SM - 11 Electrical Systems

CH A P TE R
4
Electrical systems
and circuits
4.1 The systems approach

4.1.1 What is a system?
System is a word used to describe a collection of related components, which
interact as a whole. A motorway system, the education system or computer
systems are three varied examples. A large system is often made up of many
smaller systems which in turn can each be made up of smaller systems and so Definition
on. Figure 4.1 shows how this can be represented in a visual form. One further System: From the Latin syste-ma, in
definition: ‘A group of devices serving a common purpose’. turn from Greek σύστημσ syste-ma, is
Using the systems approach helps to split extremely complex technical a set of interacting or interdependent
system components forming an
entities into more manageable parts. It is important to note however, that the
integrated whole.
links between the smaller parts and the boundaries around them are also very
important. System boundaries will overlap in many cases.
The modern motor vehicle is a complex system and in itself forms just a
small part of a larger transport system. It is the ability for the motor vehicle
to be split into systems on many levels, which aids both in its design and
construction. The systems approach helps in particular with understanding
how something works and further how to go about repairing it when it doesn’t.
4.1.2 Vehicle systems

Splitting the vehicle into systems is not an easy task because it can be done
in many different ways. A split between mechanical systems and electrical
Engine Electrical
ABS
Complete vehicle Braking system
Figure 4.1 Systems in systems representation
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114 4 Automobile electrical and electronic systems
CONTE
CONTE
CONTE CONTE
CONTE
Figure 4.2 Vehicle systems representation
systems would seem a good start. However, this division can cause as many
problems as it solves. For example, in which half do we put anti-lock brakes,
mechanical or electrical? The answer is of course both. None-the-less, it still
makes it easier to be able to just consider one area of the vehicle and not have to
try to comprehend the whole.
Once a complex set of interacting parts such as a motor vehicle has been
‘systemized’, the function or performance of each part can be examined in more
detail. In other words, looking at what each part of the system should do in turn
then helps to determine how each part actually works. It is again important to
stress that the links and interactions between various sub-systems are a very
important consideration. Examples of this would be how the power demands of
the vehicle lighting system will have an effect on the charging system operation,
or in the case of a fault, how an air leak from a brake servo could cause a weak
air/fuel ratio.
To further analyse a system whatever way it has been sub divided from the
whole, consideration should be given to the inputs and the outputs of the
system. Many of the complex electronic systems on a vehicle lend themselves to
this form of analysis. Considering the electronic control unit (ECU) of the system
as the control element and looking at its inputs and outputs is the recommended
approach.
4.1.3 Open loop systems

An open loop system is designed to give the required output whenever a given
input is applied. A good example of an open loop vehicle system would be the
headlights. With the given input is the switch being operated, the output required
is that the headlights will be illuminated.
Input Control Output
Figure 4.3 Open loop system
This can be taken further by saying that an input is also required from the battery
and a further input from, say, the dip switch. The feature, which determines that a
system is open loop, is that no feedback is required for it to operate.
4.1.4 Closed loop systems

A closed loop system is identified by a feedback loop. It can be described as a
system where there is a possibility of applying corrective measures if the output
is not quite what is wanted. A good example of this in a vehicle is an automatic
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Electrical systems and circuits 4 115
Input Control Output
Feedback loop
Figure 4.4 Closed loop system
temperature control system (Figure 4.5). The interior temperature of the vehicle is
determined by the output from the heater which is switched on or off in response
to a signal from a temperature sensor inside the cabin. The feedback loop is the
fact that the output from the system, temperature, is also an input to the system.
The feedback loop in any closed loop system can be in many forms. The driver Key fact
of a car with a conventional heating system can form a feedback loop by A closed loop system always has a
turning the heater down when he is too hot and turning it back up when cold. feedback loop that may be negative
The feedback on an ABS system is a signal that the wheel is locking, where the or positive.
system reacts by reducing the braking force – until it stops locking, when braking
force can be increased again – and so on to maintain a steady state.
4.1.5 Summary
Many complex vehicle systems are represented in this book as block diagrams.
In this way several inputs can be shown supplying information to an ECU which,
in turn, controls the system outputs.
CONTE
CONTE
CONTE
CONTE
CONTE
CONTE
Figure 4.5 Closed loop heating system
4.2 Electrical wiring, terminals and switching

4.2.1 Cables
Cables used for motor vehicle applications are almost always copper strands
insulated with PVC. Copper, beside its very low resistivity of about 1.7 × 10–8 Ωm,
has ideal properties such as ductility and malleability. This makes it the natural
choice for most electrical conductors. PVC as the insulation is again ideal as
it not only has very high resistance, in the order of 1015 Ωm, but is also very
resistant to petrol, oil, water and other contaminants.
The choice of cable size depends on the current drawn by the consumer. The
larger the cable used then the smaller the volt drop in the circuit but the cable will
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Table 4.1 typical maximum volt drops
Circuit (12 V) Load Cable drop (V) Maximum drop (V)

including connections
Lighting circuit <15 W 0.1 0.6
Lighting circuit >15 W 0.3 0.6
Charging circuit Nominal 0.5 0.5
Starter circuit Maximum at 0.5 0.5
20 0C
Starter solenoid Pull-in 1.5 1.9
Other circuits Nominal 0.5 1.5
be heavier. This means a trade-off must be sought between allowable volt drop
Key fact
and maximum cable size. Table 4.1 lists some typical maximum volt drops in a
The choice of cable size depends on circuit.
the current drawn by the consumer.
In general the supply to a component must not be less than 90% of the system
supply. Vehicles using a 24 V supply mean the figures in the previous table
should be doubled. Volt drop in a cable can be calculated as follows:
Calculate the current I = W/Vs
Volt drop Vd = I.ρ.l/A
where: I = current in amps, W = power rating of component in watts,
Vs = system supply in volts, Vd = volt drop in volts, ρ = resistivity of copper in
Ωm, l = length of the cable in m, A = cross sectional area in m2.
A transposition of this formula will allow the required cable cross section to be
calculated.
A = Iρl/Vd
where: I = maximum current in amps, Vd = maximum allowable volt drop in volts.

Cable is available in stock sizes and the following table lists some typical sizes
and uses. The current rating is assuming that the cable length is not excessive
and that operating temperature is within normal limits. Cables normally consist of
multiple strands to provide greater flexibility.
4.2.2 Colour codes and terminal designations

As seems to be the case for any standardisation a number of colour code and
terminal designation systems are in operation! For reference purposes I will just
make mention of three. Firstly, the British Standard system (BS AU 7a: 1983).
This system uses twelve colours to determine the main purpose of the cable and
tracer colours to further refine its use. The main colour uses and some further
examples are given in the following table.
A ‘European’ system used by a number of manufacturers is based broadly on
the following table. Please note that there is no correlation between the ‘Euro’
system and the British standard colour codes. In particular note the use of the
colour brown in each system! After some practice with the use of colour code
systems the job of the technician is made a lot easier when fault finding an
electrical circuit.
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Table 4.2 Cables and their applications

Cable strand Cross sectional Continuous Example
diameter (mm) area (mm2) current rating (A) applications
9/0.30 0.6 5.75 Side lights etc.
14/0.25 0.7 6A Clock, radio
14/0.30 1.0 8.75 Ignition
28/0.30 2.0 17.5 Headlights, HRW
44/0.30 3.1 27.5
65/0.30 4.6 35.0 Main supply
84/0.30 5.9 45.0
97/0.30 6.9 50.0 Charging wires
120/0.30 8.5 60.0
37/0.90 23.5 350.0 Starter supply
to to
61/0.90 39.0 700.0
Table 4.3 British standard colour codes
Colour Symbol Destination/Use

Brown N Main battery feed
Blue U Headlight switch to dip switch
Blue/White UW Headlight main beam
Blue/Red UR Headlight dip beam
Red R Side light main feed
Red/Black RB Left hand side lights and no. plate
Red/Orange RO Right hand side lights
Purple P Constant fused supply
Green G Ignition controlled fused supply
Green/Red GR Left side indicators
Green/White GW Right side indicators
Light Green LG Instruments
White W Ignition to ballast resistor
White/Black WB Coil negative
Yellow Y Overdrive and fuel injection
Black B All earth connections
Slate S Electric windows
Orange O Wiper circuits (fused)
Pink/White KW Ballast resistor wire
Green/Brown GN Reverse
Green/Purple GP Stop lights
Blue/Yellow UY Rear Fog light
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Table 4.4 European colour codes
Colour Symbol Destination/Use

Red Rt Main battery feed
White/Black Ws/Sw Headlight switch to dip switch
White Ws Headlight main beam
Yellow Ge Headlight dip beam
Grey Gr Side light main feed
Grey/Black Gr/Sw Left hand side lights
Grey/Red Gr/Rt Right hand side lights
Black/Yellow Sw/Ge Fuel injection
Black/Green Sw/Gn Ignition controlled supply
Black/White/Green Sw/Ws/Gn Indicator switch
Black/White Sw/Ws Left side indicators
Black/Green Sw/Gn Right side indicators
Light Green LGn Coil negative
Brown Br Earth
Brown/White Br/Ws Earth connections
Pink/White KW Ballast resistor wire
Black Sw Reverse
Black/Red Sw/Rt Stop lights
Green/Black Gn/Sw Rear Fog light
A system now in common use is the terminal designation system in accordance

with DIN 72 552. This system is to enable easy and correct connections to be
made on the vehicle, particularly in after sales repairs. It is important however to
note that the designations are not to identify individual wires but are to define the
terminals of a device. Table 4.5 lists some of the most popular numbers.
Ford motor company has used a circuit numbering and wire identification
system. This is in use world-wide and is known as Function, System-Connection
(FSC). The system was developed to assist in vehicle development and
production processes. However, it is also very useful to help the technician with
fault-finding. Many of the function codes are based on the DIN system. Note that
earth wires are now black! The system works as follows:
31S-AC3A || 1.5 BK/RD

Function:
31 = ground/earth
S = additionally switched circuit
System:
AC = headlamp levelling
Connection:
3 = switch connection
A = branch
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Table 4.5 Terminal designation numbers (DIN 72 552)
1 Ignition coil negative

4 Ignition coil high tension
15 Switched positive (ignition switch output)
30 Input from battery positive
31 Earth connection
49 Input to flasher unit
49a Output from flasher unit
50 Starter control (solenoid terminal)
53 Wiper motor input
54 Stop lamps
55 Fog lamps
56 Headlamps
56a Main beam
56b Dip beam
58L Left side lights
58R Right side lights
61 Charge warning light
85 Relay winding out
86 Relay winding input
87 Relay contact input (change over relay)
87a Relay contact output (break)
87b Relay contact output (make)
L Left side indicators
R Right side indicators
C Indicator warning light (vehicle)
Size:
1.5 = 1.5 mm2
Colour:
BK = Black (determined by function 31)
RD = Red stripe
As a final point to this section it must be noted that the colour codes and
terminal designations given, are for illustration only. Further reference should
always be made for specific details to manufacturer’s information.
4.2.3 Harness design

The vehicle wiring harness has developed over the years from a loom containing
just a few wires, to the looms used at present on top range vehicles containing
well over 1000 separate wires. Modern vehicles tend to have wiring harnesses
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Table 4.6 Ford system colour codes
Code Colour
BK Black
BN Brown
BU Blue
GN Green
GY Grey
LG Light-Green
OG Orange
PK Pink
RD Red
SR Silver
VT Violet
WH White
YE Yellow
Table 4.7 System codes
Letter Main system Examples

D Distribution systems DE = earth
A Actuated systems AK = wiper/washer
B Basic systems BA = charging BB = starting
C Control systems CE = power steering
G Gauge systems GA = level/pressure/temperature
H Heated systems HC = heated seats
L Lighting systems LE = headlights
M Miscellaneous systems MA = air bags
P Powertrain control systems PA = engine control
W Indicator systems (‘indications’ not WC = bulb failure
turn signals)
X Temporary for future features XS = too much!
constructed in a number of ways. The most popular is still for the bundle of
Key fact cables to be spirally wrapped in non-adhesive PVC tape. The tape is non-
The most popular wiring harness is a adhesive so as to allow the bundle of wires to retain some flexibility, as shown in
bundle of cables spirally wrapped in Figures 4.6 and 4.7.
non-adhesive PVC or similar tape.
Another technique often used is to place the cables side by side and plastic weld
them to a backing strip as shown in Figure 4.8. This method allows the loom
to be run in narrow areas, for example behind the trim on the inner sill or under
carpets.
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Electrical systems and circuits Q 121
Figure 4.6 PVC wound harness
PVC
backing
sheet
Spur
Figure 4.8 Cables side by side and

