Experiment No.

1
Introduction to lab equipment and safety
precaution
Power systems are comprised of 3 basic electrical subsystems.

 Generation subsystem
 Transmission subsystem
 Distribution subsystem

Introduction

The electrical energy produced at the generating station is conveyed to the consumers through a
network of transmission and distribution systems. In general, distribution system is that part of
power system which distributes power to the consumers for utilization. The transmission and
distribution systems are similar to man’s circulatory system. The transmission system may be
compared with arteries in the human body and distribution system with capillaries. They serve
the same purpose of supplying the ultimate consumer in the city with the life giving blood of
civilization–electricity.

In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-station fed by the
transmission system and the consumers meters. It generally consists of feeders, distributors
and the service mains.
i. Feeders
A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station to the area where power is to be distributed.
The main consideration in the design of a feeder is the current carrying capacity.

ii. Distributor
A distributor is a conductor from which tapping are taken for supply to the consumers. While
designing a distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main consideration since the statutory
limit of voltage variations is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’ terminals.

iii. Service mains

A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the distributor to the consumers’
terminals.
Classification of Distribution System
1. Nature of current
 AC distribution
 DC distribution
2. Type of construction
 Overhead system
 Underground system

3. Scheme of connection
 Radial system
 Ring main system
 Interconnected system

AC Distribution
Electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating current.
Transformer has made it possible to transmit AC power at high voltage and utilize it at a safe
potential. High transmission and distribution voltages have greatly reduced the current in the
conductors and the resulting line losses.

The AC distribution system is the electrical system between the stepdown substation fed by the
transmission system and the consumers’ meters. The AC distribution system is classified into:

(i) primary distribution system

(ii) secondary distribution system

DC Distribution
DC supply is required for the operation of variable speed machinery (i.e., DC motors), for
electrochemical work and for congested areas where storage battery reserves are necessary. For
this purpose, AC power is converted into DC power at the substation by using converting machinery
e.g., mercury arc rectifiers, rotary converters and motor-generator sets. The DC supply from the
substation may be obtained in the form

(i) 2-wire distribution

(ii) 3-wire distribution

Safety Precautions:
1. Avoid making lose connections.
2. Reading should be taken carefully without parallax error.
3. Avoid series connection of voltmeter and parallel connection of ammeter.
4. Please do not touch live part.
5. Don’t work bare footed.
6. Don’t carry unnecessary items with you during performance.
7. Before connecting any leads or wires, make sure the power is switched off.
8. The main power is not allowed to switch on, unless the instructor allow you.
9. Machine should be turned off during calculations.
10. Group leader is responsible for any damage or if any equipment is misplaced.
 Experiment No.2
DIRECT CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONs
PRE FACE:
DC short form of Direct current is transmitted and utilized for a small range in this Ac era. DC
is used as supply for heavy rotating machinery in industrial level. DC distribution is mainly dependent
upon the way they are fed by the feeders. So on the basis of DC distributors, general classifications
are

 Distributor fed at one end

 Distributor fed at both ends with Equal voltages
 Distributor fed at both ends with Unequal voltages

Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to familiarize the student with the concept of DC distribution with
following methodologies
 Distributor fed at one end
 Distributor fed at both ends with Equal voltages

Equipment:
 DC supply source
 Resistances
 Wire o board
 Digital Multi meter

Distributor fed at one end/ Radial Distribution

  In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply at one end and loads
 The current in the various sections of the distributor away from feeding point goes on
decreasing. Thus current in section AC is more than the current in section CD and
current in section CD is more than the current in section DE.
 The voltage across the loads away from the feeding point goes on decreasing.
 In case a fault occurs on any section of the distributor, the whole distributor will have to
be disconnected from the supply mains. Therefore, continuity of supply is interrupted.

Procedure:
When source starts supply power to the load. Current will start circulating through the circuit
and voltages will appear across each load. As in DC the only load is resistive because of its zero
frequency. So to check and prove the concept of fed at one end follow these simple steps.
 Start measurements from the source side, reference point
 Measure the voltages across each load and name them with respect to branch Vc, Vd, Ve.
 After this measure the current passing through each branch of the load and name them I1,
I2, I3 respectively.
 Must known with the values of transmission line resistances.
 Measure total supply voltage Vs and current Is for the end result confirmations.
 Notice that according to KCL all current sums up and equal to Is.
 Solve the following equations after measurements.

Observation and Calculations:

Is Vc Vd Ve I1 I2 I3
Vs
Vc= Vs – resistance of line AC (I1+I2+I3)
Vd= Vc – resistance of line CD (I2+I3)
Ve=Vd – resistance of line DE (I3)

Distributor fed at both ends with Equal Voltages

 In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply mains at both ends and
loads are tapped off at different points along the length of the distributor.
 Here, the load voltage goes on decreasing as we move away from one feeding point say
A, reaches minimum value and then again starts rising and reaches maximum value
when we reach the other feeding point B. The minimum voltage occurs at some load
point and is never fixed. It is shifted with the variation of load on different sections of the
distributor.
 If a fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor, the continuity of supply is
maintained from the other feeding point.
 In case of fault on any section of the distributor, the continuity of supply is maintained
from the other feeding point.
 The area of X-section required for a doubly fed distributor is much less than that of a
singly fed distributor.
Procedure:
When source starts supply power to the load. Current will start circulating through the circuit
and voltages will appear across each load. As in DC the only load is resistive because of its zero
frequency. So to check and prove the concept of fed at both ends with equal voltages. Follow these
simple steps.
 Start measurements from the any source side considering as reference point and values of
2nd source will be treated as negative because of opposite to the reference point.
 Measure the voltages across each load and name them with respect to branch Vc, Vd, Ve.
 You will notice that voltages will first drop and then increases, it’s because of the 2 nd source
supply.
 After this measure the current passing through each branch of the load and name them I1,
I2, I3 respectively.
 Must known the values of transmission line resistances.
 Measure total supply voltage Vs1 and Vs2 and current Is1 and Is2 for the end result
confirmations.
 Notice that according to KCL current supply must be Equal to current drop.
 Solve the following equations after measurements.

Observations and Calculations:

Vs1 Vc Vd Ve Is1 Is2 I1 I2 I3

Vs2

Prove:
2(I1 + I2 + I3) + 2(X - I1) + 2(X - I1 - I2) + 2(X – I1 - I2 - I3) = Zero
Conclusions:
 Experiment No.3

DIRECT CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONs

Objectives:
This experiment is the sequence of the previous experiment, objective of this experiment is
to in case of unequal voltages DC distribution, difference create in solving methodologies will be.

Equipment:
 DC supply sources
 Resistances
 Wire o board
 Digital Multi meter

Distributor fed at both ends with Unequal Voltages

  In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply mains at both ends but
both distributors will provide different voltages or will act like sources of different ratings
and loads are tapped off at different points along the length of the distributor.
 Here, the load voltage goes on decreasing as we move away from one feeding point say
A, reaches minimum value and then again starts rising and reaches maximum value
when we reach the other feeding point B. The minimum voltage occurs at some load
point and is never fixed. It is shifted with the variation of load on different sections of the
distributor.
 If a fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor, the continuity of supply is
maintained from the other feeding point.
 In case of fault on any section of the distributor, the continuity of supply is maintained
from the other feeding point.
 The area of X-section required for a doubly fed distributor is much less than that of a
singly fed distributor.

Procedure:
When source starts supply power to the load. Current will start circulating through the circuit
and voltages will appear across each load. As in DC the only load is resistive because of its zero
frequency. So to check and prove the concept of fed at both ends with Unequal voltages. Follow
these simple steps.
 Start measurements from the any source side considering as reference point and values of
2nd source will be treated as negative because of opposite to the reference point.
 Measure the voltages across each load and name them with respect to branch Vc, Vd, Ve.
 You will notice that voltages will first drop and then increases, it’s because of the 2 nd source
supply.
 After this measure the current passing through each branch of the load and name them I1,
I2, I3 respectively.
 Must known with the values of transmission line resistances.
 Measure total supply voltage Vs1 and Vs2 and current Is1 and Is2 for the end result
confirmations.
 Notice that according to KCL current supply must be Equal to current drop.
 Solve the following equations after measurements.
 End A being fed at V1 volts and end B at V2 volts. The point of minimum potential can be found
by following the same procedure as discussed in the previous case. Thus in this case,

Voltage drop between A and B= voltage drop over AB

Or V1-V2 = voltage drop over AB

Conclusion:
 Experiment No.4
ALTERNATING CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONs
PRE FACE:
AC is worldwide used for Generation, Transmission and Distribution & Utilization because of
its Advantages over DC as our generation of power is in AC(for DC Commutators are utilized) and
AC has advantage over DC in transmission as well as we can Buck And Boost the voltage levels of
AC for transmission over long ranges and to reduce its power drops and hence our whole of the
distribution side is mainly operate on AC but with different frequencies(region dependent Pakistan
50Hz USA 50Hz and 60 Hz). And for heavy rotator machines AC is converted into DC either by
rectifying or any other process.AC distribution is mainly dependent upon the way they are fed by the
feeders. So on the basis of AC distributors, general classifications are

 Distributor fed at one end

 Distributor fed at both ends with Equal voltages

Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to familiarize the student with the concept of AC distribution with
following methodologies
 Distributor fed at one end
AC systems include Inductive, Capacitive and resistive loads unlike DC having just resistive loads.
So in AC systems additions and subtractions of currents or voltages are done vectoricaly.

Equipment:
 AC supply source
 Impedances
 AC distributor operator
 Digital Multi meter
 Distributor fed at one end/ Radial Distribution

When the distributor is connected to substation on one end only with the help of feeder, then the
system is called radial distribution system. The feeders, distributors and service mains are radiating
away from the substation hence name given as radial system. There are combinations of one
distributor and one feeder, connecting that distributor to the substation. In above Fig, distributor 1 is
connected only at one end to substation through a feeder at point A. Similarly, the other feeder is
feeding the distributor 2, only at one-point B.

Advantages:
 Its initial cost is minimum.
  Simple in planning, design and operation.
 Useful when the generation is at low voltage.
 Station is located at the center of the load

Disadvantages:
 Distributor nearer to the feeding end is heavily loaded.
 The consumers at the far end of the feeder would be subjected to series voltage fluctuations
with the variations in load. distributor, a fault on any of these two causes interruption in
supply to all the consumers connected to that distributor.
Procedure:
As in AC the loads are resistive, Inductive and Capacitive as of AC systems frequency. Current
and voltages will have a real part and a reactive part. So to check and prove the concept of fed at
one end follow these simple steps.
 When source supplies power to the load. Current will start circulating through the circuit and
voltages will appear across each load
 Start measurements from the source side, reference point
 Measure the voltages across each load and name them with respect to branch Vc, Vd, Ve.
 After this measure the current passing through each branch of the load and name them I1,
I2, I3 respectively.
 As for reactive part measure the power factor across reactance side or simply using values
from power meter i.e. real, reactive and apparent find out the angle ‘theta’ and then simply
find out the real and reactive part of current through reactance using simple formulas
IL= I*cos(theta) + I*sin(theta)j

 Must known with the values of transmission line reactances.

 Measure total supply voltage Vs and current Is for the end result confirmations.
 Notice that according to KCL all current sums up and equal to Is.

IS= I1+ I2 + I3 (total current will be real + reactive)

Vs=___________ Is=_____________
 Vc Vd Ve I1 I2 I3 P.f R Q S

Conclusion:
 Experiment No.5
ALTERNATING CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONs
Objective:
Objective of this experiment is to familiarize the student with the concept of AC distribution with
following methodology
 Distributor fed at both ends with Equal voltages
AC systems include Inductive, Capacitive and resistive loads unlike DC having just resistive
loads. So in AC systems additions and subtractions of currents or voltages are done vectorically.

Equipment:
 AC supply source
 Impedances
 AC distributor operator
 Digital Multi meter

Distributor fed at both Ends with Equal voltages

  It benefits are same like DC fed with both ends.
 Both distributors will provide equal voltages and loads are tapped off at different points
along the length of the distributor.
 The load voltage goes on decreasing as we move away from one feeding point say A,
reaches minimum value and then again starts rising and reaches maximum value when
we reach the other feeding point B. The minimum voltage occurs at some load point and
is never fixed. It is shifted with the variation of load on different sections of the distributor.
 If a fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor, the continuity of supply is
maintained from the other feeding point.
 In case of fault on any section of the distributor, the continuity of supply is maintained
from the other feeding point.
 The area of X-section required for a doubly fed distributor is much less than that of a
singly fed distributor.
 Voltage fluctuation reduces.

Procedure:
As in AC the loads are resistive, Inductive and Capacitive as of AC systems frequency. Current
and voltages will have a real part and a reactive part. So to check and prove the concept of fed at
both end follow these simple steps.
 When sources supply power to the load. Current will start circulating through the circuit and
voltages will appear across each load.
 Start measurements from any source side considering as reference point and 2 nd source will
be treated as –ve (vector notation for current as opposite to reference)
  Measure the voltages across each load and name them with respect to branch Vc, Vd, Ve.
And you will notice that voltage will start rising after initially drop at the loads this is because
of 2nd source.
 After this measure the current passing through each branch of the load and name them I1,
I2, I3 respectively. And current in 2nd source side branch may be greater as current is being
supplied by both sides.
 As for reactive part measure the power factor across reactance side or simply using values
from power meter i.e. real, reactive and apparent find out the angle ‘theta’ and then simply
find out the real and reactive part of current through reactance using simple formulas
IL= I*cos(ɸ) + I*sin(ɸ)j

 Must known with the values of transmission line reactance.

 Measure total supply voltage Vs and current Is for the end result confirmations.
 Notice that according to KCL all current sums up and equal to Is.

IS= I1+ I2 + I3 (total current will be real + reactive)

Vs1=___________ Is1=_____________
Vs2=___________ Is2=_____________

Vc Vd Ve I1 I2 I3 P.f R Q S

Conclusion: