Propeller Installation and Certification Considerations For Small Aircraft

Author(s): Brian E. Meyer

Source: SAE Transactions, Vol. 109, Section 1: JOURNAL OF AEROSPACE (2000), pp. 35-44
Published by: SAE International
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44723110
Accessed: 02-02-2021 12:29 UTC

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

SAE International is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to SAE
Transactions

This content downloaded from 160.75.86.201 on Tue, 02 Feb 2021 12:29:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 2000-01-1671

Propeller Installation and Certification Considerations

For Small Aircraft

Brian E. Meyer
Hartzell Propeller Ine
Copyright 2000 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

ABSTRACT discussed. Single- and multi-engine

A number of considerations must be
addressed to properly install a propeller
on an aircraft. These considerations
consist of a number of technical and
regulatory requirements. Propeller
installations vary in complexity
depending on the number and type of
engines and propeller-related systems
involved. Addressing the technical and
regulatory requirements with prior FAA
agreement will maximize the efficiency
of the propeller installation development
and approval process.
INTRODUCTION
Recently there has been a resurgence aircraft.
of small aircraft development programs
in the U.S. Many of these aircraft are In any propeller installation project there
propeller-driven using either are a number of technical issues and
reciprocating or gas turbine engines. certification requirements which must be
There are a number of new and
amended Type Certificates being issued
to aircraft manufacturers along with a
large number of modifiers pursuing
Supplemental Type Certificates (STCs).
Some of these Type Certificate changes
and STCs involve the installation of new
propellers. This paper presents an
overview of propeller installation and
certification considerations for small
aircraft certified under FAR Part 23.
Constant-speed, feathering, and
reversing propeller installations will be
aircraft powered by piston or turbine
engines will also be addressed.
DISCUSSION
There are many reasons to change the
propeller on an aircraft. Improvements
in noise levels, performance, vibration
characteristics, and increased ground
clearance are just some of the reasons
why aircraft manufacturers and aircraft
modification companies pursue new
propeller installations. With much of the
General Aviation fleet at 20 to 50 years
of age, the replacement of obsolete
propeller models is also a stimulus for
new propeller installations on aging GA
addressed. These include
considerations such as performance,
weight, noise, diameter limitations,
blade angle settings and de-ice systems
to name a few. Certification of the
installation also requires compliance
with a number of regulatory criteria to
assure safety.
The Federal Aviation Regulations
govern aircraft certification in the U.S.,
and there are several sections that

35

This content downloaded from 160.75.86.201 on Tue, 02 Feb 2021 12:29:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
pertain to propeller installations. These
sections are:
FAR Part 21, Certification procedures
FAR Part 23, Airworthiness standards
for small aircraft
FAR Part 35, Airworthiness standards
for propellers
FAR Part 36, Noise standards
Agreement on the methods of
compliance with the applicable
regulations should be reached in the
earliest stages of the program with the
responsible FAA office. Preparation of
certification plans and FAR compliance
checklists, along with the use of FAA
Designated Engineering
Representatives (DERs) will greatly
improve the efficiency of the certification the proper propeller hub for a given
effort.
The propeller assembly used in any
certified installation must be type-
certificated as a separate device under
FAR Part 35. This certification requires
that the propeller meet a number of
strength and durability criteria.
Certification also requires that such
items as maintenance and installation
documents exist. The propeller
certification is obtained by the propeller
manufacturer and made available to the
aircraft manufacturer or modifier.
Once the propeller is certified, the
aircraft must be certified to allow
installation of the propeller. The
following discussion illustrates some of
the technical and regulatory
considerations, beginning with the
simplest case, that of the single-piston-
engine airplane. Discussion of more
complex installations will build upon this
section.
This content downloaded from 160.75.86.201 on Tue, 02 Feb 2021 12:29:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Sinale Piston-Engine Aircraft
One of the earliest tasks in any propeller
installation is to identify a suitable blade
design. Aerodynamic analysis is
performed by the propeller manufacturer
at key performance points in the flight
envelope, based on customer input.
Diameter, weight, vibration
characteristics, noise, and other
propeller attributes are considered, after
which a propeller recommendation is
made to the customer. Often an existing
blade design will be appropriate;
occasionally a new blade design will be
required.
Once the blade design is selected, the
proper hub must be selected for the
aircraft/engine combination. Since all
certificated engines use standardized
mounting flange designs, selection of
engine is a straight-forward matter.
However there are a variety of hub
extension lengths and spinner models
available to fit a given aircraft cowling.
Most spinners are produced by the
propeller company, however on
occasion an aircraft company chooses
to produce their own. New aircraft
cowlings are often designed around an
existing spinner model since there are
usually a number of production spinner
designs that are suitable.
Positive clearance must exist between
the cowl and spinner to prevent rubbing.
Such clearance should allow for normal
engine motions during start-up and
shut-down and provide a margin for
normal service deterioration. Many
programs have required modification or
substitution of a spinner due to some
unforeseen fit problem; it is best to
verify proper fit of the propeller/
spinner/cowling as early as possible in
the program.
36
Depending on the landing gear
configuration of the aircraft, certification
regulations also require a minimum
clearance of 7 or 9 inches between the
propeller blade tip and the ground. In
addition, positive clearance must exist
between the blade tips and the ground
with the critical landing gear strut and
tire completely deflated. This
requirement becomes the limiting factor
Figure 1 : Constant-Speed Propeller Cross-section
for propeller diameter in many
installations.
Conversely, the blades will move to a
Airframe strength requirements must
lower angle (increased RPM) if oil
pressure is reduced or lost. Mechanical
also be addressed with a new propeller
stops limit both the maximum and
installation. Typically the engine mount
and forward fuselage strength must be minimum blade angles. Proper setting of
reviewed. The complexity of the
the low blade angle allows maximum
structural substantiation will depend on engine power to be produced during
the weight (and inertia) difference takeoff, but minimizes over-speeding of
the engine and propeller in the event of
between the original propeller and the
a propeller governor failure.
propeller to be certified. In some cases
the weight change is considered
negligible between propeller models and The minimum blade angle setting is
airframe structural loads are determined during ground operation
with the aircraft static, minimum wind,
unchanged.
the governor inactive, and the engine at
Once the proper propeller hardware has full power. A number of engine runs are
made at different blade angles, and a
been identified and fit-checked, testing
plot of blade angle versus static RPM
on the aircraft can begin. Typically, one
of the first tests to be performed is the
can be generated, as shown in figure 2.
determination of the minimum blade From such data a blade angle setting
can be selected which limits static RPM
angle setting. Except for some aerobatic
aircraft, the constant-speed propeller on
to a maximum of 103% of the engine
rating, per the FAR requirements. A
a single-piston-engine aircraft will
blade angle that limits maximum static
require oil pressure from the governor to
increase pitch (reduce RPM). A typical
RPM between the range of 98 to 100%
propeller cross-section is shown in is considered to be ideal. Having the
maximum RPM set slightly below
figure 1 . The propeller assembly
maximum rated RPM reduces transient
contains a hydraulic piston/cylinder
RPM overshoots during rapid power
arrangement that provides the actuation
application at takeoff or during a
force to change the blade angle. The oil
governor failure. The engine will develop
pressure in the propeller cylinder is
rated RPM early in the takeoff ground
balanced with spring force and blade
roll due to the reduced aerodynamic
twisting moments generated by
loading on the propeller blades as
centrifugal forces.
forward airspeed increases.

37

This content downloaded from 160.75.86.201 on Tue, 02 Feb 2021 12:29:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 are 20 to 40 years old, this method has
the advantage of canceling out
performance variations due to service
deterioration of the engine or airframe.
For maximum accuracy this method
requires careful consideration of the
weather to obtain as similar atmospheric
conditions as possible. Data corrections
are then applied to compensate for
small variations in weight, temperature
and power as described in Reference 5.

General aircraft controllability

characteristics are sometimes
investigated, though in most single
piston-engine installations, a propeller
change causes no appreciable
difference in aircraft handling.
Figure 2. Typical Blade Angle vs. Static RPM

The maximum blade angle setting is

Flight testing often begins with an
also verified during flight testing. A dive
investigation of aircraft performance.
up to the never-exceed-airspeed
The performance flight test
(redline) is performed to verify that the
requirements for this category of
high pitch mechanical stop which limits
airplane with a new propeller generally
the maximum blade angle is properly
include, takeoff, climb rate and cruise
set to allow the governor to maintain
speed performance.
RPM. If the high pitch stop is set too
low, the propeller will reach the stop and
The flight test plan must be approved by
begin to over-speed with increasing
the FAA before testing begins. Aircraft
airspeed since it can no longer be
preparation tasks (calibrations,
controlled by the governor.
inspections, etc.) are also specified by
the FAA in the Type Inspection
Noise tests may also performed as part
Authorization (TIA) document. Most of
of the flight testing. The test methods
the specific performance tests,
and equipment required for these tests
techniques and data reduction methods
are specified in FAR Part 36. In certain
are addressed in References 5 and 6,
and will not be discussed here. cases, a finding of "no acoustical
change" may be granted for this class of
airplane if certain parameters are
In many modifier programs, a back-to-
addressed. These parameters include
back method is used to verify
power, climb rate, blade count, blade tip
performance. This method entails
thickness and blade planform
baseline flights with.the propeller characteristics.
installation which is already certified,
then repeating the same test plan with
Proper engine cooling must also be
the new propeller to verify that the new
verified with a new propeller installed.
propeller meets or exceeds baseline
Cylinder head temperature variations
aircraft performance. Since many of
sometimes occur with propeller changes
these programs use test aircraft which
due to differences in aerodynamic blade

38

This content downloaded from 160.75.86.201 on Tue, 02 Feb 2021 12:29:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
loading (and radial velocity profile)
between propellers. Normally all
cylinder heads are instrumented with
thermocouples and temperatures are
measured during climb conditions.
Typical cylinder head data are shown in
figure 3. The cylinder head temperature
data are corrected to reflect operation
during a 100 degree Fahrenheit "hot
day". These temperatures are then
compared with the engine certification
limits. Generally engine oil and
accessory temperatures are insensitive
to propeller changes if the oil cooler
installation, baffling, blast tubes and so
on are unchanged.
Figure 3. Typical Cooling Data
Probably the most important criterion to
be met on a piston-engine airplane is
the engine/propeller vibration
compatibility. All reciprocating engines
produce vibratory torque during
operation and this vibration is
transmitted to and absorbed by the
propeller. Tailoring of the blade natural
frequencies is required to avoid
engine/propeller resonant conditions
from occurring within the normal flight
envelope. Such resonant conditions
could lead to fatigue damage and
eventual structural failure of the
propeller.
39
This content downloaded from 160.75.86.201 on Tue, 02 Feb 2021 12:29:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Unless test data for a similar
engine/propeller combination exists, a
vibration survey is performed by the
propeller manufacturer using a propeller
instrumented with strain gages. The
airplane is flown throughout the flight
envelope and the vibratory stresses are
measured at various flight conditions.
These data are compared to allowable
stress levels determined during the
propeller manufacturers fatigue tests,
and if the stresses are below the
allowable values, the propeller is eligible
for an unlimited fatigue life designation.
Typical vibratory stress data are shown
in figure 4.
Figure 4 Typical Propeller Stress Data
Occasionally it is not practical to design
a blade which avoids all resonant
frequencies. In these situations placards
and additional instrument markings are
required to alert pilots to avoid operating
the propeller in a resonant condition.
The placard and additional instrument
markings become part of the aircraft
operating limitations which are listed in
the Airplane Flight Manual, or in the
case of a STC, the Airplane Flight
Manual Supplement (AFMS).
All propeller changes require the
preparation and approval of an Airplane
Flight Manual revision, or a supplement
in the case of a STC, under FAR Part
23. In addition, preparation and
approval of installation instructions for
the propeller installation are required.

Multi-Enqine Aircraft with Piston

Engines

In addition to the considerations

discussed for single-engine aircraft,
there are several other issues that must Figure 5: Feathering Propeller Cross-section

be addressed with a multi-engine

aircraft. Multi-engine aircraft generally
utilize propellers which allow the blades
to feather (align with the air stream) in
the event of an engine failure. This
reduces propeller drag to a minimum
during a critical flight situation and
improves aircraft climb performance and
safety.
A feathering propeller requires oil
pressure to decrease pitch, therefore
this type of propeller will feather if
engine oil pressure is lost. This
characteristic is the opposite of the non-
feathering propeller operation found on
most single-engine airplanes. A typical
feathering propeller cross-section for a
piston-engine aircraft is shown in figure
5. A start-lock is also required within
the propeller to hold the blades at a
relatively low angle to minimize the
aerodynamic loads during engine
starting.
In addition to the clearance
requirements for a singler-engine
airplane, a 1 inch minimum radial
clearance is required between the blade
tips and the fuselage for a multi-engine
airplane. Also, since a typical feathering
propeller blade has counterweights and
moves through an angle range of 70 to
75 degrees, additional blade/spinner
clearances must be checked.
For a feathering propeller installation,
two blade angle settings must be
determined:
(1) The minimum (low) blade angle,
(2) Feather (maximum) angle
The proper low-pitch blade angle may
be verified by performing a static run-up.
A feathering propeller is fail-safe with
regard to over-speeding since a loss of
oil pressure will increase blade angle
and reduce RPM. However the low
blade angle must still be checked to
verify that the engine can produce rated
RPM at the particular low-angle setting.
The initial feather angle is estimated
analytically by the propeller designer
however flight verification is performed
to ensure that the propeller does not
windmill during single-engine flight near
the best single-engine-rate-of-climb
airspeed (Vyse).
Compared to a single-engine airplane,
there are at least two additional
performance and control issues for a
multi-engine airplane that must be
investigated. These are one-engine-

40

This content downloaded from 160.75.86.201 on Tue, 02 Feb 2021 12:29:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
inoperative climb performance, and the
minimum control airspeed (V^.). Again,
methods of compliance will not be
covered here, but are described in
reference 5.

