wmueinms Bridge Deck Behaviour E.C. Hambly FEng, FICE, ConstngEagieet Visiting Profesor atthe Unersyof Oo "othe ince ofEngicerng Des Zante E & FN SPON London - New York Tokyo Melbourne» Madras‘Opn Ha 2-4 Bound Row, Landn E15 haps a in Tema nip, SipesioNencn bung 1 itabanzcs, ayo Touotar Seine man ci eba, © grec may ‘poet Es Cem Conpsin, Prd Bap Cay tele Tam eretes a peeedonae ne Copipnbenpeand tah pubbnon maybe re ‘cratic baer ort cao erotics ‘hintaan macnn sear ‘img Agente Umar norm sia id ‘acappcseeposor aps Greens ote Sheet coartnp poate enero "upland sar mie corpecnatueprceinped nh eye pay ta fey caer can hat bayou i nat Fey, Bama ‘Sah ecco. Hay cee‘This book is dedicated to my wife Elizabeth, without whom it would not exist, and to the late Kenneth H. Roscoe and Stuart G. Spickett from whom we both continue to draw inspiration.VLOCVCTIVIVOVVVVVIVODGODVDDOGDIVDVDVDVDDVODDODD90000008Contents Acknowledgements Preface 1. Structural forms and calealation methods LL Introduction 12 Struetual forms 13 Safety af methods 14 Hooke’ law and Young's modulus References Beam decks and frames 241 Introduction 2.2. Typesof beam deck 23° Bending of beams 2.4 Torsion of beams 2.5. Computer analysis of continuous beams 2.6 Construction sequence 27 Frameand arching action 2.8. Shoreterm and long-term behaviour References 3. Slab decks 3.1 Introduction 32. Typesofsiueture "3 structural action “4 Rigorous analysis of distibution of forces 5. Grillage analysis 6 Grilage examples 7 Interpretation of output {8 Momeats under concentrated loads RE Geos) 4 26 2 s 6 a7 30 3 53 3 55 6 a 2 2il Contents 3.9 Shearkey lab decks 3:10 Gailage analysis of shear key sab References 1. Beam-and-lab decks 41 Introduction 42. Types ofstrucure 43° Structural ection 44° Grillage analysis 45. Grillaze examples 45 Application of oad 47 Interpretation of output $8 Torionles design 49. Bracing 44.10 Slab membrane action in beam-and-slab decks References Moltialtuar decks 5.1 Introduction 52. Theshear-lexible grilage 53. Grillage mesh 5.4 Modes of structural action 5.5. Section properties of grilage members 56 Load application 5.7. Interpretation of output 5.8 Comparison with ite strip method References Boxgirder decks 6:1 Distortion of single-cell box-irder 62. Methods of alelation 63. BEF analysis of box girder {64 Space frame analysis ofbox-girder 6.5. Grillage analysis of box-girder 6.8. Grillageanalyis of multiple box-geder deck 6.7. Grillage analysis of a multspan box-ginder References Space frame methods and slab membrane action TAL Tess space frame 72. McHenry latiee 73 Cruciform space fame 74. Slab membrane action 75 Downstand glaze ” 78 81 2 s 83 3 85 9 2 38 98 * 1a 108 106 106 106 07 us 1m 1m m 12 1B ns 135 1 BT ui us 19 151 156 157 17 160 ist 155 167Contents 2 7.6. Effects of slab membrane action on beam-and-slab deck behaviour References ‘Shear lag and edge stiffening 8.1 Shear lag 82. Effective width of flanges 83. Edge tifering of stab decks 384 Upstand parapets to beam-and-slab decks 135. Service bays in beam-and-slab decks References ‘Skew, tapered and curved decks 9.1 Skew desks 9.2. Tapered decks 9.3. Curved decks Relerences Distribution coefficients OA. Tatrodvction| 10.2. Some published load distribution charts 103 Influence ines for slab, bearn-and-sab and collar decks 10.4 Application of chats to slab deck 10.5 Application of chars to bear-and-lab deck 10.6 Application of charts to eelular deck References “Temperature and prestres loading 111" Introduetion 112 Temperatut strains and stresses in simply supported span 11.3. Temperature steeses in continuous deck 14 Grilage analysis of temperature moments 113 Differential creep and shrinkage LLG Prestres axial compression 117 Prestress moments due to cable eccentricity 18. Prestress moments due to cable curvature 11.9. Presteess analysis by Neabilty coefficients 11-0 Presteess applied directly to space frame References Harmonic analysis and flded plate theory 121 Introduction 7 7 7 12 183 185 17 188 188 12 193 198 199 199 200 205 208, 213 216, zi 2m 2 m 29 230 BI a 236 238 202 2412.2. Harmonie components of load, moment, etc 12.3 Charactersis of low and high harmonics 124 Harmonie analysis of plane decks 1255. Folded plate analysis 12.6. Continious and skew decks 12.7. Errors of harmonies near discontinuities Reterencee 13, Finite element method 13.2. Two-dimensional plane stress elements 133 Plate bending elements 1B Three-dimensional pat structures and shell elements BS Fintestrps 136 Theedimensiona elements 13.7 Conclusion References 14, Stitieses of supports and foundations HA Introduction LL2 Substractres and bearings 143 Foundation sitfnsses 16.4 Stifness moduli of sols 145 Slifneses from lateral earth pressures 18.5. Embankment movements 187 Integral bridges References Appendis A Product integrals, Functions of load ona single span “Harmonic components Appendix B Calculation