ENGINEERING

HYDROLOGY

1 | Introduction to
Hydrology &
Weather Basics
 Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to
the formation, growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds.
1.5 | Introduction to Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water (warm
Cloud Physics clouds), tiny crystals of ice (cold clouds), or both (mixed phase
clouds). Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water

cloud vapor onto condensation nuclei when the super saturation of air
exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory.

physics
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Describe how clouds are formed

and distributed

• Identify the different types of

clouds
cloud formation extratropical cyclones tend to generate mostly cirriform and
stratiform clouds over a wide area unless the approaching
Terrestrial clouds can be found throughout most of the
warm airmass is unstable, in which case cumulus congestus or
homosphere, which includes the troposphere, stratosphere,
cumulonimbus clouds are usually embedded in the main
and mesosphere. Within these layers of the atmosphere, air
precipitating cloud layer. Cold fronts are usually faster moving
can become saturated as a result of being cooled to its dew
and generate a narrower line of clouds, which are mostly
point or by having moisture added from an adjacent source. In
stratocumuliform, cumuliform, or cumulonimbiform depending
the latter case, saturation occurs when the dew point is raised
on the stability of the warm airmass just ahead of the front.
to the ambient air temperature.
Another agent is the convective upward motion of air caused
by daytime solar heating at surface level. Airmass instability

ADIABATIC COOLING
Adiabatic cooling occurs when one or more of three possible
lifting agents – cyclonic/frontal, convective, or orographic –
cause a parcel of air containing invisible water vapor to rise
and cool to its dew point, the temperature at which the air
allows for the formation of cumuliform clouds that can produce
showers if the air is sufficiently moist. On moderately rare
occasions, convective lift can be powerful enough to penetrate
the tropopause and push the cloud top into the stratosphere.
A third source of lift is wind circulation forcing air over a

becomes saturated. The main mechanism behind this process physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift). If the air is

is adiabatic cooling. As the air is cooled to its dew point and generally stable, nothing more than lenticular cap clouds form.

becomes saturated, water vapor normally condenses to form However, if the air becomes sufficiently moist and unstable,

cloud drops. This condensation normally occurs on cloud orographic showers or thunderstorms may appear.

condensation nuclei such as salt or dust particles that are small

enough to be held aloft by normal circulation of the air.

Frontal and cyclonic lift occur when stable air is forced aloft at
weather fronts and around centers of low pressure by a
process called convergence. Warm fronts associated with
NON-ADIABATIC COOLING
Along with adiabatic cooling that requires a lifting agent, three
major non-adiabatic mechanisms exist for lowering the
temperature of the air to its dew point. Conductive, radiational,
and evaporative cooling require no lifting mechanism and can
cause condensation at surface level resulting in the formation
of fog.
ADDING MOISTURE TO THE AIR
Several main sources of water vapor can be added to the air as
a way of achieving saturation without any cooling process:
water or moist ground, precipitation or virga, and transpiration
from plants
cloud DISTRIBUTION stability characteristics of the various air masses that are in
conflict.
CONVERGENCE ALONG LOW-PRESSURE ZONES

Although the local distribution of clouds can be significantly

influenced by topography, the global prevalence of cloud DIVERGENCE ALONG HIGH PRESSURE ZONES
cover in the troposphere tends to vary more by latitude. It is
most prevalent in and along low pressure zones of surface Divergence is the opposite of convergence. In the Earth's

tropospheric convergence which encircle the Earth close to the troposphere, it involves the horizontal outflow of air from the

equator and near the 50th parallels of latitude in the northern upper part of a rising column of air, or from the lower part of a

and southern hemispheres. The adiabatic cooling processes subsiding column often associated with an area or ridge of

that lead to the creation of clouds by way of lifting agents are high pressure. Cloudiness tends to be least prevalent near the

all associated with convergence; a process that involves the poles and in the subtropics close to the 30th parallels, north

horizontal inflow and accumulation of air at a given location, as and south. The latter are sometimes referred to as the horse

well as the rate at which this happens. Near the equator, latitudes. The presence of a large-scale high-pressure

increased cloudiness is due to the presence of the low- subtropical ridge on each side of the equator reduces

pressure Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) where very cloudiness at these low latitudes. Similar patterns also occur at

warm and unstable air promotes mostly cumuliform and higher latitudes in both hemispheres.

cumulonimbiform clouds. Clouds of virtually any type can form

along the mid-latitude convergence zones depending on the
stability and moisture content of the air. These extratropical
convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air
masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or
subtropical origin. This leads to the formation of weather-
making extratropical cyclones composed of cloud systems that
may be stable or unstable to varying degrees according to the
TYPES OF CLOUDS
HIGH CLOUDS

1. CIRRUS. Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate

fi laments, mostly white patches or narrow bands. They may
have a fi brous (hair -like) and/or silky sheen appearance. Cirrus
clouds are always composed of ice crystals, and their
transparent character depends upon the degree of separation
of the crystals. As a rule when these clouds cross the sun's disk
they hardly diminish its brightness. Before sunrise and after
sunset, cirrus is often colored bright yellow or red. These clouds
are lit up long before other clouds and fade out much later.

2. CIRROSTRATUS. Transparent, whitish veil clouds with a fi brous

(hair -like) or smooth appearance. A sheet of cirrostratus which
is very extensive, nearly always ends by covering the whole sky.
A milky veil of fog (or thin Stratus) is distinguished from a veil of
Cirrostratus of a similar appearance by the halo phenomena
which the sun or the moon nearly always produces in a layer of
cirrostratus.

3. CIRROCUMULUS. Thin, white patch, sheet, or layered of clouds

without shading. They are composed of very small elements in
the form of more or less regularly arranged grains or ripples. In
general Cirrocumulus represents a degraded state of cirrus and
cirrostratus both of which may change into it and is an
uncommon cloud. There will be a connection with cirrus or
cirrostratus and will show some characteristics of ice crystal
clouds.
MID CLOUDS

1. ALTOSTRATUS. Gray or bluish cloud sheets or layers of striated

or fi brous clouds that totally or partially covers the sky. They are
thin enough to regularly reveal the sun as if seen through
ground glass. Altostratus clouds do not produce a halo
phenomenon nor are the shadows of objects on the ground
visible. Sometime virga is seen hanging from Altostratus, and at
times may even reach the ground causing very light
precipitation.

2. ALTOCUMULUS. White and/or gray patch, sheet or layered

clouds, generally composed of laminae (plates), rounded
masses or rolls. They may be partly fi brous or diffuse. When the
edge or a thin semitransparent patch of altocumulus passes in
front of the sun or moon a corona appears. This colored ring
has red on the outside and blue inside and occurs within a few
degrees of the sun or moon. The most common mid cloud,
more than one layer of Altocumulus often appears at different
levels at the same time. Many times Altocumulus will appear
with other cloud types.

3. NIMBOSTRATUS. The continuous rain cloud. Resulting from

thickening Altostratus, This is a dark gray cloud layer diffused by
falling rain or snow. It is thick enough throughout to blot out the
sun. The cloud base lowers into the low level of clouds as
precipitation continues. Also, low, ragged clouds frequently
occur beneath this cloud which sometimes merges with its
base.
LOW CLOUDS

1. CUMULUS. Detached, generally dense clouds and with sharp

outlines that develop vertically in the form of rising mounds, domes
or towers with bulging upper parts often resembling a caulifl ower.
The sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant white while their
bases are relatively dark and horizontal. Over land cumulus develops
on days of clear skies, and is due diurnal convection; it appears in the
morning, grows, and then more or less dissolves again toward
evening.

2. STRATUS. A generally gray cloud layer with a uniform base which

may, if thick enough, produce drizzle, ice prisms, or snow grains.
When the sun is visible through this cloud, its outline is clearly
discernible.Often when a layer of Stratus breaks up and dissipates
blue sky is seen.

3. CUMULONIMBUS. The thunderstorm cloud, this is a heavy and

dense cloud in the form of a mountain or huge tower. The upper
portion is usually smoothed, fi brous or striated and nearly always
fl attened in the shape of an anvil or vast plume. Under the base of
this cloud which is often very dark, there are often low ragged clouds
that may or may not merge with the base. They produce
precipitation, which sometimes is in the form of virga. Cumulonimbus
clouds also produce hail and tornadoes.

4. STRATOCUMULUS. Gray or whitish patch, sheet, or layered clouds

which almost always have dark tessellations (honeycomb
appearance), rounded masses or rolls. Except for virga they are non-
fi brous and may or may not be merged. They also have regularly
arranged small elements with an apparent width of more than fi ve
degrees (three fi ngers - at arm's length).