Some multi-engine aircraft with piston

engines have propeller de-ice and
synchronizing equipment installed. This
equipment will be discussed in a later
section.

Single-T urbine-Enaine Aircraft

Figure 6: Turbine Propeller Cross-section
The use of a turbine engine introduces
several other considerations into a
propeller installation. Propellers used on The reverse and feather angle limits are
turbine engines usually have feathering set using mechanical stops within the
and reversing features. A cross-section propeller. Initial settings are determined
of a typical turbine propeller is shown in by analysis and verified during flight
figure 6. If oil pressure in the propeller testing. Aircraft controllability during
is reduced, the blades will go to high landing sometimes determines reverse
pitch due to spring and counterweight angle setting, while the feather angle is
forces, similar to the feathering normally set to prevent windmilling of
propellers on a multi-piston-engine the propeller near the aircraft best-glide
airplane. airspeed.

If the engine is a free-turbine type, i.e. In a reversing propeller control system

Pratt & Whitney PT6 series with
separate gas generator and power
turbines, the propeller will go to the
feather position during engine
shutdown. If a single-shaft engine is
used, i.e. Honeywell ( formerly Allied-
Signal) TPE 331 series with
mechanically connected gas generator
and power turbines, a start-lock is
required to hold the blades at a low
angle to minimize the starter load.
Three blade angle settings must be
determined for a typical turboprop
installation:
(1) Reverse (minimum angle),
(2) Flight-idle
the flight-idle blade angle separates the
"governing mode" from the "beta mode".
In the governing mode the propeller is
controlled by the governor through the
cockpit propeller RPM control and
functions exactly like a constant-speed
propeller found on a piston-engine
aircraft. However, when the propeller
control is set at maximum RPM and the
power lever is retarded past a detent on
the power lever quadrant the propeller
will enter "beta" mode (figure 7). In beta
mode the propeller blade angle is
directly controlled by the power lever
and RPM is controlled by a fuel
governor.
The flight-idle blade angle is normally
determined during fight testing to give

(3) Feather (maximum angle)

41

This content downloaded from 160.75.86.201 on Tue, 02 Feb 2021 12:29:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
the desired descent rate at idle power
on landing approach. If the descent rate
Figure 7. Turbine Propeller Control Modes
is lower than desired, the flight-idle
blade angle can be reduced to increase
the propeller drag and increase the
descent rate. Conversely, if the descent
rate is higher than desired, the flight-idle
blade angle can be raised to reduce
propeller drag and reduce the glide-path
angle.
Aircraft control characteristics are
sometimes affected with a turboprop.
Depending on the flight idle blade angle
the propeller disc drag can cause
buffeting and reduced dynamic pressure
in the tail that can affect aircraft
handling. The control characteristics of
the propeller itself must also be
investigated.
A "beta pressure" survey is typically
performed on all turbine installations to
verify that sufficient propeller control
(oil) pressure is available to the
propeller throughout the flight envelope.
For a propeller with counterweights on
42
This content downloaded from 160.75.86.201 on Tue, 02 Feb 2021 12:29:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
the blades, the beta pressure is highest
at low airspeeds and decreases with
increasing airspeed as shown in figure
8. At low airspeed, the pressure should
not exceed the relief valve setting of the
governor, otherwise full propeller RPM
will not be achieved. At high airspeeds
beta pressure must be sufficient to
provide a control margin for the
propeller to prevent unstable operation
and RPM fluctuations.
Figure 8:Turboprop Control Pressure
vs. Airspeed
While the majority of propeller stresses
in a piston engine installation come from
engine crankshaft, turbine engines have
very low vibration levels. However,
vibratory stresses are still present in the
propeller due to the aerodynamic
flowfield that the propeller is immersed
in. For a given aircraft configuration,
nearly all combinations of weight and
airspeed produce a one-per-revolution
vibration due the angle of the airflow as
it enters the propeller disk. The stress
level is proportional to the product of the
dynamic pressure and the inflow angle
(angle between the propeller shaft and
the relative wind) as shown in figure 9.
Therefore a vibration survey is generally
required to investigate vibratory stress
levels in the propeller.