of torsion constant for solid beams Author Index Subject Index 231 231 232 233 20Acknowledgements Many people helped me with this book. 1am grateful to Gifford & Partners with whom I worked during the design of severalof the bridges that form example, In particular T gained much from interacting with Malcolm Woolley, Maurice Porter, Ernest Pennells and Edmund Hollinghurst, My interest in bridge design frst developed wile T ‘worked for Ove Arup and Partners under Rober Benaim. Later. John Blanchard and Peter Dunican encouraged me to waite a book; Edgar Lightfoot gave me crucial advice to make it readable. Many people made comments on the first edition which led to improvements inthe Second eiition. I also thank the organizations and individuals who provided photographs and are identified in the captions: my own [Photographs bensited from the guidance of Ernest Janes. Finally, I would like to record my continuing gratitude to Michael Crimes athe Staff ofthe Library ofthe Initution of Civil Engineers in Landon who prove a remarkably iendly and conscientious service to everyone who turns to them for assistance, E.CH.DO0000000000006000900000000009000000000000000Preface “This book describes the load dlstribution behaviour of steel and Concrete bridge decks. The principles can also be applied to several ‘other materials and deck-type structures, The book has been writen to be intelligible to junior engineers who are interested in the physical ‘haracteretie of the diferent types of construction and who require ‘etaled descriptions of some calculation methods. The book has also ‘been writen with consideration forthe senior engineers leading design teams, to give them information about the range of analytical methods tvailable and on some of thei shortcomings. Ivhas been assumed that the design and assessment of bridges are entrusted to experienced professional vil engineer, and tht ealeslations are carried out under fhe direction of appropriately experienced and qualified supervisors. Users ofthis book ae expected to draw uponother works onthesubject ‘ncuding national ang international codes of practice, and are expected to verify the appropriateness and content of information they draw from this Book, Ta this second edition, Chapter 1 has been enlarged to explain the intrinsic safety of some calculation methods when used in a ystematic manner. Chapter 2 on beam decks and frames now includes ‘demonstrations of the influence of foundation stifnesses on the frame behaviour ofa portal bridge and an archingstracture. Chapter Son slabs ‘now ineludes the analysis of shear-key decks. Chapter 4.0n beam-and "lab bridges has been enlarged with new sections on “orsonless design" ‘which ca simplify the design of some bridges, and on bracing of steel beams. New examples illustrate the grilage analysis of a composite bridge using AASHTO-type prestressed concrete girders, and of a composite steel deck. Chaplet $ on cellular structures includes ‘ditional comparisons between grllage and finite strip snalses. ‘Anew Chapter 6 explains the distortion of box-girder bridges. Examples illustrate the analysis of box geders by beamson-elastic~ foundations, evo types of grllage and space frame models. In recentoy years the author has made increasing use of simple space frame Wealizations of trve-dimensional structures, and Chapter 7 has been fnierged. to demonsrate their wide range of applications. The fiscussion of shea lg and edge stfening in Chapter 8 has additonal ‘comments oa load redistribution. Chapter 9 on skew and curved decks lusrates the interaction of bending and torsion in a space frame analysis of curved multspan bridge. Chapter 11 on temperature and prestress hs been enlarged to demonstrate the use of space frame Todels for calculation of the effects of temperature and presiress. A few example iutrates te effets of petseioning onthe torsion nd ‘ending of acurved multipén bridge. Prestess and other internal loads ‘canbe applied dretly tothe computer mode, in the same manner a8(0 the real structure so that ts nat necessary ocaleulate equvalentioads ‘rt separate the effects into primary’ and secondary’. ‘Anew Chapter 4 bas been inciodedoa testiffnessesofsupports and foundations. ‘The stfinesses of supports and foundations are becoming increasingly important as bridge engineers cur to integral bridge signs with no movement joints in order to reduce maintenance problems. A worked example ilustrates the global analysis of an Ieyral bridge, inciuding deck, supports and groun. Appendix B explains the calculation of vrsion sities ‘The overall objectives ofthe second edition, ike the ist, have been tocaplain and demonstrat the underlying principles of different brie types. Each designer ean apply them (0 Suit the particular bridges, Computer programs and design codes relevant this or her part of the ‘worl. "The book shows how