Figure 4.7 Canvas tape harness plastic welded to a backing strip
A third way of grouping cables, as shown in Figure 4.9 is to place them inside
PVC tubes. This has the advantage of being harder wearing and, if suitable
sealing is arranged, can also be waterproof.
When deciding on the layout of a wiring loom within the vehicle, many issues
must be considered. Some of these are as follows.
1. Cable runs must be as short as possible.
2. The loom must be protected against physical damage.
3. The number of connections should be kept to a minimum.
4. Modular design may be appropriate.
5. Accident damage areas to be considered.
6. Production line techniques should be considered.
7. Access must be possible to main components and sub-assemblies for repair
purposes.
Key fact Figure 4.9 PVC tube and tape harness
Keeping cable runs as short as

possible will reduce volt drop
problems and reduce the weight From the above list, which is by no means definitive, it can be seen that, as
of the harness. with most design problems, some of the main issues for consideration are at
odds with each other. The more connections involved in a wiring loom, then the
more areas there are for potential faults to develop. However, having a large
multiplug assembly, which connects the entire engine wiring to the rest of the
loom, can have considerable advantages. During production, the engine and all
its ancillaries can be fitted as a complete unit if supplied ready wired, and in the
after-sales repair market, engine replacement and repairs are easier to carry out.
Because wiring looms are now so large, it is often necessary to split them into
more manageable sub-assemblies. This will involve more connection points. The
main advantage of this is that individual sections of the loom can be replaced if
damaged.
Keeping cable runs as short as possible will not only reduce volt drop problems
but will allow thinner wire to be used, thus reducing the weight of the harness,
which can now be quite considerable.
The overall layout of a loom on a vehicle will broadly follow one of two patterns;
that is, an ‘E’ shape or an ‘H’ shape (Figure 4.10). The ‘H’ is the more common
layout. It is becoming the norm to have one or two main junction points as part
Figure 4.10 ‘H’ and ‘E’ wiring layouts of the vehicle wiring with these points often being part of the fuse box and relay
plate.
Figure 4.11 shows a more realistic representation of the harness layout. This
figure also serves to show the level of complexity and number of connection
points involved. It is the aim of multiplexed systems (discussed later) to reduce
these problems and provide extra ‘communication’ and diagnostic facilities.
4.2.4 Printed circuits

The printed circuit is often used in areas such as the rear of the instrument
pack and other similar places. This allows these components to be supplied as
complete units and also reduces the amount and complexity of the wiring in what
Figure 4.11 Typical wiring harness layout are usually cramped areas.
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Electrical systems and circuits □ 123
Figure 4.12 Instrument pack printed circuit
The printed circuits are constructed using a thin copper layer that is bonded to a
plastic sheet - on both sides in some cases. The required circuit is then printed
on to the copper using a material similar to wax. The unwanted copper can Glass type
then be etched away with an acid wash. A further layer of thin plastic sheet can
insulate the copper strips if required.
Figure 4.12 shows a picture of a typical printed circuit from an instrument
Blade type
panel and gives some indication as to how many wires would be required
to do the same job. Connection to the main harness is by one or more Ceramic type
multiplugs.
4.2.5 Fuses and circuit breakers

Some form of circuit protection is required to protect the electrical wiring of a
vehicle against a short circuit and also to protect the electrical and electronic Figure 4.13 Different types of fuse
components. It is now common practice to protect almost all electrical circuits
with a fuse. The simple definition of a fuse is that it is a deliberate weak link in the
circuit. If an overload of current occurs then the fuse will melt and disconnect the Key fact
circuit before any serious damage is caused. Automobile fuses are available in
It is common practice to protect
three types, glass cartridge, ceramic and blade type. The blade type is the most almost all electrical circuits with a fuse.
popular choice owing to its simple construction and reliability against premature
failure due to vibration. Figure 4.13 shows different types of fuse and Figure 4.14
shows a selection of the common blade type.
Fuses are rated with a continuous and peak current value. The continuous value
is the current that the fuse will carry without risk of failure, whereas the peak
Definition
value is the current that the fuse will carry for a short time without failing. The
peak value of a fuse is usually double the continuous value. Using a lighting Fuse ratings: The continuous value
is the current that the fuse will carry
circuit as an example, when the lights are first switched on a very high surge
without risk of failure, peak value is
of current will flow due to the low (cold) resistance of the bulb filaments. When the current that the fuse will carry
the filament resistance increases with temperature, the current will reduce, for a short time without failing.
thus illustrating the need for a fuse to be able to carry a higher current for a
short time.
Figure 4.14 Blade fuses
To calculate the required value for a fuse, the maximum possible continuous
current should be worked out. It is then usual to choose the next highest rated
fuse available. Blade fuses are available in a number of continuous rated values
as listed in Table 4.8 together with their colour code.
Table 4.8 Fuse ratings and colours
Continuous current (A) Colour

Blade type
3 Violet
4 Pink
5 Clear/Beige
7.5 Brown
10 Red
15 Blue
20 Yellow
25 Neutral/White
30 Green
Ceramic type
5 Yellow
8 White
16 Red
25 Blue
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The chosen value of a fuse as calculated above must protect the consumer as
well as the wiring. A good example of this is a fuse in a wiper motor circuit. If
a value were used that is much too high, it would probably still protect against
a severe short circuit. However, if the wiper blades froze to the screen, a large
value fuse would not necessarily protect the motor from overload.
It is now common practice to use fusible links in the main output feeds from the
battery as protection against major short circuits in the event of an accident or
error in wiring connections. These links are simply heavy duty fuses and are rated
in values such as 50, 100 or 150 A.
Occasionally, circuit breakers are used in place of fuses, this being more Key fact
common on heavy vehicles. A circuit breaker has the same rating and function A circuit breaker has the same rating
as a fuse but with the advantage that it can be reset. The disadvantage is the and function as a fuse but with the
much higher cost. Circuit breakers use a bimetallic strip which, when subjected advantage that it can be reset.
to excessive current, will bend and open a set of contacts. A latch mechanism
prevents the contacts from closing again until a reset button is pressed.
4.2.6 Terminations
Many types of terminals are available and have developed from early bullet-
type connectors into the high quality waterproof systems now in use. A popular
choice for many years was the spade terminal. This is still a standard choice
for connection to relays for example, but is now losing ground to the smaller
blade or round terminals as shown in Figure 4.15. Circular multipin connectors
are used in many cases, the pins varying in size from 1 mm to 5 mm. With any
type of multipin connector, provision must always be made to prevent incorrect
connection.
Protection against corrosion of the actual connector is provided in a number
of ways. Earlier methods included applying suitable grease to the pins to repel
water. It is now more usual to use rubber seals to protect the terminals, although Figure 4.15 ‘Round’ Crimp terminals
a small amount of contact lubricant can still be used.
Many multiway connectors employ some kind of latch to prevent individual pins
working loose, and also the complete plug and socket assembly is often latched.
Figure 4.16 shows a common type of connector. Note the latch for security.
Figure 4.16 Terminals and wires
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Figure 4.17 Crimp terminals for repair work
For high quality electrical connections, the contact resistance of a terminal must
be kept to a minimum. This is achieved by ensuring a tight join with a large
surface area in contact, and by using a precious metal coating often containing
silver. It is worth noting that many connections are only designed to be removed
a limited number of times before deterioration in effectiveness. This is to reduce
the cost of manufacture but can cause problems on older vehicles.
Many forms of terminal are available for after-sales repair (Figure 4.17), some
with more success than others. A good example is sealed terminals, which in
some cases are specified by the manufacturers for repair purposes. These are
pre-insulated polyamide terminations that provide a tough, environment resistant
connection for most wire sizes used on motor vehicles. They simultaneously
insulate, seal and protect the joint from abrasion and mechanical abuse.
The stripped wire is inserted into the metallic barrel and crimped in the usual
way. The tubing is then heated and adhesive flows under pressure from the
Electrical systems and circuits
Q 127
tubing, filling any voids and providing an excellent seal with the cable. The seal
prevents the ingress of water and other fluids, preventing electrolytic action. The
connection is also resistant to temperature changes.
4.2.7 Switches
Developments in ergonomics and styling have made the simple switch into quite
a complex issue. The method of operation of the switch must meet various
criteria. The grouping of switches to minimize driver fatigue and distraction,
access to a switch in an emergency and hazards from switch projections under
impact conditions are just some of the problems facing the designer. It has
now become the norm for the main function switches to be operated by levers
mounted on the steering column. These functions usually include; lights, dip,
flash, horn, washers and wipers. Other control switches are mounted within
easy reach of the driver on or near the instrument fascia panel. As well as all the
design constraints already mentioned, the reliability of the switch is important.
Studies have shown that, for example, a headlamp dip switch may be operated
in the region of 22 000 times during 80 000 km (50 000) miles of vehicle use
(about 4 years). This places great mechanical and electrical stress on the switch.
A simple definition of a switch is ‘a device for breaking and making the Definition
conducting path for the current in a circuit’. This means that the switch can be
Switch: A device for breaking and
considered in two parts; the contacts, which perform the electrical connection, making the conducting path for the
and the mechanical arrangement, which moves the contacts. There are many current In a circuit.
forms of operating mechanisms, all of which make and break the contacts.
Figure 4.18 shows just one common method of sliding contacts.
The characteristics the contacts require are simple:
.
1 Resistance to mechanical and electrical wear.
2. Low contact resistance.
3. No build-up of surface films.
4. Low cost.
Materials often used for switch contacts include copper, phosphor bronze,
brass, beryllium copper and in some cases silver or silver alloys. Gold is used for
contacts in very special applications. The current that a switch will have to carry
is the major consideration as arc erosion of the contacts is the largest problem.
Silver is one of the best materials for switch contacts and one way of getting
around the obvious problem of cost is to have only the contact tips made from
silver, by resistance welding the silver to, for example, brass connections. It is
common practice now to use switches to operate a relay that in turn will operate
the main part of the circuit. This allows far greater freedom in the design of the
switch due to very low current, but it may be necessary to suppress the inductive Off On
arc caused by the relay winding. It must also not be forgotten that the relay is
also a switch, but as relays are not constrained by design issues the very fast
and positive switching action allows higher currents to be controlled.
The electrical life of a switch is dependent on its frequency of operation, the
on-off ratio of operation, the nature of the load, arc suppression and other circuit
Spring loaded
details, the amount of actuator travel used, ambient temperature and humidity slider
and vibration levels, to name just a few factors.
The range of size and types of switches used on the motor vehicle is vast,
from the contacts in the starter solenoid, to the contacts in a sunroof micro Terminals
Contacts
switch. Figure 4.19 shows one type of motor vehicle switch together with its
specifications below. Figure 4.18 Switch with sliding contacts
SWITCH FRAME
ROCKER BUTTON
10.6⫾0.2
5.8⫾0.5
1.6⫾0.2
ø2.50
19.5 25.2⫾0.5 2 PLC
1 2 3
SOLDER LUG
TERMINAL
0.80⫾0.10 3.00
2 PLC 2 PLC 6.35⫾0.10
7
2 PLC
9.3⫾0.5 11
27.2⫾0.2 13.6⫾0.2
Figure 4.19 Single-pole triple-throw rocker switch
Product Type Features: Body Related Features:

• Configuration (Pole-Throw) = Single Pole - Single Throw • Series = PR
• Actuator Style = Rocker • Actuator Colour = Black
• Actuator Type = Top • Mount Style = 13.80mm x 27.60mm [.545 in. x 1.086 in.]
• Termination Type = Quick Connect Panel Cutout
• Mount = Panel • LED = Without
• UL Listed = File No. E46765 Contact Related Features:
Electrical Characteristics: • Contact Plating = Silver
• Contact Rating = 16A
Some of the terms used to describe switch operation are listed below.
Free position Position of the actuator when no force is applied.
Pretravel Movement of the actuator between the free and operating position.
Operating position Position the actuator takes when contact changeover takes
place.
Release position Actuator position when the mechanism resets.
Overtravel Movement of the actuator beyond the operating position.
Total travel Sum of pretravel and overtravel.
Actuating force Force required to move the actuator from the free to the
operating position.
Release force Force required to allow the mechanism to reset.
The number of contacts, the number of poles and the type of throw are
the further points to be considered in this section. Specific vehicle current
consumers require specific switching actions. Figure 4.20 shows the circuit
symbols for a selection of switches and switching actions. Relays are also
available with contacts and switching action similar to those shown.
So far, all the switches mentioned have been manually operated. Switches are
also available, however, that can operate due to temperature, pressure and
inertia, to name just three. These three examples are shown in Figure 4.21. The
temperature switch shown is typical of those used to operate radiator cooling fans
and it operates by a bimetal strip which bends due to temperature and causes
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Electrical systems and circuits □ Bimetal
129
Temperature switch strip

SPST Basic on/off
DPST
Double pole
Temperature change bends
on/off
the Bimetal strip to close the contacts
Diaphragm pressure switch
Change over
SPDT
Diaphragm
SPTT Centre off
Pressure closes the contacts

Spring
Impact/inertia switch
SPTT
Three position
off/on/on
SPTT
Three position
off/on/on, on Mass moves on impact and
closes the contacts
Figure 4.20 Circuit symbols for a selection of switches Figure 4.21 Temperature, pressure and inertia
and switching actions switches
a set of contacts to close. The pressure switch shown could be used to monitor
over-pressure in an air conditioning system and simply operates by pressure on a
diaphragm which, at a pre-determined pressure, will overcome spring tension and
close (or open) a set of contacts. Finally, the inertia switch is often used to switch
off the supply to a fuel injection pump in the event of an impact to the vehicle.
4.3 Multiplexing
4.3.1 Limits of the conventional wiring system
The complexity of modern wiring systems has been increasing steadily over
the last 35 years or so and, in recent years, has increased dramatically. It has
now reached a point where the size and weight of the wiring harness is a major
problem. The number of separate wires required on a top-of-the-range vehicle
can be in the region of 1500! The wiring loom required to control all functions
in or from the driver’s door can require up to 50 wires, the systems in the
dashboard area alone can use over 100 wires and connections. This is clearly
becoming a problem as, apart from the obvious issues of size and weight, the
number of connections and the number of wires increases the possibility of
faults developing. It has been estimated that the complexity of the vehicle wiring
system doubles every 10 years.
130 □ Automobile electrical and electronic systems
The number of systems controlled by electronics is continually increasing. A

number of these systems are already in common use and the others are becoming
more widely adopted. Some examples of these systems are listed below:
• Engine management.
• Anti-lock brakes.
• Traction control.
• Variable valve timing.
• Transmission control.
• Active suspension.
• Communications.
• Multimedia.
All the systems listed above work in their own right but are also linked to each
Key fact
other. Many of the sensors that provide inputs to one electronic control unit are
common to all or some of the others. One solution to this is to use one computer
Many sensors that provide inputs to control all systems. This, however, would be very expensive to produce in
to one electronic control unit can small numbers. A second solution is to use a common data bus. This would
also be used by all or some of allow communication between modules and would make the information from
the others.
the various vehicle sensors available to all sensors.
Taking this idea a stage further, if data could be transmitted along one wire and
made available to all parts of the vehicle, then the vehicle wiring could be reduced
to just three wires. These wires would be a mains supply, an earth connection and
a signal wire. The idea of using just one line for many signals is not new and has
been in use in areas such as telecommunications for many years. Various signals
can be ‘multiplexed’ on to one wire in two main ways - frequency division and
time division multiplexing. Frequency division is similar to the way radio signals
are transmitted. It is oversimplifying a complex subject, but a form of time division
multiplexing is generally used for transmission of digital signals.
A ring main or multiplexed wiring system is represented in Figure 4.22. This shows
that the data bus and the power supply cables must ‘visit’ all areas of the vehicle
electrical system. To illustrate the operation of this system, consider the events
involved in switching the sidelights on and off. First, in response to the driver
pressing the light switch, a unique signal is placed on the data bus. This signal is
only recognized by special receivers built as part of each light unit assembly, and
Power
supplies
Data
bus
Output to lights for example
Figure 4.22 Multiplexed 'ring main' wiring system

these in turn will make a connection between the power ring main and the lights.
The events are similar to turn off the lights, except that the code placed on the
data bus will be different and will be recognized only by the appropriate receivers
as an off code.
4.3.2 Multiplex data bus

In order to transmit different data on one line, a number of criteria must be
carefully defined and agreed. This is known as the communications protocol.
Some of the variables that must be defined are as follows:
• Method of addressing.
• Transmission sequence.
• Control signals.
• Error detection.
• Error treatment.
• Speed or rate of transmission.
The physical layer must also be defined and agreed. This includes the following:
• Transmission medium, e.g. copper wire, fibre optics etc.
• Type of transmission coding, e.g. analogue or digital.
• Type of signals, e.g. voltage, current or frequency etc.
The circuit to meet these criteria is known as the bus interface and will often
take the form of a single integrated circuit. This IC will, in some cases, have extra
circuitry in the form of memory for example. It may, however, be appropriate
for this chip to be as cheap as possible due to the large numbers required on a
vehicle.
4.3.3 Overview
The number of vehicle components which are networked, has considerably
increased the requirements for the vehicle control systems to communicate with
one another. The CAN (Controller Area Network) developed by Bosch is today’s
communication standard in passenger cars. However, there are a number of
other systems.
Definition
Multiplexing is a process of combining several messages for transmission over CAN: Controller Area Network.
the same signal path. The signal path is called the data bus. The data bus is
basically just a couple of wires connecting the control units together. A data
bus consists of a communication or signal wire and a ground return, serving
all multiplex system nodes. The term node is given to any sub-assembly of a
multiplex system (such as a control unit) that communicates on the data bus.
Definition
On some vehicles, early multiplex systems used three control units. These were
the door control unit, the driver’s side control unit and the passenger’s side Multiplexing is a process of combining
several messages for transmission
control unit (Figure 4.23). These three units replaced the following: over the same signal path.
• Integrated unit.
• Interlock control unit.
• Door lock control unit.
• Illumination light control.
• Power window control unit.
• Security alarm control unit.
When a switch is operated, a coded digital signal is generated and communi-
cated, according to its priority, via the data bus. All control units receive the
04_23854_CH04.indd 131 14/11/11 9:07 PM

132
o Automobile electrical and electronic systems
System diagnosis bus

H sza
Middle console
SXAN
IDoor module Door module Door module Door module
Window Window Window Window

actuator actuator actuator acruato*
M rror Mutot
Figure 4.23 Sub-system for doors on an earlier system
signal but only the control unit for which the signal is intended will activate the
desired response.
Only one signal can be sent on the BUS at any one time. Therefore each signal
has an identifier that is unique throughout the network. The identifier defines
not only the content but also the priority of the message. Some systems make
changes or adjustments to their operation much faster than other systems.
Therefore, when two signals are sent at the same time, it is the system which
requires the message most urgently whose signal takes priority.
A multiplex control system has the advantage of self-diagnosis. This allows quick
and easy troubleshooting and verification using diagnostic trouble codes (DTCs).
Many vehicles contain over a kilometre of wiring to supply all their electrical
components. Luxury models may contain considerably more because of elaborate
drivers’ aids. The use of multiplexing means that considerably less wiring is
used in a vehicle along with fewer multi-plugs and connectors etc (Figure 4.28).
Bosch technologies for driver assistance systems

■ Surround sensors (radar, video)
■ Brake control system
■ Occupant safety
■ Electric power steering
CAN bus
Figure 4.24 A data bus connects all networked components

An additional advantage of multiplexing is that existing systems can be upgraded

or added to without modification to the original system.
4.3.4 Controller Area Network (CAN)

CAN is a serial bus system especially suited for networking ‘intelligent’ devices
as well as sensors and actuators within a system or sub-system. It operates in
a broadly similar way to a wired computer network. CAN stands for controller
area network and means that control units are able to interchange data. CAN
is a high-integrity serial data communications bus for real-time applications.
It operates at data rates of up to 1Mbit/s. It also has excellent error detection
and confinement capabilities. CAN was originally developed by Bosch for
use in cars but is now used in many other industrial automation and control
applications.
CAN is a serial bus system with multi-master capabilities. This means that all
CAN nodes are able to transmit data and several CAN nodes can request use of Key fact
the bus simultaneously. In CAN networks there is no addressing of subscribers
CAN is a serial bus system with
or stations, like on a computer network, but instead, prioritized messages are multi-master capabilities.
transmitted. A transmitter sends a message to all CAN nodes (broadcasting).
Each node decides on the basis of the identifier received whether it should
Start
Write message
to the bus
Message Yes
collision Short delay
No
Short delay
Remove
message from
bus
End
Figure 4.25 Much simplified CAN message protocol flowchart
04_23854_CH04.indd 133 14/11/11 9:07 PM

134
0 Automobile electrical and electronic systems
process the message or not. The identifier also determines the priority that the
Key fact message enjoys in competition for bus access.
Fast controller area network Fast controller area network (F-CAN) and basic (or body) controller area network
(F-CAN) and basic (or body)
(B-CAN) share information between multiple electronic control units (ECUs).
controller area network (B-CAN)
share information between B-CAN communication is transmitted at a slower speed for convenience related
multiple electronic control units items such as electric windows. F-CAN information moves at a faster speed for
(ECUs). real time functions such as fuel and emissions systems. To allow both systems to
share information, a control module translates information between B-CAN and
F-CAN.
The ECUs on the B-CAN and F-CAN transmit and receive information in the
form of structured messages that may be received by several different ECUs on
Bus 1 Drive train bus the network at one time. These messages are transmitted and received across
e.g. Motronic
a communication circuit that consists of a single wire that is shared by all the
ABS/ASR/ESP
Transmission control ECUs. However, as messages on the F-CAN network are typically of higher
Bus 2 Multimedia bus importance, a second wire is used for communication circuit integrity monitoring.
e.g. Main display unit
Radio
This CAN-H and CAN-L circuit forms the CAN-bus.
Travelpilot
A multiplex control unit is often combined with the under-dash fuse/relay box. It
Bus 3 Body bus controls many of the vehicle systems related to body electrics and the B-CAN.
e.g. Parkpilot
Body computer It also carries out much of the remote switching of various hardwired and CAN
Door control units
controlled systems.
Figure 4.26 Three different speed buses One of the outstanding features of the CAN protocol is its high transmission
in use (Source: Bosch Media) reliability. The CAN controller registers a station’s error and evaluates it
statistically in order to take appropriate measures. These may extend to
disconnecting the CAN node producing the errors.
Each CAN message can transmit from 0 to 8 bytes of user information. Longer
messages can be sent by using segmentation, which means slicing a longer
message into smaller parts. The maximum transmission rate is specified as
1 Mbit/s. This value applies to networks up to 40 m which is more than enough
for normal cars and trucks.
CAN is a serial bus system designed for networking ECUs as well as sensors
and actuators. CAN, originally developed by Bosch, stands for controller area
network and means that control units are able to share and exchange data.
K-Line
Under-dash Im m o b ilize r C lim a te A u to m a tic HandsFreeLink

Fuse Box Keyless C o n tro l Unit L ig h tin g /R a in C o n tro l Unit
C o n tro l Unit Sensor
B-CAN
G auge
C o n tro l CAN-H
M od u le
CAN-L
SRS Unit ECM EPS VSA

C o n tro l Unit M o d u la to r
C o n tro l Unit
Figure 4.27 F-CAN uses CAN-H (high) and CAN-L (low) wires
M icrocontroller
CAN Controller
TXO TXl RXO RXl
CAN Transceiver
CAN L CAN H
rL lR
Figure 4.28 CAN nodes can be disconnected by the control program
4.3.5 CAN data signal

The CAN message signal consists of a sequence of binary digits or bits. A high Key fact
voltage present indicates the value 1, a low or no voltage indicates 0. The actual
The CAN message signal consists
message can vary between 44 and 108 bits in length. This is made up of a start of a sequence of binary digits or bits
bit, name, control bits, the data itself, a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) for error
detection, a confirmation signal and finally a number of stop bits.
A binary format message can be something like: 10001010100010101111100001
11010111101010101010001111101011110011001100000111111010101000011
11111111000000001
The message identifier or name portion of the signal (part of the arbitration field)
identifies the message destination and also its priority. As the transmitter puts a
message on the data bus it also reads the name back from the bus. If the name
is not the same as the one it sent, then another transmitter must be in operation,
which has a higher priority. If this is the case it will stop transmission of its own
message. This is very important in the case of motor vehicle data transmission.
1 12 G o -w 1G 2 7 3
Control Data field CRC Field ACK Frtdof

Arto'lratfDn Field lie Id Ira me
field
Start o f Inter fram r-
frame sVDC*
Figure 4.29 Message format (the 3 spaces are not part of the message)
Errors in a message are recognized by what is known as a cyclic redundancy

Definition check (CRC). This is an error detection scheme in which all the bits in a block of
The cyclic redundancy check data are divided by a predetermined binary number. A check character, known
(CRC) field is part of the overall to the transmitter and receiver, is determined by the remainder. If an error is
message (The basic idea behind
recognised the message on the bus is destroyed. This in turn is recognized
CRCs is to treat the message
string as a single binary word by the transmitter, which then sends the message again. This technique,
M, and divide it by a key word when combined with additional tests, makes it possible to discover all faulty
k that is known to both the messages.
transmitter and the receiver. The
The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) field is part of the overall message. (The
remainder r left after dividing
M by k constitutes the ‘check basic idea behind CRCs is to treat the message string as a single binary
word’ for the given message. word M, and divide it by a key word k that is known to both the transmitter
The transmitter sends both the and the receiver. The remainder r left after dividing M by k constitutes the
message string M and the check ‘check word’ for the given message. The transmitter sends both the message
word r, and the receiver can then string M and the check word r, and the receiver can then check the data by
check the data by repeating the
calculation, dividing M by the repeating the calculation, dividing M by the key word k, and verifying that the
key word k, and verifying that the remainder is r.)
remainder is r.) Because each node in effect monitors its own output, interrupts disturbed
transmissions, and acknowledges correct transmissions, faulty stations can
be recognized and uncoupled (electronically) from the bus. This prevents other
transmissions from being disturbed.
A CAN message may vary between 44 and 108 bits in length. This is made up of
Key fact a start bit, name, control bits, the data itself, CRC error detection, a confirmation
signal and finally a number of stop bits.
A CAN message may vary between
44 and 108 bits in length. Controller area network (CAN) signal is made up of voltage pulses that represent
ones and zeros, in other words, binary signals. The data is applied to two wires
known as CAN-high and CAN-low.
In Figure 4.27, it is possible to verify that data is being continuously exchanged
along the CAN bus. It is also possible to check that the peak to peak voltage
levels are correct and that a signal is present on both CAN lines. CAN uses a
Definition differential signal, and the signal on one line should be a coincident mirror
DLC: Diagnostic/Data link connector. image (the signals should line up) of the data on the other line (Figures 4.31
and 4.32).
Figure 4.30 DLC socket – pin 6 is CAN-high and pin 14 is CAN-low
04_23854_CH04.indd 136 14/11/11 9:07 PM

Figure 4.31 CAN high and low signals on a dual trace scope
The usual reason for examining the CAN signals is where a CAN fault has been
indicated by OBD, or to check the CAN connection to a suspected faulty CAN
node. The vehicle manufacturers’ manual should be referred to for precise
waveform parameters.
Figure 4.32 CAN signal zoomed in
04_23854_CH04.indd 137 14/11/11 9:07 PM

When the signal is captured on a fast time base (or zoomed in) it allows the
individual state changes to be viewed. This enables the mirror image nature of
the signals, and the coincidence of the edges to be verified.
In this display, it is possible to verify that:
• data is being continuously exchanged along the CAN bus;
• the voltage levels are correct;
Key fact
• a signal is present on both CAN lines.
CAN uses a differential signal so
the signal on one line should be a CAN uses a differential signal so the signal on one line should be a coincident
coincident mirror image of the data mirror image of the data on the other line. The usual reasons for examining the
on the other line. CAN signals is where a CAN fault has been indicated by OBD, or to check the
CAN connection to a suspected faulty CAN node. Manufacturers’ data should be
referred to for precise waveform parameters.
The following CAN data is captured on a much faster timebase and allows the
individual state changes to be examined. This enables the mirror image nature of
the signals, and the coincidence of the edges to be verified.
Figure 4.33 CAN signals on a fast timebase
The signals are equal and opposite and they are of the same amplitude
(voltage). The edges are clean and coincident with each other. This shows
that the vehicle data bus (CAN bus) is enabling communication between the
nodes and the CAN controller unit. This test effectively verifies the integrity
of the bus at this point in the network. If a particular node is not responding
correctly, the fault is likely to be the node itself. The rest of the bus should
work correctly.
It is usually recommended to check the condition of the signals present
at the connector of each of the ECUs on the network. The data at each
node will always be the same on the same bus. Remember that much of
the data on the bus is safety critical, so do not use insulation piercing
probes!
04_23854_CH04.indd 138 14/11/11 9:07 PM

4.3.6 Local Interconnect Network (LIN)

A local interconnect network (LIN) is a serial bus system especially suited for
networking ‘intelligent’ devices, sensors and actuators within a sub-system. It Key fact
is a concept for low cost automotive networks, which complements existing
LIN is a concept for low cost
automotive multiplex networks such as CAN (Figures 4.34 and 4.35). automotive networks, which
LIN enables the implementation of a hierarchical vehicle network. This allows complements existing automotive
further quality enhancement and cost reduction of vehicles. multiplex networks such as CAN.
The LIN standard includes the specification of the transmission protocol,

the transmission medium, the interface between development tools, and the
interfaces for software programming. LIN guarantees the interoperability of
network nodes from the viewpoint of hardware and software, and predictable
electro-magnetic compatibility (EMC) behaviour. Definition
LIN is a time triggered single master, multiple slave network concept. It is based EMC: Electro-magnetic compatibility.
EMC requirements stipulate that a
on common interface hardware, which makes it a low cost solution (Figures 4.16
device shall not cause interference
and 4.17). Additional attributes of LIN are: within itself or in other devices, or
• Multicast reception with self-synchronization. be susceptible to interference from
other devices.
• Selectable length of message frames.
CA N Bus
CAN Node C AN Node G a te w a y
LIN Bus
LIN N o d e LIN N o d e
Figure 4.34 Structure using CAN and LIN
Drive Train Bus
ECM ABS ASR ESP Transmission
M ultim edia Bus

Instrum ents
Radio GPS Phone
Body Bus
Parking Door C ontrol Body C ontrol
Figure 4.35 Standards allow communication between different systems

140
Q Automobile electrical and electronic systems
339-11
'HBAT
VSl VS£NSE
V&2 HS1
LIN IM E H F A C E ,
t2
Life
VDD
PWMPN
ADOUTO LS1
Figure 4.36 LIN package

WCU MOSl lsz
MI50
(Source: FreeScaie Semiconductor) £CLK
RXD WDCONF
ifiq
RST
Figure 4.37 System basis chip (SBC) with a LIN transceiver (Source: FreeScaie Semiconductor)
• Data checksum security and error detection.

• Single-wire implementation.
• Speed up to 20 kBit/s.
LIN provides a cost efficient bus communication where the bandwidth and
versatility of CAN are not required. It is used for non-critical systems.
The LIN bus is proving popular because of its low cost and also because it
reduces the bus load of the supervising CAN network. Local interconnect
network (LIN) signals can be measured by connecting between earth/ground
Figure 4.38 LIN waveform

and the signal wire. It is not possible to decode the signal but a correctly
□ 141
switching square waveform should be as shown in Figure 4.38.
4.3.7 FlexRay
FlexRay is a fast and fault-tolerant bus system for automotive use (Figures 4.40
and 4.41). It was developed, using the experience of well-known OEMs. It is
designed to meet the needs of current and future in-car control applications that
require a high bandwidth. The bit rate for FlexRay can be programmed to values
up to 10 MBit/s. Figure 4.39 FlexRay logo
The data exchange between the control devices, sensors and actuators in
automobiles is mainly carried out via CAN systems. However, the introduction
of X-by-wire systems has resulted in increased requirements. This is especially
so with regard to error tolerance and speed of message transmission. FlexRay Key fact
meets these requirements by message transmission in fixed time slots, and by
fault-tolerant and redundant message transmission on two channels. FlexRay can cope with the
requirements of X-by-wire systems.
The physical layer means the hardware, that is, the actual components and wires.
FlexRay works on the principle of: time division multiple access (TDMA). This
means that components or messages have fixed time slots in which they have
exclusive access to the data bus. These time slots are repeated in a cycle and
are just a few milliseconds long. Key fact
The fixed allocation of the bus bandwidth to the components or messages by FlexRay communicates via two
means of fixed time slots has the disadvantage that the bandwidth is not fully physically separated lines with a
used. For example, if a component is simply not in use at its slot-time. To get data rate of up to 10 Mbit/son
over this, FlexRay subdivides the cycle into static and dynamic segments. The each.
fixed time slots are situated in the static segment at the beginning of a bus
Diagnostics
FlexRay Backbone
Gateway 2 Gateway 1 Gateway 3 Gateway 4

Gateway n
(Powertrain) Telematics) (Body Comfort) (Chassiasl)
ECU n
Door Locks
Engine I Video System
Climate Control
Mobile Phone Strear By-wire
Transmission
Seat Control
Radio
Brake By-wire
.More Infotainment Sunroof
...More
...More
Figure 4.40 FlexRay backbone
Node A Node B Node C Node D Node E Node F
Channel 1
Channel 2
Figure 4.41 FlexRay topology with two channels (Source: Eberspacher)

A B C D E
• Channel A
Channel B
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11
A1 B1 Cl A3 E1 B2 B3- E2
>Channel A
t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A2 C1 D1 A4 E1 A4
Channel B
t
Static Segment Dynamic Seg.
Communication Cycle
Figure 4.42 Bandwidth timeslots
cycle. In the dynamic segment, the time slots are assigned dynamically, in other
words, as they are needed. Exclusive bus access is only enabled for a short
time in ‘mini-slots’. This mini-slot is then only extended if a bus access occurs.
Bandwidth is therefore used up only when it is actually needed (Figure 4.42).
FlexRay communicates via two physically separated lines with a data rate of up to
10 Mbit/s on each. The two lines are mainly used for redundant and therefore fault-
tolerant message transmission, but they can also transmit different messages.
In order to implement synchronous functions and use all available bandwidth,
the distributed nodes on the network require a common time base. Clock
synchronization messages are therefore transmitted in the static segment of each
cycle.
A FlexRay ECU consists of a host processor, a FlexRay communication controller
(CC), a bus guardian (BG) and a bus driver (BD). The host processor supplies and
processes the data, which are transmitted via the controller (Figures 4.43 and
4.44). The process is as follows:
• Bus guardian monitors access to the bus.
• Host processor informs the bus guardian which time slots the communication
controller has allocated.
• Bus guardian allows the communication controller to transmit data only in
these time slots.
• Bus driver is enabled.
FlexRay is a fast and fault-tolerant bus system that was developed to meet the
needs of high bandwidth applications such as X-by-wire systems (Figure 4.45).
Error tolerance and speed of message transmission in these systems is essential.
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot 4 Slot 5 Slot 6 Slot 7 Mhlalola
A1 B1 D1 A3 E1 B2 D2 Ad
Channel 1
A2 B1 C1 F1 F9 E2
Channel 2
Static Part Dynamic Part
Single Communication Cycle
Figure 4.43 FlexRay communication cycle (Source: Eberspacher)

G 143
ECU
Host
CC
BG BG
BO BD
PL Ie l
Channel I
Channel 2
Figure 4.44 FlexRay ECU (Source: Eberspacher)
X-By wire FLEXRAY
ECM CAN
Doors LIN
B a n d w id th
Figure 4.45 Comparing requirements and data rates of the three systems
FlexRay uses very high speed signals so it is necessary to use high speed probes
to view the signal. The FlexRay-High and FlexRay-Low pins are usually available
at the multi-way connector at each ECU on the network.
Figure 4.46 FlexRay signal

Figure 4.47 A closer view of a FlexRay signal
It is possible to verify that data is being continuously exchanged on the FlexRay

network, that the peak-to-peak voltage levels are correct, and that a signal is
present on both FlexRay lines. FlexRay uses a differential signal, so the signal on
one line should be a mirror image of the data on the other line.
4.4 Media oriented systems transport (MOST)

4.4.1 Introduction
MOST is the de-facto standard for multimedia and infotainment networking in
the automotive industry. The technology was designed from the ground up to
provide an efficient and cost-effective fabric to transmit audio, video, data and
control information between any devices attached even to the harsh environment
of an automobile. Its synchronous nature allows for simple devices to provide
content and others to render that content with the minimum of hardware. At the
Definition
same time it provides unique quality of service for transmission of audio and
A/V: Audio visual. video services. Although its roots are in the automotive industry, MOST can be
used for applications in other areas such as other transportation applications,
A/V networking, security and industrial applications.
The MOST Cooperation is the organization through which the technology
is standardized and refined so that it continues to stay abreast of the latest
technology requirements.
4.4.2 MOST network

MOST is a synchronous network. A timing master supplies the clock with a
synchronous and continuous data signal and all other devices synchronize their
04_23854_CH04.indd 144 14/11/11 9:07 PM

operation to this base signal. This technology eliminates the need for buffering
and sample rate conversion so that very simple and inexpensive devices can
be connected and the hardware of the network interface itself is lean and cost
effective. The technology is similar to what the public switched telephone
network uses.
Within the synchronous base data signal, multiple streaming data channels
and a control channel are transported. The control channel is used to set up
what streaming data channels the sender and receiver are to use. Once the Key fact
connection is established, data can flow continuously and no further addressing
On a MOST network, multiple
or processing of packet label information is required. The bandwidth of the streaming data channels and a
streaming data channels is always available and reserved for the dedicated control channel are transported within
stream so there are no interruptions, collisions, or slow-downs in the transport the synchronous base data signal.
of the data stream. This is the optimum mechanism for delivering streaming data
(information that flows continuously) like audio and video.
Computer based data, such as Internet traffic or information from a navigation
system, is typically sent in short (asynchronous) bursts as packets and is often
going to many different places. To accommodate such signals, MOST has
defined efficient mechanisms for sending asynchronous, packet based data
in addition to the control channel and the streaming data channels (Figure
4.48). These mechanisms run on top of the permanent synchronous data
signal. However, they are completely separate from the control channel and the
streaming data channels so that none of them interfere with each other.
First conceived in 1997, MOST differs from existing vehicle bus technologies, in
that it’s intended to be carried largely on an optical fibre bearer, thus providing a
bus-based networking system at bit-rates far higher than available on previous Definition
vehicle-bus technologies.
ISO/OSI Reference Model: The
The MOST specification defines all seven layers of the ISO/OSI Reference Model Open Systems Interconnection
for data communication. The MOST network often employs a ring topology, but (OSI) model is a way of sub-dividing
star configurations and double rings for critical applications are possible and a communications system into
may include up to 64 devices or nodes. A plug and play feature enables easy smaller parts called layers. Similar
communication functions are
adding and removing of devices. A Timing Master is one of the nodes which
grouped into logical layers. A layer
continuously feeds data frame into the ring or acts as the gate for data. The provided services to its upper layer
preamble, or packet header, repeatedly synchronizes the rest of the nodes called while receiving services from the
Timing Slaves. layer below.
4.4.3 Protocol
MOST can use both optical and electrical components on the physical layer. A
special code know as bi-phase mark) is used to encode data on either physical
Definition
medium, such as used in S/PDIF. All bits are transmitted in a single clock cycle. A
zero bit has a single transition at the end of the clock cycle. A one bit is encoded S/PDIF: Sony/Philips Digital Interface.
with two transitions both in the middle of the clock cycle and at the end of the A format for sending digital audio
information. S/PDIF connections use
clock cycle. The preamble is encoded using a clock cycle after the third clock
optical cables or phone connectors.
cycle.
A most data block has 16 frames and each comprises:
• a 4 bit preamble;
• a 4 bit boundary descriptor;
• 15 quad-byte payload that are split into a synchronous and asynchronous
part, the split point is specified by the boundary descriptor;
• a 2 byte control pay-load; the control payload of 16 frames are concatenated
to form a single 32 byte control message;
04_23854_CH04.indd 145 14/11/11 9:07 PM

Data Frame
Streaming Packet
(Synchronous Data) (Asynchronous) Data
E.G. ANALOG AND E.G. INTERNET TRAFFIO Control Data

DIGITAL AUDIO OR INFORMATION FROM
AND VIDEO A NAVIGATION SYSTEM
Figure 4.48 MOST data frame
• 7 bits frame control;

• a parity bit.
4.4.4 MOST applications

The simplest MOST applications consist of analog audio gateways. A simple
digital-to-analog converter (DAC) can be connected to a MOST transceiver to
drive a speaker. A human machine Interface (HMI) sets up the MOST transceiver
to receive data from a specific channel and the transceiver drives the DAC clock
Key fact based on the timing provided by the network timing master. Since both the
The simplest MOST applications receiver and the sender of the data are running off the same clock, no special
consist of analog audio gateways. buffering or processing of packet information is required. The MOST transceiver
even provides industry-standard to connect to off-the-shelf DACs from many
manufacturers.
A microphone can be connected to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
that in turn connects directly to a MOST transceiver. The HMI sets up the
communication channel and the ADC just streams its data to the MOST
Definition transceiver.
MPEG: A set of standards Video sources can be easily connected to a MOST network by using a video
adopted by the moving pictures ADC and MPEG encoder that digitizes the video source and places it on the
experts group for the compression
network. The video signals previously captured can be decoded by a video
of digital video and audio data.
display interface. This interface could even take care of any copy protection
mechanisms that were used if the data came from a DVD.
4.4.5 Consumer device gateway

Rapidly changing technologies can be decoupled from a stable backbone
that transport A/V information and control by building gateways to connect
the two (Figure 4.49).
4.4.6 Summary
MOST is a multiplex network that has different channels with their own
mechanisms to transport all the various signals and data streams that occur in
multimedia and infotainment systems. They all run on top of a synchronous base
data stream which guarantees high quality of service for the audio and video
signals where disturbances are not acceptable. MOST:
• uses a single interconnection to transport audio, video, data and control
information;
04_23854_CH04.indd 146 14/11/11 9:07 PM

Q 147
Consumer Device
Gateway IN-UEHICLE
CE APPLIC ATIO N APPLICATIO N &
a CONTROL CONTROL
PROTOCOLS PROTOCOLS
U PNP
MTP
ET.AyRC P
Consumer
World
In-Vehicle
CE TRANSPORT IN - y E H IC L E
Platform
:L N E T W O R K TRANSPORT &
PROTOCOLS N E T UJ O R K
PROTOCOLS
Figure 4.49 Using a gateway on a MOST network (Source: MOST Corporation)
• can use fibre-optic cable, or twisted pair wires;

• supports 25, 50 and 150 Mbps speeds;
• provides the connectivity backbone to network a range of multimedia
interfaces.
Please visit: www.mostcooperation.com for more information.
4.5 Automotive Ethernet

Definition
4.5.1 Introduction Ethernet: A set of network cabling
and network access protocol
Automotive systems have tended to use custom standards such as MOST, but standards for bus topology computer
one of the leading automotive networking chip suppliers, SMSC, has produced a networks invented by Xerox but now
high-performance single-chip 10/100 Ethernet controller. controlled by the a subcommittee of
the IEEE. It is also generally used to
The device is designed specifically to meet the high reliability standards required
describe a computer network which
by automotive applications. Using a high-performance Ethernet interface in complies with these standards.
today’s complex vehicle electrical systems may help diagnose issues faster and
lower software maintenance time.
4.5.2 Overview
The need for higher speed interfaces is driven by the increasing size of Definition
embedded program and data memories. For example, a recent BMW 7 series GB: Giga bytes.
has more than 1 GB of memory while the previous model had just short of Gb: Giga bits.
100 MB. Repair shops diagnose and fix problems, but also update the software
Byte: 8 bits.
and data embedded in the various control devices inside the car via the data link
connector (DLC).
This standardized connector only provides a slow communication interface
so updating the software of a modern car via this interface can take hours.
As a result, many car companies are working on an upgrade of the OBD
connector to provide the car with a high-performance data interface for
diagnostics and software downloads. This initiative is expected to lead to a
new ISO/SAE standard that mandates Ethernet as part of the OBD interface
for all cars.
The device from SMSC provides a simple, parallel host bus interface to the
typical automotive embedded microcontrollers used inside a car. It can function
as a network branch to the outside world connecting the car to a personal
computer, diagnostic tool or a complex Ethernet network in the repair shop
with power management, wake-on-LAN support allows network to wake-up
electronics devices from sleep state, multiple low-power modes and built-in flow
control support.
For more information, visit www.smsc.com
4.6 Circuit diagrams and symbols

4.6.1 Symbols
The selection of symbols given in Figure 2.14 (in Chapter 2), is intended as a
guide to some of those in use. Some manufacturers use their own variation but
a standard is developing. The idea of a symbol is to represent a component in a
very simple but easily recognizable form. The symbol for a motor or for a small
electronic unit deliberately leaves out internal circuitry in order to concentrate on
the interconnections between the various devices.
Examples of how these symbols are used are given in the next three sections,
which show three distinct types of wiring diagram. Due to the complexity of
modern wiring systems it is now common practice to show just part of the
whole system on one sheet. For example, lights on one page, auxiliary
circuits on the next, and so on. In many cases, even one system is split
into two parts (see the circuits in the central electrical control section for
examples).
4.6.2 Conventional circuit diagrams

The conventional type of diagram shows the electrical connections of a circuit
but makes no attempt to show the various parts in any particular order or
position. Figure 4.50 shows an example of this type of diagram.
4.6.3 Layout or wiring diagrams

A layout circuit diagram makes an attempt to show the main electrical
components in a position similar to those on the actual vehicle. Owing to the
complex circuits and the number of individual wires, some manufacturers
now use two diagrams – one to show electrical connections and the other
to show the actual layout of the wiring harness and components. Citroën,
amongst others, have used this system. An example of this is reproduced
in Figure 4.51.
4.6.4 Terminal diagrams

A terminal diagram shows only the connections of the devices and not any
of the wiring. The terminal of each device, which can be represented pictorially,
is marked with a code. This code indicates the device terminal designation, the
destination device code and its terminal designation and, in some cases, the wire
colour code. Figure 4.52 shows an example of this technique.
04_23854_CH04.indd 148 14/11/11 9:07 PM

Figure 4.50 Conventional circuit diagram
04_23854_CH04.indd 149 14/11/11 9:07 PM

150 Q Automobile electrical and electronic systems
142
807 862 441
783 434
MT
907 432
900 770
570
AV 160
779 10 680
270
45 HB 300
909
CN
CP 40
35 50 PB
Figure 4.51 Layout diagram
Key fact 4.6.5 Current flow diagrams

Current flow diagrams have two Current flow diagrams are now very popular. The idea is that the page is laid
supply lines at the top of the out such as to show current flow from the top to the bottom. These diagrams
page marked 30 (main battery
often have two supply lines at the top of the page marked 30 (main battery
positive supply) and 15 (ignition
controlled supply) and earth/
positive supply) and 15 (ignition controlled supply). At the bottom of the page is
ground marked 31 at the bottom. a line marked 31 (earth or chassis connection). Figure 4.53 is an example of this
technique.
4.7 Electromagnetic compatibility

4.7.1 Introduction
Definition
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), describes the ability of a device or system
EMC: Electromagnetic compatibility.
to function without error in its intended electromagnetic environment.
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) refers to electromagnetic emissions from a
device or system that interferes with the normal operation of another device or
system.
Definition
EMI: Electromagnetic interference. 4.7.2 EMC problems
The following list gives some examples where EMC can become a problem:
• A computer interferes with FM radio reception.
15
F9 S29
o 151
S20 S16 F9 E29 S10:R

31b M4:31 b K3:86
K8 55 M5:+ S27 53a F9
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86 F11 S10 S13:R
85 E3 E2
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F25 E22
K1 6 87 E 6/E 7 S13:L
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86 57:83a E13
S31 A3:- 85 E26 ;E12
F22 SS 56
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S35
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S261 S S16 E13
F8 F22
M3:+ 56b F21 E12 Fl 7
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S25 E42 535 F0:15x
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F74 H7 S3:56a
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£2
83 F26 E42 S7:83fc
S7 S25
X18 F3 83a K16:86
83b E2/E3 £14 E17
H10 59
31 K18 49 S13:49
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S6 F17 A W1 31 ;n a
58 1 F26 A2 I B11
58R' F19 B12
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P4:G
H5 F70
86 S1;15x
K15 88 F0:30
88o F0:l5x B13 F17 E40 013
85 E40 E41
Figure 4.52 Terminal designation diagram
• A car radio buzzes when you drive under a power line.

• A car misfires when you drive under a power line.
• A helicopter goes out of control when it flies too close to a radio tower.
• CB radio conversations are picked up on the stereo.
• The screen on a video display jitters when fluorescent lights are on.
• The clock resets every time the air conditioner kicks in.
• A laptop computer interferes with an aircraft’s rudder control!
Figure 4.53 Current flow diagram
• The airport radar interferes with a laptop computer display.

• A heart pacemaker picks up cellular telephone calls!
There are three essential elements to any EMC problem:
1. Source of an electromagnetic phenomenon.
2. Receptor (or victim) that cannot function properly due to the electromagnetic
phenomenon.
3. Path between them that allows the source to interfere with the receptor.
Each of these three elements must be present, although they may not be
04_23854_CH04.indd 152 14/11/11 9:07 PM

readily identified in every situation. Identifying at least two of these elements

and eliminating (or attenuating) one of them generally solves electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) problems.
For example, suppose it was determined that radiated emissions from a mobile
telephone were inducing currents on a cable that was connected to an ECU
controlling anti-lock brakes. If this adversely affected the operation of the circuit
a possible coupling path could be identified.
Shielding, filtering, or re-routing of the cable may be the answer. If necessary,
filtering or redesigning the circuit would be further possible methods of
attenuating the coupling path to the point where the problem is non-existent.
Potential sources of electromagnetic compatibility problems include radio
transmitters, power lines, electronic circuits, lightning, lamp dimmers, electric
motors, arc welders, solar flares and just about anything that utilizes or creates
electromagnetic energy. On a vehicle, the alternator and ignition system are
the worst offenders. Potential receptors include radio receivers, electronic
circuits, appliances, people, and just about anything that utilizes or can detect
electromagnetic energy.
Methods of coupling electromagnetic energy from a source to a receptor fall into
one of the following categories:
1. Conducted (electric current).
2. Inductively coupled (magnetic field).
3. Capacitively coupled (electric field).
4. Radiated (electromagnetic field).
Coupling paths often utilize a complex combination of these methods making
the path difficult to identify even when the source and receptor are known.
There may be multiple coupling paths and steps taken to attenuate one path
may enhance another. EMC therefore is a serious issue for the vehicle
designer.
4.8 Central electrical control

4.8.1 Overview
4.8.1.1 Introduction
For many years the trend with automotive electrical systems has been towards
Key fact
some sort of networked central control. This makes sense because many
systems can share one source of information and, with the proper equipment, Centralization systems allow facilities
to be linked and improved.
diagnostics can be made easier. Also, centralization allows facilities to be
linked and improved. For example, networking and centralization of control
units makes it easier to have a system where the engine will not start if a door
is open, or selection of reverse gear can operate rear wiper when the fronts are
switched on (Figure 4.62).
The basic central control system can be simplified in a way that is represented by Key fact
Figure 4.54. The most common usage of central
control is for body systems such as
The most common usage of central control is for body systems such as lighting, lighting, wipers, doors, seats and
wipers, doors, seats and windows. In some cases these systems are controlled windows.
by slave units via a communication network, in other cases, one unit controls
everything. In almost all cases, this central unit is networked to other ECUs
04_23854_CH04.indd 153 14/11/11 9:07 PM

Power supplies (Vbat, Vign)
Inputs from switches Outputs to devices
Control Module
Communication networks Warning LED
Earth/ground
Figure 4.54 Central control system (simplified)
Some central control modules connect via normal wires to switches that supply
normal voltage on/off signals, others use switches that communicate on the CAN
or LIN networks. The outputs from the module are sent via relays or solid state
switches on standard wires.
Manufacturers have different names for these systems and the control units but
most have a similar function. Four example names follow:
• Body control module (BCM).
• General electronic module (GEM).
• Central control unit (CCU).
• Central control module (CCM).
4.8.1.2 Detailed system and circuit diagrams

Figures 4.55 and 4.56 show a full circuit diagram (in two halves) that has been
adapted from materials supplied by Ford Motor Company. The circuit shows
a general electronic module (GEM) and how it is used to control the wipers
(in this case). Note that the multifunction wiper switch contains a series of
switch contacts that all connect directly back to the GEM. Also note the CAN
connection to the module.
Figure 4.57 below is from a Ford vehicle with adaptive front lighting. The light
switch in this case has a supply (30) and an earth/ground (31) connection, but
that all commands to operate the lights are sent via the LIN bus. The GEM
supplies outputs to operate the lights and a separate module is used in this case
for the adaptive features of the lights.
4.8.1.3 Control units

A central body control module (BCM) is the primary hub that maintains body
functions, such as:
• internal and external lighting;
• security and access control;
• comfort features for doors and seats;
• other convenience controls.
A leading OEM company called FreeScale produces high quality 16-bit MCU
families that target many BCM applications. A single board computer (SBC)
combines voltage regulation with a CAN or LIN physical interface in a single
04_23854_CH04.indd 154 14/11/11 9:07 PM

package. H-bridge drivers and a series of high-side switches drive high-current

loads and replace relays. Key fact
The gateway serves as the information bridge between various in-car H-bridge drivers and high-side switches
communication networks, including Ethernet, FlexRay, CAN, LIN and MOST drive high-current loads and replace
relays.
protocols. It also serves as the car’s central diagnostic interface.
Exterior lighting plays an important role in the safety of car passengers and other
road users. Different types of lamps (e.g. halogen, xenon or LED) are used in a
variety of lighting functions, such as brake lights, turn indicators, low and high
beam headlights, daytime running lights and others. More advanced functions
include light bending, levelling and shaping to adapt to changing driving
conditions.
FreeScale produces components as 8-, 16- and 32-bit devices to address the
processing requirements of these different applications. Their ‘eXtreme’ switch
product family of intelligent high-side switches use performance profiles tailored
for different lamp types. They feature extensive diagnostic functionalities to
detect faults and malfunctions and provide ‘wave-shaping’ to improve system-
level EMC performance.
Figure 4.59 shows the internal configuration of a lighting control module that
uses solid-state switching.
An example of the ‘eXtreme’ switch (high side switch) family of devices is shown
as Figure 4.60. It is designed for low-voltage automotive lighting applications. Its
four low RDS(ON) MOSFETs (dual 10 mΩ/dual 12 mΩ) can control four separate
55W/28W bulbs, and/or Xenon modules, and/or LEDs.
Programming, control and diagnostics are accomplished using a 16-bit SPI
interface. Its output with selectable slew rate improves electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) behaviour. Additionally, each output has its own parallel
input or SPI control for pulse-width modulation (PWM) control if desired. The
10XS3412 allows the user to program via the SPI the fault current trip levels and
duration of acceptable lamp inrush. The device (Figure 4.58) has fail-safe mode
to provide fail-safe functionality of the outputs in case of MCU damaged. The
internal circuit of this device is shown as Figure 4.61.
4.8.1.4 Summary
The previous sections outlined and showed examples of how central control
systems are configured. At first view they can appear complex but actually
compared to separate switched and wires and relays for every electrical
component on the car, centralization actually simplifies the system as well as
making it easy to add new features.
4.8.2 Ford generic electronic module (GEM)

4.8.2.1 Overview
On many Ford cars, the GEM is installed under the instrument panel, behind the
glove compartment. It controls a multitude of functions in the generic electronics.
The GEM is a separate module and does not contain any current distribution
section (no fuses or relays).
Depending on equipment level, different GEMs are installed in the factory. One of
the highest equipment versions supports the following:
• central locking;
• opening/closing function via radio remote control (radio receiver built into the
GEM);
04_23854_CH04.indd 155 14/11/11 9:07 PM

156
04_23854_CH04.indd 156
4
Automobile electrical and electronic systems
Figure 4.55 Part 1 of a wiper circuit using a central control module (Source: Ford Motor Company)
14/11/11 9:07 PM
04_23854_CH04.indd 157
4
Figure 4.56 Part 2 of a wiper circuit using a central control module (Source: Ford Motor Company)
157
14/11/11 9:07 PM
158
04_23854_CH04.indd 158
4
Automobile electrical and electronic systems
Figure 4.57 Lighting circuit using a general electronic module (Source: Ford Motor Company)
14/11/11 9:08 PM
□ 159
Vbat —
Power Supply, UHF RKE
CAN «■
UN * SBC and Receiver TPMS
Physical l/F
CAN Slaves High
CAN l/F
Side
Switches
LIN Slaves Internal Lighting
Door Module
Seat Module LIN l/F Microcontroller Low Horn
Sunroof Module Side External Lighting
Switches LED Control
Seat Control
Switch! Switch LED
Various Output
Inputs; Monitoring Drivers
H-Bridgesl
Digital I/O Watchdog
Analog I/O MCU Warning LED
Figure 4.58 Details of the body control module and central gateway (Source: FreeScale Electronics)
Vbat High beam left

High
CAN Power Supply Side High beam right
and Physical l/F Driver Rear brake left
Rear brake right
CAN Slaves CAN l/F High Interior 1 and 2
Side Front side marker left
Driver
Front side marker right
Low beam left
High
LIN Slaves LIN l/F Microcontroller Side Low beam right
Driver Center mount brake light
Fog lamp left
High Fog lamp right
Switch Side Rear, turn and hazard left
Switch Inputs
Monitoring Driver
Rear, turn and hazard right
Low Power distribution

Analog Inputs Side
Driver Relays
Figure 4.59 Lighting control unit (Source: FreeScale Electronics)

VDD VPWR
■up
VDD Failure
Defection
Internal
Regulator PCfi foierAJnder voltagp
Prrcec:ian5
Charge
Pume
VPWR
Vohage Clamp
CS Vr eg
SCLK Selectable Slew Rate
Gate D iver
■ow n
Selectable Qver-ourrenc
Defection HSO
SO
51 Severe Short circiit
RST Logic Defection
WAKE
FS Short to VPWR
HO Detection
Figure 4.60 extreme or high side switch H1 Over-tempefatwe
Detection
devices (Source: FreeScale) H2 Open-load
Defections
H3
HSO
R DWN 'CWN R DWH

HS1
HS1
?WM
C a lib r a t e
ModLie
Oscillator HS2
HS2
V REG
HS3
HS3
FSI Pragfarnmable
Wa:chdog
- emperature Selectable Oiccut

Feedback Current ^ecasy
Oi'er-lempefaline
PrEwarning
Analog MUX
Vcc
GND CSSS
Figure 4.61 Internal configuration of an extreme or high side switch (Source: FreeScale)
E 102661
Figure 4.62 Generic electronic module location (Source: Ford Motor company)
• fold-in/fold-out external mirrors;

• ambient lighting;
• automatic light and wiper control;
• anti-theft warning system (perimeter monitoring);
• double locking.
An emergency running mode is also available. If a serious fault occurs in the
GEM (a defective microprocessor or failure of the voltage supply for example) the
following functions are still maintained:
• dipped beam (will then be switched on every time the ignition is switched on);
• windscreen wipers (only slow speed).
One many vehicles, if the GEM has been changed, the new one will configure
itself automatically when the ignition is switched on, after about eight seconds.
4.8.2.2 Service mode

Various input and output signals can be checked using the service mode. Service
mode is activated as follows:
1. turn the ignition off;
2. press the heated rear window switch and keep it pressed;
3. switch the ignition on and then release the heated rear window switch.
The GEM now requests the user to perform a set sequence of different functions
(for instance, to operate the warning flashers, the light switch, and the door
locking). If the test is completed successfully, a signal tone will be output.
The GEM can contain configuration data about the vehicle systems as well as the Key fact
VIN. This can be backed up before replacement using manufacturer’s equipment, The GEM can contain configuration
the integrated diagnostic system (IDS) to transfer it to the new GEM. In many data about the vehicle systems as
cases, the system will operate without the back-up in the GEM. However, if the well as the VIN.
instrument cluster fails, there will no longer be any module configuration data
available.
4.8.2.3 Anti-theft
The anti-theft protection of the vehicle is a feature of the GEM. The following
perimeter-monitoring components are used:
• door ajar switch;
• engine bonnet switch;
• tailgate switch.
The alarm state of the vehicle is signalled by the turn signal lamps and a horn
with its own battery. With the ignition switched off, the anti-theft system is
activated about eleven seconds after the vehicle is locked. If the bonnet, tailgate
or one of the doors is not fully closed, it can be opened without triggering the
alarm. In this case the system is not armed.
4.8.3 Communication between modules

4.8.3.1 Introduction
In a communications network (using a data bus), various modules of different
systems are connected to one another via one or several lines. The purpose of
the data bus system is the transmission of data between the connected modules
themselves, as well as between the modules and a diagnostic tool.
In a data bus system, complete data blocks are transmitted instead of single on/
off pulses. In addition to the actual information, these blocks also contain data
04_23854_CH04.indd 161 14/11/11 9:08 PM

regarding the address of the module to be controlled or accessed, the size of

the data block and information for monitoring the content of each individual data
block. Please see the multiplexing section for more information.
Data bus systems offer various advantages:
• simplified data transmission between the modules due to a standardised
protocol;
• fewer sensors and connectors;
• improved diagnostics;
• lower costs.
Diagnostic equipment is connected to the various bus systems and to the power
supply via the standard 16-pin Data Link Connector (DLC). Signals for module
programming or backup are also transmitted via the DLC. In order to be able to
establish communication with one another, the modules of the individual systems
must use the same language. This language is called a protocol.
Many manufacturers such as Ford use three different data bus systems.
Depending upon model and equipment level, all three data bus systems may be
used. Each of these data bus systems has its own protocol.
4.8.3.2 Data bus systems

Standard Corporate Protocol (SCP) bus
This system consists of two twisted wires. It is used for communication between
the powertrain control module (PCM) and the diagnostic equipment connected
via the DLC. Depending upon engine version and year of manufacture, a third
wire (ACP bus) is used for programming the PCM. This bus is only used in
conjunction with the SCP bus.
International Organisation for Standardisation ISO 9141 bus
This consists of a single wire and is used exclusively for communication between
the modules and a diagnostic tool. The fault memories of the various modules
are read out via the ISO 9141 bus.
Controller Area Network (CAN) bus

This consists of two twisted wires and operates serially (data is transmitted
sequentially). It is used for communication between the modules themselves and
between the modules and diagnostic equipment. The modules are connected
to the data bus in parallel. New modules can be incorporated easily, without
modifying the other wiring or modules. The transmitted data is received by
every module connected to the CAN bus. As each data packet has an identifier,
Key fact in which the priority of the message is determined as well as the content
identification, each module can detect whether or not the data is relevant for its
CAN connections consist of
two twisted wires and operates own information processing. This enables several modules to be addressed with
serially (data is transmitted a particular data packet and supplied with data simultaneously. For this purpose,
sequentially). it is ensured that important data (for example from the Anti-lock Brake System
(ABS)) is transmitted first. The other modules are only able to submit their data to
the data bus after the high-priority messages have been received.
The advantages of the CAN bus are:
• minimization of wiring requirements;
• high degree of error protection (fault/fail-proof);
• robustness;
• good extendibility;
• prioritization of messages;
04_23854_CH04.indd 162 14/11/11 9:08 PM

3
5 6
1
2
A/C
4 7 8 9 10 11 12
Figure 4.63 1, High-speed CAN bus; 2, Terminating resistors; 3, DLC; 4, PCM; 5, Injector Driver Module (IDM); 6, Fuel injection pump;
7, TCM; 8, Instrument cluster; 9, Yaw rate sensor; 10, Steering wheel rotation sensor; 11, Electronic stability program module; 12, EATC
module or ATC module (Source: Ford Motor Company)
• inexpensive;
• automatic repetition of faulty messages;
• independent system monitoring and option for automatic disconnection of
faulty modules from the data bus.
Over the years the complexity of the networks has increase and a number of
methods are used to combine different protocols. The device that allows on
protocol to communicate with another is known as a gateway.
4.8.3.3 Single network system

The modules connected to an ISO 9141 bus depend upon the equipment level of
the vehicle. The ISO 9141 bus is used solely for reading out the fault memories of
the modules connected to the data bus. The ISO 9141 bus connects the various
modules to diagnostic equipment via the DLC.
Generally, vehicles built prior to 2003 have only one CAN bus. This is designated
as high-speed CAN bus (HS CAN). The modules exchange data with one another
via this bus. The modules connected to the HS CAN bus depend upon the
equipment level of the vehicle.
One 120 ohm terminating resistor is installed in the PCM and in the instrument
cluster respectively. These terminating resistors are used for suppression of the
data bus system. In order to be able to ensure correct functioning of the data
bus system, the modules must always be connected with an integral terminating
resistor.
4.8.3.4 Twin network system

Due to the increased number of modules and the resulting ever-increasing data
transmission, a second CAN bus (mid-speed CAN bus (MS CAN)) is used in
vehicles built from around 2003 (but this does vary) (Figure 4.64). It operates at
a lower speed and is mainly used for communication relating to convenience
electronics.
A gateway (portal) is used in order to enable data exchange between the HS CAN
bus and the MS CAN bus. The gateway serves as interface between the two CAN
data bus systems and is installed in the air-conditioning module (in this example).
4.8.3.5 Multiple network system

An ISO bus (C in Figure 4.65) is used to connect to the keyless entry radio
receiver (Figure 4.65).
20 15 16 17 18 19
CONTE
1
3
13 3 4
14 CONTE
CONTE
CONTE 5
3
3
2
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Figure 4.64 CAN bus communication: 1, Mid-speed CAN bus; 2, High-speed CAN bus; 3, Terminating resistors; 4, DLC5, EATC module
or ATC module; 6, PCM; 7, TCM; 8, Fuel injection pump; 9, ABS module or ESP module; 10, Instrument cluster; 11, Yaw rate sensor;
12, Steering wheel rotation sensor; 13, Electrical actuator, turbocharger guide vane adjustment; 14, GEM; 15, Compact Disc (CD) changer;
16, Navigation module; 17, Touchscreen; 18, Audio unit; 19, Audio system module; 20, Bluetooth voice control module (Source: Ford Motor
Company)
1 2 3
F A
F
4
5 6 7 8
B
F
10
12 13 14 15
9 C 16
11 D
F
F 17 18 19 20
E
25
21 22 23 24
Figure 4.65 Networks and communication diagram: A; HS-CAN bus (multimedia system); B, MS-CAN bus (generic electronics); C, ISO bus;
D, private MS-CAN bus; E, HS-CAN bus; F, terminating resistor; 1, audio unit; 2, multi-function display; 3, hands-free phone kit/Bluetooth®/
voice control module; 4, instrument Cluster; 5, PDM (passenger door module); 6, EATC (electronic automatic temperature control) module;
7, fuel fired booster heater; 8, electric liftgate module; 9, GEM (generic electronic module); 10, right-hand module, blind spot monitoring;
11, left-hand module, blind spot monitoring; 12, DDM (driver door module); 13, trailer Module; 14, reversing camera module; 15, keyless
vehicle module; 16, radio receiver, keyless vehicle system; 17, EPS (electric power steering) module; 18, gas discharge headlamp module;
19, parking aid module; 20, steering wheel rotation sensor; 21, PCM (powertrain control module); 22, ABS (anti-lock brake system) module;
23, RCM (restraints control module); 24, TCM (transmission control module); 25, DLC (data link connector) (Source: Ford Motor Company)
Two separate HS-CAN networks are used on this system:

HS-CAN bus (E in Figure 4.65):
• EPS module
• Gas discharge headlamp module
• Parking Aid Module
• Steering wheel rotation sensor
• PCM
• ABS module
• RCM
• TCM
• GEM.
HS-CAN multimedia system (A in Figure 4.65):
• Instrument Cluster
• Audio unit
• Multi-function display
• Hands-free phone kit/Bluetooth®/voice control module.
The two terminating resistors, 120 ohms each, of the HS-CAN data bus are
integrated into the PCM and the GEM. Since both 120 ohm resistors are
connected in parallel, the total resistance is 60 ohms (measured at the DLC
between pin 6 and 14). The HS-CAN bus and the HS-CAN multimedia system
have a speed of 500 kBit/s.
Two separate MS-CAN networks are used:
MS-CAN generic electronics (B in Figure 4.65):
• PDM
• EATC module
• Fuel fired booster heater
• Liftgate release module
• Instrument Cluster
• GEM
• DDM
• Trailer Module
• Reversing camera module
• keyless vehicle module.
Private MS-CAN (D in Figure 4.65):
• right-hand module, blind spot monitoring;
• left-hand module, blind spot monitoring.
On some cars a LIN data bus system is also used. LIN is a standard especially
for the cost-effective communication between intelligent sensors and actuators
in motor vehicles. LIN is used everywhere that the bandwidth and versatility of
CAN is not needed. The transmission speed within the LIN databus system is
9.6 kBit/s. A LIN databus system consists of a LIN master and one or more
LIN slaves. The LIN is a single conductor databus system, i.e. the data is
transmitted in the cable on one wire. No termination resistors are used in the
LIN network.
The following systems are often connected to a LIN bus:
• Rear PDM
• Rear DDM
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• Front driver’s side switch unit

• Steering wheel module
• Light switch unit
• Interior scanning sensors
• Anti-theft alarm system horn with own battery
• Battery monitoring sensor
• Rain sensor
• Electronic steering lock unit
• Audio system control unit
• Select-shift switch module
• generator
• Gas discharge headlamps.
4.8.4 Summary
Central electrical and electronic control has evolved to become a system that
may be better described as distributed control. However, because units such
as the body control module have wide ranging functions it is often described
as central control. A key point however is that almost all modules are now
connected using one or more networking protocol.
4.9 Connected cars

4.9.1 Introduction
There are a number of features and systems now in use and under development
where, one could argue, the car is becoming more intelligent – a scary
thought! However, there are also a number of developments whereby different
technologies are merging or, to be more accurate, converging (Figure 4.66).
Figure 4.66 This iPhone BMW app
Right at the start of this book I speculated on the ‘Future Car’. Actually what is
allows the user to remotely lock or unlock
the car and other features such as route most interesting is that most of that speculation has come true, in a remarkably
planning and then sending the destination short time. We may not yet be able to sit in our cars and let them do all the
to the vehicle. driving, but the technology exists to make it happen.
In the following sections I have outlined some interesting developments ranging
from linking a smartphone with a car, to vision enhancement and Wi-Fi.
4.9.2 Smart cars and traffic systems

There are a number of examples of technologies that allow cars to drive
themselves to a greater or lesser extent. The first example outlined here is a
concept vehicle that will come when called and can park itself. The second
example is a technology that allows cars to follow each other closely at high
speed; a system known as platooning.
Definition 4.9.2.1 General Motors EN-V

General Motors have developed, as a concept car, an electric networked
Platooning: a road train of
wirelessly linked cars following a vehicle called EN-V (get it?). The EN-V represents one vision of the future of
lead vehicle. urban personal mobility. The car includes features that allow the vehicle to park
itself and automatically return to the user when summoned from a smartphone
application.
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Figure 4.67 General Motors electric networked vehicle (EV-V) concept car (Source: GM Media)
The vehicle can rotate 360 degrees and be driven in manual mode with a
driver – or without. It runs on battery power for about 25 miles on a charge, with
top speeds of 25 miles-per-hour. A significant downside to this pint-sized vehicle
is its inability to withstand a collision with a full-sized vehicle. However, cities
could perhaps create EN-V-only lanes, or alternatively, create enclosed areas
solely for use by this type of vehicle.
Several EN-Vs can fit into a standard parking space and the interior has room
for two passengers. Using sophisticated sensing technology, EN-V can detect
obstacles in its path, including pedestrians or other vehicles, and automatically
come to a stop if necessary.
This concept is really interesting because while it would not be suitable for our
current road systems, it is a new way of thinking about transport. A small step
in this direction has already been made. In London (and many other cities) it is
now possible to hire a bicycle from roadside areas using a credit or debit card.
The bike can be returned to any other ‘station’. In some busy areas there are also
dedicated lanes on the roads where they can be used.
4.9.2.2 Road trains Definition

An EU project called SARTRE has been launched to develop and test technology The SARTRE project stands
for vehicles that can drive themselves in long road trains on motorways. This for Safe Road Trains for the
Environment. Part-funded by the
technology has the potential to improve traffic flow and journey times, offer
European Commission, SARTRE
greater comfort to drivers, reduce accidents, and improve fuel consumption and is led by Ricardo UK Ltd and with
hence lower CO2 emissions. collaboration between: Idiada and
The automotive industry has long been focused on the development of active Robotiker-Tecnalia of Spain, Institut
für Kraftfahrwesen Aachen (IKA)
safety systems that operate preventively, traction control and braking assistance of Germany, and SP Technical
programs for example. But automakers have now gone much further in Research Institute, Volvo Car
proposing a technology that allows vehicles to be operated without any input Corporation and Volvo Technology
whatsoever from the driver. Known as autonomous driving, this technology of Sweden.
means that the vehicles is able to take control over acceleration, braking and
steering, and can be used as part of a road train of similarly controlled vehicles.
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Figure 4.68 One car following the lead vehicle (Source: Volvo Media)
The vehicles will be equipped with a navigation system and a transmitter/receiver

unit that communicates with a lead vehicle. Since the system is built into the
cars, there is no need for any infrastructure change to the road network.
The idea is that each road train or platoon will have a lead vehicle that drives
exactly as normal, with full control of all the various functions. This lead vehicle
is driven by an experienced driver who is thoroughly familiar with the route. For
instance, the lead may be taken by a taxi, a bus or a truck. Each such platoon or
road train will consist of six to eight vehicles.
As a driver approaches their destination, they take over control of the vehicle and
leave the convoy by exiting off to the side. The other vehicles in the road train
close the gap and continue on their way until the convoy splits up.
The advantage of these road trains is that all the other drivers in the convoy have
time to get on with other business while on the road, for instance when driving to
or from work. The road trains increase safety and reduce environmental impact
thanks to lower fuel consumption compared with cars being driven individually.
The reason for this is that the cars in the train are close to each other, exploiting
the resultant lower air drag. The energy saving is expected to be in the region of
20 per cent. Road capacity will also be able to be utilised more efficiently.
As the participants meet, each vehicle’s navigation system is used to join the
convoy, where the autonomous driving program then takes over. As the road train
approaches its final destination, the various participants can each disconnect
from the convoy and continue to drive as usual to their individual destinations.
Figure 4.69 outlines the process of joining and leaving a platoon.
The tests carried out at the time of writing (2011) included a lead vehicle and
single following car. The steering wheel of the following car moves by itself as the
vehicle smoothly follows the lead truck around a test track. The driver is able to
drink coffee or read a paper, as no input is required to operate the vehicle.
The platooning technique is designed to achieve a number of things:
• Road safety, as it minimises the human factor that is the cause of at least 80%
of accidents.
• Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions improve by up to 20%.
• Convenience for the driver as it frees up time for other activities.
• Traffic congestion will be reduced because the vehicles travel at highway
speed with only a few meters gap.
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Q 169
The road train system makes it

possible for the driver to work
on his or her laptop, read a
book or watch a film,
The lead vehicle, for instance a bus,

is driven by a professional driver. In
this system, the lead vehicle takes
over all the following vehicles via
wireless radio communication.
The system is built into the cars

and does not require any extended
infrastructure along the existing
road network
Drivers who want to join a road
train state their destination and
are guided by their on-board As they approach their destination,
navigation system to the drivers take over control of their own
nearest road train, The car vehicles, leave the road train by pulling
joins the rear of the queue out to the side and then continue on
and the system takes their own to their destination.
over control of the car.
The other vehicles in the queue close the

gap and continue together on their journey
to the location where the road train separa
tes once again into its individual vehicles.
Figure 4.69 Road train methodology (Source: Volvo Media)
The technology development is well underway and may go into production in a

few years. What may take longer is getting public acceptance and the legislation
where 25 EU governments must pass similar laws.
4.9.3 Wi-Fi cars

Wi-Fi is becoming a feature that may soon be standard in many cars.
Connectivity is achieved by plugging a 3G dongle or a SIM card into the car. This Definition
then creates a wireless hotspot and any suitable device can be connected. From 4G: In telecommunications,
this point, all the features of ‘Internet control’ become possible. For example 4G is the fourth generation of
Skype, connection to remote systems at home or connection to cameras in the cellular wireless standards and
car from home, as well as the obvious emails and web downloads. The roll out of successor to the 3G and 2G
families of standards. The specified
4G mobile broadband promises to make facilities like video calls to and from the
requirements for 4G standards are
car a possibility. peak speed of 100 Mbit/s for high
The main uses are likely to be connectivity for business ‘road warriors’ and mobility communication (such as
entertainment for laptop of console-using passengers. from trains and cars) and 1 Gbit/s
for low mobility communication
There is now and IEEE standard for in-car and associated Wi-Fi; this is 802.11 p, (such as pedestrians and stationary
which is dedicated to traffic applications. As well as the normal Wi-Fi features users).
such as Internet connection, this system can allow cars, sensors, traffic
signs and more, to become a giant mesh network. Clearly there are security
Definition
IEEE: The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers or IEEE (read
eye-triple-ee) is the world’s largest
professional association dedicated
to advancing technological
innovation and excellence for
the benefit of humanity. IEEE
and its members inspire a global Figure 4.70 A road train test (Source: Volvo Media)
community through IEEE’s highly
cited publications, conferences,
technology standards, and implications here but the hope is that the system will allow a car to broadcast
professional and educational its speed and position – and if it is heading for or involved in an accident. If this
activities (Source: www.ieee.org). is broadcast from car to car it could prevent following cars from making the
accident worse. Further, in communication with say, traffic lights, the car could
be told that the light it is approaching will turn red in 5 seconds, so it can be
ready to stop (or maybe the ‘human element’ would tell it to speed up – we will
see!).
Key fact This Wi-Fi standard may also be used for the platooning system discussed
Bluetooth can connect several earlier.
devices at the same time,
overcoming problems of
synchronization. 4.9.4 Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging
data via radio transmissions over short distances from fixed and mobile devices.
These connections are known as personal area networks (PANs) or piconets, and
have a high level of security. Bluetooth can connect several devices at the same
time, overcoming problems of synchronization.
Definition
The radio technology used is called frequency-hopping spread spectrum, which
The word Bluetooth is an
anglicised version of the chops up the data being sent and transmits chunks of it on up to 79 bands
Scandinavian Blåtand/Blåtann, (1 MHz each; centred from 2402 to 2480 MHz) in the 2400–2483.5 MHz range
the epithet of the tenth-century (allowing for guard bands). This range is in the globally unlicensed Industrial,
king Harald I of Denmark and Scientific and Medical (ISM) 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency band, which is
parts of Norway. Harald united the same frequency band used for Wi-Fi.
dissonant Danish tribes into a
single kingdom. The idea is that Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master–slave structure. One master
Bluetooth does the same with may communicate with up to 7 slaves in a piconet. Packet exchange is based
communications protocols. on the basic clock, defined by the master, which ticks at 312.5 µs intervals. All
devices use this clock. Two clock ticks make up a slot of 625 µs; two slots make
up a slot pair of 1250 µs. In the simple case of single-slot packets the master
transmits in even slots and receives in odd slots. The slave does the opposite.
Packets may be 1, 3 or 5 slots long but in all cases the master transmission
Key fact
starts in even slots and the slave transmission in odd slots.
Bluetooth is a packet-based
protocol with a master–slave Bluetooth provides a secure way to connect and exchange information between
structure. devices such as mobile phones, hands-free headsets, telephones, laptops,
personal computers, printers, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, digital
cameras, and video game consoles.
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Many cars now have Bluetooth connectivity or the option to have it included.
Interestingly, in 2011, to add Bluetooth to a computer costs as much as a
small round of drinks, the option from some carmakers is as much as a good
laptop!
The main item that will connect to the car is a standard mobile phone, or more
often no a smartphone so that applications on the device can be controlled from
the car.
4.9.5 Applications (apps)

It has been possible to connect phones and MP3 players, for example, to cars for
some time now. Music players can be connected using a simple 3.5 mm stereo
jack-to-jack cable and the in car entertainment system then used to amplify the
sound. Bluetooth connection of phones is also now becoming common. These
basic connections do not allow sharing of data or applications. Smartphones are
now in very common use and are the result of convergence of cameras, MP3 Definition
players, games consoles, GPS and, oh yes, mobile telephones. Convergence: The tendency for
For many people, the smartphone is at the centre of their life and the apps it different technological systems to
evolve towards performing similar
contains are what they have chosen. To connect with a car and use different
tasks or being contained in one
applications is therefore confusing for the users. However, there are two ways in device. The convergence of a
which manufacturers are working to deal with this: camera and mobile phone for
1. Integrating the smartphone and the car. example, now allows sharing of
resources and they interact with
2. Replace the car systems with the smartphone’s. each other, creating new possibilities.
The first is that many carmakers are now developing (or already have) systems
where the smartphone integrates with the car in a way that the car becomes an
extension for some of the apps on the phone. Ford, for example, have a system
known as ‘Sync AppLink’ which allows the driver to control specific applications
on an Android, iPhone or BlackBerry smartphone using the car’s inbuilt voice
recognition, controls on the steering wheel or controls on the dashboard. This
would make it possible to say ‘mobile apps, iPod, play’ or something similar. The
idea is that the smartphone is integrated with, and operated to some extent by
the car.
The second method some manufacturers are investigating is to replace the
in-car system with the smartphone. For example, a company known as Oxygen
Audio have developed the ‘O Dock’, which is an iPhone docking station for
the car. When docked into the O Dock, the user can access all of the iPhone’s
applications in both horizontal and vertical mode. Listen to internet radio, make
a hands-free or Bluetooth call and play their entire iTunes music catalogue.
In addition, they can access GPS, maps or any other useful applications. The
iPhone also charges while docked.
I suspect the real answer will be a combination of the two. However, another
good reason of why a user would prefer to use smartphone apps in conjunction
with the car is cost. For example, a few years ago, it cost about as ten times as
much as a standalone satnav (such as a TomTom) to have a factory fitted version
in a car. Now, it is possible to buy a smartphone application for about a third of
the price of the standalone device. And further, as long as you don’t download
data when roaming, many smartphones have a pretty good satnav app included
that costs nothing.
An interesting idea is that the same app could direct the car to a car park and the
same app when the smartphone is removed from the car, could direct you right Figure 4.71 The O Dock for an iPhone
to the door. (Source: Oxygen Audio)
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Figure 4.72 Vision enhancement using infra-red (Source: GM Media)
4.9.6 Vision enhancement

Cadillac developed a windscreen head-up display (HUD) technology, combined
with night vision technology around the year 2000. This allows objects, such
as animals (or humans), to be highlighted for the driver, preventing potential
accidents.
In particular the range in which objects can be perceived is increased
considerably. A view from the driver’s perspective is shown in Figure 4.73.
Figure 4.74 shows a magnified view of the pyroelectric detector structure used
for infra-red detection. The detector consists of a barium strontium titanate
reticulate structure bonded to a readout integrated circuit. Each reticulated
section corresponds to a single detector pixel. The pixels are on 48.5 µm centres
and are less than 20 µm thick.
Researchers at General Motors R&D Labs in Warren, Michigan continue
to investigate new ways to assist the vision challenges of the aging driver
population. In Figure 4.75, an enhanced vision system (EVS), comprised of
a transparent display technology and advanced sensors, is used to display
information that enhances the external world. In this example, the system
Figure 4.73 Vision enhancement from the driver’s perspective (Source: GM Media)
04_23854_CH04.indd 172 14/11/11 9:08 PM

Pyroelectric Detector Structure
Infrared
Energy
BST Optical
Pixel Coating
Vacuum
Ele ctrode
Indium
Interconnect
Organic
R e a d - O u t Integrated Circuit
Figure 4.74 Pyroelectric detector structure (Source: GM)
highlights the road edge in a low visibility condition. Infra-red sensors and video
cameras are the two main sensors.
Key fact
Infra-red sensors and video cameras
Figure 4.76 shows the edge of the road enhanced in very poor visibility
are two of the main sensors used for
conditions. Still under development, this system has great potential to reduce vision enhancement.
accidents.
4 .9 -7 S elf-h e lp
On board diagnostic systems are now quite advanced but require a scanner
or code reader to be connected to access the information. Perhaps the next
Figure 4.75 Enhancement of the road edges and a possible animal obstruction (Source: GM
Media)
Figure 4.76 Enhancement of the road edge in foggy conditions (Source: GM Media)
development will be to integrate this function into the car so that any faults can
be displayed to the driver. Or maybe the faults would be relayed to the nearest
suitable garage, and the satnav programmed to take you there – before the car
breaks down.
4.9.8 Big brother

As a somewhat scary thought, one system under development uses the GPS to
set the maximum speed for the car so, if you are in a 40 mph area, the car will
not exceed that limit. Further, researchers are looking at how to adapt the way
the car can be driven in order to save fuel. For example, by only allowing a level
of acceleration that is appropriate to the prevailing conditions, for where the car
actually is at that time, economy and safety could be improved. I think I will take
the train!
4.9.9 When computers go wrong

Key fact
Volvo is a well-respected company when it comes to vehicle safety and indeed
Volvo is a well-respected company is often at the forefront of new technologies geared to reducing accidents.
when it comes to vehicle safety.
However, in 2010 Volvo gathered the world’s media to show off new safety
features, and they went spectacularly wrong, twice.
In fairness, these are systems under development but when they were
demonstrating the crash-avoidance system on an S60, the results were not what
they had hoped for. A car was fired out of a testing tunnel towards the back of a
stationary lorry. The car was supposed to recognise the impending collision, but
a problem between the control system and the battery meant the car ploughed
into the back of the lorry.
The next test that went wrong was a display of a pedestrian avoidance system
also on an S60. The system uses radar and a camera to spot pedestrians and
initiate an emergency stop. This worked fine for 9 out of 12 dummies – but the
others all died. Again in fairness to Volvo, it would be unusual for a driverless car
to encounter 12 careless dummies at the same time!
04_23854_CH04.indd 174 14/11/11 9:08 PM

Some security experts suggest that as cars become ‘smarter’ and have more
onboard computing power, they could be open to attack by anyone bearing a
grudge or the usual sad characters who cause trouble just for their own bizarre
reasons.
University of Washington researchers have hacked into several car systems
using a variety of attack methods and said they could: ‘adversarially control a
wide range of automotive functions and completely ignore driver input, including
disabling the brakes or selectively braking individual wheels on demand’. Oh dear!
4.9.10 Summary
As well as some speculation on the future, this section outlined some of the
technologies that make cars more intelligent. Well, if not more intelligent, then
more interactive. One of the key developments seems to be the understanding
that many of us carry smartphones around, so it is better to integrate them with
the car than to add another layer of technology. However, there is also the
worry of being tracked and hacked! Your thoughts welcome via the website:
www.automotive-technology.co.uk.
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CH A P TE R

4.1 The systems approach

4.1.2 Vehicle systems

Complete vehicle Braking system

Figure 4.1 Systems in systems representation

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4.1.3 Open loop systems

Input Control Output

Figure 4.3 Open loop system

4.1.4 Closed loop systems

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Input Control Output

Figure 4.4 Closed loop system

4.2 Electrical wiring, terminals and switching

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Table 4.1 typical maximum volt drops

Circuit (12 V) Load Cable drop (V) Maximum drop (V)

where: I = maximum current in amps, Vd = maximum allowable volt drop in volts.

4.2.2 Colour codes and terminal designations

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Table 4.2 Cables and their applications

Table 4.3 British standard colour codes

Colour Symbol Destination/Use

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Table 4.4 European colour codes

Colour Symbol Destination/Use

A system now in common use is the terminal designation system in accordance

31S-AC3A || 1.5 BK/RD

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Table 4.5 Terminal designation numbers (DIN 72 552)

1 Ignition coil negative

4.2.3 Harness design

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Table 4.6 Ford system colour codes

Table 4.7 System codes

Letter Main system Examples

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Figure 4.6 PVC wound harness

Figure 4.8 Cables side by side and

Key fact Figure 4.9 PVC tube and tape harness

Keeping cable runs as short as

4.2.4 Printed circuits

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Figure 4.12 Instrument pack printed circuit

4.2.5 Fuses and circuit breakers

Figure 4.14 Blade fuses

Table 4.8 Fuse ratings and colours

Continuous current (A) Colour

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Figure 4.16 Terminals and wires

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Figure 4.17 Crimp terminals for repair work

Figure 4.19 Single-pole triple-throw rocker switch

Product Type Features: Body Related Features:

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Temperature switch strip

Diaphragm pressure switch

SPTT Centre off