MIGRATORY MOVEMENTS OF THE CARIBBEAN DIASPORA FROM

1838
After abolition of slavery in 1838 the Caribbean region experienced:

1. Intra-regional migration- migration within the region

2. Extra –regional migration-migration outside of the Caribbean region

SOCIETY AFTER EMANCIPATION

Following emancipation, there was a new society of freed people across the Caribbean: what did
they do and what provisions were made for them?

During slavery, plantation owners decided what kind of shelter and medical care was given to
their slaves. After the abolition of slavery most available work was on the very same plantations
that former enslaved people had worked on; the wages were low, and people had inadequate
rights to land. Rent and taxes were high, as was unemployment. The Morant Bay rebellion in
Jamaica was one example of the working classes protesting about such conditions.

From the middle to late 1800s, the Caribbean saw many changes. Colonial governments reformed
judicial systems, police forces, education and health care. They built roads and railways, developed
botanical gardens, improved water supplies and sanitation, and established cable communication.
Authorities introduced mass vaccinations against common diseases, and provided relief following
natural disasters.

Throughout the Caribbean, mental health institutions often suffered from poor standards of care,
overcrowding and patient neglect. By the 1870s many islands were constructing new facilities and
attempting to improve patient care.

Despite reform, abuse of the system continued. For example, forced labour and flogging were still
prevalent in prisons. Such punishments were now conducted by the state instead of slave owners.
In 1870s St. Lucia, a man was publicly flogged in the market place for practising Obeah.

The schooling system established during slavery was expanded to teach Christian morals to the
recently freed slaves. Later, academic and agricultural schools were instituted by the state. The
Mico Charity was an important educational trust that established schools in the British Caribbean.

REASON FOR MIGRATION

1. SUGAR INDUSTRY FAILING AND ON POINT OF BANKRUPTCY-MANY PLANTERS
ABANDONED THEIR PLANTATIONS/ LOW WAGES
2. SMALLER ISLANDS DID NOT HAVE THE LAND TO ALLOW FOR PEASANTRY AND FOR THE EX-
SLAVES TO BECOME INDEPENDANT OF THE ESTATES
3. POOR LIVING AND WORKING CONDITIONS-POOR HOUSING, LOW WAGES, POVERTY,
EMPLOYER OPPRESSION, DISEASES
4. A BETTER FUTURE FOR THEIR CHILDREN-EDUCATION
5. FAILURE OF PEASANT CROPS/DIVERSIFICATION
6. COMPETITION FOR JOBS
INTRA-REGIONAL MIGRATION

WHEN SLAVERY ENDED (1838) EX-SLAVES WERE NOW FREE TO MOVE AROUND FREELY AND SO
BEGAN TO MOVE AROUND INTRA-REGIONALLY IE WITHIN THE CARIBBEAN REGION. THEY WERE
MOTIVATED BY THE SEARCH FOR EMPLOYMENT AND BETTER LIVING AND WORKING CONDITIONS.

TRINIDAD AND GUYANA DID NOT SEE MANY OF THE NEWLY FREED SLAVES MIGRATING AS THERE
WAS LAND TO EITHER PURCHASE OF SQUAT.IN FACT TRINIDAD AND GUYANA RECEIVED
IMMIGRANTS FROM THE SMALLER ISLANDS-GRENADA, ST. KITTS NEVIS, BARBADOS,
MONTSERRAT.

THEY TRAVELLED ON BOARD BOATS CARRING GOODS TO THE ISLANDS AS TRANSPORTATION WAS
DIFFICULT ANS EXPENSIVE. HOWEVER, MOSTLY MALES MIGRATED CREATING AN INBALANCE IN
THE MALE TO FEMALE RATIO. WOMEN LEFT BEHIND HAD THE TASK OF LOOKING AFTER THE
FAMILY. MEN AT THAT TIME WERE CONSIDERED THE BREADWINNER IN THE HOME SO THEY WENT
IN SEARCH OF WORK LEAVING WOMEN AND CHILDREN BEHIND.

After Emancipation in the nineteenth century, workers began moving within the region in search
of employment or better working conditions. In the twentieth century, the movement of labour
to destinations within the region continued. The oil-boom in the 1970s attracted many migrants
from the smaller and less developed islands to work in the oil refineries in the dependencies of
the Netherlands and the United States, particularly the United States Virgin Islands, Aruba and
the Netherlands Antilles. Also, the booming energy sector in Trinidad and Tobago was a magnet
for many in search of employment. With the global crisis in the energy sector in the 1980s the
demand for labour declined and new employment opportunities were needed. The growing
tourism sector in the Caribbean in the 1990s increased the demand for workers in the service
sector which, in many instances, could not be supplied by the domestic labour force in some of
the smaller Caribbean islands. As a consequence, workers from other islands and neighbouring
countries in Latin America, particularly Columbia and Venezuela, came to fill in the gaps.