complex structures can be analysed with physical reasoning and relatively simple computer models, and without complicated mathematics. In recent years the computer methods of trlage and space frame have become very popular and accesible as Ticrocomputers and software have developed rapidly. The visual Gisplays Of modern programs can provide an engineer with 0 comprehensive picture and understandiag of the behaviour of his SSructure. Atthe design stage this helps him to manipulate his design fnd so economize in the use of construction materials, During the fnsesarents of old bridges he can examine alternative load paths with {ase andso determine the reserves of strength ashe structure changes. ‘The improvements in facile sace the publication ofthe frst edition now enable the author to analyse in one hour a deck which previously took several days, ‘Engineers, in general, have confidence in their calelaions only ‘whe they ean back ther up with physical easoaing. Fortis reason this book concentrates onthe physical reasoning tht is necessary t0 tanslate provotype behaviour snd properties into computer model,Prete = and vce verse. Most attention i paid to the simpler methods of grilage fnd space frame because they are moze commonly used. With experience engineers are able (0 use physical reasoning and simple mols for the design of relatively complex structures. However, since uch experience involves comparisons of results of these simple tethods with test results and solutions of more rigorous analyses, the prineples of space frame, folded plate and finite element methods are eperbed i later chapters. Te only mathematics thats necessary for the majority of bridge deck designs is surumarized in Chapter 2 and concerns siple beam theory thatis covered in most university Ost ye ‘courses on ei and sructral engineering ‘esential for preliminary design, checks, and when the computers not talable, Initially the author greatly preferred such methods to the feneral use of the computer, and an early draft of this book Eoncentrated on the subject. However with incteased experience and Fesponsioiity.a complete change of attitude became necessary because the computer methods hed the fllowing advantages. 1. They are comprehensible to the majority of engineers, many of ‘whom, though thoroughly competent, do not have the mathematical Experts in techaiques, ch as harmonic analysis, that are needed for accurate application of many hand methods to complicated =| 2, They are applicable to the majority of bridge shapes with skew, curved or continuous decks and with varying stiffness fom region to felon. In ontras, hand methods are simple to use only forthe few bridges which ae rectangular in plan and simply supporte. | 3, The) ave also applicable, with shear Nesiblity, to a much wider sarety of deck crose-sections. 4, They ave checkable; itis much easier to check computer data and ‘output distribution of forces than pages of hand ealeulations. 5. Finally, they are economical, With the development of very convenient and clear gilage programs computer data can be prepared, numerous load cases analysed, and the results processed [ra much shorter time than the equivalent hand calculations can be cried out None the less, because hand methods are sill very useful, some published techniques are reviewed in Chapter 10 and applications of ‘ap design charts are demonstrated. "The accuracy of any method of analysis fr particular structure fs Aificalt o predictor even check. Ie depends on the ability ofthe model fo represent three very complex characters: the behaviour of the material, the geometry of the structure, and the actual loadingConstruction materials, even when homogeneou., have properties Giffering widely fom the clastic, or plastic idealiztions. “When incorporated in astructare they have innumerable Variations oftfiness and strength owing to composition, and ste and life histories. The fnalysis almost invariably simplifies the geometry of the stucture of thick members an assemblage of thin plates or beams. Numerous holes, construction joints, site imperfections and other details are ignored, Finally the desig loadings for lve load, temperature, creep, settlement and 40 on are iealizations based on statistical studies. Is Sinlicly that the crea design load will ever act on the structure even though it might be exceeded. For these reasons, large errors are likely ‘whatever method of analysis is used. It is suggested that greater Emphasis should be given to considering the physical behaviou ofthe Structure and anticipating consequences of calculations beingin error by ‘more than 20% than to refining calculations in pursuit ofthe las 1% of Sppareat accuracy DrE.C. ‘Tin’ Hambly MACantab, PRD, FEng, FICE, FistrucE. MASCE. Home Farm House, Lite Gaddesden, Berkhamsted, Herts HPL IPN. September 199vation Superscript average value or global variable ‘maximum value Felatestotopslab of cellular deck ‘alates to bottom ab of cellular deck Subscripts BEFequivalentbeam bout centro, orcompletesection of equivalent rillgemember, or of effective lange offlange longitudinal ddueto bending ‘ductoshear duet torion| uundrsines related oloading fed Aaxisof member, or moment, force or section property felatedto vertical bending ofthat member pegerdug—sene bout which moment acs principal values ‘harmonic A areaof,crosssection, or part section, or enclosed area as ‘quivaientshear area localaxi for direction of forceand associated shear area or ‘number of end, orslab edge orsupport,ornode, or beam, a sitfness coefficient, or dimension, orharmoniccoefiicient a ‘equivalentsheararea per unit width x‘Notation q Peeata ata tc cto ved apeRtett REE wore Seen cates) ‘beam-on-elastic foundations breadth, o stiffness coefficient, orharmoniccoetiient torsion constant per unit width, or stifness coefficient ‘lular stifiness ratio flexural isicity depth. or thickness ‘Young's modulus eccentricity ofpresress Hexural sities catio shearmodulus snes cooticient Abutment height distance between migplanesofslabsin celular decks ‘istancesof midplanes of top and bottom slabs fom their common centoid ‘moment of inertia = second moment of rea ‘moment ofinertiaperuaitwidth Influence valve shear flenbility parameter stitfnss matrices pring stiffness, orstffness coetficient span, or distance berween points ofcontraflexure length, or web or beam’ spacing, or BEF panel length bendingmoment fixedend moment ‘moment per unit width, or modular rato, ormoment ‘Stem in lexi analysis applied torque harmonic number, ostifnesscoeicient ongia| force, or prestess compression force, or pasive oil, Torce BEF bracingstiffess rads of curvature, or reaction force matrices shear flow rotational stiffness ratio Shear force fixedend shear force soilundraines strength Shear force per unt width, or distance around curvedarcor midplaneee erator oDye, Novation ie torque ‘orgueper unit width or thickness ‘xi rotation transformation matrix pple loadin Oxciretion ‘iplacement in Oxdirection (warping) force or displacement matrices applied loadin Oy dceetion Giplacementin Oy direction, or BEF outof plane sheae! applied loadin Oz direction (vertical downwards), or BEF detection tdsplacementin BEF ceflection horizontal axis along span except whee given local iection) release action in lexibiity analysis Toad matrix horizontal ais transverse ospan except where given local dirsetion) horizontal distance of point to sde of origin or neutral axis amplitude ofharmoniecomponentof verticalload ‘vertical axis downwards (except where givenlocal ‘iretion) ‘vertical distance ofpoint below origin neural axis rection vertical dowawatas),oF angle orcoeffcient thermal expansion, or (n7/L) ‘coetiietsof displacement field BEF parameter shear stain, orsoildensity Alexbity coefficient, or displacement Tinearstrain rotation, usually lope! or inclination of prestress Poisson's ratio tension/compressionstress shearstres ‘ation, usualy 3wiSy, orsoilangeof friction, orereep factor twist = rate ofchange of with engthUnit ‘The examples in this book use St metic uit Dimensions are generally expressed in metres (m) where im = 3.286 Forces are generally expressed in meganewions (MN) where UMN = 1000s Suresses and pressures are expressed in_megapascals (MPa) oF meganewions pr equare metre (MIN/m’), which ste same asnewtons per square millimetre (Nim) MPa = IMNin*1 Structural forms and calculation methods 1,1 INTRODUCTION ‘Bridge decks are developing today as fast as they havea ay time since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution [1-4] The dverstyofsitesis, increasingly challenging the ingenuity of engineers to produce new Structural forms ané appropriate materials. Methods of analysis have Seveloped equally rapidly, parculely with the use of computer tmethos. The actesdty of microcomputersis making progressively taser fr engineers to analyse bridges with complex cross-sections and Complicated. skew, curved and continuous spans. In the past = Considerable amount of theortieal and experimental esearch was required to develo the design methods, Today, however, several have teen developed to such wsable form that, wih an understanding of physical behaviour, designers can analyze complex decks without Fecours fo complicated mathematical theory. “This book concentrates on the simpler computer methods of " transverse diaphragms a computer shear exible grillageis adequate, a, ‘Semonstrated in Chapter 5, In this method the deck i simulated by 2 {grid of beams, as before, but the beams are given the high torsional Stilfaesses ofthe cellular deck, and the slope deflection equations take 30 acoount shear deformation inthe beams, By attributing very low noe analSatay ofmetiods 17 shear stiffasees othe transverse beams, thei deformation in shear can be made to simulate cell distortion. However, the distortion of an Lunbraced single cell boxgirder is much more complicated, as is explained in Chapter, The top and bottom anges dtlet sideways as the box detorts under esentric loading, Gilage methods can be used, but the analysis may not give a sulfiienly detailed picture of the Flevural and membrane stresses in the plate elements, and, for this, additional theee-dimensional analyses may be necessary. Space frame “analyses, described in Chapter 7, have proved reliable and are liked by Several Gesign engineers because the deck i represented Dy an easly “derstood physial structure. Ifthe deck has uniform cross-section (Geseribed in Chapter 12) probably provides the most accurate method. ‘On the other hand, ifthe deck has complicated variations in section and humerous diaphragms, a Gite element analysis (described in Chapter 3} may be nezessary, This method can be complicated and expensive snd itis often found most convenient 1 seit justo study stress flows in Small parts of «structure while simpler methods are used to investigate the lond distribution behaviour ofthe deck asa whole 13 SAFETY OF METHODS 1.3.1 Equilibrium for safe design ‘An essential objective of any load distribution analysis, forthe design of “strut, isto derive a system of forces which satisfies equibrium at ‘every poin between internal forces and applied loads. The importance ‘Of this equilibrium of ealouleted forees cannot be overstated for the feasonsexplined below ‘The caleulation methods in chis book reall based on elastic theory in which itis assumed that the deformations of the structures, and components, are linearly proportional to the applied Toads. At the ‘design stage ofa bridge iti seldom pracucable to predict precisely the ‘ollapse behaviour, Because the materials have either 2 nonlinear behaviour near failure, or have uncertain strengths. None the les i is possible to use elastic theory to produce a design which is safe and “The shortcomings of elastic theory were overcome to acertain extent by plastic theory which was developed forthe design of structares made ‘with yielding material, such se stee! and conerete. Unfortunately Plast methods ae not as easy to use aselstie methods for complicated Structures, and simple computer programs based on plastic theory are ‘ot realy avilable for bridge design, However plastic theory includes18 Structoral forms and enlculain methods a safe design theorem, orlowerbound theorem [that provides very tseful theoretical safety net for design by elastic methods "The safe design theorem, based on plastic theory, can be stated as follows. ‘A structure willbe safe when subjected to «design loading if the forces land stresses calculated throughout the srcture are in equilibrium ‘wih each other and wih the design loading, and if they do not lnyrohereexced the ld srengahs ofthe material, 1. the calculated forces and stresses should be everywhere in equilibrium: 2. the materials should be ductile; ie. able 1 yield without loss of strength prio 0 file: 3. the structure should not lose strength by busking. isnot necessary thatthe calculated system of forces should be exact predictions ofthe system that wil exist ia the cea structure I is only Fesessary thatthe calculated system of forces satisfies equibsium at a ‘Suey point. In practice tis impossible to predict the exact system of forces that will exist, snd consequently the safe design theorem provices ‘very useflrensurance, Its inevitable that the forces calculated the ‘esign stage wll some places be overestimates ofthe foresin there ‘Structure and elsewhere underestimates, Ductlty of materials ensures that i's component is atually subjected to foroes exceeding the ) ‘alulated values, the material can yield without losing strength, andso fedistribute load to regions that are loaded less than calculated However, the safe design theorem does not apply i buckling can ) intervene so that strength is lost during load redistribution. "The safe design theorem implies that a design should be safe even ‘when minor mistakes have been made inthe estimation of component 3 ‘ilfnesses, as long as equilibrium is satsfied and every component has ‘Guctiity and can carry the force calelated for it. However. if the stifness of a component is overestimated with the resule that the caleulated force in the component is incorrectly high, the component y must be designed for the high force or elie the analysis must be Fepeated. would be incorrect to recalculate areduced free or sressin isolation, unless compensating increases are accounted fr elsewhere } 1.322 Systematic us of global and local analyses } ‘The analysis of a complex structure is greatly simplified i the caleulations are subdivided into levels of global, local and detailed fanlyse, thus >Satay ofmetiods 1. the global analysis examines the distribution of forces and teflestions along the spans of a multspan bridge, and across the ‘with ofa wide bridge: 2. the lca analysis examines the distribution of forces and deflections fround one beam oF par of a span: 5 the detalled analysis examines the steeses at particular points in & part ofthe stractare “This subdivision of the analytical process takes advantage of St \Venant's principle [6], which states that 1 the forces on «small portion ofan ease body are replaced by Choir stata equivalent satire of forces om the same portion of the body, this redistribution of loading produces substantial changes in the stresses locally but as negligible effer on the stresses at tdistances which are large in comparison wih the dimensions of he Portion on whick he forces are changed Ineffect each ofthe levels of analysis can be undertaken independently of the geometric detals of more localized analyses as long as the fnalyses are undertaken for statically equivalent systems of frees “The statieal equivalence of the forces in the different analyses is ‘essential not anly to comply with St Venant’spiacple but aso to take ‘advantage ofthe efe design theorem outlined in Section 13.1. The ‘ilelated system of forces and stresses inthe cferent levels of analysis fan be Kept in equlibrium between analyses and within each analysis if the forces onthe boundary of each analysis are statically equivalent to the fores on the equivalent pat ofthe otha analyses. “The boundary conditions ofa local analysis, or a detailed analysis, ‘might be derived from either the forces or the displacements output from the next larger level of analysis, Ideally, the sineses ofthe ‘analyses are similar so that the displacement of the diferent analyses tre compatible at the same time that forces are in equilibrium. However in general it i impracticable to make the siffoesses exactly the same, s0then the boundary conditions of thelocal analysis shouldbe ‘made with a system of forces Which statically equivalent tothe forces ‘inthe sme region ofthe global analysis rather than with compatible dlsplacements 41.33 Serviceabilty and fatigue ‘Thesafe design theorem rlatesto calculations forthe ultimate strength ofa structure. The elastic methods ofthis book are also applicable to Calculations for serviceability and working conditions, and for fatigue tunder Puctuating loads. Many structures behave elastically under the» Structural forms and cakalaton methods lowcamplitude cyclic loading which can cause fatigue damage However, fatigue strength clculaions do not benefit fom the safety net provided by the safe design theorem since no ductile redsteibuion Secu, The accurate prediction of local stesies depends on the fccurate prediction of relative stifaeses throughout the structure (Calculated stresses and fatigue lives wll be realistic ony ifthe spread of sttinesses seals “The serviceabiiy and working conditions canbe the most difficult to model since bridge structures, and the ground supporting them, “Speriance longterm changes dive ta.craep, shrinkage and selement ‘The long-term behaviour under dead load can fer markedly ftom the short-term behaviour under live load, The uncertainties of long-term effects have often been avoided in he past by making structures Statcally determinate with numerous movement joints. However, ‘widespread maintenance problems, ausocated with water and salts penetrating the joint, ae leading to pressure on designers to avoid ‘movement joints when posible. Iis likely that more structures will be tatieally indeterminate nthe future, When long-term elects cannot be predicted precisely, itis usualy possible to produce calculations for {Upper and lower bound estimates, Computer programs are 20W 0 easy to use that a stratore can be reanalysed quickly for a variety of sfifesses, corresponding to diferest shorterm and long-term conditions. 1.34 Simple methods for safe design “This book champions the simpler methods of computer analysis using _gllage, or space frame, forthe following reasons. 1. The gillage and space fame methods are able to calclatesystems of forces which are in equilibrium with themselves and with applied loads throughout the structure. Well-vritten computer programs report on & check that equilibrium has been achieved after each ‘sleulation, and s0 benefit fom the safety net ofthe safe design theorem 2, Grillage and space frame methods calculate beam forces, as opposed tolocal stresses, Beam forces canbe used bath for strength design of Structural components, in which local stresses may be nonlinear, as tnellas for permissible sess design wth linear distributions 3, Calculated beam forees can be compared directly with strength formulae for beams in codes of practice. In contrast, codes of practice provide celativey lite guidance on conditions of stress at & point 44. The computer should calculate auromatcaly the forces in every