + london + sydney + torontopreface This book is intended to setve as an introduction to quantum physics. In writing ic, I have kept several guidelines in mind. 1. First, it is helpful for che development of intuition in any new field of study to start with a base of detailed knowledge about simple systems. I have therefore worked out a number of problems in great detail, so that the insight thus obtained can be used for more complex systems. 2. Every aspect of quantum mechanics has been helpful in understanding some physical phenomenon. I have therefore laid great stress on applications at every stage of the development of the subject. Although no area of quantum physics is totelly developed, my intention is to bridge the gap between a modern physics course and the more formal development of quantum mechanics Thus, many applications are discussed, anc I have stressed order-of-magnitude estimates and the importance of numbers. 3. In keeping with the level of the book, the mathematical strecture has been kept as simple as possible. New concepts, such as operators, and new mathematical cools necessarily make their appearance. I have deale with the former more by analogy than by precise definition, and I have minimized the use of new tools insofar as possible. In approaching quantum theory, I chose to start with wave mechanics and the Schrédinger equation. Although the state-vector approach gets at the essential structure of quantum mechanics more rapidly, experience has shown that the use of more familiar tools, such as differential equations, makes the theory more accessible and the correspondence with classical physics more transparent. The book probably contains a little more material than can comfortably be covered in one year. The basic material can be covered in one academic quarter. vilviii Preface It consists of Chapters 1 to 6, 8, and 9, in which the motivation for a quantum theory, the Schrédinger equation, and the genetal framework of wave mechanics are covered. A number of simple problems are selved in Chapter 5, and their relevance to physical phenomena is discussed. The generalization to many patticles and to three dimensions is developed. The second-quartet material deals directly with atomic physics problems and uses somewhat more sophisticated tools. Here we discuss operator methods (Chapter 7), angular momentum (Chapter 11), the hydrogen atom (Chapter 12), operators, matrices, and spin (Chapter 14), the addition of angular momenta (Chapter 15), time-independent perturbation theory (Chapter 16), and the rea] hydrogen atom (Chapter 17). This material prepares the student ro cope with a large variety of problems that are discussed during the third and last quarter. These problems include the intet- action of charged particles with a magnetic field (Chapter 13), the helium arom (Chapter 18), problems in the radiation of atoms and related topics (Chapters 22 and 23), collision theory (Chapter 24), and the absorption of radiation in matter (Chapter 25). ‘This material is supplemented by a more qualitative discussion of the struccure of atoms and molecutes (Chapters 19 to 21). The last chapter on elementary particles and their symmetries serves the dual purpose of describing some of the recent advances on that frontier of physics and of showing how the basic ideas of quantum theory have found applicability in che domain of very short distances. Several topics arise naturally as digressions in the development of the subject matter, Instead of lengthening some long chapters, I have placed this material in a seperate “Special Topics” section. There, relativistic kinematics, the equivalence principle, the WKB approximation, a detailed treatment of lifetimes, line widths and scattering sesonances, and the Yukawa theory of nuclear forces are discussed, For the same season, a brief introduction to the Fourier integral, the Dirac delta function, and some formal material dealing wich operators have been placed in mathematical appendices at the end of the beok. Tam indebted to my colleagues at the University of Minnesota, especially Benjernin Bayman and Donald Geffen, for many discussions on the subject of quantum mechanics. ] am grateful to Eugen Merzbacher, who read the manu- script and made many helpful suggestions for improvements, I also chank my students in the introductory quantum mechanics course that I taught for several years. Their evident interest in the subject led me to the writing of the supple- mencal notes that later became this book. Stephen Gasiorewiexcontents Chapter 1 The Limits of Classical Physics 1 Black Body Radiation: the laws of Wien and Rayleigh-Jeans; the Planck formula. The Photoelectric Effect. The Compcon Effect. Electron Diffraction, The Bohr Atom: the posrulares; experimental consequences; the Correspondence Principle. The Wave-Particle Problem. Chapter 2. Wave Packets and the Uncertainty Relations 27 The gaussian wave packet; the propagation of packers; group velocity; the De Broglie relation. The Uncertainty Relations: measurement of position of an electron; the two-slit experiment; the “reality” of orbits in che Bohr atom; the energy-time uncettainty relation; the uses of the relations for numerical estimates. Chapter 3. The Schrddinger Wave Equation 45 The ftee patcicle equation. The probability interpretation, Flux conservation, Expectation values, The momentum operator. The reality of expectation values. The equation for a particle in 2 porentialx Contents Chapter 4 Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues ‘The energy eigenvalue equation, The particle in a box: eigenfunctions and eigenvalues; orchogonality of eigenfunctions; the expansion postulare and the interpretation of the expansion coefficients, Parity. Momentum eigenfunctions; unnormalizable states; degeneracy and simultaneous cigenfunctions. Chapter 5 One-Dimensional Potentials The potential step; reflection and uansmission coefficients. The potential well and bound states. The potential battier; tunnelling; cold emission; tunnelling though thin films; alpha decay. One- dimensional models of molecules and the delta-function potential. The Kronig-Penney model, The haemonic oscillaror. Chapter 6 The General Structure of Wave Mechanics Eigenfunctions and the expansion theorem; analogy with vector spaces. Linear operators; hermitian operators; completeness, degeneracy; complete sets of commuting observables. The uncertainty relations. The classical limit of quantum theory. Chapter 7 Operator Methods in Quantum Mechanics The harmonic oscillator problem: raising and lowering operators; eigenstares and eigenvalues. The intérpretation of the wave function as probability amplicude. The time-development of a system in terms of operators; the Schrédinger and the Heisenberg picrures. Chapter 8 N-Particle Systems ‘The Scheédinget equation for N-particle systems. Momentum conservation; separation of center of mass motion; reduced mass. Fdentical particles; symmetry under their interchange. The Pauli Principle. Fermions and bosons in a box; the Fermi energy. Chapter 9 ‘The Schrédinger Equation in Three Dimensions Separation of center-of-mass motion; invariance under rotations; the separation of angular momentum. The redial equation. Fermi effergy for three-dimensional box. Chapter 10 Angular Momentum ‘The expression for L?; algebraic method for solving the L, and L* ' eigenvalue problem; raising and lowering operarors; Legendre fanctions. 37 75 11l 127 141 155Contents Chapter 11 The Radial Equation Behavior at the origin; behavior for large r. The free particle; sphetical Bessel functions; incoming and outgoing spherical waves; phase shifts. The squate well: bound states; deep wells; shell Structure; continuum solutions. Chapter 12 The Hydrogen Atom Simplification of the radial equation. Quantum numbers; degeneracy. Wave functions and relations co “orbits.” Chapter 13 Interaction of Electcons with Electromagnetic Field Maxwell equations. Coupling of electrons to vector potential. Equation for election in a uniform magnetic field. The normal Zeeman effect. Electron motion in a uniform magnetic field; illustration of correspondence principle, Flux quantization; the Bohm-Aharanoy Effect. Chapter 14 Operators, Matrices, and Spin ‘Matrix representation of harmonic oscillator operators. Matrix representation of angular momentum 1 operators. Spin 4 matrices; spinors, The precession of spin in a magnetic field; paramagnetic resonance. Chapter 15 The Addition of Angular Momenta The addition of cwo spins 14; singlet and triplet eigenfunctions, Spin-orbital angular momentum addition. The Exclusion Principle and angular momencum staces. Chapter 16 Time Independent Perturbation Theory First-order energy shift. Second-order percurbation theory. Degenetate perturbation theary. The Stark Effect: absence of linear shift for ground state; electric dipole moments; second-order shift, Linear Stark effect for 2 = 2 states. Chapter 17 The Real Hydrogen Atom Relativistic mass corrections. Spin-orbit coupling. Anomatous Zeeman Effect; Hyperfine interaction. Chapter 18. The Helium Atom x First approximation. First-order shift due co ¢-¢ cepulsion, The first excited states. Exchange energy. The Ritz vatiational principle. Autoionization. 