QURTABA UNIVERSITY

Submitted By:SHOAIB ULLAH

Submitted To : SIR FAHAD ALI
Program : Bs English
SUBJECT : INTRO TO IR
Paper : INTRO TO IR
ID : 13607
Semester :5 th

Question No # 1: Define the term ‘international

organization’ and explain its types in your own words?
Ans: International Organization:
An international organization can be defined, following the
International Law Commission, as an 'organization established by a
treaty or other instrument governed by international law and possessing
its own international legal personality'.
International organizations generally have States as
members, but often other entities can also apply for membership. They
both make international law and are governed by it. Yet, the decision-
making process of international organizations is often 'less a question of
law than one of political judgement'

• According to J.G. Starke

Although strictly speaking the structure and working of these bodies and
associations are primarily the concern of the department of political
science known as international organization or administration; their
activies nonetheless impiringe upon the field of international law.

• According to Quincy Wright

International Organization is the Art of creating and administering general
and regional organization comprising independent state to facilitate
cooperation in realicommon purpose and objectives.

• According to Jacob and Atherton

International Organization is a association of sovereign states. They have
governmental function to perform but they do not have the powers
normally assumed by government

Organic Structure of International Organization

The organic structure of International organization is as below

• Headquarter

The international organization set or fix the location of headquarter. There

might have branch at different regional but the headquarter would be the
central office.

• Membership
There are two types of membership
a) original or founder members and
b) subsequet members
Both members enjoys the same statute and facilities.

• Objectives
The International organization set up some objectives. The main roles of
international organization would be to achieving such objectives.

Types of International Organization

• Inter-Governmental Organization
These are organizations that are made up primarily
of sovereign states ( member states). Intergovernmental organizations
are an important aspect of public international law. IGOs are
established by treaty that acts as a charter creating the group. Treaties
are formed when lawful representatives (governments) of several
states go through a ratification process, providing the IGO with an
international legal personality. Notable examples include the United
Nations (UN).

• International Non-Governmental Organization

United Nations now describe a International Non-
Governmental Organization(INGOs) as a “not-for- profit, voluntary
citizen’s group, which is organized on international level to address issues
in support of the public good. INGOs perform a variety of services and
humanitarian functions, bring citizens concerns to governments, monitor
policy and programme implementation, and encourage participation of
Civil Society stakeholders at the community level.
Examples; Oxfam, CARE.

• Global Organization

This is type of organization which draws its members from all over the
world and membership is open to all. They generally open to nations
worldwide as long as certain criteria and all requirements set are met. This
category includes the United Nations (UN) and its specialized agencies,
Universal Postal Union, Interpol, World Trade Organization, World
Custom Organization, International Monetary Fund and World Bank.

• Regional Organization
They incorporate international membership and encompass
geopolitical entities that operationally transcend a single nation state.
However, their membership is characterized by boundaries and
demarcations characteristic to a defined and unique geography, such as
continents, or geopolitics, such as economic blocks.
Examples :African Union (AU), European Union (EU), the
Organization of American States (OAS), the Caribbean Community
(CARICOM), the Arab League, Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN).

• Sub-Regional Organization
These are organizations formed by member states who are
strategically located in same geographic block. The membership is limited
only to members in certain sub regions and members from other regions
not allowed to join.
Examples: include ECOWAS (Economic Community Of West Africa
States), EAC (East Africa Community), IGAD, SADC, UMA (Arab
Maghreb Union) among others.

• Inter-State Treaty Form Organization

A treaty between states enjoins the involvement of the
legislative as well as the executive organ of the government is called Inter
State Treaty Form Organization.

• Inter-Government Treaty Form Organization

A treaty between government enjoins the only involvement of
administrative organ of the government is called Inter-Government Treaty
Form Organization.
Example; IMF.
Question No # 2:Critically evaluate the idea of International
Economic Integration and explain different levels of economic
integration?
Ans: Economic Integration:
Economic integration is an arrangement among nations
that typically includes the reduction or elimination of trade barriers and
the coordination of monetary and fiscal policies. Economic integration
aims to reduce costs for both consumers and producers and to increase
trade between the countries involved in the agreement.

Economic integration is sometimes referred to as regional integration as

it often occurs among neighboring nations.

Stages of Economic Integration: There are several stages

in the process of economic integration, from a very loose association of
countries in a preferential trade area, to complete economic integration,
where the economies of member countries are completely integrated.

• Preferential Trade Area

Preferential Trade Areas (PTAs) exist when countries within a
geographical region agree to reduce or eliminate tariff barriers on
selected goods imported from other members of the area. This is often
the first small step towards the creation of a trading bloc. Agreements
may be made between two countries (bi-lateral), or several countries
(multi-lateral).

• Free Trade Area

Free Trade Areas (FTAs) are created when two or more countries in a
region agree to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade on all goods coming
from other members. The North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
is an example of such a free trade area, and includes the USA, Canada,
and Mexico.

• Customs Union
A customs union involves the removal of tariff barriers between
members, together with the acceptance of a common (unified)
external tariff against non-members.

Countries that export to the customs union only need to make a single
payment (duty), once the goods have passed through the border. Once
inside the union goods can move freely without additional tariffs. Tariff
revenue is then shared between members, with the country that collects
the duty retaining a small share.
 • Common Market
A common (or single) market is the most significant step towards full
economic integration. In the case of Europe, the single market is
officially referred to a the ‘internal market’.

The key feature of a common market is the extension of free trade from
just tangible goods, to include all economic resources. This means that
all barriers are eliminated to allow the free movement of goods, services,
capital, and labour.

In addition, as well as removing tariffs, non-tariff barriers are also

reduced and eliminated.

• Economic union
Economic union is a term applied to a trading bloc that has both a
common market between members, and a common trade policy towards
non-members, although members are free to pursue independent
macro-economic policies.

The European Union (EU) is the best known Economic union, and came
into force on November 1st 1993 following the signing of the Maastricht
Treaty (formally called the Treaty on European Union.)

• Monetary Union
Monetary union is the first major step towards macro-economic
integration, and enables economies to converge even more closely.
Monetary union involves scrapping individual currencies, and adopting a
single, shared currency, such as the Euro for the Euro-17 countries, and
the East Caribbean Dollar for 11 islands in the East Caribbean. This
means that there is a common exchange rate, a common monetary
policy, including interest rates and the regulation of the quantity of
money, and a single central bank, such as the European Central Bank or
the East Caribbean Central Bank.

• Fiscal Union
A fiscal union is an agreement to harmonise tax rates, to establish
common levels of public sector spending and borrowing, and jointly
agree national budget deficits or surpluses. The majority of EU states
agreed a fiscal compact in early 2012, which is a less binding version of
a full fiscal union.
 • Economic and Monetary Union
Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) is a key stage towards compete
integration, and involves a single economic market, a common trade
policy, a single currency and a common monetary policy.

• Complete Economic Integration

Complete economic integration involves a single economic market, a
common trade policy, a single currency, a common monetary policy,
together with a single fiscal policy, including common tax and benefit
rates – in short, complete harmonisation of all policies, rates, and
economic trade rules.

Explain extensively in your own words the main causes of

war?
Definition Of War:A war is typically fought by a country or group
of countries against an opposing country or group with the aim of
achieving an objective through the use of force. Wars can also be fought
within a country in the form of a civil or revolutionary war.

Main Causes of War:

There are six main causes of war which are given below.

• 1.Economic Gain
• 2.Territorial Gain
• 3.Religion
• 4.Nationalism
• 5.revolutional war

1. Economic gain:
Often wars are caused by one country's wish to take control
of another country's wealth. Whatever the other reasons for a war may
be, there is almost always an economic motive underlying most conflicts,
even if the stated aim of the war is presented to the public as something
more noble.In pre-industrial times, the gains desired by a warring
country might be precious materials such as gold and silver, or livestock
such as cattle and horses.
 Some scientists believe that as the world’s population
increases and basic resources become scarce, wars will be fought more
often over fundamental essentials, such as water and food.

Example:

Historical Examples of Wars Fought for Economic Gain.Anglo-Indian

Wars (1766-1849):

The Anglo-Indian wars were a series of wars fought between the British
East India Company and different Indian states. These wars led to the
establishment of British colonial rule in India, which gave Britain
unrestricted access to exotic and valuable resources native to the Indian
continent.

2.Territorial Gain:
A country might decide that it needs more land, either for living space,
agricultural use, or other purposes. Territory can also be used as “buffer
zones” between two hostile enemies.Related to buffer zones are proxy
wars. These are conflicts that are fought indirectly between opposing
powers in a third country. Each power supports the side which best suits
their logistical, military, and economic interests.Proxy wars were
particularly common during the Cold War.

Example:

Historical Examples of Wars Fought for Territorial Gain.Mexican-

American War (1846-1848) .This war was fought following the
annexation of Texas, with Mexico still claiming the land as their own.
The U.S. outfought the Mexicans, retaining Texas and incorporating it as
a state.

3.Religion:
Religious conflicts often have very deep roots. They can lie dormant for
decades, only to re-emerge in a flash at a later date. Religious wars can
often be tied to other reasons for conflict, such as nationalism or
revenge for a perceived historical slight in the past.While different
religions fighting against each other can be a cause of war, different
sects within a religion (for example, Protestant and Catholic, or Sunni
and Shiite) battling against one another can also instigate war.

Example:

Historical Examples of Wars Fought for Religion.The Crusades (1095-

1291)The Crusades were a series wars sanctioned by the Latin Church
during the medieval age. The aim of crusaders was to expel Islam and
spread Christianity.

4. Nationalism:
Nationalism in this context essentially means attempting to prove that
your country is superior to another by violent subjugation. This often
takes the form of an invasionRelated to nationalism is imperialism, which
is built on the idea that conquering other countries is glorious and brings
honor and esteem to the conqueror.Racism can also be linked to
nationalism, as can be seen in Hitler’s Germany. Adolf Hitler went to war
with Russia partly because the Russians (and eastern Europeans in
general) were seen as Slavs, or a group of people who the Nazis
believed to be an inferior race.

Example:

Historical Examples of Wars Fought for Nationalism Chichimeca War

(1550-1590) The Chichimeca war was one of many wars fought during
the Spanish conquest of the Aztec civilization in modern day Mexico.

5.Revolutionary War:
These occur when a large section of the population of a
country revolts against the individual or group that rules the country
because they are dissatisfied with their leadership.Revolutions can begin
for a variety of reasons, including economic hardship amongst certain
sections of the population or perceived injustices committed by the ruling
group. Other factors can contribute too, such as unpopular wars with
other countries. Revolutionary wars can easily descend into civil wars.
Question No # (a)Define International Trade and describe
its benefits?
ANS: International trade: International trade, is an
economic transactions that are made between countries. Among the
items commonly traded are consumer goods, such as television sets
and clothing; capital goods, such as machinery; and raw materials
and food.
Other transactions involve services, such as travel services
and payments for foreign patents (see service industry).
International trade transactions are facilitated by international
financial payments, in which the private banking system and
the central banks of the trading nations play important roles.

Benefit of International Trade:

• Increased revenues
One of the top advantages of international trade is that you may be able
to increase your number of potential clients. Each country you add to
your list can open up a new pathway to business growth and increased
revenues.

• Decreased competition
Your product and services may have to compete in a crowded market in
the U.S, but you may find that you have less competition in other
countries.

• Longer product lifespan

Sales can dip for certain products domestically as Americans stop
buying them or move to upgraded versions over time. Selling a product
to an overseas market can extend the life of an existing product as
emerging markets seek to buy American products.

• Easier cash-flow management

Getting paid upfront may be one of the hidden advantages of
international trade. When trading internationally, it may be a general
practice to ask for payment upfront, whereas at home you may have to
be more creative in managing cash flow while waiting to be
paid. Expanding your business overseas could help you manage cash
flow better.

• Better risk management

One of the significant advantages of international trade is market
diversification. Focusing only on the domestic market may expose you to
increased risk from downturns in the economy, political
factors, environmental events and other risk factors. Becoming less
dependent on a single market may help you mitigate potential risks in
your core market.

• Benefiting from currency exchange

Those who add international trade to their portfolio may also benefit from
currency fluctuations. For example, when the U.S. dollar is down, you
may be able to export more as foreign customers benefit from the
favorable currency exchange rate.

• Access to export financing

Another one of the advantages of international trade is that you may be
able to leverage export financing.
The Export-Import Bank of the United States (EXIM) and The U.S. Small
Business Administration may be places to explore for export financing
options.

• Disposal of surplus goods

One of the advantages of international trade is that you may have an
outlet to dispose of surplus goods that you're unable to sell in your home
market.

• Enhanced reputation
Doing business in other countries can boost your company's reputation.
Successes in one country can influence success in other adjacent
countries, which can raise your company's profile in your market niche. It
can also help increase your company's credibility, both abroad and at
home. This is one of the advantages of international trade that may be
difficult to quantify and, therefore, easy to ignore.

• Opportunity to specialize
International markets can open up avenues for a new line of service or
products. It can also give you an opportunity to specialize in a different
area to serve that market.
Being exposed to the realities of the world outside your home base may
even spark innovations, upgrades and efficiencies for your products and
services. We never know what happens when we open our minds to
ideas, feedback and experiences that come from outside the boundaries
of our own country.

Question No # (b): Write a critical note on the Copenhagen

School of Security Studies?
ANSWER: The Copenhagen Schools of Security
Studies: The Copenhagen School of security studies is an academic
school that employs a critical approach to security studies. It is part of
the postpositivist movement in the field of international relations (IR),
which became a salient part of post–Cold War scholarship. IR theorist
Barry Buzan’s 1983 book People, States, and Fear: The National
Security Problem in International Relations forms the bedrock of the
school’s academic thought. Ole Wæver and Jaap de Wilde are two well-
known scholars connected with the school. At the core of the school is
the way in which many different types of security issues interact with
domestic politics. Drawing on the ideas of the ontology of constructivism
within the field of IR, the Copenhagen School looks at threats to states
(i.e., national security) as matters that are socially constructed. The term
Copenhagen School was first used by Professor Bill McSweeeny, an
expert in peace studies at the University of Dublin and one of the
Copenhagen School’s principal critics.

Critical Securitization: Securitization is a seminal feature of

the Copenhagen School, whereby actors turn regular issues of domestic
level politics into issues of high politics that affect states on a national
level (i.e., when something becomes an issue of national security).
Security as a socially constructed phenomenon is highly subjective. This
view held by the Copenhagen School is a guiding aspect of its view on
security and security-related issues. The securitization process
comprises three distinct phases:
 • The creation of an existential threat (i.e., an issue or event such as
climate change) before a referent object (i.e., a state or group of
states) (this phase is called the “speech act”).

• The commencement of special/emergency/extraordinary actions in

an attempt to secure and protect the referent object against the
existential threat.

• The receiving of the speech act by one or more audiences.

During the course of this process, the referent object can be
categorized in one of three ways. First, it can be nonpolitical.
Second, it can be politicized and therefore require action by
government in “normal” ways or by using nonexceptional
means. Third, the referent object can be extrapoliticized (or
securitized). While the first stage involves nondebated (private)
responses or action, the second is debated (public), and the
third can lead to the use of extraordinary measures. Examples
of extraordinary measures include long-term military
occupation; extreme forms of interrogation and torture;
reduction in civil liberties, such as phone tapping or the Central
Intelligence Agency’s policy of rendition, detention, and
interrogation; and the use of militarized drones in drone strikes
and targeted killings.

Problem:
One of the major problems of security concerns is that
what is considered a threat in one country may not necessarily
be considered a threat in another country. Different states are
faced, in many cases, with their own unique set of issues that
cannot easily be translated from one state to another or from
one region to another.
Thus, regional security complex theory, a theory of regional
security attached to the Copenhagen School (put forward by
the school’s primary scholars), is used to approach the
“clustering” of security in different geographical locales. The
North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the South East Asia
Treaty Organization constitute two examples of regional
security arrangements formed as a result of patterns of
cooperation and discord or hostility securitization and de-
securitization processes.
Conclusion:
The Copenhagen School has attracted much criticism
from scholars of other IR theoretical areas. For example, some
claim that it has taken far too strong a European perspective on
issues related to security. Furthermore, the claim is often made
that the school fails to conceptualize and problematize critical
terms within the field. It might be beneficial if it, as Filip Ejdus
(2009)—editor of the journal Western Balkans Security
Observer—points out, “would devote itself more to the
theorization of the term ‘political’ and take a clearer and better
articulated normative stand in relation to the dichotomy
political-security” Finally, a leading IR scholar, Lene Hansen, in
her article “The Little Mermaid’s Silent Security Dilemma and
the Absence of Gender in the Copenhagen School,” published
in 2000 in Millennium, has argued that the Copenhagen School
fails to adequately include gender in its security scholarship.