LAB ORIENTATION PROGRAMME

CODE OF CONDUCT IN THE LABS

1. All the lab sessions are compulsory.
2. Students must be punctual.
3. All the students have to present their own student cards to gain access to the lab.
4. No bags are allowed inside or in the corridors in front of the labs.
5. No cell phones allowed in the lab.
6. Each student will have a workbench allocated to him or her, meaning that each one will be
responsible for the equipment on his or her bench.
7. Under no circumstances will the student use the other bench either than the one allocated to
them, unless instructed by the supervisor to do so.
8. The equipment may not be moved from one bench to the other or outside of the lab. If the
student needs something extra on the bench he/she can request it from the store.
9. Any damage to the lab equipment while in your use will be deducted from your student
account.
10. No student is allowed in the lab technician’s office or in the lab store.
11. Each student must do the design and build the circuit prior to the evaluation session, and no
one must leave the lab unless their circuits has been tested and signed for.
12. Each student must bring their own leads, breadboard, tools, etc every time they come to the
lab.
13. No components will be sold during the evaluation session, if the student needs components
they must be purchased beforehand.
14. No eating, drinking, smoking, in the lab.
15. No assistance to other students is allowed or moving around in the lab.
16. All the equipment must be switched off after use.
17. All the students are responsible for cleaning benches after using the lab.
18. NB. Should the student misbehave in the lab he or she will be disciplined.
Discipline will range from lab service to expulsion from the labs based on the judgment by
the supervisor or the seriousness of the act.
19. Refusal to carry out disciplinary duties will result to expulsion from the labs for the whole
semester.

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 DESCRIPTION OF LABORATORY INSTRUMENTS

DC POWER SUPPLY

 The power supplies that we use have three independent supplies in one casing, which are 5V
fixed, Master (0 - 30V variable) and Slave (0 - 30 V variable).
 They have three modes of operation, independent, series and parallel.
 The independent mode: The output voltage and current of each supply (master and
slave) are controlled separately and each supply can provide a maximum of 30V, 3A. Both
tracking mode switches must be disengaged.
 The series mode:
In this mode, the master and the slave power supplies are internally connected in series,
resulting in one supply with double the voltage capability, a maximum of 60Volts as
opposed to a maximum of 30Volts that the individual supplies can provide. The voltage of
both supplies is set using the master voltage controls. The left tracking switch must be
engaged and the right one disengaged.
 The parallel mode: In this mode, the master and the slave power supplies are internally
connected in parallel resulting in one supply with double the current capability, a maximum
of 6 Amps as opposed to a maximum of 3Amps that the individual supplies can provide.
The output current is double the value read from the MASTER CURRENT display because
each supply is providing the same amount of current.

 Obtaining both negative and positive voltages

 If the voltages required are the same value like (+15V and –15V) use the series mode, the
negative of the slave supply and the positive of the master supply are connected to form the
common ground. Between the common ground and the +ve terminal of the master supply is
a positive voltage i.e. +15V and between the common ground and the -ve terminal of the
slave supply is a negative voltage ie. -15V.
 If the voltages required are not the same value like (+10V and –10V), Use the independent
mode, then connect the negative terminal of the master to the positive terminal of the slave
manually. The operation will be the same as the one above except that the master and the
slave voltages can be controlled separately.

Current limiting factor

 Determine safe current for the circuit to be powered.

 Temporarily short the positive and the negative terminals of the power supply with the test
lead.
 Slightly increase the voltage until the CC indicator lights.
 Adjust the current control for the desired current limit (read the value off the meter)
 The current limit (overload protection) is then set. NB: Do not adjust the current control
setting again.
 Remove the short.

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THE OPERATION OF THE POWER SUPPLY

 Always make sure that the tracking switches are set for the required mode.
 Make sure that the current knobs are not at zero but set to the safe current of the circuit to be
powered.
 Set the voltage to the proper level, referring to the meter on the supply before you connect
the power supply to the test circuit.
 Make sure you connect to the correct output terminal
 Make a good connection to the power supply output with the leads that are specifically made
for that not any wire, to avoid damaging the equipment and the shorts.

AC POWER SUPPLY

 The AC power supplies are used for circuits that require certain voltages other than the 220
AC that we get from the main supply in the wall.
 This can be achieved from either transforming the mains supply to the desired level through
or by means of a transformer (step down) or a variac (variable transformer).
 The other type of AC power supply is inverter type where one can have the variable
frequency and amplitude. They can also give different forms of waveforms depending on the
type e.g. the function generator.

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 DIGITAL MULTIMETER

 A multimeter is the instrument used to measure voltage, current, resistance, capacitance, and
frequency, perform the diode check and the continuity test.
 The multi meter has the following controls and connectors:

 Digital display: It displays the functions selected like AC/DC, Ω, REL.MAX.MIN. And
unit’s indicators.
 Rotary key: It is used to select the function and the Range needed.
 COM Input Terminal: Ground input connector.
 VΩ Hz ┤├ Input terminal: Positive connector for Volts, Ohms, Diode, Capacitance
and frequency measurements.
 mA Input terminal: Positive input connector for current measurements.
 A Input terminal: Positive input connector for higher currents, up to 20A maximum for
only 30 seconds.
 Function key (Blue): The key is used to change between AC and Dc for current
measurements or Ohm and continuity checking or frequency and ADP measurements.
 MIN MAX KEY: This key is used to enter the recording mode. In this mode the
minimum or the maximum readings are stored in the memory.
 RELATIVE KEY: This key is used to enter the relative mode. In this mode the meter
uses the value stored in the memory as the reference, as a result the value indicated on the
display will be the difference between the present reading and the value stored in the
memory.
 HOLD KEY: This key is used to go in and out of the Data hold mode.
 DELAY KEY: Turns on the Hold Function 10seconds late after the key has been
pressed.
 RANGE KEY (Manual Range): This key is used to select between manual and auto
ranges. When this key is pressed the auto range goes off, and it has to be pressed for
2seconds to return to auto range.
 BACK LIGHT (Yellow): The key is used to turn on and off the light at the back of the
LCD display.
 STORE KEY: This key is used to enter the memory store mode. In this mode the last
reading displayed on the meter is stored and if the meter power goes down the stored data is
not erased.
 RECALL KEY: It is used to recall the data that is saved in the memory.

THE OPERATION OF THE MULTIMETER

Caution before measurement

 Wait 30seconds after turning ON the meter before taking measurements.

 The rotary switch should be set to the required function before the probes are connected to
the device being tested.

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  Remove the leads from the device being tested before switching the rotary switch to a new
function.
 If the meter is used near the equipment that generates electromagnetic interference, the
display may be unstable or indicate incorrect readings.

Voltage measurements

1. Connect the black test lead to the COM and the RED test lead to VΩ Hz ┤├ terminal.
2. Set the rotary switch to AC or DC function.
3. Connect the test leads across the source or load to be measured.
*NB.When the input voltage is over range the meter buzzer is turned on and the most
significant digit of the LCD display flashes and the three list significant digits are set to
zero.

Current measurement
1. Connect the black test lead to the COM and the RED test lead to the mA terminal for a
maximum of 400mA and to A terminal for a maximum of 10A.
2. Set the rotary switch to the range needed (4mA-400mA) for the current to be measured.
3. Select AC or DC current measurement using the function(blue)key. If the range of the
current needed is not known, start at the highest range and work down.
4. Connect the test leads in series with the load to be measured.

Resistance measurement
1. Connect the black test lead to the COM and the RED test lead to VΩ Hz ┤├ terminal.
2. Set the rotary switch to Ω position to measure resistance.
3. Select the Ω measurement using the function (blue) key.
4. Connect the leads across the resistance to be measured. For accuracy in measurements of
low resistance, press “Range” to set the 400Ω range, short the test leads together and
press the “REL” key to compensate the resistance measurement for the resistance of the
test leads.

Continuity test
1. Connect the black test lead to the COM and the RED test lead to VΩ Hz ┤├
terminal.
2. Set the rotary switch to “Ω•﴿﴿﴿” position.
3. Select the continuity “•﴿﴿﴿”measurement using the function (blue) key.
4. Connect the leads across the resistance to be measured. The buzzer sounds if the
resistance of the circuit measured is lower than 50 ohms.

Diode check
1. Set the rotary switch at diode position.

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 2. Connect the black test lead to the COM and the RED test lead to VΩ Hz ┤├ terminal. (
Note: the polarity or the RED test lead is “+”).
3. Connect the test leads across the diode to check. The forward voltage drop of good
silicon diodes is shown between 0.5V to 0.9V. If the diode is defective, “000”(short
circuit) or 3.2V(non-conducting) is displayed.
4. Reverse checks the diode . If the diode is good approximately 3.2V is displayed with the
diode reverse biased. If the diode is shorted “00”0r some other value lower than 3.2V is
displayed.

Capacitance measurement
1. Connect the black test lead to the COM and the RED test lead to VΩ Hz ┤├ terminal.
2. Set the rotary switch to ┤├ position.
3. Observe polarity when measuring polarized capacitors.
4. Connect the test leads across the capacitor to be measured.
*NB. The capacitor under test should be discharged before the testing procedure.
It is best to use the “relative key” to zero offset for accurate measurement.

Frequency measurement
1. Connect the black test lead to the COM and the RED test lead to VΩ Hz ┤├ terminal.
2. Set the rotary switch to “Hz” position.
3. Select the “Hz” measurement using the function key.
*NB: The last one or two digits of the display could be unstable for the frequency below
1kHz and above 20kHz.

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 THE FUNCTION GENERATOR

 The basic function of the function generator is to produce sine, square, triangle waveforms
and a pulse output for testing digital logic circuits.
 Function generators have certain controls that allow one to select the type of waveform and
the other controls to adjust the amplitude and the DC level.
 Frequency indicator: Indicates the value of the current frequency.
 Frequency range selector: Selects the required frequency range.
 Function selector: One of the push buttons is pressed to select the desired output wave
form (sine, square, triangle waveform)
 Duty function: This knob is pulled out and rotated to adjust the duty circle of the
waveform.
 TTL/CMOS: This knob is pulled out and rotated to adjust the CMOS compatible output
from 5-15Vp-p.
 DC Offset : This knob is pulled out to select any DC level of the waveform between +-
10V. It is turned clockwise to set a positive DC level waveform and anticlockwise for a
negative DC level waveform.
 Amplitude: This knob is to adjust the output peak-to-peak voltage. The knob is pulled out
for an additional attenuation of the output.
 TTL/CMOS: TTL/CMOS compatible signal output.

THE OPERATION OF THE FUNCTION GENERATOR

Triangle, square and sine wave generation

1. Select the required function, then select the frequency range and rotate the frequency knob
to set the required frequency (read from the display)
2. Connect the output to the oscilloscope to observe the signal.
3. Rotate the amplitude knob to control the waveform amplitude.
4. If a signal that is smaller than the one displayed at the minimum adjustment of the knob, pull
the knob and readjust the amplitude.

TTL/CMOS signal output

1. Select the range, then rotate the frequency knob to set the required frequency.
2. Connect BNC connector of TTL/CMOS to the oscilloscope to observe the output signal.
3. The output is a square wave fixed to TTL level, suitable for general TTL integrated circuit .
4. If the square waveform of the CMOS level is required, pull out the CMOS knob to adjust the
level.

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 THE OSCILLOSCOPE

The oscilloscope is the measuring instrument that lets you to see the graph of the voltage as a
function of time in the circuit.
The voltage to be measured is converted into a visible display by a cathode ray tube.
The oscilloscope contains four functional blocks, the vertical controls, the horizontal controls, the
trigger controls and the display controls.

Vertical controls

The vertical controls include:

VOLTS/DIV control which selects a combination of attenuation or gain to determine the vertical
sensitivity of the scope.
The input COUPLING SWITCH that is the multiple positions switch that can be set for AC-GND-
DC position.
The vertical POSITION control which varies the voltage on the vertical deflection plates, allowing
you to position the trace anywhere on the screen.
Mode control, which is used to select the channels, e.g. CH1, CH2, DUAL, etc.
VARIABLE control, which is used for the fine adjustment of sensitivity.

Horizontal controls

The horizontal controls include:

SEC/DIV control, which sets the sweep speed, which controls how fast the electron beam, is moved
across the screen.
The VENIER control, which is used for adjusting the sweep speed between the calibrated steps.
The HORIZONTAL MAGNIFIER, which increases the sweep time by the magnification factor,
giving increased resolution of the signal details.
The HORIZONTAL POSITION control speeds the sweep time by the magnification factor and
therefore affects the calibration of the time base set on the SEC/ DIV control.

Trigger controls
The trigger section is the source of most operator problems when using an oscilloscope. These
controls determine the proper time for the sweep to begin in order to produce a stable display. The
trigger controls include:
The MODE switch that selects AUTO or NORMAL operation.
The SOURCE switch, which selects the trigger source, the internal signal, the external trigger
source or the AC, line.
The trigger LEVEL and SLOPE which are used to select a specific point on either the rising or
falling edge of the input signal for generating a trigger.
The variable HOLD OFF control, which allows you to exclude the invalid triggers until the hold off
time has elapsed.
COUPLING switch is used to select the coupling of the trigger circuit in accordance with the
characteristics of the measured signal.

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The Display Controls

The display system contains controls for adjusting the electron beam. The controls included are:
The power control, which is the main power switch for the scope, when it is on the green LED next
to it, must be ON.
INTENSITY, which controls the brightness of the trace.
FOCUS is used for focusing the trace to the sharpest image.
TRACE ROTATION, which is used to align the sweep with the horizontal graticule line.

THE OPERATION OF THE OSCILLOSCOPE

Basic operation
Before operating the scope make sure the switches and controls of the instrument are set as follows.

Item Setting

POWER Disengage position (OFF)

INTENSITY Clockwise (3-0‘clock Position)
FOCUS Mid-position
VERTICAL MODE CH1
CHOP Released
CH 2 INV Released
POSITION Mid position
VOLTS/DIV 0.5/ DIV
VARIABLE CAL (clockwise position)
AC-DC-GND GND
SOURCE Set to CH 1
COUPLING AC
SLOPE +
TRIG ALT Released
LEVEL LOCK Pushed in
HOLD OFF MIN (anti-clockwise)
TRIGGER MODE AUTO
TIME/ DIV 0.5mSec/DIV
SWP. UNCAL Released
POSITION Mid position
X10 MAG Released
X-Y Released

 Always make sure that the power LED is turned on.

 The trace should appear on the CTR screen after few seconds, if not recheck the switch and
control settings.
 Adjust the trace to appropriate brightness and Image with the INTEN control and FOCUS
control.

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  Align the trace with the horizontal centre line of the graticule by adjusting the CH1
POSITION control and TRACE ROTATION control.
 Connect the probe to the CH1 INPUT terminal and apply the 2Vp-p CALIBRATOR signal
to the probe tip.
 Set the AC-DC-GND switch to AC state, a square waveform should be displayed on the
CRT screen.
 Adjust the FOCUS control so that the trace image appears sharply.
 Adjust the VOLTS/DIV and the TIME/DIV switches to get that signal displayed clearly.
 Adjust the ◄►POSITION and▼▲POSITION controls in appropriate positions so that the
displayed waveform is aligned with the graticule and the voltage (Vp-p) and period (T) can
be read conveniently.

Dual –Channel operation

 Change the VERT MODE switch to the DUAL state so that both CH1 and CH2 traces can
be displayed.
 Apply the calibrator signal to both CH1 and CH2.
 CH1 or CH2 must be selected for the triggering source signal by means of the SOURCE
switch, If CH1 and CH2 are synchronised, both waveforms will be displayed stationery.
 If one of the waveforms is not stationery, engage the TRIG/ALT.

ADD operation

 Change the VERT MODE switch to the ADD state.

 Apply the calibrator signal to both CH1 and CH2.
 The signal that will be displayed on the CRT screen is the algebraic sum of CH1 and CH2
signals.
 To get the difference between CH1 and CH2 signals the CH2 INV switch must be engaged.
 For accurate addition or subtraction, the sensitivities of the two channels must be adjusted at
the same value by means of the VARIABLE knobs.

TAKING READINGS FROM THE OSCILLOSCOPE

Voltage (Vp-p) Readings : Count the number of the vertical blocks within the bottom and the
top peak of the signal on the CRT display and multiply it by the scale at which the VOTS/DIV
knob is set.

Frequency: Count the number of the blocks within one period of the signal and multiply it by the
scale at which the TIME/DIV knob is set to get the time value, then take the inverse of that value to
get the frequency value.

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 BASIC COMPONENTS USED FOR BUILDING ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

Resistors
They are electronic components used to control current flow; they are available in different types
and values. There are fixed and variable resistors.

Capacitors
They are electronic components consisting of two plates separated by an insulating layer and they
are capable of storing electric charge. They are also available in different types and values.

Diodes
They are semiconductor electronic components with two electrodes, an anode and cathode. They
allow current to flow in only one direction. They are found in different types like: the zener diodes,
the schotky diodes and the light emitting diodes (LED).

Transistors
They are three layer semiconductor devices, which can operate as a switch and as an amplifier.
They are also found in different types like PNP and NPN.

Integrated circuits
They are semiconductor devices, which contain a chip comprising many transistors in a complex
circuit.

Breadboard
It is the tool on which the circuits are built temporarily for test purposes. The breadboard consists of
a moulded plastic body, which has a number of holes in the top surface, through which component
pins may be easily inserted. Underneath each hole there is a clip, which holds the component lead
tight enough so it doesn’t fall out. These clips are interconnected, so that by pushing leads of
different components into two holes of one group you have made an electrical contact between the
two leads.

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