195 209 227 243 255 271 283Contents Special Topics ‘I. Relativistic Kinematics I. The Equivalence Principle Ml. ‘The Wentzel-Krumers-Brillouin Approximation IV. Lifetimes, Line Widths, and Resonances V. The Yukawa Theory Appendices A. The Fourier Integral and Dela Functions B. Operators References Physical Constants Index xiii 459 461 469 473 481 487 489 495 501 507 509ii Contents Chapter 19 The Structure of Atoms “The variational principle and the Hartree equations. The periodic table. Qualitative discussion of consequences of shel] structure in ators, Chapter 20 Molecules Approximate Schrédinger equation; electronic, vibrational, and rotational motion. The H+ molecule: variational trial wave function; spins of nuclei and spectra; specific heats of molecules. Chapter 21 Molecular Structure The H molecule. Molecular orbitals. Bonds. Qualitative description af some simple molecules; hybrid orbitals. Chapter 22. The Radiation of Atoms Time dependent perturbation cheory. ‘The electromagnetic inceractions; semiclassical description; phase space; the Golden Rule. Matrix element calculation; selection rules; the 2? — 18 teansition rate. The effects of spin, Chapter 23. Selected Topics in Radiative Transitions Lifetime end line wideh; collision broadening; Doppler shift. ‘Méssbauer Effect, Induced absorption and emission. The laser. ‘Chapter 24 Collision Theory Collision cross section; optical theorem; inelastic cross sections. Black disc scattering. Scattering ac low energies; resonant scattering for squate well; effective range formula. Spin dependence in neu:ron-procon scattering. The Born approximation. Scattering of identical particles. Coherent scattering and the Bragg conditions. Chapter 25 The Absorption of Radiation in Mater ‘The photoelectric effect; angular dependence; energy dependence. Compton scattering, Antiparticles, and pair production Chapter 26° Elementary Particles and Their Symmetries Electrons and positrons; posicronium and its decay modes; charge conjugation. Baryons, antibaryons, and mesons. Isotopic spin consecvation, The problem of A° decay and production; associated production; the srangeness quantum number; selection rules, Unitary symmetry; the discovery of the a-, the quark model. Parity nanconservation in K decay; general tests. The K° — K® system. 299 327 341 365 379 423ie chapter 1 The Limits of Classical Physics The end of the ninetcenth century and the beginning of the twentieth witnessed a crisis in physics. A seties of experimental results required concepts totally incompatible with classical physics. The development of these concepts, in a fascinating interplay of radical conjectures and brilliant experiments, led finally to the quantum sheory.' Our objective in this chapter is to describe the background of this crisis and, armed with hindsight, to expose the new concepts in a manner that, while not historically correct, will make the transition to quantum theory less mysterious for the reader. The new concepts, the particle (properties of radiation, the wave properties of matter, and the quantization af physical quantities will emetge in the phenomena discussed below. A. Black Body Radiation When a body is heared, ir is seen to radiate. In equilibrium the light emitted ranges over the whole spectrum of frequencies v, with a spectral discri- bution that depends both on the frequency of, equivalently, on the wavelength of the light 4; and on the temperature. One may define a quantity F(A, T), the emissive power, as the energy emitted ac wavelength \ per unic area, per unit time. Theoretical research in the field of thermal tadiation began in 1859 with the work of Kirchhoff, who showed that for a given }, the ratio of the emissive power E to the absorptivity .4, defined as the fraction of incident radiation of wavelength ) that is absorbed by the body, is the same for all bodies, Kirchhoff considered two emitting and absorbing parallel plates and showed from the equilibrium condition chat the energy emitted was equal to the energy absorbed (for each A), that the ratios E/A must be the same for the two plates. Soon 1 An interesting account of che development of quantum theory may be found in M. Jammer, The Conceptual Development af Quantum Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966, L2 Quanzum Physics thereafter, he observed that for a black body, defined as a surface that totally absorbs all radiation that falls on it, so that A = 1, the function E(A, T) is a universal function. In ordet to study this function it is necessary to obtain the best possible source of black body radiation. A practical solution to this problem is to con- sider the cadiation emerging from a small hole in an enclosure heated to a tem- perature T Given the imperfections in the surface of the inside of the cavity, ic is clear shat any radiation falling on the hole will have no chance of emerging again. Thus the susface presented by the hole is very nearly “totally absorbing,” and consequently the radiation coming from it is indeed “black body radiation.” Provided the hole is small enough, this radiation will be che same as that which falls on the walls of the cavity. It is therefore necessary to understand the distti- bution of tadiation inside a cavity whose walls are at a temperature T. Kirchhoff showed chat rhe second law of thermodynamics requires that the radiation in the cavity be isotropic, that is, thac the flux be independent of direction; thar it be homogeneous, that is, the same at all points; and that it be the same in all cavities at the same temperatuire—all of this for each wavelength. The emissive power may, by simple geomectic arguments, be shown to be connected with the energy density (4, T) inside the cavity. ‘The relation is 4EQ, T) — G1) u(y, T) = The energy density is the quantity of theoreticat interest, and further under- standing of it came in 1894 from the work of Wien, who, again using very general arguments,? showed that che energy density had to be of the form ah, T) = &* fT) (1-2) wich f stil] an unknown function of a single variable. If, as is convenient, one deals instead with the energy density as a function of frequency, u(y, T), then it follows from the fact that = a2 = + ud, T) (1-3) 2 These mavters are discussed ia many textbooks on modera physics and statistical physics. References can be found at the end of this chapter, 2 Wien considered a perfectly reflecting spherical cavity contcacting adiabatically. The redistribution of the enetgy as 4 function of d has to be caused by the Doppler shift on reflection, See Chapcer V in F. K. Richunyer, E. H. Keanard, and J. N. Cooper Intre. duction to Modern Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969.The Limits of Classical Physics 3 ee r= 1400°K nS T= 1646°K ors 1259°K ar Fig. 1-1, Experimental verification of Eq. 1-2 in the form #(X,T)/T® — a universal function of »T. that the Wien law reads uly, T) = ag (=) aa) ‘The implications of this law, which was confirmed experimentally (Fig. 1.1), are twofold: 1. Given the spectral disttibution of black body radiation at one tem- perature, the distribution at any other temperaeure can be found with the help of the expressions given above, 2. If the function fx)—or, equivalently, the function g(x}—has a maxi- mum for some value of > 0, then the wavelength Ama. at which the energy density, and hence the emissive power, has its maximum value, has the form b max = T G3) where 4 is a universal constant. Wien used a model (of no interest, except to the historian) to predict a form for g(v/T). The form was E/T) = Creir (L6) and, remarkably enough, this form, containing two adjustable parameters, fit the high frequency (low wavelength) data very well. ‘The formula is not, how-4 Quanrum Physics 7a) 1 1 4 1 n a 10,000 20,000 30.000 40,000 50,000 20,000 40,000 50,000 Wavelength in A Wavelength in. A. ——>» tat 6) Fig. 1-2. (4) Distribution of power radiated by a black body at various tempera- tures, (4) Comparison of data at 1600°K. with Planck formula and Rayleigh-Jeans formula, ever, in accord with some very general notions of classical physics. Rayleigh, in 1900, derived the result ay, T) = ae ar (7) where é is Boltzmann's constant, # = 1.38 X 10- erg/deg and ¢ is the velocity of light, ¢ = 3.00. 10" cm/sec. The ingtedients that went into the derivation were (1) the classical law of equipartition of energy, according to which the average energy per degree of freedom for a dynamice] syscem in equilibrium is, in this context,’ AT, and (2) the calculation of the number of modes (i.e., degrees of freedom) for eleceromagnetic radiation with frequency in the interval (p, » + dv), confined in a cavity.® “The equipartition law predicts that the energy per degree of freedom is &T/2, For an oscillator—and the modes of the electromegnetic field are simple harmonic oscillacors— a contriburion of £1/2 from the kinetic energy is matched by a like contribution from the potential energy, giving £T. 3 We will need this result again, and derive ic in Chapter 23, The number of modes is der?/ct, further muleiplied by a factor of 2 because transverse electromagnetic waves cor- respond to two-dimensional harmonic oscillators