Self Concept

Self-concept is one’s mental image of oneself. Individuals with a positive self-concept are better able to
develop and maintain interpersonal relationships and resist psychological and physical illness. An
individual possessing a strong self-concept should be better able to accept or adapt to changes that may
occur over the life span.

Self-concept involves all of the self-perceptions such as appearance, values, and beliefs that influence
behavior and are referred to when using the words I or me. There are four dimensions of self-concept,
first (1) the Self-knowledge, it is the insight into one’s own abilities, nature, and limitations. Second (2)
Self-expectation, it is what one expects of oneself; may be realistic or unrealistic expectations. Third (3)
Social self, it is how a person is perceived by others and society. Lastly (4) Social evaluation, it is the
appraisal of oneself in relationship to others, events, or situations.

A person is not born with a self-concept; rather, it develops as a result of social interactions with others.
The success with which a person copes with these developmental tasks largely determines the
development of self-concept. Difficulty coping can result in self-concept problems at the time and, often,
later in life. The development of one’s self-concept consists of three broad steps, first (1) the infant
learns that the physical self is separate and different from the environment. Second (2) the child
internalizes others’ attitudes toward self. Lastly (3) the child and adult internalize the standards of
society.

COMPONENTS OF SELF-CONCEPT
Personal Identity
Personal identity is the conscious sense of individuality and uniqueness that is continually evolving
throughout life. People often view their identity in terms of name, gender, age, race, ethnic origin or
culture, occupation or roles, talents, and other situational characteristics.
Body Image
The body image is how a person perceives the size, appearance, and functioning of the body and its
parts. Body image has both cognitive and affective aspects. The cognitive is the knowledge of the
material body; the affective includes the sensations of the body, such as pain, pleasure, fatigue, and
physical movement.
Role Performance
Role performance is how a person in a particular role behaves in comparison to the behaviors expected
of that role. Role mastery means that the person’s behaviors meet role expectations. Role development
involves socialization into a particular role. Role ambiguity occurs when expectations are unclear, and
people do not know what to do or how to do it and are unable to predict the reactions of others to their
behavior. Role conflicts arise from opposing or incompatible expectations. In an interpersonal conflict,
people have different expectations about a particular role.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is one’s judgment of one’s own worth, that is, how that person’s standards and
performances compare to others’ standards and to one’s ideal self.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT SELF-CONCEPT
Stage of Development
As an individual develops, the conditions that affect the self-concept change. An infant requires a
supportive, caring environment, whereas a child requires freedom to explore and learn. Older adults’
self-concept is based on their experiences in progressing through life’s stages.
Family and Culture
A young child’s values are largely influenced by the family and culture. Later on, peers influence the child
and thereby affect the sense of self. When the child is confronted by differing expectations from family,
culture, and peers, the child’s sense of self is often confused.
Stressors
Stressors can strengthen the self-concept as an individual copes successfully with problems. On the
other hand, overwhelming stressors can cause maladaptive responses including substance abuse,
withdrawal, and anxiety.
Resources
An individual’s resources are internal and external. Internal resources include confidence and values,
whereas external resources include support network, sufficient finances, and organizations. The greater
the number of resources a person has and uses, the more positive the effect on the self-concept.
History of Success and Failure
Individuals with a positive self-concept tend to find contentment in their level of success, whereas a
negative self-concept can lead to viewing one’s life situation as negative.
Illness
Illness and trauma can also affect an individual’s self-concept. A woman who has had a mastectomy may
see herself as less attractive, and the loss may affect how she acts and values herself. People respond to
stressors such as illness and alterations in function related to aging in a variety of ways.

Stress and Adaptation

Stress is a universal phenomenon. All people experience it. Stress can result from both positive and
negative experiences. Stress is a condition in which an individual experiences changes in the normal
balanced state. A stressor is any event or stimulus that causes an individual to experience stress. When a
person faces stressors, responses are referred to as coping strategies, coping responses, or coping
mechanisms.

Sources of Stress
Internal stressors originate within a person, for example, infection or feelings of depression. External
stressors originate outside the individual, for example, a move to another city, or a death in the family.
Developmental stressors occur at predictable times throughout an individual’s life. Situational stressors
are unpredictable (may it be positive or negative) and may occur at any time during life.
Effects of Stress
Physically, stress can threaten a person’s physiological homeostasis. Emotionally, stress can produce
negative or nonconstructive feelings about the self. Intellectually, stress can influence a person’s
perceptual and problem-solving abilities. Socially, stress can alter a person’s relationships with others.
Spiritually, stress can challenge one’s beliefs and values.

MODELS OF STRESS
Models of stress assist nurses to predict stressors in a particular situation and to understand the
individual’s responses. Nurses can use these models to assist clients in strengthening healthy coping
responses and in adjusting unhealthy, unproductive responses.
Stimulus-Based Models
In stimulus-based stress models, stress is defined as a stimulus or a set of circumstances that arouses
physiological and/or psychological reactions that may increase the individual’s vulnerability to illness.
Response-Based Models
Selye’s stress response is characterized by a chain or pattern of physiological events called the general
adaptation syndrome (GAS) or stress syndrome. The GAS occurs with the release of certain adaptive
hormones and subsequent changes in the structure and chemical composition of the body. Besides
adapting globally, the body can also react locally; that is, one organ or a part of the body reacts alone.
This is referred to as the local adaptation syndrome (LAS).
 ALARM REACTION
Selye divided this stage into two parts: the shock phase and the countershock phase. During
the shock phase, the stressor may be perceived consciously or unconsciously by the person.
The second is the countershock phase. The changes produced in the body during the shock
phase are reversed.
 STAGE OF RESISTANCE
The body’s adaptation takes place. In other words, the body attempts to cope with the stressor
and to limit the stressor to the smallest area of the body that can deal with it.
 STAGE OF EXHAUSTION
The adaptation that the body made during the second stage cannot be maintained. This means
that the ways used to cope with the stressor have been exhausted. At the end of this stage, the
body may either rest and return to normal, or death may be the ultimate consequence.
Transaction-Based Models
Emphasizes that people and groups differ in their sensitivity and vulnerability to certain types of events,
as well as in their interpretations and reactions. One person may respond with denial, another with
anxiety, and still another with depression. Lazarus’s transactional stress theory encompasses a set of
cognitive, affective, and adaptive responses that arise out of person environment transactions.

INDICATORS OF STRESS
Indicators of an individual’s stress may be physiological, psychological, or cognitive.
Physiological Indicators
The physiological signs and symptoms of stress result from activation of the sympathetic and
neuroendocrine systems of the body. Clinical Manifestations lists physiological indicators of stress.
Psychological Indicators
Psychological manifestations of stress include anxiety, fear, anger, depression, and unconscious ego
defense mechanisms.
 ANXIETY AND FEAR
A common reaction to stress is anxiety, a state of mental uneasiness, apprehension or a feeling
of helplessness related to an impending or anticipated unidentified threat to self. Anxiety can be
experienced at the conscious, subconscious, or unconscious level. Anxiety may be on four levels:
1. Mild anxiety produces arousal that enhances perception, learning, and productive abilities.
2. Moderate anxiety increases the arousal to a point where the person expresses feelings of
tension, nervousness, or concern.
3. Severe anxiety consumes most of the person’s energies and requires intervention.
4. Panic is an overpowering, frightening level of anxiety causing the person to lose control.
Fear is an emotion or feeling of apprehension aroused by impending or seeming danger, pain, or
another perceived threat. The fear may be in response to something that has already occurred, in
response to an immediate threat, or in response to something the person believes will happen.
  ANGER
Anger is an emotional state consisting of a subjective feeling of animosity or strong displeasure.
A verbal expression of anger can be a signal to others of one’s internal psychological discomfort
and a call for assistance to deal with perceived stress.
 DEPRESSION
Emotional symptoms can include feelings of tiredness, sadness, emptiness, or numbness.
Behavioral signs of depression include irritability, inability to concentrate, difficulty making
decisions, loss of sexual desire, crying, sleep disturbance, and social withdrawal. Physical signs
of depression may include loss of appetite, weight loss, constipation, headache, and dizziness.
 EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Ego defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological adaptive mechanisms or mental
mechanisms that develop as the personality attempts to defend itself, establish compromises
among conflicting impulses, and calm inner tensions.
Cognitive Indicators
Problem solving involves thinking through the threatening situation, using specific steps to arrive at a
solution. Structuring is the arrangement or manipulation of a situation so threatening events do not
occur. Self-control (discipline) is assuming a manner and facial expression that convey a sense of being in
control or in charge. Suppression is consciously and willfully putting a thought or feeling out of mind: “I
won’t deal with that today. I’ll do it tomorrow.” This response relieves stress temporarily but does not
solve the problem. Fantasy or daydreaming is likened to make-believe. Unfulfilled wishes and desires
are imagined as fulfilled, or a threatening experience is reworked or replayed so it ends differently from
reality.

COPING
Coping may be described as dealing with change successfully or unsuccessfully. A coping strategy is a
natural or learned way of responding to a changing environment or specific problem or situation. Two
types of coping strategies have been described: Problem-focused coping refers to efforts to improve a
situation by making changes or taking action. Emotionfocused coping includes thoughts and actions that
relieve emotional distress. Coping strategies are also viewed as long term or short term. Long-term
coping strategies can be constructive and practical. In certain situations, talking with others and trying to
find out more about the situation are long-term strategies. Short-term coping strategies can reduce
stress to a tolerable limit temporarily but are ineffective ways to permanently deal with reality. They
may even have a destructive or detrimental effect on the person.