Figure 9. Typical Vibratory Blade Stress - Turboprop
Many turbine engines use propellers
with four or more blades. Such
propellers are subject to "reactionless
mode" vibration. This vibration mode
may be understood by visualizing a
four-blade propeller in which adjacent
blades are flapping in opposite
directions. Such a mode is reactionless
since there is no net force on the
propeller shaft, however internal
propeller stresses can be high enough
to cause a catastrophic propeller failure.
This vibration mode typically occurs
near engine idle RPM and requires a
restriction on the propeller tachometer.
An additional structural issue for a
turboprop installation is the whirl flutter
mode in which the tip of the propeller
spinner describes an elliptical path in a
vertical plane. Due to the higher power
and lower vibration levels of a turbine
engine relative to a piston engine, the
propeller used in a typical turbine
installation has a higher moment of
43
This content downloaded from 160.75.86.201 on Tue, 02 Feb 2021 12:29:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
inertia and the engine mounts have
relatively light structure. In one early
turboprop airplane, a whirl flutter mode
was experienced which caused airframe
structural failure; therefore all turboprop
installations must address this issue.
Performance flight testing requirements
are similar to single-piston-engine
airplanes. However data reduction is
considered to be simpler with a turbine
engine since calibrated torque and RPM
instruments are available and shaft
power can be directly determined from
cockpit instrumentation.
Multi-Turbine-Enaine Aircraft
Multi-turbine-engine installation
requirements are largely a combination
of the multi-piston-engine and single-
turbine-engine requirements. Since
turbine propellers generally incorporate
feathering features, the same type of
propeller may be used with single- or
multi-engine turbine aircraft.
There are additional handling qualities
and performance issues due to the
relatively higher power of the turboprop
and the influence of the propeller
slipstreams on the wings. Stall speeds
for a number of configurations and
power settings, and acceptable trim,
stall, and dynamic control
characteristics are some of the items to
be investigated.
Most multi-turbine-engine aircraft also
feature two additional propeller-related
systems. These are propeller de-ice and
synchronizing/synchrophasing systems.
While early aircraft propeller de-ice
systems used a liquid with a low
freezing point (alcohol or glycol) to
prevent ice accumulations from
adhering to the blade surface, most
newer installations use electro-thermal
"boots" which have resistance heating
elements in them. The boots extend out
to the blade radial location where
approximately 2,000 g's exist on the
blade. Outboard of the boots the g-field
is so great that the ice naturally sheds
from the blade surface.
early FAA agreement on a certification
plan, then following the plan, will
maximize the efficiency of the
development and certification effort.
REFERENCES

The magnitude of the de-ice system 1) FAR 21, Code of Federal

certification effort depends on whether Regulations (14 CFR), U.S.
or not "flight into known icing" approval Government Printing Office,
is being sought. If "flight into known Washington, D.C.
icing conditions" is prohibited by the
aircraft operating limitations, there are 2) FAR 23, Code of Federal
no requirements that the system must Regulations (14 CFR), U.S.
protect against a given icing envelope. Government Printing Office,
However, fit and function requirements, Washington, D.C.
electrical loads, and other equipment
requirements must still be addressed. 3) FAR 35, Code of Federal
Approval for flight into known icing Regulations (14 CFR), U.S.
conditions requires compliance with the Government Printing Office,
FAR Part 25 Appendix C envelope. Washington, D.C.
Some combination of test and analysis
is required depending on similarity to a 4) FAR 36, Code of Federal
previously tested and certified Regulations (14 CFR), U.S.
installation. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
Sychronizing or syncrophasing
equipment is usually installed on multi 5) FAA Advisory Circular 23-8A, Flight
engine aircraft to improve cabin comfort Test Guide for Certification of
by reducing noise and vibration. These Normal, Utility, and Acrobatic
systems match RPM between engines Category Airplanes, U.S.
in the case of a synchronizer, and RPM Department of Transportation,
and phase angles of the propellers in Federal Aviation Administration,
the case of a synchrophaser. Since 10/20/87.
these systems have limited authority
they are not essential to flight safety and 6) FAA Advisory Circular 23-1 5, Small
functional testing is sufficient to verify Airplane Certification Compliance
that the system operates properly. Program, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Aviation
CONCLUSIONS Administration, 1/2/97.

The development and certification of a

new propeller installation requires
completion of a number of technical and
regulatory tasks to produce a safe and
efficient aircraft. The magnitude of the
effort depends on the complexity of the
aircraft, the powerplant type, and the
number of related systems. Receiving
44

This content downloaded from 160.75.86.201 on Tue, 02 Feb 2021 12:29:37 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms