1-Basic Concept of Measurement Systems

EDB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems
A Major/Technical Elective Course:

B. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering with Honours (Instrumentation and Control)
B. of Chemical Engineering with Honours (Process Analysis and Control)
Course Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nordin Saad Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Office: 23-03-005
Course Outline
❑ Basic Concept of Measurement Systems

❑ Pressure Measurement/Calibration
❑ Flow Measurement/Calibration
❑ Level Measurement/Calibration
❑ Temperature Measurement/Calibration
❑ Loop Drawing
❑ Programmable Logic Controllers
❑ SCADA/DCS
❑ Fieldbus
EDB 4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems Assoc. Prof. Dr Nordin Saad Topic 1 Basic Concepts- 1
ONLINE Lecture/Tutorial 4 hrs/week
Course Time-table
ULearn UTP/BBB
Microsoft Teams
Lectures - 2 hrs per week
Laboratory (Case Study)- 2 hrs on selected week
Tutorials (Assignments) - 2 hrs on selected week
Course Resources
Lecture notes, Tutorial examples

Textbook: e-books available in Ulearn
Williams C Dunn, Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Process Control, 2nd Ed,

McGrawHill
W. Bolton, Programmable Logic Controllers, 4th Edition 2006, Elsevier-Newnes
Assessment
Extended Assignment (35%), Tests (20%x2), Laboratory (15%),

and Assignments (10%).
This topic covers the key and base areas of automation in the process industries.
Synopsis Learning Outcomes
This course cover topics related to measurements

(PLTF) and automation in the process industry. These that students are expected to achieved after
include a study on industrial sensors and actuators, industrial successfully completing the course
controllers such as computer-based control, PLC, DCS and
FF.
Process , Industrial Instr.& Meas. Automation DCS and Foundation Fieldbus
The learning outcomes related to The learning outcomes related to The learning outcomes related to
Industrial instruments and Automation and the implementation of DCS and Fieldbus use in process
Measurements Programmable logic controller industries.
• Have knowledge and understanding
of the various process industry
• Have knowledge and understanding • Have knowledge and
instruments, concept of
of the PLC architecture and its understanding of a DCS and its
measurements, calibration and
importance in automation. use in process industries, and the
configuration requirements and
features and architecture of a
their applications. • Be able to develop a PLC program
Fieldbus system, and its
to perform sequential, and batch
• Be able to design and develop a improvement over the
control.
control loop consisting the process conventional DCS.
instruments, based on a prescribed
requirement.
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
This course covers topics related to the implementation of computer control in

industrial automation. These include a study on industrial sensors and actuators,
industrial controllers such as computer-based control, programmable logic controller
(PLC), distributed control systems (DCS) and Fieldbus systems, and interfacing.
Upon the completion of the course, students are expected to be able to:
COURSE OBJECTIVES
EDB4223 INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
Differentiate the concept of measurements and process control

CO1
instruments.
Analyse and demonstrate calibration requirements in process control
CO2
applications.
Analyse measurement techniques and design control loop for industrial
CO3
process instrumentation.
Design and construct a PLC program to perform sequential and batch
CO4
process applications.
Analyse the structure of a SCADA/DCS/Fieldbus and their application in
CO5
process industries.
Industrial Instrumentation and
Measurements
What are the instruments involved?
Basic Concepts
How to ensure the measurement are
accurate ?
What are the

Standard signals in
instrumentation?
Module Outcomes
• At the end of this module, students should be able to:
1. Explain the combination of important elements in a measurement
system.
2. Determine accuracy, precision, range, span, of a measuring
instrument.
3. Quantify and interpret absolute, relative, maximum and
aggregated errors of an instrument.
4. Describe the sources of instrument errors.
5. Calculate sensitivity and the effect of changing conditions on
sensitivity.
Measurement
• The use of an instrument to determine present
state, condition or characteristic of a physical
variable in quantitative terms (numerical)
Instrument: device to detect and determine value of quantity / variable that
includes the sensing device, transducer element, data processing and
representation
Example: DC ammeter, oscilloscope, pH meter, thermometer, flow transmitter,
level transmitter, pressure transmitter, temperature transmitter
Feedback Control System
▪ Measurement of
control variables
▪ Comparator
▪ Computation and
control
▪ Actuation
Measurement System - Elements
1. Primary Element / Sensor
- first responds to change and receives energy from the measured
variable
- output is another physical variable
Example: flow (input) → differential pressure (output),
temperature (input) → resistance (output)
- always extracts a bit of energy from the measured variable
- measured medium is always disturbed, impossible to get perfect
measurement
2. Variable Conversion Element / Transducer
- Converts sensor output into a suitable variable while keeping the
original content of the signal
- Usually converts output into another form of energy
Example: flow (input) → differential pressure (output) → resistance
temperature (input) → resistance (output) → voltage
3. Signal Conditioning Element 4. Signal Transmission Element

(Variable Manipulation) - To cross physical distance
- Change the signal according between measuring/control
to specific rules elements
- Includes (but not limited to) - Includes transmission standards
amplification, noise filtering, such as 4-20 mA, 0-5 V or
limiter/saturation, quantization, wireless protocols
correction factor
5. Signal Presentation & Recording

- Measurement signal to be communicated to human operator
- Suitable display method must be chosen
- Transmitted data can be recorded or recreated for history and
further analysis, even as legal evidence
Basic Concepts of Measurement Systems
• Objective of measurements
To establish the value or the tendency of some

variable based on the value or the tendency suggested by the
measurement device.
• General Measurement System
A measurement assigns a specific value to a physical

variable, measured variables.
SI Units of Measurement
• Fundamental physical properties prescribed by
Système International d'Unités (SI) measured
described in terms of type (unit) and magnitude
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric Current Ampere A
Thermodynamic Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous Intensity candela cd
Matter mole mol
Derived Units
• Combination derived from basic SI quantities, some with special units.
Quantity Unit Symbol

Area Square meter m2
Volume Cubic meter m3
Velocity Metre per second m/s
Acceleration Metre per second squared m/s2
Force Newton N = kg-m/s2
Work/Energy Joule J = N-m
Power Watt W = J/s
Electric Charge Coulomb A-s
Voltage volt V = W/A
Resistance Ohm Ω = V/A
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb = V-s
Standards of Measurement
• Closest possible accuracy technology can produce
International
• Maintained by International Bureau of Weight and Measures
Standards in Paris
• Base SI and derived units, maintained by national standards

Primary libraries eg. PTB (Germany), Underwriters Laboratories
Standards (UL), SIRIM
• Independently calibrated to international standards.
Secondary • Reference standard used by industry.

Standards • Checked locally against primary standards.
• Principal tools used by measurement laboratory to check and

Working calibrate general laboratory equipment
Standards • Calibrated or checked against secondary standards.
In process control …
• This course (EDB4223) puts emphasis on the four (4)

major control variables in process control, P,L,F,T
needed for implementation of automatic control.
• Allows the application of transmitters, controller, and
recorders in the control loop to achieve a required
control.
• Allows investigation on the limitations of the
instruments for process control, and the importance
of correct measurements, in a control system.
Instrument Characteristics
• Static properties Dynamic properties

• characteristics when relationship between input and
output when measured quantity
measurement remains varies
constant or has reached
steady-state
Relates to each particular instrument…
Static Characteristics
• True Value • Sensitivity
• Resolution • Linearity
• Threshold • Bias / Offset
• Range / Span • Drift
• Accuracy • Dead Zone
• Error / Tolerance • Hysteresis
• Precision • Stability
• Repeatability /
Reproducibility
Accuracy vs. Precision
True value
• Accuracy
• Closeness /conformity to the “true
value” of a quantity under
measurement
• Precision
• Closeness of 2 or more
measurements of each other
• Repeatability, or Reproducibility of
the measurement (measure /
difference of successive
measurements)
Repeatability and Reproducibility
• Repeatability
• Closeness of > 2
measurements
performed using the
same instruments and
procedure, in the same
conditions, by the same
person and repeated in a
short period of time.
• Reproducibility
• Degree of agreement of
measurements
reproduced using
different instruments,
by different people, in
different location and
conditions.
Resolution
Resolution is the smallest amount of input signal change that
the instrument can detect reliably.
Range / Span
• Use to define the set of all possible values of the measured variable or the
instrument, from minimum to maximum values
• May refer to the span eg. 0 – 10 bar, - 5 to 5 V or as the size of span eg.
10 bar, 10 V,
ie., the algebraic difference between URV and LRV of a transmitter.
• Range of an instrument is chosen about 20 – 30% from the lowest and
uppermost expected value of the variable to avoid saturation and signal
loss
eg., Calibration range, specified between 4 to 20 mA
eg., Instrument range-the working range of the measuring devices, eg.,
the max and minimum pressure values that a pressure transmitter can
handle.
Another important term:
• Threshold – limit of measured variable, usually in relation to cross
between different states (ON/OFF, Low alarm / Normal / High alarm)
Error
▪ A measure of accuracy, deviation from “true value” of
measured variable.
▪ Difference between measured value and “true value”.
▪ In the absence of “true value”, can be replaced with
theoretical or expected value
Absolute Error, E = Measured Value, Xm – True Value, Xt (unit)
Relative Error, E = X m − X t 100%

Xt
Example 1: Pressure Measurement
Pressure Gauge: measurement range 0 -10 bar

Full-scale reading accuracy: fs  1.0%
measured value − true value

% error = 100%
true value
Maximum error: emax = 1.0% 10 bar

= 0.1 bar
Measurement error for (1  0.1 bar ) − 1 bar

reading 1 bar (in %): e1bar = 100 = 10%
1 bar
Instrument Sensitivity
▪ Ratio of instrument output in response to change of input /
measured variable
Δ instrument output
Sensitivity =
Δ measured variable
▪ Resolution - smallest change in measured value instrument able to

record
▪ Significant Figures - reporting measurement in consistent degree
of precision
Important Note: The use of sensitivity ratio implies that the
relationship between input and output of an instrument is LINEAR.
Linearity and Measurement Sensitivity
Linearity
• instrument output is
proportional to measured
quantity
Sensitivity:
Scale deflection
Sensitivity =
Value
= Slope
Linearity and Deviations
(a) and (b), relates to zero drift (c), relates to

sensitivity drift
Note: Static properties change with ambient conditions (temperature,

humidity, pressure) changed …
Example 2: Measurement Sensitivity
Platinum resistance thermometers:

resistivity measured at varying temperatures
Temperature Resistance
(deg C) (Ohm)
200 307 Resistance vs. Temperature
230 314 330
260 321 325
Resistance ()
320
290 328
315
Measurement sensitivity:
310
7
Rsens = =   305

0.233 / C 150 200 250 300
30 C Temperature (C)
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Zero Drift
• Also known as bias
• Affects zero reading when
condition changes, constant
error across full range
Sensitivity Drift
 Also known as scale factor drift
 Instrument sensitivity changes
when condition changes
Example 3: Zero & Sensitivity Drift
Spring Balance: Load (kg) 0 1 2 3
calibrated at 20C Deflect (mm) 0 20 40 60
Load (kg) 0 1 2 3
used at 30C Deflect (mm) 5 27 49 71
Measurement sensitivity: Sensitivity
20 mm
S 20C = = 20 mm / kg 80
1 kg
Deflection (mm)
60
22 mm
S30C = = 22 mm / kg
1 kg 40
Zero drift = 5 mm 20
Sensitivity drift = 2 mm/kg 0
Zero drift coefficient = 5 mm/10 C = 0.5 mm /C 0 1
Load (kg)
2 3
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)

Sensitivity drift coefficient = 2 (mm/kg)/10 C
= 0.2 (mm/kg) /C
Types of Errors
• Gross Error: human error due to incorrect use of equipment, wrong
observation, carelessness etc.
• Systematic Errors (from measurement process)
– Instrumental: inherent to measuring eqpt.
• Static: limitation of device
• Dynamic: inability to respond to change in measured variable
(eg., accelerometer used for measuring vibrations, has
characteristic of a second order instrument)
– Environmental: due to change in external conditions (temperature,
pressure, humidity, magnetic / electric fields)
• Random Errors: (from measurement process)
perturbations of the measurement either side of the true value caused by
random and unpredictable effects, such that positive errors and negative
errors occur in approximately equal numbers for a series of measurements
made of the same quantity. due to unknown causes
Gross Errors
Caused by human error due to incorrect use of equipment, wrong
observation, carelessness etc.
• Erroneous
• Careful attention and calculations
observation • Improper choice of
• Awareness of instruments
instrument limitations Reduction Other • Incorrect adjustment
• Taking at least 3 Methods Examples • Neglect of loading
readings effects
• >1 observer to observe
critical data
Estimation
• Not possible to
estimate
Systematic Errors
Can come from 2 sources:
1. Instrumental: inherent to measuring equipment
• Static: limitation of device
• Dynamic: inability to respond to change in measured variable
2. Environmental: due to change in external conditions (temperature,
pressure, humidity, magnetic/electric fields)
Systematic Errors
1. Instrumental: inherent to measuring equipment

• Bearing friction
• Nonlinearities
• Calibration errors in
calibrator or
Examples measuring tool used
• Damaged components
in field device
• Mechanical friction
• Careful calibration • Loose coupling
• Inspection of equipment
• Reduction
Applying correction factors • Compare to more
Estimation
• Intelligent instruments
Methods accurate standard
• Check if error is
constant or
proportional
Systematic Errors
2. Environmental: due to change in external conditions
• Hermetically seal
equipment and
• Careful monitoring components
of changes • Signal filtering
• Calculate expected • Maintain constant
changes / drifts temperature and
humidity
Reduction • Shield equipment from
Estimation
Methods
stray magnetic fields
• Use equipment not
affected greatly by
environmental
changes
Random Errors
• Unknown events that causes small variations in measurements.
• Random and unexplainable
• Estimate: Take many readings and conduct statistical analysis
• Methods of reduction:
1. Careful design of eqpt to reduce unwanted interference
2. Statistical analysis to determine best estimate and/or outlier values
Statistical Analysis of Measurement
• Arithmetic mean (average) of readings:
x1 + x2 +  + xn i =1 xi
n
x= =
n n
where, x = measured value,

n = number of reading / measurement
• Average reading the most likely value for measured
variable
Statistical Analysis of Measurement
d1 = x1 − x d 2 = x2 − x  d n = xn − x
d12 + d 22 +  + d n2  i
d 2
= = i =1
n −1 n −1
Probable Random Error
• Probable error, r r = 0.6745

– random errors that lie scattered within 50% probability region around
mean based on the Gaussian (normal distribution).
Deviation Fraction Area

σ
0.6745 0.5000
1.0 0.6828
2.0 0.9546
3.0 0.9972
Example 4: Statistical Analysis
Reading Deviation Determine:
R (Ω) d d2 a) measurement range
100.2 0.2 0.04 Range = Rmax − Rmin = 100.5 − 99.3 = 1.2 
100.3 0.3 0.09
99.8 -0.2 0.04 b) average reading
100.5 0.5 0.25

10
Ri 999 .5
99.3 0.7 0.49 Rave = i =1
= = 100 .0 
10 10
100.4 0.4 0.16
100.1 0.1 0.01 Precision:
c) Deviation, d
99.5 -0.5 0.25 ONE decimal
99.7 0.3 0.09 - as shown in table -
99.7 0.3 0.09
Reading Deviation Determine:
R (Ω) d d2 d) standard deviation
100.2 0.2 0.04 n
100.3 0.3 0.09

d i
2
1.51
= i =1
= = 0.4 
99.8 -0.2 0.04 n −1 10 − 1
100.5 0.5 0.25

99.3 0.7 0.49 e) probable error
100.4 0.4 0.16
Probable error, r = 0.6745 = 0.2763 
100.1 0.1 0.01
99.5 -0.5 0.25
99.7 0.3 0.09
99.7 0.3 0.09
… example of a statistical analysis
Number of measurement, n = 11
Average (mean) reading = 409
 deviation 2
= 1370
Variance,  2 =
 deviation 2
=
1370
= 137
Variance measures the
average degree to which each
n −1 10 point differs from the mean—
Standard deviation,  = 137 = 11.7 the average of all data points.
Probable error, r = 0.6745 = 7.89

Standard deviation looks at how spread out a group of numbers is from the mean
(or expected value)
Low standard deviation- most of the numbers are close to the average.
High standard deviation -the numbers are more spread out
Maximum and Likely Errors
THREE separate sources of error are identified:
• system loading: 1.2%
• environmental changes: 0.8%
• calibration error: 0.5%
Maximum possible error =

 (1.2 + 0.8 + 0.5)% = 2.5%
Likely error =
 1.2 2 + 0.82 + 0.52 %
= 1.53%
Aggregated Errors (1)
• When a measurement system is made up of several components -

each with its error estimate – the combined error needs to be
aggregated
Error in a sum , and Error in a difference
• For 2 outputs y and z of separate components with maximum errors

of ay and bz respectively, - where a and b are errors fractions -
the sum / difference S is
S = ( y  z)  e Note: Here e is the

absolute error.
where likely error, e = (ay ) 2 + (bz ) 2
Example 5: Errors in a Sum
The total resistance of 2 resistors (to 3 significant figures) each with a

tolerance of:
R1 = 99.3  1.0% Note: a = 0.01, b = 0.065
R = 46.123  6.5%
2
relative errors
Solution: e =  (0.01 99.3) 2 + (0.065  46.123) 2

=  0.986 + 8.988 = 3.158
 RT = ( R1 + R2 )  e
= 145.423  3.158 
= 145   2.17%
THREE significant figures
Example 6: Errors in a Difference
The difference between 2 voltage measurements, VD:

V1 = 100 V  1%
V2 = 80 V  5%
Solution:
The maximum likely error,
e =  (0.01100) 2 + (0.05  80) 2
=  1 + 16 = 4.123
Note: The percentage VT = (V1 − V2 )  e
error increases for
difference between
= 20  4.123 V
measurements. = 20 V  20.6%
Aggregated Errors (2)
Error in a product , and Error in a quotient
• For 2 outputs y and z of separate components with maximum errors of ay

and bz respectively, the product P is
P = yz  e
y
and the quotient (or ratio) Q is Q= e
z
where e = a 2 + b 2 Note: Here e is the relative

