. .

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
'

1
A ,·ecent esti,nate of the coastline of England and Wales
is 2750 miles and it �s ve,·y ,·a,·e to find tl1e same kind of
coas·ta[. scener·y fo1· 1rzo1·e than 10 to 15 n1iles together.'
1
1 do not know wliat I may appea,· to the worlcl; bi1t to
,nyself I seem to have been only a boy playi11g on the sea­
sl101·e, and dive,·ting myself i11 11ow and tl1en fi.nding a
sn1ootl1e1· pebble 01· a p1·ettie1· shell tl1an 01·dina1y, while the
g,·eat ocea11 of tri,t/1 lay all ·undiscove,·ed befo,·e 1ne.'
Figure 6.1
� • • • • '• • • • • • • • • • • o • • • • • • • ' • • ,. • • • t • • • I • • •
Factors affecting
coasts
--w�-
- ------ --�-----·-�----�
iERBESTRIAL::
exception to this definition is tl1ose waves -
tst1namis - that result from submarine shock
waves ge11erated by earthquake or volcanic
activity.) As tl1e strength of the wind increases, so
J.A. Steers, T/1e Coastline ofEngland and Wales, 1960
too does frictional drag and th . e size of the waves.
Waves tl1at result from local winds and travel 011ly
sl1ort d.istances are know11 as sea, wl1ereas those
waves for1ned by dista11t storn1s and travelli11g
large distances are referred to as swell.
The energy acquired by waves depends upon
three factors: tl1e wind velocity, tl1e period of
time during which the wi11d has blown, and tl1e
Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Natura/is
Principia Mathematica, 1687
le11gth of the fetch. Tl1e fetch is the maximum
distance of open wa.ter over which the wind can
The coast is a narrow zone where the land and blow, and so places with the greatest fetcl1 pote11-
the sea overlap and directly interact. Its devel­ tially receive the highest-e11ergy waves. Parts of
opment is affected by terrestrial, atmospheric, south-west England are exposed to the Atlantic
marine and l1un1an processes (Figure 6.1) and Ocean and when the south-westerly winds blow
their interrelatio11ships. Tl1e coast is the n1ost it is possible that some waves may have origi­
varied and rapidly changing of all landforll'\s nated several thousand kilometres away. The
and ecosystems. Thames esh1ary, by comparison, has less open
water between it and the Conti11ent and conse­
quently receives lower-energy wa.ves.
Waves
Waves are created by the transfer of energy from
the wind blowing over tl1e surface of the sea. (An
i HUMAN:
buildings
ATMOSPHERIC:

'
pollution
tectoniGs tourism and recreation
(plate m0vement and volcanic sea defences
adivit}!) conservation gravity
globa·I warming
,

geoJo�y,
(r:Qck cype a,nd str.ueture)
t
solar energy
weatheri.hg MARIN Et
waves and tst1namis '
•

deposition tides
. climate
salt spray '(temperature, precipitation, winds,
bfuti( features biotic feature� glaciations)
(e.g. mangroves) (e.g. cofal)

�- .

. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... .... . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . ··························

·
• t t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I •

140 Coasts
 •
•

•
,
t

Wave terminology be destroyed and that wave power is a potential

T?e crest a11d tl1e trot1gl1 are respectively tl1e source of renewable energy (page 541). · ·
· h1gl1est and lowest 1Joi11ts of a wave (Figure 6.2). Swell is characterised by waves of low l1eight,
Wave l1eigl1t (H) is the dista11ce between th.e gentle steepness, long wave length and a long
crest and the trough. The l1eight l1as to be esti­ period. Sea, with opposite cl1aracteristics, usually
has l1igher-e11ergy waves.
rn.ated when in deep water. Wave heig'ht rarely
exceeds 6 m althot1gh freak waves of 15 m have Waves in deep water
been reported by offsl1ore oil-rigs, and 25 m by Deep wa.ter is when tl1e depth of water is greater
a wave-tracking satellite. Such waves can be a tha11. one-quarter of tl1e wave length:
serious l1azard to shipping.
Wave period (T) is the time taken for a wave (D = >l._
4 )
to travel tl1rough one wave length. This can be The drag of the wi11d over tl1e sea surface causes
ti1ned eitl1er by cot1nting the num.ber of crests water and floating objects to move in an orbital
per mi11ute or by ti111ing 11 waves and dividing 1notion (Figure 6.3). Waves are surface fea-
by 10 - i.e. the 11·urnber of i11tervaJs. tures (st1bmerged subn1arines are t1naffected
Wave lengtl1 (L) is the distance betwee11 by storµis) and therefore tl1e sizes of the orbits . '

two successive_crests. It ca11 be determined decrease rapidly with depth. AI1y floating object
by the formula: i11 tl1e sea l1as a s1nall net horizontal move1nent
I

L = 1.56 T2
bL1t a 1nuch larger vertical motion.

Wave velocity (C) is the speed of movement Waves in shallow water

of a crest in a given JJeriod of time. As waves approach shallow water, i.e. when their
Wave steep11ess (H + L) is tl1e ratio of the deptl1 is less than one-quarter of the wave length,
wave heigl1t to 1 :l1e wave le11gth,. This ratio cannot
exceed 1:7 (0.14) because at that point tl1e wave
(D = < t)
friction with the seabed increases. As the base of
will break. Steepness determi11es whether waves the wave begins to slow down, the circular oscil­
will build up or degrade bea.ches. ivfost waves 11ave la�ion becomes more elliptical (Figu1·e 6.4). As
a steepness of between 0.005 and 0.05. the water depth continues to decrease, so does
Tl1e energy (E) of a wave in deep water is the wave le.ngth.
expressed by tl1e formula: Meanwhile the height and steepness of the
•• E oc (is proportio11al to) LH 2 wave increase un.til the upper part spills or plunges
This means tl1at even a slight i11crease in wave over. The point at which the wave breaks is known
height can generate large increases in energy. It is as the plu11ge line. The body of foaming water
esti1nated that the averag. e presst1re of a wave in . which then rt1shes Ltp the beach is called the
winter is 11 tonnes per m 2, but this 111ay be three­ swasl1, while any water retu1·ning down to the sea·
times greater dLtring a stor1n - it is little wonder is the backwasl1.
tl1at under such co11ditions sea defences may

crest 1 crest 2

..

wave height (H)

trough

,•
Figure6.2
, .. ,. •.. •...... . .... ...... ....... ..... ...
Wave terminology

· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coasts 141
 stage1 stage2-

Figure6.3
••··•·· ···•················· •··•····· ···· crest 1 crest 2 crest 1
Movement of an
object in deep water:
the diagrams show l /

trougl1 2 trough 1 trough 2

the circular move­
ment of a ball or piece
of driftwood through
five stages in the i--�- -----·-- ---·
passage of one wave
length (crest 1 to crest
2); although the ball stage3 stage4
moves vertically up
and down and the crest 2 crest 1 crest 2
wave moves forward
horizontally, there is
very little horizontal
trough 2
rnovement of the ball
until the wave breaks; •
. trough 2 •
the movement is
orbital and the size
of the orbit decreases ,�-�--------�------ '---------·�-·-------'
with depth
stages
wave direction

crest 2

'
'-.. trough 3 trough 2
..

Figure6.4
....... ,, .... ......................... .
,

Why a wave breaks

crest of wave rises as wave steepens until it

it moves forward: reaches a ratio of 1 :7
velocity and wave (wave height: wave
length decrease length) when it will
break
- .. water rushes up the
'
:
.. . ,
'I
beach as 'swash'
,

increasingly ---------
--
water from previous
-
wave becomes more elliptie:al orbit ----------- ---- ·
elliptjcal in mox,ement f w ave ---- ---- ---- wave returns as
ow-·
n·b --
ase -
o 'backwash'
O s\ows d
fr\ctlo -
shelving sea bed (beach)

•
•

Wave refraction drag), causing the wave to bend. The ortl1ogo­

Where waves approach ·an irregular coastline, nals (lines drawn at rigl1t-angles to wave crests)
they are refracted, i.e. they become increasingly in Figure 6.5 represent four stages in the advance
parallel to the coastline. This is best illust1·ated of a particular wave crest. It is apparent from
where a head.land.separates two bays (Figure 6.5). the convergence of lines 5 1 , 52 , 53 and 54 that
As each w�ve crest nears the coast, it tends to wave e11ergy pecomes concentrated. upon, and
drag i11 the sl1allow w�ter near to a headland, or so accentuates erosion at, the headland. The
indeed any sl1allow water, so that the portion of diagra1n also shows the formation of lo11gshore
the crest in deeper water moves forward wl1ile (littoral) currents, wJ1ich carry sediment away
tl1at in shallow water is retarded (by ·frictional from tl1e headla11d.

. . . . . . . . . . .• . . . . . · . · · · · · · · · · · ·
•

· '
• f • f f I I I I f I I f f I I f I ! I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I f I I I I I f I I I I I I I. I I I I I • I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1,1 I I I I I I f I I I I I I I t I f f I I I I I I I I • •

142 Coasts •

•
Figure 6.5
. .. . . ... ..... . ... . . . ... .. ' .............
-
'

Wave refraction at a
headland orth ogonals sand
longshore (littoral) 5 1 5-2 5 3 54 four stages marking positions
��.....�.
bay currents of an advancing wave crest bay •

low-energy low-energy
•

waves
'

waves
54 54

headland
(paths of crests (paths of crests
53 diverge) diverge) 53
waves in deeper
water do not lose high-energy waves
velocity as rapidly (paths of crests converge)
and are lower and
less steep than s '
depth of water decreases, waves
2-
those off the get higher and s\eeper, velocity
headland decreases, shortfl r wave length

51 wave approaches irregular coastline 51

Beaches • Wave ene1·gy Field studies l1ave shown a close

Beaches 111ay be divided into three sections -
backsl101·e (u1Jper), foreshore (lower) and 11ea1·­
sl1ore - based on tl1e i11fluence of waves (Figure
6.6). A beach forms a bL1ffer zone between tl1e
waves and the coast. If tl1e beach proves to be
an effective buffer, it will dissipate wave e11ergy
without experiencing any net cl1ange itself.
Because it is composed of loose material, a beach
.
can rapidly adapt its shape to c0anges in wave
energy. It is, tl1erefore, in dynamic equilibrium
with its environment (Framework 3, page 45).
Beach profiles fall betwee11 two extre1nes: those
that are wide and relatively flat; and those tl1at are
narrow a11d steep. Tl1e gradient of natural beaches
is dependent upo11 the interrelationsl1ip between
two mai11 variables:
�,-- offshore--
...,: ...
-�nearsl,ore �...-:�---foreshore --1...�'..---- backshore ___..,
relationship betvveen the profile of a beach and
the action of two types of v.1ave: constructive
and deshuctive (page 144). However, the effect
of wave steepness on beach profiles is compli­
cated by the second variable.
• Particle size There is also, dt1e to differe11ces
in the relative dissipation of wave e11ergy, a
distinct relationsl1ip between beach slope and
particle size. This relationship is partly due
to grain size and partly to percolation rates,
both of whicl1 are greater on shingle beaches
tl1an 011 sa11d (pages 145-146). Consequently,
shingle bea.ches are steeper than sand
beacl1es (Figure 6.6).
Figure 6.6
...................................................................
Wave zones and beach morphology
(after King, 1980)
I •

beyond the : zone in whicl, : (lower beach: often (upper beach:

I

influence of ' waves affect under 5 ° ) usually 10°-20 ° )

I I

the waves the seabed

I

inter-tidal or usually above the ',.

surf zone influence of the waves ""' cliffs

I

,· ""(or dunes)
I
I

breakpoint bar:zone maximum s ring tides ,/

I I
I

of breaking waves � l ,,,--�-�

,:,..,-.,__,�.,.. -r--_c-� .:i.

low-water mark (low tide) . rJ,r' -.::::11

· 1'P�· . ( .�,·2gm
• "i-t,.(Pi.',' � 6;-7)
�t'f1re 1t
\' } r•q 'i" '
t ?"f.\ , •

.. s
>:,, �.. �·
_
. ,,
.
,11,,�·
-�· • ! ,, •,. • �-· d \

• •• ·-··-·-......--._;.;,,,-;:,,;;-;---.-��� ( • •I.
' • �... �� �� ���
-�---�-,,::,�.�---:r.--::-,,,---.,.,.._.� ��n�.....,
•
·-
... ...,......� .. ·-.;::::;;:..:_:·_ :::---�· ,,....:s�a....;n d · 1

-· -· - .-....-------
' - -:- san-a· - -- - ..... -: ...... - ---- - ... - -� - ---� �-
__.......
�
.,...., • -·
. 41!' • - --- _..._ ..-J',; - - ___ ..._..._.
•

ridges and runnels

....,..

b edrock
ong shoreb a rs de ess ons
-l_--�-�-�-�-�------�----.;.;.__1 _ � - _ _ _ _ _ _ ____...:___f _ _p_r _ _ i_ _ )_ __.:.-____�.;;......;;..;....;;..._______ �_,.�-·=·-��;..;.;;;..______..;..________ !...-J 143
 ---- ---- -- -
-

Types of wave . '

consta.ntly, 1noved up the beacl1. This will
gradually increase the gradient of tl1e beach
It is widely accepted tl1at there are two extreme
and leads to tl1e formation of ber111s at its crest
wave types that affect the s.l1ape of a beacl1.
(l:;i g·ures 6.9 and 6.10) a11d, especia11y on sandy
However, whereas tl1e extreme ty·pes .l1ave, in. tl1e
beaches, ridges a11d runnels (Figure 6.6).
. '
past, bee11 labelled co11st1·uctive and destructive
• Destn1ctive waves are more co1nmon wl1ere
(Figt1re 6.7, and A11drew Goudie Tl1e Nal1tre of tlze
tl1e fetch dista11ce is sho1ter. They are often large
E11vironr11e11t), it is now becomi11g 1110.re usual to
(or high) waves, stee1J in forrn and witl1 a short
use t11e terms lligh ene1·gy and low energy (Figure
wave lengt11 (perhaps only 20 m) a11d a higl1 fre­
6.8, an.ct Jol1n ·retl1ick An I11trod1.1ctio11 to Coastal
Geo11101JJr10/ogy). Note that '.l1.igl1-energy waves' and
que. 11cy (10 to 14 per mint1te). Tl1ese waves, on
'low-energy waves' are 11ot syno11ymous term.s for approacl1ing a beacl1, steepen rapidly until tl1ey
'constructive waves' a11d 'destructive waves'. 'plunge' over (Figure 6.7b). Tl1e near-vertical
breaking of the wave creates a powerft1l back­
Constructive and destructive waves wasl1 whicl1 ca11 1nove considerable a1nounts of
• Constructive waves often for1n where the sediI11e11t down tl1e beach and, at the same time,
fetch distance is long. Th,ey are usually small redt1ce the effect of the swash from tl1e following
(or low) waves, flat in forin and with a lo11g wave. Althou.gh some shingle may be thrown 11p
wave length (up to ·100 1n) a.nd a low fre­ above the l1igh-water rna.rk by very large vyaves,
quency (a wave period of 6 to 8 per 1ninute). forming a stor1n beacl1, 1nost material is rnoved
On. approacl1ing a beach, the wave front dow11wards to form a longshore (breakp.oi11t)
steepens relatively slowly u11til tl1e wave ge11tly bai: (Figures 6.6 and 6.7b).
'spills' over (Figure 6.7a). As the resultant
swash moves up the beacl1, it rapidly loses High-energy waves and /ow-energy
volume and energy due to water percolati11g waves
through tl1e beacl1 1naterial. 1�he result is tl1at Recent opinion appears to SL1pport the view that
tl1e backwash, despite the additio11 of gravity, beach sl1ape is 1nore dependent on, and linked
is weak and l1as insufficient energy either to to, wave energy. Tl1e correlation between the two
transpor�t sediment back down. tl1e beach or to types of wave energy and beach profile is given
impede the swash from the folJowi11g wave. in Figure 6.8.
Co11sequently sand and shingle is slowly, bt1t
Figure6.7
.......................... ............. . a constructive (flat) waves strong swash: much water is
--
'

Constructive and
-
-
---
-
lost through percolation;
destructive waves sand is carried up the beach
-,- - - --
and forms a berm
--
//-- berm
relatively flat and gentle waves /
I
/
;
I
/
/

· -
/

_ -- _.,.,,.. weak backwash: little material

"smaller, longshore
.,
,;-
........., ___. is returned down the beach
-//
.,0fl\e - _ - - --- -
_ - - --;;w-beach p rofile
. . a\ beach p,
--
1 (breakpoint) bar
0r,g,n
- ---
_
- -- - ...... -- ......"
b destructive (steep} waves some large material ----
forming a storm beach �
high, steep waves I
I
I
I
/
/
I
I

'""
,,' Ii�� water lost
; ;

/
I

.,., , '
<'
, th ro ugh percolation,
I

Iii'
;' I

k' ,,,,,./ most of material

weak swash
· _ ,, carried d.o wn beach
. ·-_ _
e
h nrof\\ , / .,,.. ..... ' by backwash
ea
....t,i,;\na\.\J _c _""_____ _ ____ ...,,
·- ��
,,,,,.
.... ________ ,..,,.- - ---
\ - - gradient decreases
new beach profile larger longshore dowr, beach
• (breakpoint) bar

••••••••••••••••••••••••• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • •• • • • • •··• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• •
f! • • • • • • • • • • • e II e e e e e e e • .. e • e # • e e • • e e f • e e ,t, e e • # • e e
·················
144 Coa sts
 ------ �---�-- - - --
-

Figure6.8
........ ,.... , .. , .. ................ ., ...
High-energy and
low-energy waves Produced by distant storms Source Formed more locally
(ofter J. Pethick) Large Fetch distance Short
Long (up to 100 m) Wave length Short (perhaps only 20 m)
High and short Wave height Low and flat
Move quickly and so lose little energy Speed of wave movement Move less quickly and so lose more energy
Spilling Type of breaker Surging
Long Dissipation distance Shorter
Flat and wide Beach shape Steeper and narrower

Particle size Shingle beaches

1�his factor co111plicates the in.flue11ce of wave Sl1ingle may 1nake up the whole, or just tl1e
steep11ess 011 the n1orphology of a beacl1. Tl1e tipper part, of the beacJ1, and, like sand, it will
fact that sl1ingle beacl1es have a steeper gradient l1ave been sorted by wave action. Ust1ally, tl1e
Figure6.9 larger tl1e size of tl1e shingle, tl1e steeper the
···················· ................... . tl1an sandy beacl1es is dt1e mainly to differe11ces
Storn1 beaches and i11 percolation rates resulti11g froin differences i11 gradient of tl1e beacl1, i.e. the graclient is in direct
berms: berms mark 1Jroportion to sl1ingle size. This is an interesting
the limits of particle size - i.e. water will pass tl1rougl1 coarse­
grai11ed sl1ingle more rapidly tl1an, through fine­ l1ypotl1esis to test by experiment in t11e field
successively lower
high tides grained sa11d (I;igu,re 8.2). (Framework 10, page 299).
Regardless of whether waves on shi11gle
beac11es are constructive or destructive, 111ost of
tl1e swash rapidly percolates downwards leaving
limited st1rface backwash. This, together witl1 the
loss of energy res11lting fro1n frictio11 ca11sed by
the uneven surface of the sl1in.gle (compare tl1is
with t11e effects of bed rougl1ness of a stream,
5+2 page 70), 1neans that under normal conditions I

S + 3, etc. • very little shingle is 111oved back down the beach..

. .
\:
'
.. . . Indeed, the strong swash will probably transport
. . ). �
material up the beacl1 for111i11g a berm at the
. '
spring higl1-tide level. Above tl1e berm there is
•' .• • •
ofte11 a storm beach, co1nposed of even bigger
'

� . . .\. '\ . bo11lders thrown there by the largest of waves,

10.1 hile below may be several smaller riclges, eacl1
1narking the height of tl1e successively lower
. �·---::ii
... '
'
higl1 tides which follow the 111axi1nu111 spring
tide (Figures 6.9 a11d 6.10).

Figure6.10
............ ' ............................
Berms and storm
beaches in north-east
,,,...._.:- ---_,..,.,,.,,.
.- .
.,________ �

Anglesey, Wales

• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . • . . ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • • • • • ••
Coasts 145
 •

Figure 6.11
.. ........................... I a the gravitational pull of the moon
Causes of tides low tide
Sand beaches
Sand usually produces peacl1es witl1 a gentle ,,
gradient. Tl1is is becat1se the small particle size
high high gravitational . ·� moon
.allows the sand to becon1e compact wl1en wet, tide .. title attraction
�
-·"t

se,,erely restricti11g the ra.te of percolation. ''

Percolation is also l1i11dered by tl1e storage of

water in. pore spaces i11 sand wl1ich enables most
low tide
of tl1e swasl1 fro111 both co11structive and destruc­
tive waves to return as backwash. Relatively '
little energy is lost by friction (sa11d presents a b spring tides maximum tidal
smoother st1rface than sl1ingle) so material vvill range
be carried dow11 tl1e beach. Tl1e 111.aterial will
bt1ild up to form a lo11gshore bar at the low- Y. •
\
)
sun

tide 1nark (Figure 6.6). This will cau.se waves moon

to break further from the sl1ore, giving tl1em a
""'' -
Earth .
wider beach over which to dissipate tl1eir en.ergy.
Tl1e lower parts of sand beaches a�e someti111es •

crossed by shore-parallel ridges and rt111nels c neap tides moon

(Figure 6.6). The ridges may be broken by cl1an­
nels which drain the r11n11els a.t low tide. minimum tidal
The interrelatio11sl1ip between wave e11ergy, range
•
beacl1 t11aterial a11d beach pr<;>files may be su111-
Earth
;( sun
marised b·y the following generalisatio11s which •

\
••
refer to 11et move111e11ts:
'
•

- • Destructive waves carry 1naterial down tl1e

{not drawn to scale)
. beacl1.
• Constructive waves carry material up the
beach. A lunar month (t11e time it takes the moon to
'

. • Material is _carried upwards on sl1i11gle beaches. orbit the Earth) is 29 days and the tidal cycle
• Jviaterial is carried downwards on sandy (the time between two successive l1igl1 tides) is
•

. b�acl1es. 12 hot1rs and 25 minutes, giving two high tides,

near e11ough, per day. The sun, with its smaller
gravitational attraction, is the cause of the dif­
Tides ference in tidal range rather than of tl1e tides
The position at. whicl1 waves _break over the beac11, themselves. 011ce every 14/15 days (i.e. twice in a
and tl1eir range, are determi11ed by the state of lunar month), tl1e moo11 and sun are in alignn1ent
the tide. It l1as already been seen that the levels on the san1e side of the Ea1il1 (Figure 6.1 lb). Tl1e
·of high tides vary (berms are formed at progres­ increase in gravitational attraction generates tl1e
·sively lower levels follow!ng spring high tides; sp1ing tide which produces tl1e highest high tide,
,
Figt1re 6.9). Tides are co11trolled by gravitatio11al the lowest low tide an . d the maximurn tidal range.
effects, mai11ly of the moon but partly of the sun, Midway between the spring tides are the neap
•
· together witl1 the rotatioi1 of the Earth and, more tides, which occL1.r when the sun, Earth and rnoon
locally, the geo1no1·phology of sea basins. form a right-angle, with the Earth at the apex
(Figure 6.1 lc). As the sun's attraction pa1·tly coun­
'Tl1e moon has the greatest influence.
· Although its n1ass is much smaller tl1an that of terbalances that of the 1noon, the tidal ra11ge is a.t
the sun, this is more tha11 compensated for by its a mini1nt1m witl1 the lowest of high tides and the
closer proximity to the Ea·rtl1. The moon attracts, �ighest of low tides (Figure 6.12). Spring and neap
•
or pulls� water to the side of.the Earth nearest tides vary by approximately 20 per cent above and
to it. This creates a bulge or high tide (Figure below the mean _ high-tide and low-tide levels.
· 6.1 la), with a complementary bulge on the So f�r, we have seen how tides might cha11 ge
opposite side of the E-artl1. This bulge is on a uniform or totally sea-covered Earth. In
compensated. for by the intervening areas where practice, tl1e tide. s 1nay differ considerably from
water i'S repelled and which experience a low the above scenario due to such factors as: the
tide. As the moon orbits the Earth, the high tides Earth's rotation (a11d the effect of the Coriolis
follow it. force, page 224); the distribt1tion of land masses;
and the size, depth and configuration of ocean
and sea basins.
........ ... .'..... ..' ... ..... ... ..'....'.. .. • • • • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • !' . . . .. . . .
. .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
·· ··· ·· · ····· ··· · · · ···· ····· ··· · ··· ··· · ··· ····· · ··· · ··· ·
146 Coasts
·---�- - -- -
- - --

sun sun
Figure 6.12 \
................................... ...... new new
Tidal cycles during
10 moon
10 moon

r�
the lunar month
.� --
l1alf
moon
spring : spring
tides I Earth v
half
tides
�

moon
neap tides full moon neap tides

Day1 Day7Yi Day15 Day 22 Yi Day29

Sun and moon combine to Sun and moon are 90° out of Sun and moon combine to Sun and moon are 90° out of Sun and moon combine to
give spring tides phase giving neap tides give spring tides again phase giving neap tides again give spring tides
sp,·ing t' rin tide s
Ides sp g
ne a p tide s ne a p tid es

(0
·-
""C
Note tl1at low tides are lower at springs than at neaps, and l1igh tides are higher at springs than at neaps.
Dayl Day7 Yi Day 1 S Day 22Yi Day29

Figure 6.13 N 200km greater than in 1101�thern Scotland (Figure 6.13).

................ ...... ...................
Tidal range and m Estuaries where incoming tides are forced into
difference in times •• rapidly narrowing valleys also have considerable
of high tide in the •• tidal ranges, e.g. the Severn estuary with
North Sea 13 1n, the Rance (Brittany) with 11.6 m and tl1e
Bay of Ftrndy (Canada) with 15 m. It is due to these
extreme tidal ranges that the Ra11ce has the world's
3,n •• first tidal power station, while the Bay of Fu11dy
Aberdeen • ••
•• 2 a11d the Severn have, respectively, experimental
•• •• 3 and proposed schemes for electricity genera-
•• ••
•• • • tion (page 542). Extreme narrowing of estuaries
• ••
•• •• O l can concentrate the tid.al rise so rapidly that an
• o.... I
�o advancing wall of water, or tidal bore, may travel
upriver, e.g. the Rivers Severn and Amazon. In con­
trast, small enclosed seas have only 1ninimal tidal
ranges, e.g. the Mediterranean with 0.01 m .
.
Storm surges
Storm st1rges are rapid rises i n sea-level caused
by intense areas of low pressure, i.e. depressions
(page 23.0 ) and tropical cyclones (page 235). For
every drop in air pressure .of ·10 mb (page 224),
sea-level can rise 10 cm. In tropical cyclones,
•
0, pressure can fall by 100 mb causing the sea-level
to rise by 1 m. Are�s at greatest risk are those
2m
•••••• • tidal range in metres w.here sep. basins becon1e narrower and 1nore
3 shallow (e.g. southern North Sea and the Bay
/g
'•'
�
co-tidal lines: the position of the high­
tide wave at each hour in the tidal cycle; of Bengal) and where tr(?pical cyclones move
, 'sf X amphidromic point lies at centre froJ?.1 the sea and cross low-lying areas (e.g.
Bangladesh and Florida). When these stor1ns
The morpl1ology of the seabed and coastline coincide with ht1rricane-force winds and
affects tidal range. 111 the example of the North high tides, th .e surge can be topped by waves
Sea, as the tidal wave travels sot1tl1 it moves into an reaching 8 m. in µeight. Where such events
area where both the width and the depth of the sea occur i n densely popt1lated areas, they pose a
decrease. This results i11 a rapid accu:qiulation, or 1najor natural haza.rd as they can cause con­
htnnelling, of water to give an increasingly hig:her siderable loss of life and qamage to property
tidal range - the range at Dover is several metres (Places 19 and 31, page 238).

• t t t • t t ' • t t t t t f f t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t ! t f t t I t t I t t t t t t I t t t t t I f t I t t t t I t I r t I f t � I t t �t t I • t t ! t f t t f' f t t t I I • f I • i f f f f t t t t f I t t t t ' t t • I t I t t t I t t t I t t t t t• I t t t t � I t t f , t t t I t t t I t t t , t I t

Coasts 147
 -- ---- ---
-- ------ --------�- --- - ---

�--··----·�-·-· ---�-----·-·-w-•�ut �· •---·-�· -�---------�--------,,

The North Sea and the Bay of; Bengal: storm surges i
··�--- .- -- ______.. ._.....

North Sea, 31 January- Bay of Bengal

'

1 February 1953 The south of Bangladesh includes many flat islands

A deep depression to tl1e north of Scotland, instead
of following the usual track wl1ich would have taken
it over Scandinavia, turned soutl1wards into the
North Sea (Figure 6.14). As air is forced to rise in a
depression (page 230), the reduced pressure tends
to raise the surface of the sea area underneath it. If
pressure falls by 56 mb, as it did o� this occasion, the
level of the sea may rise by up to 0.5 m. The gale-force
winds, travelling over the maximum fetch, produced
storm waves over 6 m high. This caused water to pile
up in tl1e southern part of tl1e North Sea. This event
coincided with spring tides and witl1 rivers discharging
into the sea at flood levels. Tl1e result was a high tide,
excluding the extra height of tl1e waves, of over 2 m
in Lincolnsl1ire, over 2.5 m in the Thames estuary and
over 3 m in the Netherlands. The immediate result was
the drowning of 264 people in south-east England
and 1835 people in the Netherlands. To prevent such
devastation by future surges, the Thames Barrier and
Figure 6.14
. . . .. . . . . . . ' ..................... . the Dutch Delta Scheme have since been constructed.
The North Sea Both schemes needed considerable capital and
storm surge of technology to implement.
1 February 1953
---
\0 N CO � 0
- ,.... 0 0 0
� 0
..- q
�
O O
..... ......
formed by deposition from the Rivers Ganges and
Brahmaputra. This delta region is ideal for rice growing
and is home to an estimated 40 million people.
However, during the autumn, tropical cyclones
(tropical low pressure storms) funnel water northwards
up the Bay of Bengal which becomes increasingly
narrower and shallower towards Bangladesh. The
water sometimes builds up into a surge which may
exceed 4 m in height and which may be capped by
waves reaching a further 4 m. The result can be a wall
of water which sweeps over the defenceless islands.
Three days after one such surge in 1994, the Red Cross
suggested that over 40 000 people had probably
been drowned, many having been washed out to
sea (Places 31, page 238). The only survivors were
those who had climbed to the tops of palm trees and
managed to cling on despite the 180 km/hr winds. The
Red Cross feared outbreaks of typhoid and cholera in
the area because fresh water had been contaminated.
Famin� was a serious threat as the rice harvest had
been lost under the salty waters.
There is increasing international concern about the
possible effect of global warming on Bangladesh.
Estimates suggest that a 1 m rise in sea-level could
submerge 25 per cent of the country, affecting
over one-half of the present population (page 169).
Because Bangladesh lacks the necessary capital and

---·991-
technology, for the last three decades the World
Bank has been helping in the construction of cyclone
��------ 9881 early warning systems, providing flood shelters and
improving coastal defences. It is partly because of
()

984 1
these precautions, and partly because recent storm
surges have not reached the peak heights of 1990
and 1991, that the death toll from flooding caused by •

980 storm surges has decreased significantly. However, the

problem is likely to get worse in the near future due to
the rising sea-level caused by global warming, and the
lowering in height of the delta region resulting from
"'
1032
°'
°' the extraction of groundwater for agriculture.
'o
o,°' Height of Death toll
,ooo
--...L----
�- , oo A
Vear
1966
storm surge
6.1
{estimated)
80 000
1985 5.7 40 000
---,oos
1988 4.8 . 25 000
1990 6.3 140 000
1991 6.1 150 000
1994 5.8 40 000
1 F.e6ruary 1953, 2007 5.1 2300
.............................••.•• •••••••••••••• •••• •.. .... ." ..."... ... ....
,a
'

flooded ar as
 will have l1ad its energy dissipated as it travelled
across tl1e beach (Figt1re 6.15).
Wave steep11ess J-Iighest-e11ergy waves, asso­
ciated with longer fetcl1 distances, h.ave a high,
stee1J appearance. They l1ave greater erosive
power than low-energy·waves, wl1icl1 are gener­
ated wl1ere the fetcl1 is sl1orter and have a lower
and flatter form (Figure 6.8).
Figure 6.15
. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. ................ ... .
Waves breaking on
' '•

Processes of coastal erosion Depth of sea, le:ngth a11d directio11 of fetch,

co11figt11·ation· of coastli11e A steeply shelving
Filey Brigg, Yorkshire: St1baerial According to J. Pethick, 'Cliff reces­
wave energy rs
beach creates higher ancl stee1?er waves than
absorbed by a band of
sion is pri111arily the rest1lt of mass failure.' Mass 011e witl1 a 111ore ge11tle gradient. The lon.ger the
residual rock and so failure 111ay be caused by sucl1 0011-marine proc­ fetcl1, the greater the ti1ne available for waves to
the cliff behind esses as: rain falli11g directly 011to tl1e cliff face; collect e11ergy from the wind. The existence of
is protected by tl1rot1gl1flow or, under extre111e conditions, l1ea.dlands with. vertical cliffs tends to concen­
surface ru.noff of wa.ter fro111 the land; and the tra.te e11ergy by wave refractio11 (page 142).
effects of weatl1eri11g by tl1e wi11d and frost. Su1Jply of beacl1 material Beacl1es, by
1"hese processes, i11clividually or in. combination, absorbing wave energy, 1)rovide a 111ajor protec­
can cause 1na.ss moveme11t either as soil creep on tio11 against coastal erosion.
gentle slopes or as slt1mping and la:ndslides 011 Beach n1or1Jl1ology Beaches, by dissipati11g
steeper cliffs (Figures 2.17 and 2.18). wave e11ergy, act as a buffer between waves and
Wave pounding Steep waves have consider­ tl1e land. As tl1ey receive high-energy inputs at a
able e11ergy. Wl1e11 tl1ey break as they hit the foot rapid rate fron1 steep waves, and low-e11ergy inputs
of cliffs or sea walls, they 111ay ge11erate sl1ock­ at a slower rate from flat waves, they 111ust adopt
waves of up to 30 ton11es per m2 . So11.1e sea walls a n1orpl1ology (shape) to counteract the differe11t
in parts of easter11 Engla11d need replaci11g witl1in energy inputs. High, rapid energy i11puts are best
25 years of bei11g built, due to wave {JOt1nding · dissipated by wide, flat beaches which spread ou.t
(Case Study 6). tl1e oncomi11g wave energy. In contrast, the lower­
Hydraulic JJressure When a parcel of air is energy inputs of flatter waves can easily be dis­
trapped and compressed, either i11 a joint in a sipated by narrow, steep beaches whicl1 act rather
cliff or between a breaking wave and a cliff, tl1en like a wall against which the waves flot1nder.
the resultant increase in pressure may, over a A11 exception is whe11 steep waves break onto
period of time, weaken and break off pieces of a shi11gle beacl1. As energy is rapidly dissipated
rock or damage sea defences. through friction and percolatio11, then a wide, oa·t
Abrasion/corrasion Tl1is is tl1e wearing beach profile is unnecessary (page· 145).
away of the cliffs by sand, shingle and boulders Rock resistance, st1·t1cture a11d dip The
hurled agaiI1st them by the waves. It is tl1e inost strength of coastal rocks influences the rate of
effective n1ethod of erosion and is m.ost rapid on erosio11 (Figure 6.16). In Britain, it is coastal
coasts exposed to stor111 waves . areas where glacial till was de:posited that are
Attrition Rocks and boulders already eroded . bei11g worn back 1nost rapidly (Places 20). When
from the cliffs are broken down into smaller and St1rtsey first arose out of the sea off the south­
111ore rounded particles. west co�st of Iceland in 1963 (Places 3, page 16),
•
Corrosion/solution This inclt1des the it consisted of unconsolidated volcanic ash. It
dissolvi11g of limestones by carbonic acid in was only when tl1e ash was covered and pro­
sea water (co1npare Figure 2.8), and the eva1Jora­ tected by a lava flow the following year that the
tion of salts to produce crystals wl1ich expand island's st1rvival was seemingly guara11teed.
as they forn1 and cause the rocl< to disintegrate Rocks that are well-jointed (Figure 8.1) or have
(Figure 2.Z). Salt from s�a yVater or spray is been subject to faulti11g have an increased vulner­
capable of corroding several rock types. ability to erosion. The steepest cliffs are usually
where the rock's structure is l1orizontal or vertical
Factors affecting the rate of erosion and the gentlest where the rock d.ips upwards away
•
Breaking point of the wave A wave that breaks fro1n tl1e sea. In the latter case, blocks may break
as it hits the foot of a cliff releases most energy and off and slide downwards (Figt1re 2.17). Erosion
causes maximu1n erosion. If the wa.ve hits the cliff is also rapid where rocks of differe11·t resistance
before it breaks, then 111t1cl1 less energy is trans­ overlie one another, e.g. chalk and Gault clay
mitted, wl1ereas a wave breaking fttrther offshore in Kent.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
�

Coasts 149
 Figure 6.16
......... . . . . .. , . . ... . . . .. . . . .... ....... ..
Rock type and average
rates of cliff recession Volcanic ash
Krakatoa 40
Glacial till Holderness
Glacial till Norfolk
Chalk South-east England
Shale North Yorkshire
Granite South-west England
...... ·- -----�
Places 20 Holderness: coastal processes
The coastline at Holderness is retreating by an
average of 1.8 m a year. Since Roman times, the
sea has encroached by nearly 3 km, and some 50
villages mentioned in the Domesday Book of
1086 have disappeared.
The following extract was taken from a
·n,anagement rep?rt, 'Humber Estuary & Coast'
(1994) prepared by Professor J.S. Pethick (then of
the University of Hull and now at the University of
Newcastle) for Humberside County Council.
•
'The soft glacial till cliffs of Holderness are eroding
at a rapid rate. The reasons for such erosion are,
however, less to do with the soft sediment of the
cliff than with the lack of beach material and the
poorly developed nearshore zone [Figure 6.6].
Retreat of the cliff line here is matched by
progressi_ve lowering of the seabed to give a wide
shallow platform st�etching several kilometres
, seaward. Eventually this platform will be so
extensive that most of the incident wave energy
will be expended here rather than at the cliff so that
Figure 6.�7 . erosion rates will decrease or even halt. Since this
··-······ · · · · ··· · · · ····-·············· · · ·
Houses collapsing may take several thousand years, it cannot form
iDto the sea, part of any management plan for this coast - yet it
Holderness
• from the north-east. These waves approach
--tI
I-It1ma11 activity The increase in presst1re
. resL1lti11g fro1n bt1ildjng on cliff tops and the
removal of beacl1 material wl1icl1 111ay otl1er­
wise l1ave protected the base of the cliff both
2 contribttte to more ra1Jicl coastal erosion.
1 AJthoL1gl1 rates of erosion may be reduced
locally by tl1e constructio11 of sea defences, sucl1
0.3 defences ofte11 lead to i11creased rates of erosio11
0.09 in adjacent areas. I-Iuman activity tl1erefore has
th.e effect of disturbing tl1e equilibrit1m of the
0.001
coast system (Case Stt1dy 6).
I
is important to recognise that the natural erosional
processes here are neither random nor pernicious.
The process of cliff retreat along the Holderness
coast is more complex than appears at first sight.
Mass failures of the cliff are triggered by wave action
at the cliff toe. Such failures may be 50 to 100 m
wide and up to 30 m deep giving a scalloped edge
to the cliff. The retreat rate varies temporarily; a
large failure may produce a 10 m retreat in one year
but no further retreat will then occur for 3 or 4 years
· - giving a periodicity of 4 or 5 years in total. This
means that attempts to measure erosion rates over
periods of less than 10 years, that is over 2 cycles,
can be extremely misleading, resulting in massive
over- or under-estimates of the long-term retreat
rate which is remarkably constant at 1.8 m per year
[Figure 6.17]. Three issues may be highlighted here.
• The beaches of Holderness are thin veneers
covering the underlying glacial tills. The beaches
do not increase in volume since, south of
Hornsea, a balance exists between the input of
sand by erosion and the removal of the sand by
wave action, principally from the north-east,
which drives sands south.
• The sediment balance on the Holderness coast
is maintained by the action of storm waves
the coast obliquely, the angle between wave
crest and shore being critical for the sediment
transport rate. A clockwise movement would
increase the transport and erosion rate while an
anti-�lockwise swing would decrease both of
these. Random changes in the orientation of the
shore are quickly eradicated by changes in the
sediment balance, but any permanent change
in the orientation of the coastline, such as that
caused by the introduction of hard sea defences
as at Hornsea, Mappleton and Withernsea,
means that the sediment balance is disturbed.
• ••• ••••• •• • • • •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 • Hard defences [Case Study 6A] ca·n have two and seabed erosion are not transported along
long-term effects: first, although erosion is the beaches as are the sands and shingle but
halted at the defence itself, several kilometres are moved in suspension. Research is presently
to the nortl1 erosio11 continues as before. under way which is intended to chart the
This causes an anti-clockwise re-orientation precise movement of this material but it is
of the coast, sand transport is reduced and clear that its dominant movement is south
sand accumulates immediately north of the towards the Humber. A large proportion may
defences - as can be seen north of Hornsea. enter the estuary and become deposited there.
Second, the accumulation of sand north of The remainder is moved south and east into
the defences starves the beaches to the south the North Sea where the transport pathway is
Figure6.18 causing an increase in erosion there. The fine­ towards the Dutch and German coast:
······ .... . . . .......... ..... ................ .
Wave-cut notch at grained sediments from the Holderness cliff
Coromandel Peninsula,
New Zealand

Erosion landforms
Headlands and bays
These are most likely to be fou11d in areas of alter-
11ating resista11t and less resista11t rock. Initially,
the less resista11t
.
rock. experiences most erosion
a11d develops into bays, leaving the more resista11t
ot1tcrops as l1eadlands. Later, the headlands
receive the highest-e11ergy waves a.11d so become
more vult1erable to erosio.n than tl1e sheltered bays
(Figure 6.5). The latter now experience low-energy
breakers which allow sand to accu111ulate and so
help to protect that part of the coastline.

--·., - Abrasion or wave-cut platforms

•

- -.

Wave energy is at its 1naximt1m when a higl1,

steep wave breaks at the foot of a cliff. This results
in undercutting of the cliff to form a wave-cut
· 11otch (l:;igtire 6.18). Tl1e conti11ual t1ndercutting
causes i11creased stress and. te11sion in the cliff
t1ntil eve11tually it collapses. As tl1ese processes
are repeated, the cliff retreats leaving, at its base,
a gently sloping abrasion or wave-ct1t platform
°
which l1as a slope a11gle of less than. 4 (Figure 6.19).
"'
l l1e platfor1Ti, whicl1 appears relatively even whe11
viewed from a distance, cuts across rocks regard­
less of tl1eir type and structure. A closer inspec­
tion of tl1is i11ter-tidal feature usually reveals tha.t
it is deeply dissected by abrasion, resulting from
1naterial carried across it by tid.al movements, and
corrosion. As the cliff contint1es to retreat, the
wide11i11g of the platform means that incoming
waves break further ot1.t to sea and have to travel
over a wider area of beach. This dissipates their
ene1·gy, reduces the rate of erosion of the head­
land, and limits the ft1rther extension of the . .
'
platform. It l1as been hypotl1esised that wave-cut
Figure6.19
.. .... ........ . . . ..... � •.. •.. ....•...... . . . . � ... platforms cannot exceed ..
0.5 km in width.
Abrasion or wave-cut Where there l1as been negative change i11
platform at Flamborough sea-level (page 81), former wave-cut platforn1s
Head, Yorkshire
remain as raised beach�s above the present
influe11ce of the.sea (Figure 6 .' S 1).
. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . ... . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .... . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . ... . . .. ... .. .. .. . .. . ..... . .. . . . . . .. . . ... ... . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . .
. '
�

, •
Coasts 151
headland, e.g. Flambo'rougb Head I
N wave-cut notches
occasionally water rises up a
• vertical joint and is ejected
--

- i_.1.-) ·;
�---------------- --. v-:t f�
,f,.iI
a stack is an isolated
-- _ _ _ _ _ -- portion of the cliff

•
I

i"'
I
' I / /
/ '
�·1} · t /V / roof of arch becomes too
.._ '

',:
('
l
.
I
. .
__ Joint oj_fault in
';( heavy to be supported •
I
__,;�

1 1-� , · 1. • and collapses i•

· · - · - resi._•stant rock I1 ,�, • �
.. '
II • • I•I 4:
;'
. .-
•"
\ ' ,

'
� �
}, '-' . . 1-,'1 \�1 . ••;
•
.,.., I .'t( 1
\,,'/•
. ' I{
•·•l . '
: ' fl
wavE:5 <li\ t through l1eadland to form an
-.t II' .
,,-
., _..,..,._�_ \ I•
' . . arch ��j�h-is contiriuallywidened·at1ts base
(
'
••

'• •
•
\

stack is worn away

leaving a stump
,,

, N high tide N •

,•
..
•
.
,. '

• •
•

•
.,....),od,.,..,..;;,;·---=-..:ll,�
· ·��-���.......:�---=
Figure 6.20 Caves, blowholes, arches and stacks through a headland to form a1·ches a11d stacl<s
.........................................
The formation of (Figt1res 6.20 and 6.21).
Wl1ere cliffs are of resista11t rocl,, wave action
caves, blowholes, Tl1ese la11dforms, wl1icl1 often prove to be
attacks a11y li11e of weakness such as a joi11t or a
arches and stacks attractions to sigl1tseers a11d 111ountai11eers, can
faL1lt. So111eti1nes the sea cuts i11la11cl, alo11g a joint,
be foL1nd at The Needles (Isle of Wigl1t), Old
to form a 11arrow, steep-sided inlet called a geo,
I-Iarry (11ear Swanage) and FlamboroL1gh I-lead
or at other ti111es it can trndercut part of tl1e cliff
(Yorksl1ire, Figure 6.19), whicl1 are all cut into
to for111 a cave. As sho,N11 in I-'igure 6.20, caves
chalk, and at Tl1e Old Man of Hoy (Orkneys)
are ofte11 enlarged by several co1nbined processes
which is Old Red Sandstone (Figure 8.12).
of 111arine erosion. J:rosion 1nay be vertical, to
forn1 blowl1oles, but is more ty·pically backwa1:ds

Figure 6.21
• ........................................
Icelandic coastline
•

... . . ... .. . . . . . ... . ......... . . . ........... . .. . . .. . ...... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. " ....................·····································································

152 Coasts
 Transportation of beach material
Up and down the beach
As ,ve l1a,,e alrea d. y seen, flat, co11strt1ctive waves
te11d to 1110,,e sa11d ancl sl1i11gle 111J tl1e beacl1,
wl1ere,1s the net effect of steeJJ, destrt1ctive waves
is to co111b tl1e n1aterial downwards.
Longshore (littoral) drift
Ust1all)1 wave crests are 11ot parallel to the shore,
bt1t arrive at a slight angle. Only rarely do waves
a1)1)roacl1 a beacl1 at rigl1t-angles. The wave a11gle is
deter111i11ed by wi11d directio11, tl1e local configura­
tio11 of the coastline, an.ct refTaction a. t headlands
a11d iI1 shallow water. Tl1e obliqt1e wave angle
creates a 11earshore CL1rrent knowr1 as lo11gsho1·e
(or litto1·al) d1�ift wl1icl1 is capable of moving large
qL1antities of material i11 a down-drift direction.
(Figt1re 6.22). 011 n1any coasts, longshore drift is
predo111inantl)' in one direction; for example, on
the soL1tl1 coast of E11gland, wl1ere the 111aximum
Figure 6.22 fetch a11d prevaili11g wind are both from tl1e soutl1-
. . . . . . .. . .. . ··-· · · · · · · · ·· · . . . • . • . . . . . . . .
The effects of west, tl1ere is a predo1ni11antly eastward movemen.t
longshore drift
wooden groynes slow
down movement and
widen the beacl1
backwash carries material
directly down the beach
under gravity
u of sand
A first position B second position C third position
of pebble
waves refracted
on approaching
shal.low water
waves approach beach at an angle, from a
direction similar to that of the prevailjng wind
Figure6.23
................... ..... ... , ... , .. , .. , . . , . , - , . .. .... ···· · ··· ·· · ··
The effect of groynes on longshore
drift, Southwold, Suffolk: this type
of coastal management is usually
undertaken at holiday resorts
where sandy beaches are a major
tourist attraction
.....................................
of beacl1111aterial. 1:-:lowever, brief cha11ges in wind.
- a11d tl1erefore wave - direction can cau.se tl1e
movement of mateiial to be reversed.
Of lesser importance, but more interesting a.nd
easier to observe, is the move111ent of material
alo11g the sl1ore in a zigzag pattern. '°fhis is because
whe11 a wave breal<s, the swash carries material
up tl1e beacl1 at the sa111e angle as that at wl1icl1
the wave a1Jproached the sl1ore. As the swash dies
away, the backwash and any material carried by
it returns straight down the beach, at rigl1t-angles
to the waterline, under the influence of gravity. If
beacl1 material is carried a considerable dista11ce, it
beco1nes s1naller, 111ore rounded and better sorted.
Wl1ere beach rnaterial is bei11g lost through
lo11gshore drift, the coastline in that locality
is likely to lJe wor11 back 1nore quickly because
the bufferi11g effect of the beach is lessened. To
counteract this process, woode11 breakwaters
or groy11es may be built (Figt1re 6.23). Groy11es
encoL1rage the local accumulation of sand (impor­
ta1. 1.t in tourist resorts) but can resL1lt in a depletion
of material, and therefore an increase in erosio11,
further along the coast (Case Study 6A).
, -
'
•
cliffs protected by
accumulation of sand
I
accumulation C depletion
s
-�� ·,1
· of sand
'
- '
""
l
most material is driven
within the nearshore
zone by a steady current
direction of longshore clrift and
[.;:: ""':::!'..:gac V
�
movement of beach material
'

Figure 6.24
............................... '............ .
A spit: Dawlish Warren
Coastal. deposition
at the mouth of the Deposition occurs \,vl1ere tl1e acct1mulatio11 of
River Exe, Devon
sa11d a11d shingle exceeds its depletio11. Tl1is may
take place in sheltered areas witl1 low-energy
waves or ,;,vhere ra_pid coastal erosion furtl1er
along the coa.st provides a11 abu11dant supply of
material. In ter1ns of the. coastal syste111, de1)osi­
tion takes place as inputs exceed ot1tpt1ts, anci
the beacl1 ca11 be regarded as a store of eroded
material.
!11 FigL1re 6.25, tl1e li11e X-Y 1narks the position
of the original coastline. At IJOint A, because tl1e
prevailing winds and maximum fetcl1 are from
the soLtth.-west, material is carried eastwards by
lo11gshore drift. Wl1en the orientation of tl1e old
coastli11e bega11 to change at B, some of tl1e larger
shingle an.ct pebbles were deposited in tl1e slacker
water i11 the lee of the l1eadla11d. As the SIJit con­
tinued to grow, storm waves threw some larger
1naterial above the higl1-water 1nark (C), 1naki11g
tl1e featLtre more per111anent; while, under 11ormal
conditions, the fi11er sand was carried towards the
end of the spit at D. Many spits develop a hooked
or curved end. This 111ay be for two reaso11s: a.
change i11 the prevailing wind to coincide witl1
the second-1nost-do111inant wave directio11 a11d
second-longest fetcl1, or wave refraction at the
end of the spit carryi11g some material into more
sl1eltered water.
Eventually the seaward side of the spit will
retreat, while longshore drift conti11t1es to
extend tl1e feattire eastwards. A series of recurved
e11ds 1nay for1n (E) each time there is a series
of stor111s fro111 the sotith-east giving a lengthy
period of altered wind direction. r.Iaving reached
its present-day positio11 (F), tl1e spit is unlikely
to grow any ft1rther - partly because tl1e faster
ct1rrent of tl1e river will carry 1naterial out to sea
and partly because tl1e depth of wa.ter beco1nes
too great for the spit to build t1pwards above sea­
level. Meanwhile, the prevailing soLtth-westerly
\<\1ind will pick Lip sand fro1n tl1e beach as it dries

Spits out at low tide a11d carry it inla11d to form dunes

(G). Tl1e stability of the spit 1nay be increased by
Spits are long, narrow acct1mulations of sa11d the ancl1oring qt1alities of marra111 grass. At the
and/or sl1ingle with one end joined to the same tin1e, gentle, low-e11ergy waves entering tl1e
mainland and tl1e other projecting out to sea sl1eltered area bel1ind tl1e spit deposit fi11e silt
or exte11di11g part way across a river estt1ary and mtid, creating an area of saltmarsh (H).
(Figure·6.24). Whetl1er a spit is 1nainly composed Figt1re 6.28 shows the location of so111e of
of sand or shingle depe11ds on tl1e availability tl1e larger spits arou11d tl1e coast of England and
of sediment and wave energy (pages 145-146). Wales. I-low do these relate to tl1e direction of the
Figure 6.25
...................... '.................... . Co111posite spits occur when the larger-sized maxin1um fetcl1 and of the prevailing ar1d domi­
Stages in the formation sl1i11gle is deposited before the finer sands.
of a spit na11t winds?

l
(for key to lettering, see text) y
�
•
e
·$' H "o
��

§ river
•
or
I 0
-�
0 �
�-
estuary
·�
�
�
("
�·
- 0�03 F

headland
G i......,,..
.
E G �

G
�

X.
B

Arevailing winds second-most-dominant .

fetch open sea w ni ct and second-largest fetGh
.
,.________ .r______
____,,__________...,,___._____ ___
__ •

. . . . . ...• ..................... ' ..................... . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ............................................... . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

1 54 Coa s t s
-----

--
'

'

\
•

'

• . ''• . •

•
• ' .. . .. . .....
• . -

.
Figure 6.26
. ........ . . ... . . . . . ................... . Tom bolos, bars and barrier islands extend for several hu11dred kilometres, and the
A tombola: Loch mainla11d is a tidal lagoon (Figure 6.29). Althot1gh
A to111bolo is a beach tl1at exte11ds· outw·ard.s to
Eriboll, Highland, relatively unco1nmon in Britain, tl1ey are wide­
Scotland join witl1 a11 offsl1ore isla11d (Figtire 6.26). Chesil
S[Jread globally, accounting for 13 per cent of tl1e
Beacl1, in Dorset, li11ks the Isle of Portland to
world's coastlines. They are easily recognisable
tl1e mai11la11d. So111e 30 l<m long and Ltp to 14 1n
on maps of the eastern USA (Places 21), the Gulf
l1igl1, it prese11ts a gently s1nootl1ed face to the
of Mexico, the nortl1ern Netherlands, West Africa
prevailing wi11ds in tl1e E11glish Cl1annel.
and sot1ther11 and wester11 Australia. Altl1ot1gl1
If a spit develops i11 a bay into wl1ich no major
their origiI1 is t1ncertain, tl1ey te11d to develop on
river flows, it may be able to build across that
coasts with relatively lligl1-energy waves a .nd a low
bay, li11ki11g two headlands, to form a bar. Bars
tidal range. One theory suggests tl1at they fom1ed,
straighten coastli11es and trap water i11 lagoo11s on
below the lo'v\1-tide mark, as offshore bars of sand
the landward side. Bars, such as that at Slapton
and l1ave moved progressively landwards. A11
Ley, in Devon (Figure 6.27), 111ay also result i11
alternative theory suggests tl1at rises i11 post-glacial
places where constrt1ctive waves lead to the land­
• sea-level may l1ave partly SL1bmerged older beach
ward migration of offshore, seabed material.
ridges. 111 either case, the breaches between the
Barrier islands are a series of sandy islands
islands seem likely to have been caused by storn1
totally detached from, but rtrn11i11g al111ost parallel
waves.
to, the mainland. Betwee11 the islands, whicl1 may
!JU
Figure 6.28
........... , ............. � ......... , ....
Location of some Ravenglass ---------- Dawlish Warren spit .Llandudno tombolo
- --,
major spits, Llandudno --- Slapton Ley I bar Dungeness cuspate foreland
tom bolos and bars in
England and Wales Llanddwy.n .Island 1
--------...

Menai Straits --- Spurn Head

--
Morfa Harlech ---� Blakeney Point
Morfa Dyffryn -------1 r----- Yarmouth

Ro Wen (Barmouth) --­ ...____ Orford Ne�

-- --
Borth __,.,
Dawlish Warren ----- -....,,...r ,..J----- Dungeness

-- - -
Hurst Castle

0 100km ! L��e� [slapt�n Ley Poole Harbour Christchurch

I I
•

.
• • • • • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. .... .....'. ... .... ..........................
Coasts 1 SS
 ' . -

Figure 6.29
Eastern and·southern USA: barrier islands
. . ..... . ...... . . . . . . . .. .. ......... . .. . . .... . .. . . ' ..
Barrier islands off North
Barrier isla11ds l1ave a unique morphology, flora by higl1 grasses (Figure 6.30). Behind the dunes, the
Carolina, USA, tak en
from the Apollo space­ and fauna. The smooth, straigl1t, ocean edge is 'island' interior may contain shrubs and woods, deer
craft (X = position of characterised by wide, sandy beaches which slope and snakes, insects and birds. The landward side is
Figure 6.30) gently upwards to sand dunes which are ancl1ored punctuated by sheltered bays, quiet tidal lagoons,
saltmarsl1es and, towards the tropics, mangrove
swamps. These wetlands provide a natural habitat
for oysters, fisl1 and birds. Although barrier islands
form tl1e interface between the land and the ocean,
they seem fragile in comparison with the power
that the wind and sea brings to them. It is virtually
impossible for a tropical storm or hurricane to
move ashore without first crossing either of the two
longest stretches of barrier islands in the world:
either tl1at which extends for 2500 km from New
Jersey to the southern tip of Florida (Figure 6.29); or
the one stretching for 2100 km along the Gulf Coast
states to Mexico.

Barrier islands are subject to a process called 'wash

over: This process, which might occur up to 40 times
in some years, is when storm waves carry large
quantities of sand over the island from the seaward
face to the landward side. This results in the seaward
side being eroded and pushed backwards. The
landward marshes and mangrove swamps become
suffocated, and the tidal lagoons are.narrowed.
From a human viewpoint, barrier islands form an
essential natural defence against hurricanes and
their storm-force waves.

1<-....ii

Figure 6.30
...................................................... . .
..
Barrier island on Core Banks, •

looking south (see X on

..... .. .
Figure 6.29 for location)
'

. . .

. . . . ... . . . ... . . . . . .. . . . . . ... ... . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . .... .. . . . . . . . . .......... ... ... ....... . .... ... . . . .. .... . . . . . . . . .. . ..' .... . . . . . .. . . ... .. . . .. . . . . . . ..... .. . . ... ... ..
156 Coasts
 ----��--= ----•_,,_-."""---'--.A "
.. ) I*ere- >F,2 .,;, ,ner:::--:.1:t,, •• t'e-:a- ·c•S-••· ,, .,.,,. ,ec. ,'",. _« .. _,, ,...,.,s- ,v, , -

Sand dunes form foreclt1nes wl1ich can attain a height of S m

San? clunes are a d.yna111ic lan (Figures 6.3 1 and 6.32). DLte to a lacl, of h11mus,
. . dfor 111 whose
eqt11l1br1t11n depends o n
. tl. 1e .111terrelationsl1ip th.eir coloL1r gives tl1e111 the 11a111e yellow dt1nes.
1Jet · · .
n n11neral content (sand) and vegetati
on. The du11es become increasingly grey as hu1nL1s
��� _
I gsl1ore d 11 ft m ay deposit sand i11 tl1e inter- a11d bacteria fro1n J?lants and animals are added,
. .
tidal �011e. �s tl1e ticle ebbs, tl1e a11d tl1ey gradually beco.111e n1ore vegetatio11-
sar1d will dry ot1t
allow111g '"rinds fr om tl1e sea .to . covered and acidic. Tl1ese g1·ey (matt1r�) du11es
.tl1e bea . 111o ve material ul)
.
ch b y salta·tio11· (1)age 183 ). 1"'111s may reac_h a l1eigl1t of 10-3 0 111 before tl1e supply
. process 1s
111ost likely to occt1r whe11 tl1e 1Jrevaili of fresh sand is cut off b}7 their increasing dis­
11g winds
con1e fr • o 1.11 tlle sea and wl1ere th
ere is a large tidal tance from the beacl1 (I:ig·L1re 11.11). There may
rang� wl11ch exposes large expanses of sa11d at be several parallel ridges of old du11es (as at Morfa
low tide Sand 1 naY becon1e tra1JJ?ed by seaweed 1-farlech, l�igure 6.33), s�parated by low-lying,
. ·
a1 1d driftwood. on ber111s or at tl1e point of tl1e da111p slacks. Heatl1 plan.ts begin to domi11ate tl1e
:
l11gl1.est spri11g tides. })lants begi11 to colonise area as aciclity, l1L1rnus and 111oisture co11tent all
tl1e area. (Figu1·e 11. 10), stabilisi11g the sa11d and increase (J:igure 11.9). Paths CLlt by hu111a11s a.11d
r e11cour�ging further accu111t1latio11. The regolith animals expose areas of sa11d. As tl1e wind fu1111els
has a high pl-I va.lt1e due to calciL1111 carbonate alo11g tl1ese tracks, blowouts 1nay for1n in the
from seasl1ells. .11ow wasti11g du11es. To combat ft1rther erosio11
En1b1·yo dt111es are the first to develop at 1v1orfa I-Iarlecl1, JJarts of tl1e dt1nes have been
"'
(Figure 6.3 1). 1 hey beco111e stabilised by tl1e fenced off and marram grass has bee11 planted
growt·h of ly111e and marram grasses. f\s these to try to re-stabilise tl1e area a11d to prevent any ,

grasses trap 111ore sand, tl1e dt111es build ttp a11d, i11land migration of the cluries.
dt1e to the l1igl1 ra.te of J?ercolation, become The above idealised sch.eme can be i11ter­
increasi11gly arid. Plants 11eed eitl1er st1ccule11t rupted at any stage by stor1ns or hLtman. L1se. If
leaves to store ,,vater (sa11d coucl1), or tl1orn- ·. tl1e st1pply of sand is ct1t off, tl1en new e1nbryo
Figure 6.31 dt111es ca11not form and yellow dur�es may be
.... .............................. .... .
' ,
like leaves to reduce tra11spiratio11 in tl1e strong
A transect across degraded so that it is the older, grey dunes that
sand dunes, based on winds (prickly saltwort), or long tap-roots to
line tl1e beach.
fieldwork at Morfa reacl1 the water table (marram grass). As 1nore
Harlech, Nor th Wales sand accu111t1lates, the e111bryo dunes join to '

10
blowout

8
1
!I dominant wind
•
E 6
·-
.c -- - --- - - - - r-'-� - - -- - - - - -.._ - - - -

·cu
C'l
4 high­ \
-- -- - - - -
tide - - - I
mark berm I _ - � - - • - -f ta'o\e I
2 __ _ - - \f'Jate
- -- - I
I
- .... - - - -
.... --,- -- I
I
•
I

Dun·e height {m) 1 5 8-10 6-8

-
Percentage,of exposed 80 20 les s than 10 over 40 on. dunes
sand
very littlehumus, mixed s al t somehumus, very little mois ture, humus increases inl and, water content s til l low, high humus, br ackish
Humus and moisture
content and fresh water fresh water f resh w-ater wat�r in slacks •

pH over8 sltgh tly alkaline increasingly acid inl and: pH 6.5-7 acid: pH 5-6
• '

Plant tJP.�/s s and couch, lyme g r as s m ar r am, xerophytic s pecies creeping fes cue, sea spur ge, some marr am, cotton heather, gor se on dunes,
gr ass, heather Juncus in slacks

•• •••• ••• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • •
••••• ••• •••• ••• •••• •••• •••• •• •••• • • • • • • • • • • •
• • •• • •• • • • • • • ••• •• • • • •• • •
•

• • • • • • • • • • • •
•
• • • • • • • • • • • •
•
• • • • •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •

Coasts
• • •
157
• •
 •

Figure 6.33
.. ................... , . . . . .. . ... . ..... . .. . ... . .. . . . . . .. . ,. ....
Morfa Harlech from Harlech
Castle showing foredunes, grey or
wasting dunes, old cliff-line and,
in the distance, saltmarsh
__ _, __ --." -
-
. •
-- -
-- - -- -
-· _...·---.. --- I**
•
. --
-

-
..

-· -
..._.._,_. -...

... ,' __ .. ...: ..-

0
'-;:!
... :.;'�
.r::;.,._. ..__ .�
. ,,
.
---._·-,....,......:�-

-- -
·'

,,. . -.. - .....- .. -

�

------.·... ' ... -.

•

- .... ... . ' .

- ......, ..., - -
..-

- -. -
�

. ._ - . - . _.....__ . .. - .... -.... - - ·

-"(�- -...
' '' ..._........ ,-
• -......._· �
. -lit.. --.
' _. ...
- ..-;...,.,'..,.
-
' .,
....
. - - ....
.,.
�

-... -... .. C: ... �

�-
- . : . ........ . .
&C-

- ,.,
___
.._

.....___ .,,.� .. ""'·.

'

-' .. ..
'
• -....... ... 4··. ..�
.,. -
.. ·-
.. ...�
- '. . ..
"t / .

....... .' .
•

.-
'

, · - _J"
•• '
·�

Figure6.32
............. , ............ ,...................... . Saltmarshes
Embryo and foredunes
Wl1ere tl1ere is sl1eltered water i11 river estLLaries
at Morfa Harlech, North
Wales (refer also to or behi11d spits, silt a11d mucl will be de1Josited
• Figures 11.lOand 11.11) eitl1er by tl1e gently rising and falling tide or of tl1e inter-tidal m11dflats is marked by a small
by tl1e river, thtLS forming a zone of i11te1·-ticlal cliff (Figure 11.12), above wl1ich is th.e flat sward
111t1d.flats. Initia.lly, the area may only be uncov­ zone. This zo11e 111ay only be covered by the sea
ered by tl1e sea for less tha11 1 l1ot1r in. ever1r for less tl1an 1 hour in each tidal cycle (Figure
12-hotir tidal cycle. Plants such as algae and 6.12). Seawater collects in l1ollows which become
Salicor11ia can tolerate this lengthy su·bmergence i11creasi11gly saline as the water eva·porates. Tl1e
a11d the high levels of sali11ity. Tl1ey are able to l1ollows often enlarge i11to saltpans (Figure 11.13)
trap n1ore 111L1d arou11d tl1e1n, creating a surface wl1ich are devoid of vegetatio11 except for certain
tl1at remain.s exposed for increasingly longer algae and the occasio11al halophyte (page 291). As
Figure6.34
.................................................. periods between tides (Figure 6.34). Spartirza eacl1 tide retreats, water drains into c1·eel<s wl1icl1
Llanrhidian saltmarsh, are then eroded rapidly both laterally and verti­
grows throt1gl1ot1t tl1e year a11d si11ce its intro­
Gower peninsula, South
Wales (refer also to Figures dt1ction into Britain l1as colo11ised, and becon1e cally (Figt1re 6.35). The upper sward zone n1ay
11.13and 11.14) domi11.ant in, many estuaries. �fhe landward side only be int1ndated by tl1e highest of spri11g tides.
.-
Figure6.35
.................... " ... . .... .... . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . ............ .

Llanrhidian saltmarsh showing the

sward zone, creeks and saltpan

,_,.._ - -�•

......................................................................................................
158 Coasts
-
,,,.,JI•
..M

Sampling
•
-------��--�--��----�,�-.---------------------------------------
figure 6.36
.. .. . . ... . . . .. . . .... . .................. . Sampling basics
A san1ple population total or parent
in relation to the total population Most sampling procedures assume that the total.
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • •
• • • • • • • • • ••• • • ••• •• • ••• • • •• ••••••
populatio n •
• • • • population has a normal distribution (Figure
• • • • •• • •• • • • • • • • •• •• •• •• • • • • • • •
• • • •• • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• • •
• •• • • • • ••• • • • • •• • • • • •• • • •• •• • • • • • • • • 4.16a) which, when plotted on a graph, produces
• • • •
• • • • • • •• • •• ••••• •••• ••• • •• •••• • • • • • •••
• • • • • •
• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• ••••••• • ••• • a symmetrical curve on either side of the mean
• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • value. This shows that a large proportion of the
• • • • • • • •• •• •• • • •• • • •• ••• • • ••• • • • • • • • • • •
•
•• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • •
•• • • • • • • •• • •• • • • • • • • • •• • •• •• •• •• • ••• • • • • •• • •• • ••• • •• • values are close to the average, with few extremes.
• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • •• • •• • •• • • •• •••• •• • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •
•
• •• • •• • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• • •• Figure 6.37 shows a normal distribution curve and·
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .•. . . . .
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
the standard deviation (page 247) - the measure
............... .......
•••• • • • • • •�• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • •' • • • .. • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • '41, • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • of dispersion from the mean. Where most of the
............ ..... ..
•

• • ••• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•• • •• • • • • • • • • • � • • • • • • •
..................
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • "'
. ••• .· . •• · . •. · • · . • • · • ••• • · .
• • • • • • • • • • • •
.. . . . . .
Why sample?
Geographers are part of a growing number of
people who find it increasingly useful and/or
necessary to use data to quantify the results of their
research. The problem with this trend is that the
amount of data may be very expensive, too time­
consuming, or just impracticable to collect - as it
• •
values are clustered near to the mean, the standard
deviation is low.
samp I e
population The larger the sample, the more accurate it is
likely to be, and the more likely it is to resemble
the parent population; it is also more likely to
conform to the normal distribution curve. While the
generally accepted minimum size for a sample is 30,
there is no upper limit - although there is a point
beyond which the extra time and cost involved in
increasing the sample size do not give a significant
improvement in accuracy (an example of the law of
diminishing returns, page 462).
•

would be, for example, to investigate everybody's

shopping patterns in a large city, to find the number Figure 6.37 shows that, in a normal distribution,
of stones on a spit, or to map the land use of all the 68.27 per cent of the values in the sample occur
farms in Britain. within a range of ±1 standard deviations (SOs)
from the mean; 95 per cent of the values fall within
Sampling is the method used to make stattstically ±2 SOs; and 99 per cent within ±3 SOs. These
valid inferences when it is impossible to measure percentages are known as confidence limits, or
the total population (Figure 6.36). It is essential, probability levels. Geographers usually accept
therefore, to find the most accurate and practical the 95 per cent probability level when sampling.
method of obtaining a representative sample. This means that they accept the chance that, in
If that sample can be made with the minimum of 5 cases out of every 100, the true mean will lie
bias, then statistically significant conclusions may outside 2 SOs to either side of their sample mean.
be drawn. However,
•
even if every effort is made to
achieve precision, it must be remembered that any
sample can only be a close estimate.
•
Figure6.37
. ..•..•...•.........•.......•.•..........
A normal distribution
showing standard symmetrical
deviations from
the mean

•
-0.5 -2.0 +13.5 +2.0 +0.5 •

•
•
-3 -2 -1 0 •
+1 +2 +3
standard deviation standard deviation
'
68%
950/o
- - 99°/o

•
•

. .. . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ...............................................................................
·
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . .. . • •

• • •
C oa st s 1 59
 Sampling techniques One feature of a genuine random sample is that the
same number can be selected more than once - so
Several different methods may be used according
remember that if you are pulling numbers from a
to the demands of the required sample and the
hat, they should be replaced immediately after they
nature of the parent population. There are two have been read and recorded.
major types, with one refinement:
.
There are three alternative ways of using random
Part of a random number table
• Random sampling This is the most accurate
numbers to sample areal distributions (patterns
method as it has no bias.
9271 0143 2141 over space) (Figure 6.38).
9381 • Systematic sampling This method is often
1498 3796 4413 1405 quicker and easier to use, although some bias or 1 Random point A grid is superimposed over the
selection is involved. area of the map to be sampled. Points, or map
6691 4294 6077 9091
references, are then identified using random
• Stratified sampling This method is often a
'
9061 1148 9493 1940 number tables, and plotted on the map. The
very useful refinement for geographers; it can
'2660 7126 7126 4591 •• eight points identified earlier (in the random
be used with either a random or a systematic
3459 7585 4897 8138 number table) have been plotted on Figure
sample.
6.38a. A large number of points may be needed
6090 7962 5766 7228
to ensure coverage of the whole area - see
2191 9271 9042 5884 Random sampling
Figure 6.40.
Under normal circumstances, this is the ideal type of
2 Random line Random numbers are used to
sample because it shows no bias. Every member of
obtain two end points which are then joined by
the total population has an equal cl1ance of being
selected, and the selection of one member does
a line, as in Figure 6.38b which uses the same
eiglit random points, in the order in which they
not affect the probability of selection of another
occurred in the table. Several random lines are
member. The ideal random sample may be obtained
needed to get a representative sample (e.g. lines
using random numbers. These are often generated
across a city to show transects of variation in
by computer and are available'in the form of printed
land use).
tables of random numbers, but if necessary they
can be obtained by drawing numbers out of a hat: 3 Random area Areas of constant size, e.g. grid
Random number tables usually consist of columns squares or quadrats, are obtained using random
of pairs of digits. Numbers can be chosen by reading n_umbers. By convention, the number always
either along the rows or down the columns, provided identifies the south-west corner of a grid square.
only one meth_od is used. Similarly, any number of . If sample squares one-quarter the size of a grid
figures may be selected - six for a grid reference, square are used, together with the same sample
four for a grid square, three for house numbers in a points, their locations are as shown on Figure
long street, etc. Using the grid shown in Figure 6.38, 6.38c - no,e that the point in the north-east
the random number table given above yields eight cannot be used because part of the sample
6-figure grid references: 927114; (986691 has to be square lies outside the study area. This method
Figure 6.38
...... .............•.......•..•..•......
,
excluded because the grid does not contain these can be used to sample land-use areas or the
Random sampling distribution of plant communities over space.
using point, line and numbers); 906126; etc.
area techniques

a point b line c area (using squares) -

-
- I
15 ---�---.-----r--�I
15 I
0

! •
j

• I
.J 1---·-t·. __ I
I
··-

14
•
-- -- - --
• 14 �-----,.i•-______.I
•

I I ·-· - _..i.__ ·--·

i
I
:1
•
---
.
13 131,---r---i--�-'f--�-l-�__J
• • •
• 131-L"
: • ,,
·!-----4--�----·-I

12 --- - - J r�-+--�-+-- �i��+-�-�

.
• - -- • •
I l
•
•

I
r--�4·�--ri�-·�1���-� -j
-- 11
r ·- · [
11 . 11 !--,
-"--+----- ·----- f--.----1

ol------· __,!_---�---"--�---.Ll ___

,
. '

-- --· -- "�___j____ _l"____,_4 1

90 91 92 93
j
91 92 93 , 94 95 90 91 92 · 93 9 95 94 95

.
........... ............................... · . . . . ... . . . . ......... . ..... . .. . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · ...
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . .. .. . . . . . . . . .............. ....

1 ·60 Coasts
 The advantages of random sampling include sampling small populations, and when sampling
its ability to be used witl1 large populations and over a large area. Also, when used in the field, it may
its avoidance of_ bias. Careful sample design· involve considerable time and energy in visiting
is needed, however, to avoid the possibility of every point.
acl1ieving misleading results, for example when
• •

· a point (using grid 'intersections) b· line (using eastings) c are� (using grid squares)
o-----o·----·-o· ---o---·--o 15 --------· --- ------- -------
1s
1 I
I•. i.
1 ,-
5 -
-, I - --·--1-· . i---··-: •

i
I
I•
: .t•
14 O·---·--·O·············O·- 0 1 ·
--- ----------0- . 14 ...---.....---· _...............____.. __ -------·- . ......, ____..__.._ ----·-
·,

:
Q
I :
l j ! I : I
I I I
I i !
I l ! I 1 I
I

13 c----- o------- 0·-·------0----·-0·····-----·0 13 -··-···---- -.....,._.,._...___ -�- --· ----�.... ··------------

. .
1

-
I I ( j

I
I
I I I
' i. l l
, I I
.I · , I I
12 -------- o-----·---o .... o------·-o
.. -o�-- 12 ·-·----- ·--.... ......-..-.-� ------·----- ···--------· _..............--.... - 12 I ---- ·-1---------�-- ··-----if---·-

i I
I j
I·
-,

!
I
1 1
I
I I [
I '

j
I i ! I Ie----·----·or ···-··--· j---·- j''
11o--·--···o·--·---o------Q·----- 1 1 · ....__ ...__..__ .. -------· - --·--· ....--.. -----···-· 11 ,._
' __________ _,_______ �
f i
I
I• !.
J
I
! i
I
I'
:
j I
I I
I. f
I
! I,
J______
! I
. -o----o-
I
o----------·o 10 ------· ------·· --··----...... ------·--- ___.___ _ 10 L __ ..•. _J ________ J,__
lo o------o
I
_c

90 91 92 93 94 95 90 91 92 93 94 95 90 91 92 93 94 95
.,.__ ! _

The main advantage of systematic sampling lies

........ ···•·••·•··•· .. ···-·····················
Figure6.39 Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling in its ease of use. However, its main disadvantage
A systematic sample is one in which values are
using point, line and area is that all points do not have an equal chance of
selected in a regular way, e.g. choosing every 10th
techniques selection -it may either overstress or miss an
person on a list, or every 20th house in a street.
underlying pattern (Figure 6.40).
This can be an easier method in terms of time
and effort than random sampling. Like random
sampling, it can be operated using ind.ividual Stratified sampling
points, lines or areas (Figure 6.39).
•

When there are significant groups of known size

1 Systematic point This can show changes within the parent population, ir:i order to ensure
over distance, e.g. by sampling the land adequate coverage of all the sub-groups it may be
use every 100 m. It can also show change adv\sable to stratify the sample, i.e. to divide the
thro·ugh time, e.g. by sampling from the population into categories and sample within each.
population censuses (taken every 1 O years). Although categorising into groups (layers or strata)
may be a subjectiv� decision, the practical applica-
2 Systematic line ·This may be used to choose
tion of this technique has considerable advantages
a series· of equally spaced transects across an
for the geographer. Once the groups have been
area of land, e.g. a shingle spit.
•

Figure6.40 decided, they can be sampled either systematically

.•....•..........•....•...........•...••........ 3 Systematic area This is often used for land­ or randomly, using point, line or area t�chniques.
Poor sample d.esign
use sampling, to show change with distance or
and selection can lead Stratified systematic sampli�g Thfs method.
•

through time (if old maps or air photographs 1

to inaccurate results:
are available). Quadrats, positioned at can be useful in many situations-when inter­
an area of woodland is
completely missed in this equal intervals, are used for assessing plant viewing people, sampling from maps, and·during·
example distributions. fieldwork. For example, in political opinion
polls, the total population to be sampled can
•

be divided (stratified) into equal age and/or

socio-economic groups, e.g. 10-19, 20-29,
15 '�---i--,---- re etc. The number interviewed in each category
•

•
• random
point
14 -·- --.,,...___-· ----0,--0 should be in proportion to its known size in .the
parent population. This is most easily achiev�d
•-----6':-�--'-G -.�r
• systematic
p.oint r
'-- ,w, �
by sampling at a regular interval (systematically)
throughout the entire population, so that the
I .systematic
line •
��ft -�·-·--�"---"'·0
'
required total sample size is obtained. For exam­
systematic
• • ••
' ple, if a sampl� size of 800 is re�uired from a total

. 11 0, -'--••"-----'f--�---@----o---�
area • •
population of 8000 (i.e. a 1O per cent S?mp,le),
.
woodland ever-y 10th person would be interviewed.
-
•.
I
10 0--- 1---.::--- e' ·e--- e -·
•

. .
1

• •• ••••••••••••••••••••• ••• ••
94 95 •• • •
t
• • • •
90 ·93
• • •
91 .92
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • " • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•
•
•
•
' Coasts 161
•
'
•
 - - -------
--- -- -
. .

rock types: granite occupies 600/o of the total

15 area and limestone 40%. To discover whether
0 0
0 limestone the proportion of moorland cover varies with
0 . .
00 (40o/o of
14 rock type, the sampling must be in proportion
n.
' total area)
"'c. 0 0 to their relative extents. Thus, if a sample size of
c

random 0
c point 13 0 ,.,,.,... 30 points is derived using random numbers, 18
0
r: ,,.. are needed within the granite area (18 is 60 per
0 ' • o.o
12 0 0 cent of 30) and 12 within the limestone area
moorland (12 is 40 per cent of 30). If it was decided to area
•
0
0 0 sample, 18 quadrats would have to fall within
. 0
11
granite o the granite area, and 12 in the limestone.
,(60% of total area)
0 ca 0 The advantages of stratified sampling include its
10
90 91 92 93 94 95 potential to be used either randomly or systematically,
and in conjunction with point, line or area techniques.
This makes it very flexible and useful, as many
Figure6.41 2 Stratified random sampling This method can
... ' ................................. ' ,
populations have geographical sub-groups. Care must
A random point • _be used to cover a wide range of data, both in
be taken, however, to select appropriate strata.
sample, stratified • interviewing and in geographical fieldwork and
by area .. map work. For example, Figure 6.41 shows the
distribution of moorland on two contrasting
'
. -.

.• �hal)ges in sea-level During times of maximum glaciation, large

volumes of water were stored 011. the land as ice
Although the daily move1nent of tl1e tide alters - probably three ti1nes 1nore than today. This
the level at wl1ich wa.ves break 011to the 'foreshore, modification of tl1e hyclrological cycle 1neant
· the average positio11 of sea-level in relatio11 to the ·that tl1ere was a worldwide, or et1static (glacio­
· la11d has re111ained relatively consta.nt for nearly eustatic, page 123), fall in sea-level of an esti-
6000 years (FigL1re 6.42). Before that time there mated 100-150 m.
had been several major changes in this mean As ice accu1nt11ated, its weight began to
level, the 1nost dra1nat.ic being a result of the depress those parts of the crust lying beneath it.
'
Quaternary ice age· a11d of plate 1novements. This caused a local, or isostatic (glacio-isostatic,
. '•
•
page 123), change i11 sea-level.
'
' ;
Figure6.42 •

·················································-··
greenhouse effect
Eustatic changes in sea­ present raises world
level since 18.000 BC time 4 temperatures and
.
+20 •
// melts icecaps,
Britain separated
from France ,,,,," resulting in a
·-=:::: .......
E North Sea flooded;
- . "'0.

v·
• . future sea-level rise
-.,
Britain separated
.
''
,-- .......
from Ireland
'�
Q) •

ro ,,

v
Q)� -20 _/

formation of generansed
V)

c .
onset of new ice
/
•
Q) estuaries eustatic curve
�c.. -40
V)
age; water held in
maximum extent storage as ice on
of last ice age:
/
0
land; sea-level falls
c
. -60 world's sea-level
/
·- again
, i . •

/I
ro at its lowest point
•
Q)
Flandrian
·-.....
c -80
transgression
'

Q)
>
� -100 • . -,

ro
Q)
VI
_/ ,, 11
'

-120 . . - - '

18000 16000 14000 12000 1 0000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 2000
BC AD
•
•

•
•

. . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . ... . . .. . .. . ... . . .. . ... . . . . ..... . . . . . ... . .... . ..... . . . . . . ...................... . ...... . .... ' ...... . . . ....... . ....... . ... . ..........................
...... .
�62 Coasts '. . .
--- - -
-· - - -- - -
- - - ---�--�- ---�-------· ----�
. -
Tl1e vvorld's sea-level was at its mini1nu111
18 000 years ago wl1en tl1e ice was a.t it.s
. 111aximt1m (Figure 6.42). Later, as te111peratures
began. to rise a11d icecaps melted, tl1ere was first a
et1static rise in sea-level followed by a slo,t\Ter iso­
static t1plift whicl1 is still 01Jerative i11 parts of the
world today. Tl1is seque11ce of sea-level changes
1nay be summarised as follovvs:
1 J�or111ation of glaciers and ice sl1eets. Et1static
fall in sea.-level gives rise to a negative change
:i11 base level (page 81).
2 · Conti11ued growth of ice sl1eets. Isostatic
depression of the la11d under tl1e ice produces
a positive cl1a11ge i11 base level.
3 Ice sl1eets begin to 111elt. Eustatic rise in sea­
level with a positive change i11 base level.
4 Continued decline of ice sheets and gla­
ciers. Isostatic uplift of tl1e la11d u11der
former ice sheets rest1lts i11 a negative
change in base level.
During tl1is deglaciation, there may l1ave
been a contint1ing, albeit small, et1static rise
:i11 sea-level but this has bee11 less rapid tl1an
tl1e isostatic uplift so that base level appears
to be falli11g. Measure1nents suggest that p.arts
of nortl1.-west Scotland are stilt rising by 4 mm
a year and some IJOrthern areas of the Gt1lf
of Botl1nia (Scandinavia) py 20 mm a year
(l)laces 23, IJage 166). Tl1e uplift in norther11
Britain is cat1sing tl1e British Isles to tilt and tl1e
la11d in south-east Engla11d . to be depressed. This
process is of ut111ost importance to tl1e futt1re
natural developme11t a11d huma11 ma11agement
of British coasts (Figure 6.56).
1ectonic cl1anges have rest1lted in:
• the uplift (oroge11y) of 11ew mountai11 ranges,
especially at destructive and collision plate
margins (pages 17 and 19)
• local tilting (epeiroge11y) of tl1e land, as in
so·uth-east E11gla11d, wl1ich h · as increasecl .tl1e
flood risk, a11d i11 parts of. the Mediterranean,
leading to the submerge11ce of several ancient
ports and leaving others stranded above the
JJresent-day sea-level
· • local volcanic and earthqt1ake activity, as in
Iceland.
Figure6.43 I cial and-r�af N
.... .......... .................
' '
The Humber . d.epo ts
estuary
mud exposed
at low tide
15 km
'
· ----- -.
Landforms created by sea-level
changes
Cha11ges i11 sea-level l1ave affected:
• tl1e sl1ape of coastlines a11d the formatio11
of new featt1res by increased erosion or
depositio11
• the balance between erosion a11d deposition
by rivers (page 81) resulti11g in the drowning
of lower sections of va.lleys or in tl1e rej11vena­
t.io11 of rivers, and
• tl1e migration of .tJlants, a11imals and people.
landforms resulting from submergence
Eustatic rises in sea-level follo\,ving the decay of
tl1e ice sheets led to tl1e d.rowni11g of many low­
lying coastal areas.
Estuaries are the tidal m·ouths of rivers, most
of wl11ch ·11ave inherited the shape of the for1ner
river valley (Figure 6.45). In 1nany cases, estuaries
have resulted fro1n the lower parts of tl1e valleys·
being drowned by the post-glacial rise of sea-level.
Being tidal, estua.ries are subject to tl1e ebbs a11d
flows.of the tide, a11d usually large expa11ses of
mud are revealed at low tide (Figt1re 6.43). Many
estuaries wide11 towards tlJe sea and narrow to a
. 111eandering section.in.land_.(Figure 6.44).
Estt1aries are affected by processes that are
very .different from those at work along rivers
a11d �oasts; because of particL1Jar fea·tures.
,
• Residual cu.1·
- rents are. created by the mixing
of fresh vyater (from rivers) and saline water
(sea water brought in by the tides). Mixing
tends to take place only when discharge and
velocities are l1igh; otherwise the fresh river
water, being less dense, te11ds to rise and flow
over the saline water.
• Tidal currents l1ave a two-way flow associ­
ated witl1 tl1e incoming (flood) and outgoing
(ebb) tide.
• Continuous variations in both discl1arge and
- velocity resttlting from the tidal cycle. Tida1
velocities are highest at mid-tide and reduce
to zero around high and low water. Times of
zero velocity result in the depos:itio11 of fine­
grained sediments, especially in uppe1· estua.ry
chan11els, which for1n mudflats a11d saltmarsh.
a Scheide b
oI 10km Severn
I
0I 1f·0km
c Thames
� Humber
Figure6.44 0 lOkm oI 10km
............. .. .................... ' ..... .
'
I
Estuary morphology
(after Pethick, 1984}
 Classificatio11 of estuaries
a f:\cco1·ding to origin 'fl1is traditio11al 111ethod
divides estuaries into different shapes but on
the basis of tl1ei r river valley origins.
• I)rowned 1·iver valleys, resulti11g fro1n
1Jost-glacial rises i11 sea-level, includes
n1ost estt1aries.
• Rias, formed wl1en ,,alleys i11 a dissected
·upla11d are SL1b111erged, are one type of
drOv\1 11ed river valley (Places 22).
• Daln1atian coasts are similar to rjas except
tl1at tl1eir rivers flovv almost parallel to the
coast, i11 co11trast to rias where they flow
tl1at deter111ines tl1e tidal curre11t, the residual
ct1rrent velocities and, tl1erefore, the a.mount
and source of sedi1nent.
• Mic1·0-tidal estuaries, which have a tidal
ra11ge of less tha11 2 m, are dominated
by fresl1water river discl1arge and wind­
drive11 waves f1·om tl1e sea. They te11d to
be long, wide and shallow, often witl1 a
fluvial delta or coa�tal spits and bars.
• Meso-tidal estL1aries l1ave a tidal ra11ge
of between. 2 1n a11d 4 in. Tl1is fairly
limited range 1nea11s that, although
fresh water has less i11flt1ence, the tidal ,

n10.re at right-a11gles, e.g. Croatia.
• Fiords, formed by the drowni11g of glacial
troughs (page 113), are extre111ely deep
a11d steep-sided estL1aries (Places 22).
• Fia1·ds are drowned, glaciated lowland
areas, e.g. Strangford Lough, Nortl1er11
Ireland.
b . Acco1·ding to ticlal process and est-i.1ary
shape Tl1is 111odern approach, sup1Jorted by
Petl1ick, ack11owledges that it is tidal range
--•-<_m
_•_o:_.• - -���·----•••-•a-w-a;-----...._,. --.-·
flow does n.ot extend far 11pstream a1.1d
tl1e resL1ltant shape is said to be stL1bby,
with tl1e prese11ce of tidal 1neanders in
tl1e la11dward section.
• Macro-tidal estuaries have a tidal range
in excess of 4 m and a ticlal i11fluence
tl1at extends far inla11d. They have a
characteristic trtimpet shape (Figure
6.44) and long, li11ear sa11d bars formed
parallel to tl1e tidal flow.
_-e,-,,.J,!1• -----�-�-�,--------�---�..--,
--

E>evon and N·or.way: a ria and a fiord

Kingsbridge estuary drowning of a dendritic drainage system (Figure

3.50b). The deepest water is at the estuary mouth, a
During the last ice age, rivers in south-west England
characteristic of a ria, with depth decreasing inland.
were often able to flow during the warmer summer
The result is a fine natural harbour with an irregular
months (compare Figure 5.14), cutting their valleys
shoreline and, at low tide, 800 hectares of tidal creeks
downwards to the then lower sea-level (page 163).
and mudflats.
When, following the ice age, sea-levels rose (Figure
6.42), the lower parts of many main rivers and their Apart from south-west England, rias are also found
tributaries were drowned to form sheltered, winding in south-west Wales, south-west Ireland, western
Figure 6.45 inlets called rias. The Kingsbridge estuary (Figures Brittany and north-west Spain.
....... '..................... � .......... .
6.45 and 6.46) is a natural harbour produced by the
Kingsbridge estuary

N '
Figure 6.46
.. . .. ... . .. . . .. . . ... . ... . .. ' ........... .
G) E V N Kingsbridge estuary,
looking north
,

Kingsbri� - �.
,
J<ings6ridge , ·- - -
'L ................

estuary
----1 mudflats at.
low tide
•

'
1

0 Skm
---
sand
•

.......... . ... ....... . . . . ..'.. . ....... ......... ............................................... . . . . ............... . . ..••• ••• •• • ••••• ••• ••••• •• •• • ••• • •• •••• •••• •••• •••• •• ••
� •

164 Coasts

-'
 ---·--��--- -...--- ------ .....

Sognefjorden
Fiords (fjords) such as Sognefjorden (the Sogne
Fiord) were formed by glaciers eroding their valleys
to form deep glacial troughs (page 113). When
the ice melted, the glacial troughs were flooded
by a eustatic rise in sea-level (page 163) to form
long, deep, narrow inlets with precipitous sides,
a U-shaped cross-section, and hanging valleys
(Figure 4.21 ). Glaciers seem to have followed lines
of weakness, such as a pre-glacial river valley or, as
suggested by their rectangular pattern, a major fault
line (Figure 6.47). Unlike rias, fiords are deeper inland
and have a pronounced shallowing towards their
seaward end. The shallow entrance, comprising a
rock bar, is known as a threshold.
The Sognefjorden extends 195 km inland and, at its
deepest, has a depth of 1308 m (Figure 6.48). One
description of the Sognefjorden is given in Figure 6.49.
Apart from Norway, fiords are also found on the west
coasts of the South Island of New Zealand, British
Columbia, Alaska, Greenland and southern Chile.

Figure6.47
. . .. . .................. .
.,.- Suphelleb een
- . "h-··-=-�-·•

�r
.

Location of
Sognefjorden Boyaberen
D
�f �
Fjaerlandsfjord �-?"/
Bal.estrand J'--....._'
(
D glaciers Figure6.49
. . . .. . . . . . . . . ....... ... .......... .
Naerofjorden """-
.D overSOOm
�

Extract from Blue

0 SO km Ice, a novel by
Figure6.48
.... , .................... .
Sognefjorden
�---�--- ··- -�------ Hammond Innes
..
w,,, w
--. ,-...... �-- ----- ....... __...--,.../
I As we sailed up th.e fjord, the wind died away leaving the water as
.r""
�..-....,--._..---·· ..__�_,-.._...._.,.-- ..., ••• -----. - -____,--
_...
....

nat as gla ss. Th e vie w wa s breath tak ingly be au tifu l. Mo un tains rose (
l
to sno w-c ov ere d,jag ge d pe aks .Th e da rk gre en of the pin es cov ere d
f
'

the lower slopes, but higher up the vegetation vanished leaving \

sheer cliffs of bare rock which se(;ms to rise to the blue sky. In the I
•

dis tan ce, on a pie ce of flat lan d, wa s Bal est ran d, wit h a ste am er f
1
i moving to the quay. Beyond was the hotel on a delta of green and \
fertile land.
I

'Isn't it lovely?' Dahler said.'lt is the sunniest place in all the

Sogne Fjord.The big hotel you see is built completely of wood. Here \
the fjord is friendly, but when you reach Fjaerlandsfjord you will
find the water like ice, the mountains dark and terrible, rising to
1300 metres in precipitous cliffs. High above you will see the Boya
and Suphelle glaciers, and from these rivers from the melting snow /
. plunge as giant waterfalls into the calm, cold, green coloured fjord.' \
Figure6.50
.......... .. ................................... ..... ........ .. ... ... . . ........... .
,

Erosion surfaces (marine peneplanation) at l--------�·..,.------------- . -· I

St David's, Dyfed, South Wales
Landforms resulting from emergence
Followi11g the global rise in sea-level, and still
•
occt1rring i11 several parts of tl1e world today,
can1e the isostatic uplift of land as the weight of
•• �-�
!Ci
the ice sheets decreased. Landforms created as
.. . a result of land rising relative to tl1e sea inclucle
• erosion surfaces and raised beaches .
Erosion surfaces In Dyfed, the Gower
peninsula (South Wales) and Cornwall, flat
planation surfaces dominate the scenery. Wl1ere
their general level is betwee11 45 1n and 200 m,
the surfaces are thought to l1ave been cut during
tl1e Pleistocene period when sea-levels were
higher - hence the alternative name of 1narine
platforms (Figure 6.50).
............ ..........'.............•••••••••• ••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Coasts 165
 liclised beacl1es As the land rose, for111er notcl1es, caves, arcl1es and stacks (FigL1re 6.52).
wave-cL1t platfor111s and their beaches were raised Tl1e presence of such features i11dicates tl1at
above tl1e reacl1 of the waves. Raised beacl1es isostatic uplift could not l1ave been constant.
a re cl1a racteristic of the west coast of Scotland It l1as bee1.1 esti111ated tl1at it woL1Jd l1av e ta .ke11
(l::igt1re 6.51). They are recog11ised by a.11 t1ncha11ging sea-level up to 2000 y.ea rs to ctit
a line of degraded cliffs fro11ted by wl1at was eacl1 wave-cut platform. (This evidence l1as been
origi11ally a ,,vave-cut platform. Witl1in tl1e old used to show th at the cli111ate dicl not a 111eliorate
cliff-Ii11e may be relict la11dfor1ns such as wa.ve-cut steadily follo\i\1ing tl1e ice age.)

Arran: raised beaches

The Isle of Arran is one of many places i11 western lies at heigl1ts of 4-6 m. Where the raised beach is
Scotland where raised beaches are clearly visible. extensive, there is a considerable difference in height
Early workers in the field claimed that there were between the old cliff on its landward side and the
three levels of raised beach on the west coast of more recent cliff to the seaward side, e.g. the 30 m
Scotland, found at 25, SO and· 100 feet above the beach in south-east Arran rises from 24 to 38 m.
present sea-level. These are now referred to as the
It is now more acceptable to estimate the time at
8 m, 15 m and 30 m raised beaches. However,
which a raised beach was formed by carbon-dating
Figure 6.51 this description is now considered too simplistic,
, . .. . .. . . .. . . . . .. ... ..
. . .. .. ............ . seashells found in former beach deposits, rather
Raised beaches on the since it l1as been accepted that places nearest to
than by referring solely to its height above sea-level
Isle of Arran: the lower the centre of the ice depression have risen the
(i.e. to indicate a 'late glacial raised beach' rather
one relates to the most and that the amount of uplift decreases with
younger'8mbeach'; than a '100 ft/30 m beach'). Figure 6.53 is a labelled
distance from tl1at point. Tl1us, for exa�ple, tl1e
the upper one to the transect, based on fieldwork, showing the two
much-quoted '8 m raised beach' on Arran in fact
older'30mbeach' raised beaches in western Arran.
.. =··- ii
::
t.q •4:,.»
-----·
•·
Figure 6.52
................ .. ...... ... ......... ........� .............. .
The abandoned cliff-line at King's
l Cave, Arran, with its '8m raised
beach' (see Figure 6.53)
. j .

(not to scale) '

30 m upper
raised beach
•

abandoned ___
·sandstone cliffs

.. • • •• cave, 25 m deep, with

present wave-cut rounded stones formed by
platform covered in earlier storm waves
small cliff 2 m high
pebbles and boulders • ""---.
-------.:.____ ..._____
.
. former high-tide level - ----..> wave-cut notch.
Figure6.53 ---------- --------- _____________ _;_ _ ........ _ --------- '""-' .. ...
.. ............. ............
' -- �

Diagrammatic present high-tide level .'

•

transect across
-------- . --�r -r. -- '-:,;
- �- - - lower raised beach 1.5 m
•
r.
• �
present storm beach
r ..
---,<"f' l.

wide, cave 4 m above

,•....;;..___

raised beaches ... ':Iii -� ,.,. •

present high-tide level

of Arran ���----������--�����----- ���--� � -
-- - -------�--- J
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·. ·
166 Coasts
 1 --- ------��---,....._----�·----- --�- -
Figure 6.55
.. ... ........... ..... ... ..... ...... ..... ...... ... .. ..
: A discordant (Atlantic) coast- f
low-lying area
(inland) and bays
· line: Swanage Bay, Dorset (coast) form on
less resistant
Stud/and
sands and clays
Bay
ridge (inland) and cliffs
• Old Harry Rocks (coast) develop on the
more resistant chalk
Swanage vale (inland) and bay (coast)
Bay form on less resistant clay
ridge (inland) and
headland with cliffs
Durlston (coast) develop on
Head the more resistant
limestone

Figure 6.54
................ ..... .......... ' .. ... ... . Rock structure in sea-level, or a breaching of the coastal ridge,
A concordant (Pacific) •

coastline: Lulworth Co11co1·dant coasts a11d discorda11t coasts are tl1en st1m1nits of the r_ idge may be left as islands
Cove, Dorset located where tl1e natural relief is determi11ed by ancl se1Jarated fro111 the 1nainland by drow11ed
rock stru.cture (geology). Tl1ey for111 where the valleys. T11ese ca11. be_ see11. on atlas maps sl1owing
geology co11sists of alte.r.nate bands of resistant Croatia/tl1e forn1er Yugoslavia (Dalmatia11 coast)
and less resista11t rock w11ich form l1ill ridges or Sa11 Fran.cisco an.ct southern Chile (Pacific
and valleys (page 199). Concorda11t coasts occur coasts). Discordant coasts occL1r wJ1ere the coast
vvhere tl1e rock strL1ctL1re is parallel to the coast, 'cuts across' the rock structt1re, as i11 Swa11age Bay,
as at Lulworth Cove, Dorset (Figure 6.54). Should Dorset (l:;igL1re 6.55). Here t�e ridges end as cliffs
tl1ere be local tecto11ic 1noveme11ts, a eustatic rise at headlands, wl1ile t11e valleys form bays.

Classification

Why classify? As classifications are used for convenience and to

assist understanding, they should be easy to use. They
Geographers frequently utilise classifications, e.g.
should not be oversimplified (too generalised), or too
types of climate, soil and vegetation, forms and
complex (unwieldy); but they should be appropriate
hierarchy of settlement, and types of landform. •
to the purpose for which they are to be used .
This is done to try to create a sense of order by
• grouping·together into classes features that No classification is likely to be perfect, and several
have similar, if not identical, characteristics into approaches may be possible.
--
identifiable categories. For example, no two
stretches of coastline will be exactly the sam_e, An example
yet by describing Kingsbridge estuary as a ria, The following landforms have already been referred
and Sognefjorden as a fiord (Places 22), it may be to in this book:
assumed that their appearance and the processes ..
arch; braided river; corrie; delta; esker; hanging
leading to their formation are similar to those
valley; knickpoint; moraine; raised beach;
of other rias and fiords, even if there are local
rapids; spit; wave-cut platform. -•
differences in detail.
• Can you think of at least three different·ways in
which they may be categorised? The following are
How to classify some possibilities:
When determining the basis for any classification, a Perhaps the simplest classification is a two-fold
care must be taken to ensure that: division based on whether they result from
• only meaningful data and measures are used erosion or from deposition.
• within each group or category, there is the b They could be reclassified into two different
maximum number of similarities categories: those formed under a previous
• between each group, there is the maximum climate (i.e. relict features) and those still being
number of differences formed today. . ..
• there are no exceptions, i.e. all the features c The most obvious may be a three-fold division
should fit into one group or another, and into coastal, glacial and fluvial landforms.
• there is no duplication, i.e. each feature should d A more complex classification· would result from
fit into one category only. . combining either a and b, or a and c, to give six
groups.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • •• • • • ••• • • •••••••• • • • •• • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • •• ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • •• •• • •• • ••• • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

•
Coasts 167
 :t'.-�- '- .. .. . - .,
- ...
.,,,,; .,15
..
�
�)o.,_
�
'
-
<,�ie
•.,..._
--
...

future sea-�eve� rose ano� nts

o 100 km
effects :,
I I
We have· already see11 (page 162) tl1at over long i.
s�a-level rising
periods of geological time (te11s of millio11s of years) (._. .(eustatic) ..
+ l .O , land rising . +0.5
· sea-level l1as been co11trolled by the rnovement of
+1.0 . ,(isostatic) O equilibrium
tecto11ic plates and over shorter periods (the last i
millio11 years) by tl1e·volu.me of ice on tl1e land (sea­ (] 7 _
�'---
le,,el fa.lliI1g during glacials, risi11g i11 i.11terglacials). -r -0.5
SiI1ce the 'Little Ice Age' in tl1e 17th centL1ry, wl1en
+0.5�
�Yf
..
glaciers i.11 alpi11e and arctic regio11s advanced, t .he
world l1as slo\,vly bee11 warming. This warming u· �/
0 .r
l1elps to explai11 vvhy global sea-levels are now some (, ":yA:
\
20 c111 l1igher than they were a.· century ago a11d
-1.0
why they are rising by 2 min a year. r
The fact that sea-level is co11ti11L1i11g to rise, sea- I eve
-----1
'1!
/.. . g
r1s1n
and at an accelerati11g rate, is clue al111ost e11tirely (eustatic)
to two factors: land:£ink�ng
-0.5 (isostatic)
1 Ther111al expansio11 Since 1961, tl1e average
te111perature of tl1e global ocean ha.s i11creased � -1.0
. ·"'t. )
to deptl1s of over 3000 m and the sea is now -0.5 rise/fall
�

absorbing 111ore than 80 per cent of the heat peryear (mm)

added to tl1e climatic syste111 tl1roL1gh global
warming. Such war1ni11g caL1ses seawater to Figure6.56
........... .... ...... , ........................ ·"········
expand, contributi11g sig11ificantly to sea-
,

Relative sea-level (RSL): the

level rise.
2 Melti11g ice A less sig11ificant, but increasing,
contributio11 is from melting ice - mainly
alpine glaciers, inclL1di11g the 1500 or so in
. , to a lesser exten
the Hi1nalayas ....: anct
polar ice sl1eets and ice caps.
Global sea-level rose at a rate of 1.8 mm/yr·between
1965 a11d 2005 and by 3.1 mm/yr 1:?etwee11.1993
and 2005. Some co1nputer models are suggesting
that between 1990 and 2090 it could be as l1igh
•
combined net effect of sea and
land surface changes
as 3. 7 mm/yr, increasi11g to 5 n1m/yr by 2100
. t as yet, (Figt.1re 6.57). Other models have suggested a greater
'Doo1nsday' sce11ario with sea-levels rising by
8 mm/yr by tl1e end of this ce11tury (one has even
suggested 16 min/yr). Whichever predictio11 even­
h1ally proves to be the most accLu:ate, sea-level rise
will have serious co11sequences:

••
Figure6 •.57 .
············· · · · ··· ············� ··········· · •
Projections of future 70 Mediterr a n e a n Se a
sea-level rise resulting •
'
from global warming:
60
the extreme values
cover the 95 per cent
probability range (after - so high
Clayton, 1992) ,

� 40
3 rn
· rise
(0
' • '{anta
·-E 30 best
(1)_
estimate . • . .
lsma11ia.
•
(0 •
i
-5 20

0 SO km Cairo
10
N Figure6.58
....... .. .. ... . . .....................................
' '

The effect of a 1 m and a 3 m

sea-level rise on the present­
2000 2010 2020 2030 ·2040 2050 2060 River Nile
day coastline of the Nile delta
year
•

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .• • • • • • • • • •
••
• ••• •• •
••• • • • • • • • • • •• • ••••• • • • •••• • • • • • •••• • • • • • •• • • •• • • • • • • • ••• • • • • ••• • ••••••• • •••••••••• • • •••• • • •••• • • • •
. '
•

168 . Coasts
•
'
 • Storm surges, tsu11a111is, higher tides and Larger waves
larger waves will ca11se more da1n.age.
Mid-Atla11tic waves tl1at eventt1ally pouncl the
• An increase in tl1e freque11s:y and severity of
western coasts of the Britisl1 Isles l1ave j11creased
coastal flooding wottld int111date 11u111erous
in l1eight over the last 30 years. Oceanographers
coastal settleme11ts sucl1 as Tokyo, Sl1anghai,
l1ave fou11d tl1at the mean he.igl1t of tl1ese waves
Lagos, London, Ba11gkok, I<olkata, I-lo11g I<o11g
in winter has risen from 4 111 to 5.3 m. Added to
a11d Mia111i, cat1sin.g the displacement of large
that, tl1e 1nea11 l1eight of the largest a11d most
centres of populatio11s as well as destroying
destrt1ctive type of wave has risen from 8 111 to
i11dt1stry and farmla11d (I�igure 6.58). At
11111. "fhis suggests that waves now l1ave far
present over 65 1nillio11 people live in an11L1al
111ore e11ergy tJ1an they did i11 1980 and wl1ile
flood-risk areas, 50 1nillio11 of those in danger
tl1ey may be a potential form of renewable
of storm surges. A rise of 1 n1 in the next 100
energy, at prese11t tl1ey under111i11e cliffs, strip
years would i11u11date one-qt1arter of tl1e land
sa11d from beac}1es and threaten coastal defences
area of Ba11gladesh, affecti11g n. .early 70 JJer
(Figure 6.59).
ce11t of its poJ1t1latio11.
F1·eal< waves of 15 111 and over in l1eight were
• Several low-lyi11g ocea11 states st1cl1 as the
i11 tl1e IJast considered to be a 1narine 1.11ytl1.
Maldives in tl1e l11dia11 Ocea11 ancl Tt1valu a11d
Opi11ions began to cl1ange when workers 011 off­
tl1e Marshall Islands in tl1e Pacific are likely to
sl1ore oil - rigs reported that waves of that l1eight
be inundated.
occurred fairly frequently. rlwo orbiting satellites
• Tl1ere will be a11 i11crease in coastal erosion
lat1nched by tl1e European Space Age11cy in 2000
a.11d expen.sive coastal defences will 11eed to
were given tl1e task of recording a11d plotting
be bt1ilt and mai11.tained.
Figure 6.59 these so-called fieak waves. Radar sensors on t.l1e
. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. ....... • Various coastal ecosyste1n.s will be threa.tened,
satellites soon showed that freak waves were rela­
Some impressive including s·a11d dttnes, salt111arshes, 1nangrove
waves tively co1n1no11 and, withi11 one period of tl1ree
swamps, coral reefs a11d coral islands, ·wl1icl1
a North Cape, Norway wee.ks, a tea1n of land-based observers 11oted tl1e
111ay 11ot be able to adapt quickly enough if
- note the relative size existence of 111ore tl1.an ten waves of over 25 111
of the people tl1e rise is too rapid.
spread across the various oceans. l:;rea.k waves
b A wave breaking • So111e sea-life species will 1nigrate to cooler
1nay explai11 tl1e sudden disappearance of sl1ips,
over a lighthouse, waters.
Seaford, Sussex
some as large as oil-tankers.

•
 sand dunes, saltmarsl1,
mudflats, cliffs 3 °/o
]
c heathland 2%

A The need for for, and conflict over, land use (Figure 6.61 ). woodland 70/o l -
management Combining tl,e threats posed by:
• natural ever,ts such as flooding and \\
Altl10L1gh Britain's coasts are rarely affected erosion, and pasture '\\
• human dernands that include 33%
by extreme eve11ts such as the lndiar1 Ocea11
arable
tsunami (Places 4), storm surges as in the Bay
of Bengal (Places 19) or tl,e tropical storms
settlement, economic activities and
recreational Lise
25% I
in Central An,erica and Florida (Places 31, tl,ere is a continuing need for a national, sus­ \
\ buildings, roads,
page 238), large stretches are u11der threat from tainable management plan. Sucl, a plan has to leisure facilities
one or more sources (Figure 6.60). Much of consider on the one l,and the rapidly increasing 30°/o
Britain's coastline is used for human activity and costs of providing new defences and main­
althougl1 in some more remote places there taining both new and existing defences, and on • 23% of tl1e UK lies within 10 km of the coast.
is ofter1 a demand frorTI only one or two main the other hand tl,e need t o protect people • 17.2 million people live within this coastal
land users, in many otl,ers there is competitior1 and property. zone.
•• • 35°/o of UK manufacturing and electricity
ig:;Figure 6.60 Threat Examples production is close to the coast.
.. ...... .. - , ......................
• Most of the coastline is used for
lrhThreats to Increased risk of flooding
rhrBritain's recreational purposes, especially walking.
• Coasts attract larger number of specialist
ritccoasts rising sea-level linked to global warming estuaries, south-east England
groups (ornithologists, geologists, school
higher high tides Thames estuary parties).
risk of increased number of storm surges southern North Sea
-
Figure 6.61
r ,

Increased risk of erosion .... . ........ , ................. .

Coastal land use
larger waves (generating more energy) western Britain
human activity (use of footpaths, building on cliff-tops} Yorkshire, East Anglia
Overuse and/or misuse •. Figure 6.62
........................................................
settlements and economic development ' estuaries
. Coastal cells around the coasts
leisure and tourism (caravan and car parks, golf courses) , . , close to large urban areas of England and Wales
•

,,
Who is responsible for coastal ,, ' St Abb's Head
,,
management? N

The Department for Environment, Food •

. - - • major cell boundary

and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) l,as overall

responsibility for coastal defences in
, ,
England, although the Environment , ,
,
, Flamborough
.. Head
Agency has powers to reduce Aooding •
Solway Firth "
in tidal waters. In order to protect the
Great Orme .._/) ....---
. 11 . "<
coast, DEFRA has to produce a shoreline. .. , 2
management plan (SMP):To do this, it is
necessary to understand coastal processes 10 .. .. .. The Wash
..

-t--------..
in any given stretch of coastline. It would ,,
.. ,.s--.>-.._
be impossi ble to achieve this for the whole Bardsey
British coastline, so it has been divided into Sou rid •
3
a number of separate units referred to as
. 9
'coastal cells' (Figure 6.62); tl,ere are eleven St David's \
for England and Wales. The location and Head • - - - - - -• The Thames

-- -�-
size of each of these cells is defined so that ' '

..
''
--- --
coastal processes within each individual . The Severn{::;!
8
. . ::::: ::::::;;;:;; ����
cell are totally self-contained, and changes b
7
.. •

,,
4
. . .. I

....
• • • • • • � • �' • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .• • •• ., • • ' • • • • • • • • t . I I
I I

170 Coasts
•
• • I

I 4 • 5
I

I
•

•
I
Selsey Bill o
• Portland Bill 100km
... . --�-· -·

Coastal management in the UK

taking place witl1in tl1at cell do 11ot signifi­ How has the coast been More rece11t hard defences include:
cantly affect tl1e coastline of adjacent cells. protected in the past? O wooden slatted revetments,
Two basic pri11ciples in SMP prodL1ctio11 constrL1cted parallel to the coast, which
are that: Traditio11al sea defe11ces, now referred to as
dissipate tl1e force of waves
e natural processes should not be hard defences (Figure 6.63), involved the o concrete blocks, known as rip-rap,
interfered witl1 unless it is necessary constructio11 of distinctive features:
whicl1 also absorb the power of vvaves
• Concrete sea walls were often
to protect life or property o offshore breakwaters and reefs which
• all schemes mL1st be econo111ically built, in the 19th century, at l1oliday
reduce wave e11ergy but still allow
resorts. Tl1e>' created more space for
viable and u11dergo a cost-benefit some longsl1ore drift (Figure 6.70).
prome11ades and leisure amenities and
analysis to ensure that they make good Most of the earlier schemes, apart from
protected hotels from storm waves.
use of public money. being u11sL1stainable, were not er1viron­
• Groynes, usually of wood, were
tilentally friendly, either visually or i11 rela­
co11structed at right-angles to the
What are the options? tion to local habitats (ecosystems), and
coastline. They l1elped to reduce
A shoreline management 1Jlan has, for each were expensive to build and to maintain.
tl1e force of the waves and trapped
coastal cell, foL1r defence options: Wherever possible they are being replaced
n1aterial being movecl along tl1e
• Do notl1i11g, otl1er than mo11itor and or supplemented by soft defences. Soft
coast by lo11gsl1ore drift (FigL1re 6.23).
review. defences include:
This l1elped to widen beaches and to
• Hold tl1e existi11g defer1ce line by reduce the removal of beach 111aterial.
• the use of beach replenisl1ment at the
maintainir1g or changing tl1e star1dard base of cliffs and sea walls wl,ere lost
• Concrete breakwaters protected small
of protection. sand and shir1gle is replaced (altl1ougl1
harbours from strong wave action.
• Advar1ce the existir1g defence line . More recently it has been realised tl1at:
such replacement is expensive and
• Retreat the existing defence line by • concrete sea walls absorb, rather than
needs to be maintained for long
realigning the coast, i.e. managed periods)
reflect, wave energy and so now they • cliff stabilisation, either by inserting
retreat. are often curved at the top (bullnose)
SMPs are developed by groups of people pipes to remove excess water or by
to divert waves
planting vegetation to redL1ce mass
that include planners, e11gineers, geomor­ • groynes, by trapping sand, cause the
phologists and others with special local movement.
loss of replacement material further
knowledge. along the coast, increasing the problem
elsewhere.

b
•

. ..
.. . . ..- - . . . - - - . .. . .
,.
.. ..
�

-. - .
•
.. ,. . ...
I -

·-- . -
�
. .. - � ....._, r. ,. • - .,. • .

_'""_..... ____.. ,, -....-

t
•

Figure 6.63
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • � • ' • • o • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • ' • • • • I' • •••• • • • • • • •

Coastal defences
a Rip-rap
b Groynes and a bull nose sea wall
c Revetments

•• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • •
 Coastal management in the UK

B Coastal management fresl1water areas of tl1e River Aide immediately

to the west of the town. The existing sea wall
schemes in East Anglia was exte11ded at its base in tl1e section con­
Erosion has always been a major problem sidered most tl1reatened. Several 10-tonne
along mucl1 of the coast of Norfolk (Figure rock blocks were placed in front of the sea
6.64) while further soutl1 flooding is the wall to absorb the wave energy; 200 m of
major l1azard in Suffolk and Essex (Places wall origir1ally protecting tl1e northern end
19). Present-day shoreline management of Orford Ness was demolished, and a rock
plans (SMPs, page 170) must aim to strike armour bank put in its place. A total of 24 new
tl1e seemir1gly i111possible balar,ce between groy11es were built, stretching south beyond
protectir1g the coastline at a viable cost and the Martello tower (Figure 6.66), and 75 000 m3
minimising the disruption of natural proc­ of shingle were deposited as beach replenish- Figure 6.64
... . .. . .. . . . . . ......... ' .. . ........ .
esses a11d nearby defence schemes. In r1orth 111ent. More rocks were brought in to make a
Figure 6.65 Erosion near
Norfolk, hard engineering solutions are now 400 m bank between tl1e existing sea wall to • • " •• ' • • " • • • • • • ' ' • ' ' • ' • o ' • • ' • • ' o ' • 0 • • I • • ' • •

Overstrand, Norfolk
less i11 favour than softer options. In Suffolk tl1e south and the shingle bank. The scheme Aldeburgh's sea
defences
and Essex controversy l1as arisen over SMP was completed in 1992. It took into account •• .,[

proposals to re-alig11 parts of the coastline in the risk tl1at storm damage could cause to an r'
I
I
a 'managed retreat'. This case study considers important 11atural area.
several specific places and their problems. In 2004 tl1ere were increasing fears that ·1 sea
· · Aldebur:gh
Aldeburgh coLrld become ar1 island and that t.
Aldeburgh and East Lane Point, the Suffolk coastline as far south as Felixstowe .I
I
t
Suffolk could change if the sea broke through obso­
lete defer1ces during the next winter's storms. \
AldelJurgh, in Suffolk, at the northern e11d
At greatest immediate risk is East Lane
of Orford Ness (Figures 6.28 and 6.65), was
Poi11t, near Bawdsey, south of Aldeburgh
protected by a sea wall and timber groynes e: a kment
(Figure 6.67). Mucl1 of the land behind the

J
: I I
to reduce.the loss of beach material. Six .:- ea wall
Point is considered by the government
streets to the east of the town have bee11 , Joynes
to be a 'non-viable fiood defence area' as --
lost to tl1e sea since the 16th century, and
it does not reach the requisite number of e'> 1j f
the only visible remains of the former
village of Slaughden, 1 km to the south, are
points required for funding under the new
DEFRA scoring system mainly becaLrse the
A'.7>
"\'
'!..� f,S, �':::-. �
·$" ::
:

rrtello
a Martello tower and wl1at is now a r11arina. -: ower
1/

area is sparsely populated. A spokesperson

Following the partial failure of the sea wall --'..
for DEFRA stated that'there will never be 0 1km
in 1988; Anglian Water and the National Rivers -
-
J 1 � bankment
sufficient money available for every coastal
Authority (now the Environment Agency)
defence need and so priority must go to pro­
devised a £4.9 million plan to provide sea i 1fnd groynes:
tecting people and their property: N i m above
defences that would also protect the tidal
.--i sea-level

...
' ......
N I
,
I
Aldeburgh
',, Riv�....... I
- present coastline
I
(could be an
',,A/de-, . _ present rivers
'
, I
/" I - island)
/
,,,,,,.
/
__ ..-
_ _,, I
l - - - predicted new I

'-'
/ j
coastline - 10 km to tip of I/ J Orford Spit
Sudbourne,
-�---- -, ., - ·-" l flood zone to 4 m Orford Ness f -.•-•
' (
- I - '
land -·
f· NB Track south along
/
\

--� I . t7ey Ri�ei'rfor

- ' / ,, /'
-. I area likely to flood � · the spit now closed
J ,_.,
"I i
settlement f because of damage
' /
( �

I•
'/

,,,. ,.. - - Orford Ness

\ .,._ I
1 Martello towers f from trampling.
Boyton 1 --
, - ..... ,_'
tip of spit Figure 6.66
.............................. ' ....................
Shingle Street (worn away in 20 years)
Groynes close to the Martell
. tower at Aldeburgh
' .
I!1,IV ·
br;��,,-,
I
• East Lane Poin
concern
. t - area of erosion causing most
 Coastal management in the UK

Sea Palling, Norfolk offshore reefs desigr1ed to reduce incoming a houses, farmland, SSSls and nature reserves
Much of the Norfolk coastline from Cromer wave energy and to protect the beach while just above sea-level

at the same tir11e allowing some longshore b 1.6 m high sea wall built in 1954
soutl,wards to Great Yarmouth is protected
c rip-rap added in 1992
by exper1sive coastal defe11ces. At Sea Palling drift so as not to deplete the supply of sa11d
d beach material replenished as needed
the beacl, is backed by sand dunes which, to beacl1es furtl1er along the coast (Figure since 1992

in earlier times, helped provide a natural 6.69). These reefs were completed in 1995
defence. Bel1ind these are 6000 l,a of la11d but almost im111ediately presented a problem a b c d

used for settlement, farrni11g and (this area that l1ad not been predicted: sand began
being part of tl1e Norfolk Broads) tourism to accumulate in the sheltered lee of tl1e
and wildlife. 111 1953 a storm sL1rge (Places 19) reefs, leading to the formation of tombolos
sand dunes
broke through the coastal defences, flooding (page 155 a11d Figure 6.70) which in turn
............ ........................................... .. .•. ······ -··· ............ ...
large areas and, at Sea Palling itself, washing interrupted the process of longshore drift.To �
mean sea-level

away houses a11d drowni11g seven people. try to overcome tl1is problem, the next five
Figure 6.68
Following tl,e flood, a sea wall was con­ reefs to be built were shorter (to reduce areas .................... '.....
of shelter behind them), lower (to allow more Sea defences
structed in fro11t of tl,e du11es (Figure 6.68)
overtopping waves) and closer together (to 1954-92
and tl,ere was some replenishment of beach
material. However, by tl1e 1990s the beach in prevent erosion in tl1e gaps). A further five are Figure 6.69
...............................
front of tl1e sea wall l,ad narrowed due to the planned 3 km to the south.
Artificial reefs at
removal of material southwards by longshore Sea Palling
drift during times of nortl1erly and easterly
gales, a process that led to an increase in
wave energy. Following the severe winter
storms of 1991, rip-rap was positioned against
the sea wall as a temporary measure.
In 1992 a beach management strategy \,rzrnls •4,•

was introduced witl, the conditions tl1at it

would not significantly affect adjacent coastal
areas, it would have mini111al environmental .. •

impacts and it would be cost-effective. Over •

•

150 000 tonnes of rock were placed in front of

the wall to prevent further undermining and
l .4111illion m 3 of replenisl1ment sand were
added in front of the rock. The major part . ...
,. . , /
••
•
of tl1e scheme was the cor,struction of four

to' existing groynes to be maintained

Cromer Phase 1 Phase2
1993-95 1996-97
Eccles on Sea direction of
longsl1ore drift 250 m offsl1ore 250 m offshore
sea wall in --� each 240 m long each 160m long
Phase 1
front of each 2.8 m above each 1.2 m above
sand dunes , , mean sea-level mean sea-level
, ,
each gap 240 m each gap 160m
,,
,'' , Phase2
' Figure6.70
... . ... . . . . . . •..• . .•. . ........ . ·······

Sea defences at Sea

Costs direction of Palling since 1995
longshore drift
Phase 1 £5.9 m
Phase 2 £10.0m
after 1998, beach
Phase 3 £45.0m to be replenished
when necessary
Waxham
•
proposed Phase 3
3km to south
to Hickling Broay to Great Yarmout�
0 1 km
(nature reserve) and Horsey Mere

.......... . .. ... ... .'.... .... ..... .... • • • • • • ••• • • ••••• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • ••• •••• • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••••• • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••• • • •• • • •••••• • •• • • • • • • ••• • • ••• • • • • • • • • •

Coasts 173
 .- •••,. •
•..:;__ ___
�---'J ... -
___ ---�..___...- -- - •'. - ·
- - ----
··· · ·
- �----- -

Coastal management in the UK

Proposed 'managed retreat' Should tl1e scl,eme go ahead, it would tl,e 1953 flood. Churches and other build­
in Norfolk mean allowing tl,e sea, over a period ings listed by Englisl, Heritage would also
of time, to breacl, 25 km of tl,e north be lost.
Controversial plans by Natural England
Norfolk coast between Eccles 011 Sea and Proposers suggest that the plan is more
to flood parts of Norfolk ernerged in early
Winterton-on-Sea. In time the sea would economically sustainable than present
2008. Tl,e proposal, if accepted, would see
create ar, area of salt,Nater lake and salt­ policies and that a newly created saltmarsh
Britain for tl,e first tin,e admitti1,g defeat
marsh covering 65 km2 (Figure 6.71 ). Over could be used by farmers for cattle grazing,
in the battle to rnaintain all of its coastal
the r,ext 50 years or so this lake would it could act as a buffer zone helping to dissi­
defences. Experts doubt if the present
eliminate six villages: four on the coast pate wave energy, it would provide storage
defer,ces can cope with the rising sea-level
(Eccles 01, Sea, Sea Palling, Waxl,am and for excess water during times of storm
resulting from global warn,ing and the
Horsey) ar,d two inland (Hickling and Potter surges, and provide a welcome haven for
sinking of soLrth-east England, and tl,e pla1,
Heigham). The lake would also i1,undate wilcllife when little of Britain's original salt­
to 'realigr, the coast' in a 'managed retreat'
aboL1t 600 houses, many hectares of good­ marsh ecosystem remains (page 175). They
is the less expensive and more practical
quality arable farmland and five fresh­ also claim tl,at experiments have shov1Jn
optior,. Tl,is would i11volve building a new
water lakes that currently for111 part of the tl,at a sea wall can costs £5000 a metre
sea wall further back from the preser,t
Norfolk Broads, i1,cluding the tourist area to build and maintain, whereas an inland
coastline, at a cost of a fraction of that of
of Hickling Broad (Figure 6.72) and the rare retreat of 80 m, allowing a saltmarsh to
tryir,g to n,aintain tl,e existing defences.
fauna and flora of Horsey Mere. form a buffer against tides and waves, only
Tl,e Environment Agency, ir, response,
Opponents to the plan claim that it costs £400 a metre to build and maintain.
stated that it is co111mitted to'holding tl,e
would mean in the short ter1T1 makir,g Natural England claim that the 'surrender'
present lir,e' of sea defe11ces for the next 50
tl,eir properties unsaleable and, in tl,e long option is only one of several possibilities,
years, altl,ougl, it admitted that tl,at optio,,
term, relocatir,g l,undreds of people and but it considers the issue to be so impor­
was becoming increasi,,gly difficult and
paying them compensation. A millennium tant tl,at it is time to open discussions and
more expensive, while DEFRA said it was
of history would vanish ur,der tl,e waves to encourage debate. No final decision has
committed to the sustainable protection
and with it villages like Hickling, which is been made about the plan.
of people and property here in Norfolk and
mentior,ed in tl1e Domesday Book, and Sea
elsewl,ere.
Palling, wl,ich the sea failed to destroy in

. Happisburgh
approximate area
that might be flooded
Eccles on Sea

· .._ Sea Palling '

N

Waxham
0 Skm
Hickling
A149
Hickling
, Horsey(1-, �·
·Ho1'sey

Broad MereV-
'
''

• Potter
Heigham Winterton-on-Sea

Figure6.71
····•····· ·•··················· ····•··· ··········

Proposed area of flooding

on the north Norfolk coast

Figure6.72
............ , . . .. . ......... .
Hickling Broad
. . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • • • • • • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
•

17 4 Coasts
 Coastal management in the UK Case Study 6

Sand dunes and saltmarsh • people eitl1er walking along paths V'1ithin sea wall
then,, especially wl1ere tl1ey form part of a
Large tracts of the coast of East Anglia
coastal footpath, or playir,g (or shelteri11g
co11sist either of sand dunes(1Jages 157 and
from the wi11d) in blow-outs.
290) or saltmarsl1 (pages 158 a11d 291 ). Both
are fragile ecosystems that are under threat Where human influence is limited, the sea,

and receive less attention and manage­ ecosystem can repair itself, but where it is
ment tl1ar1 they deserve and need. severe the damage may be irreversible. 011e
As we have see11, sand dunes fringe solutio11 is to fence off selected areas to
The old sea wall
mucl1 of tl,e Norfolk coast, either backing allow time for recovery (Figure 6.73).
sandy beaches (Figure 11.1 O) or stabilising Saltmarsh develops behind coastal spits as
spits such as that at Blake11ey Point. Sand at Blakeney Point (Figure 11.14) but is most
lagoon
dunes are under threat from: extensive in the river estuaries of Suffolk and
• the rising sea-level which attacks the Essex (Figure 11.13). Saltmarsl1 l1as been
embryo and foredunes (FigL1re 6.32), L1nder tl1reat since Saxon times when parts
narrowir1g beaches and thus depriving were drained around the present-day Norfolk
them of their source material Broads. Essex was said to have 30 000 l,a of
• excavatior1 for sand by construction saltmarsl1 in 1600, yet 400 years later only
companies 2500 ha remai11. This remaini11g saltmarsh
A new bank is built well back using soil dug
supports around two million wildfowl and
out to create lagoons.
Figure 6.73 wadi11g birds in wi11ter and is a habitat for rare A hole is made in the old wall, allowing the
, . . . ... . . .. . .. .. . .
. . . . . .. . ..
. . . . . . . . . ...
species of plants, birds and insects. Currently sea rn.
· Restoration of sand
· · dunes another 100 ha/yr of saltmarsh is being lost
across England alone due to the rising sea­ saltmarsh
level and human activity. However, there lagoon
are several plans in Essex to recreate more
saltmarsh to provide alternative habitats for
wildlife, to act as a buffer zone against the sea
larger waves, and as storage for surplus water
during storm surges or as the mean l,igh-tide
level rises. The most ambitious and expe11sive
project(£12 million) is being undertaken by Saltmarsh grows in between the banks,
the RSPB, which intends to break the sea walls soaking up wave energy and creating a
(Figure 6.74) around Wallasea Island, near habitat for wildlife.
Southend, changing 730 ha of farmland back
into a mosaic of saltmarsh, creeks and mud­ Figure 6.74
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... ............... .
fiats - althoL1gh these will only be covered by Breaching of an old sea
50 cm of water at high tide. wall to create a saltmarsh

Chapman, R. (2005) 'Changing a.ttitud.es Holmes, D. (2003) 'Investigating coastal � Coastal erosion:
to coastal protection' in Geography sand dunes' in Geograpliy Re·view Vol 16 www.walrus.wr.usgs.gov/hazards/
Review Vol 18 No 4 (Ma.rcl1). No 3 Oanu.ary). erosion.html
Dove, J; (2000) 'Pla.nt distribution in t.he Horton, B. (2005) 'Cli1nate a11d. sea-level Coastal management case studies:
Sonoran Desert' in Geography Review Vol change' in Geography Review Vol 18 No www.westdorset-dc.gov.uk/westbay
14 No 2 (November). 4 (Marcl1). Holderness coastline:
Gee, N. (2005) 'Coasta.1 ma·nagement: Sea Marshak, S. (2007) Eartlz -Portrait of a www.hul.l.ac.uk/coastalobs/general/
Palling, Norfolk' in GeograJ,IJY Review Planet, W�W; Nor: ton & Co. erosionandflooding/erosion.html
Vol 18 No 3 Ganuary). Pethick, J .. (1984) A.n Introduction to Land Ocean Inte. raction Study:
Gee, N. (2008) 'Man. agen1ent of the East Coastal Geomorphology, Hodder Arnold. www.nerc.ac.uk/research/progran1mes/
Anglian coast' in Geography Review Vol Skinner, B.J. and Porter, S.C. (2003) The lois/
21 No 3 (Feb11.1a.ry).. Dynamic Eartlz, Wiley. Sea-level changes (Antrim coast):
Goudie, A.S. (2001) Tf1e Natt1re of the ' www.ehsni.gov.uk/natural/earth/
Environment, Wiley Blackwell. geology.shtml

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coasts 175
 •

• '

Activities '
e e e e e e • e e e e e •.• e e e e e e • • • e e • e • e O e e • $ 0 0 e•• e e e•• e• e e e• e e e ••• e O e e • O O e e O O • e ••• e O O e e • O O e e e e O

1 a Study the photograph in Figure 6.75 and answer the d Marine erosion is concentrated at the base of a cliff.
following questions. Suggest two ways in which the rest of the cliff is eroded.
i Describe the material found between the two stacks. (5marks)
(3 marks)
ii Describe the beach material found in the foreground of 2 a Making good use of diagrams, describe two landforms that
the photograph.
· may be found on a beach. (6marks)
(3 marks)
iii Describe the main stack. (4marks) b Why are large stones and boulders found at the back of a
b How is a feature like this stack formed? (6marks) beach? (4marks)
c Some cliff coastlines, such as Old Harry Rock near Swanage c Making good use of diagrams, explain how sand and
(Figure 6.21, page 152), have no beach while others, such as other material is moved along a beach by the action of
Marsden Rock (Figure 6.75), have. waves. (5 marks)
Suggest a reason for this difference. (4marks) d Why are shingle beaches steeper, on averag e, than sandy
beaches? (5 marks)
Figure 6.75
e How and why may human activity change this marine
•
l . � . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . l transport process? (5 marks)
Marsden
3 a Making good use of annotated diagrams, explain the
process of longsl1ore drift. (5marks)
b i Study Figure 6.23 (page 153). Suggest, with reasons,
the direction of longshore drift on this coastline.
(3 marks)
ii Why were the sea defences put along this shoreline?
(6marks)
iii What effect would you expect there to be further
down the coast as a result of the building of these sea
defences? Explain your answer. (6marks)
c �hoose one landform created by marine deposition.
(?escribe the size and shape of the landform and suggest
how marine deposition has helped to create it. (5marks)
•

. '

Exam practice: basic structured

. . questions
• • ••• • • • • • • • •' • • • • • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
" .

. . .
4 a What is m�ant by each of the foll.owing terms useq in relation ii one other mechanism could cause sea-level change.
•
to the effects of waves on a coastline: (7marks)
• •

i abrasion (sometimes called co·rrasion) c Choose one landform that has been created by or
ii attrition significantly changed by a fall in sea-level.
iii hydraulic action? (6marks) Describe the landform and explain the role of sea-level
change in its formation. (7marks)
b Explain how the processes identified in a cause a cliff to
change its shape. (6marks) d Choose one landform that has been created or changed
,.. . . significantly by a rise in sea-level.Describe the landform and
c Study Figure 6.1 7 (page 1 SO). explain the role of sea-level change in its formation. (7marks)
. I Describe and .suggest reasons for the shape of the cliff ·. ·
•
shown in the photograph. (6marks) 6 · a Study Figure 6.25on page 154.
••
II Although there are hous'es on top of this cliff it has been Why has saltmarsh formed at H? (6marks)
••
decided not to attempt to protect this coastline.. b Explain the meaning of:
Sugg�st two.. reasons
.
for thi?
. decision._ . .(7 marks) i dominant wind ·
· ·
5 a Explain the terms 'eustatic' a_nd ;i�os!atic' used \fl(hen studying ii embryo dune. (4marks)
sea-level change. · ,. . · '(4 . c Explain h_ow sand dunes go �hrough a series of stages
b Explain how: · ·· from the �pp�arance of t;>e�ms to the formation of grey
• • (or mature).dunes. . (15 marks)
I an ice age

.. . ... .... ... .. . . ... . .. . ... . ...... . ... . . ..... . . ..... ..... ..... . . .. . ... ..... . .. . . . .. .... .. .. ... . ................. . .. .. .... .... .. ... ...... .. ....... ........................ .. ....
176 Coasts
•
 ••

Exam practice: structured questions

• • 8 • • • • 0 • • • • • • • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • o o o • • • o e o • • • • • • • • o • • • o o • • • o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

7 a On a coastline with cliffs, deposition can cause the shape b Describe one way in which the people prepare to face
of tl1e coastline to change. Suggest where there will be marine hazards and evaluate their success when the
deposition on sucl1 a coastline and the reasons for danger occurs (11 marks)
deposition there. (1o marks)
b i Study Figure 6.75. Draw an annotated diagram to 12 a Using an example from your studies, explain why a
identify the main features of the landform in the particular coastal management scheme was felt to be
photograph. (5 marks) necessary.
(6marks)
ii With reference to evidence from the photograph,
explain l1ow marine processes may have created b Describe the planning and decision-making process
this landform (7 O marks) involved in the creation of the management plan for
the area. (6 marks)
.
8 a With reference to one or more examples of cliff coastlines, c Outline the plan and suggest why the changes outlined
explain how marine and sub-aerial processes have should overcome the identified problem/s. (6 marks)
combined to shape the cliffs. (7 2 marks)
b i Identify and describe two ways in which people d Evaluate the success of the project. (?marks)
can manage the erosion of a cliff foot. (6 marks)
13 Study the sand dune area in Figure 6.76.
ii Evaluate the success of one of these management
a i Identify and locate one feature of the photograph
strategies. (7 marks)
which indicates that this area is popular with people.
9 a Choose two of the following micro-morphological features of Explain how it shows the presence of people. (4 marks)
a beach: berm; beach cusps; ridge and runnels; longshore bar. ii Explain one piece of evidence from the photograph
For each feature that you have chosen: which shows that this popularity is causing damage
i Making use of annotated diagrams, describe its shape to the environment. (4 marks)
and location on a beach. (6marks) b i Suggest one possible effect of the environmental
ii Explain how it is formed. (JO marks) damage caused in this area. (7 marks)
b What effect do storm waves have on a beach profile?(9marks)
ii Explain how conservation work could overcome the
damage done to this sand dune belt. (7 0 marks)
c Describe one method you could use to survey tl1e profile
of a beach. (5 marks)
, •
10 a Using an annotated diagram only, explain the process by . Figure 6.76 •
........... . ..... . ,\, .... . , .. ........ . . ; '
which beach material is moved along the coastline. (5 marks) Damaged sand dunes.
b Choose one landform that is created when beach , ••.
�-:� ,
1

at Gower, Wales
material is deposited. Name and describe the landform.
Explain the processes by which the landform is created.
(JO marks)
.
c Why do people try to reduce the movement of beach
material on some coastlines? Suggest and explain two
methods for reducing such movement. (10 marks)

11 a Using your own case studies, choose two examples of hazards

that occur on marine coasts. For each hazard:
i Identify the hazard and its location. (2 marks)
ii Explain how the action of the se� leads to danger on .
the coast. (12 marks)
•

Exam practice: essays •

• • • • • • • .• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
14 'The interface between the sea and the land is an area of conflict in 17 Discuss the arguments for and against the managed retreat of
nature and for people:Using examples, explain this statement. parts of the coastline in the UK. Evaluate the strength of these
(25marks) arguments as · they apply to one or more areas · that you have
studied. . (25marks)
15 Discuss possible causes of future changes in sea-level and explain . . .
how these changes might produce both short-term and long-term 18 'Coastal sand dunes form some of the most important defences
effects on the physical and human environment. . (25marks) . against the sea, so every effort should be made to conserve and
strengthen our dune systems: . .
16 Choose one system of coastal classification. Describe and explain Evaluate this statement. (25 marks)
the principles on which it is based and, making use of examples,
describe some of the problems of applying your classification
system to cover all coastal areas. (25marks)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . .
Coasts 177·