/ percentage error.
Example 7: Errors in a Product
If the density of a substance is calculated from measurements of its mass and
volume, where the respective errors are 2 and 3%, find the maximum likely error
in the density value.
Solution:
Since density is mass per unit volume m , then the likely error is
=
V
e = 0.02 2 + 0.032
=  0.0013 = 0.036
Example 8: Errors in a Product
The current through RT is measured at 3.15 mA using a 0 – 10 mA ammeter with
full-scale accuracy of  0.1%. Determine the voltage across RT = 2k with
tolerance 5%.
Solution: Voltage, V = IR V = 3.15 mA  2 k  e = 6.3 V  e

To calculate likely relative error in
Maximum error for I, voltage V
emax = (0.1% 10 mA) = 0.01 mA e =  0.317 2 + 52 % = 5.01%
Therefore at reading of 3.15 mA,
In absolute error
(3.15  0.01)mA − 3.15 mA
e3.15 mA = e = 5.01%  6.3 V = 0.316 V
3.15 mA
= 3.17 10 −3 OR = 0.317%  V = 6.3  0.316 V
= 6.3 V  5.01%
Example 9: Errors in a Ratio
Power calculation using following resistance value and voltage measured across
resistor:
R = 820   10%
V = 4.5 V on 0 - 10 V voltmeter, inaccuracy  0.2% full - scale
V2
Solution: Power, P= e P = 4.52 / 820  e = 24.7 mW  e
R
To calculate likely relative error in
Maximum error for V, power P (2 variables in product, 1 in
emax = (0.2% 10) = 0.02 V ratio)
e =  2  0.44 2 + 10 2 % = 10.02%
Therefore at reading of 4.5 V,
In absolute error
(4.5  0.02) − 4.5
e4.5V = e = 10.02%  24.7 mW = 2.47 mW
4.5
= 4.4 10 −3 OR = 0.44%  P = 24.7  2.47 mW
= 24.7 mW  10.02%

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EDB4223 Industrial Automation & Control Systems

A Major/Technical Elective Course:

❑ Basic Concept of Measurement Systems

Lecture notes, Tutorial examples

Williams C Dunn, Fundamentals of Instrumentation and Process Control, 2nd Ed,

Extended Assignment (35%), Tests (20%x2), Laboratory (15%),

Synopsis Learning Outcomes

This course cover topics related to measurements

Process , Industrial Instr.& Meas. Automation DCS and Foundation Fieldbus

This course covers topics related to the implementation of computer control in

Differentiate the concept of measurements and process control

What are the

3. Signal Conditioning Element 4. Signal Transmission Element

5. Signal Presentation & Recording

To establish the value or the tendency of some

• General Measurement System

A measurement assigns a specific value to a physical

Quantity Unit Symbol

• Base SI and derived units, maintained by national standards

Secondary • Reference standard used by industry.

• Principal tools used by measurement laboratory to check and

• This course (EDB4223) puts emphasis on the four (4)

• Static properties Dynamic properties

Absolute Error, E = Measured Value, Xm – True Value, Xt (unit)

Relative Error, E = X m − X t 100%

Pressure Gauge: measurement range 0 -10 bar

measured value − true value

Maximum error: emax = 1.0% 10 bar

Measurement error for (1  0.1 bar ) − 1 bar

▪ Resolution - smallest change in measured value instrument able to

(a) and (b), relates to zero drift (c), relates to

Note: Static properties change with ambient conditions (temperature,

Platinum resistance thermometers:

260 321 325

Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)

1. Instrumental: inherent to measuring equipment

2. Environmental: due to change in external conditions

where, x = measured value,

• Probable error, r r = 0.6745

Deviation Fraction Area

100.3 0.3 0.09

100.5 0.5 0.25

Probable error, r = 0.6745 = 7.89

Maximum possible error =

• When a measurement system is made up of several components -

Error in a sum , and Error in a difference

• For 2 outputs y and z of separate components with maximum errors

S = ( y  z)  e Note: Here e is the

The total resistance of 2 resistors (to 3 significant figures) each with a

Solution: e =  (0.01 99.3) 2 + (0.065  46.123) 2

The difference between 2 voltage measurements, VD:

Error in a product , and Error in a quotient

• For 2 outputs y and z of separate components with maximum errors of ay

where e = a 2 + b 2 Note: Here e is the relative

Solution: Voltage, V = IR V = 3.15 mA  2 k  e = 6.3 V  e

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