Places they migrated to within the region

1. OIL INDUSTRY-TRINIDAD'S OIL BOOM IN THE 1970S ATTRACTED MANY IN SEARCH OF
WORK AS THE WAGES IN THE OIL/ENERGY SECTOR WERE HIGHER THAN IN AGRICULTURE.
THE OIL REFINERIES IN ARUBA AND THE UNITED STATES VIRGIN ISLANDS ALSO ATTRACTED
MIGRANTS.
2. THE PANAMA CANAL-THIS CONSTRUCTION LASTED 30 YEARS, BEGINNING IN 1881 BY A
FRENCH COMPANY AND THEN TAKEN OVER BY THE AMERICANS. THE CANAL WAS
FINISHED IN 1914 AND ATTRACTED OVER 188,000 CARIBBEAN WORKERS ESPECIALLY
JAMAICANS AND BAJANS.
3. SUGAR INDUSTRY IN CUBA/DOMINICAN REPUBLIC-THOUSANDS OF JAMAICANS WENT TO
CUBA TO WORK ON THE SUGAR PLANTATIONS.
4. RAILROADS- BELIZE, NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA, COLUMBIA, SANTO DOMINGO INVESTED IN
LARGE SCALE RAILWAY PROJECTS AND NEEDED LABOURERS. SOME LABOURERS LATER
STAYED ON TO WORK IN THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY-BANANAS, COCOA, COFFEE,
SUGAR
 5. CENTRAL AMERICAN BANANA INDUSTRY- COSTA RICA AND BELIZE HIRED 84 000
JAMAICANS BETWEEN 1880-1889 AND 22 000 NEVER RETURNED

6. TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN PUERTO RICO

7. BERMUDA- DOMESTIC SERVANTS

Panama Cana Railway workersl

EXTRA REGIONAL MIGRATION

ENGLAND- THIS WAS THE NATURAL CHOICE FOR BWI. Between 1948 and 1970 nearly half a
million people left their homes in the West Indies to live in Britain. The West Indies consists
of more than 20 islands in the Caribbean, including Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad. These
people changed the face of modern Britain. They were all British citizens and, although they
had never lived in Britain before, they had the right to enter, work and settle here if they
wanted to.
West Indians came to Britain for many different reasons. Some were seeking better
opportunities for themselves and their children. Some came to work for a while, save
money and return home. Some had been recruited because Britain was short of workers to
run the transport system, postal service and hospitals. Other West Indians were returning
soldiers who had fought for Britain during the Second World War (1939-1945).
Not all white Britons welcomed the black Britons. Many West Indians found that the colour
of their skins provoked unfriendly reactions. For example, despite the desperate shortage of
labour, some still found it difficult to get good jobs. Often, they were forced to accept jobs
which they were over-qualified for, or they were paid less than other white workers.
West Indians also experienced difficulties in finding suitable places to live. Since few had
much money, they had to find cheap housing to rent near to their workplace. This was often
in the poor inner cities. Even if they did have enough money to rent better quality housing,
many had to face the fact that some landlords refused to rent to black people. They would
be confronted with insulting signs in house windows that said ‘Rooms to Let: No dogs, no
coloureds. This meant that a lot of West Indians were forced to rent homes in the most
rundown areas.

In 1958, in areas where larger numbers of West Indians lived, there were outbreaks of
violence against them. In particular, in Nottingham and London mobs of white people
attacked black people in the streets, smashing and burning their homes.
West Indians had been invited to come to Britain, so they also felt that it was their home
too. To be discriminated against was a shock which they had not been prepared for. Some
returned to the West Indies, but many remained – despite the difficulties they faced. They
have worked hard and made a contribution to British life.

Caribbean bus drivers in England Caribbean nurses

New Arrivals on the Dock (Jamaicans)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA- The first wave of large-scale voluntary migration from the
Caribbean to the United States began in the first half of the 20th century and consisted mostly of
laborers, including guest workers from the British West Indies program who worked in U.S.
agriculture in the mid-1940s, as well as political exiles from Cuba. The migration accelerated in the
1960s when U.S. companies recruited large numbers of English-speaking workers (from laborers to
nurses) from former English colonies (e.g., Jamaica). At the same time, political instability in Cuba,
Haiti, and the Dominican Republic propelled emigration of the members of the elite and skilled
professionals. The subsequent waves consisted mostly of their family members and working-class
individuals. In contrast, skilled professionals have consistently constituted a relatively high share of
Jamaican immigrants to the United States.

Between 1980 and 2000, the Caribbean immigrant population increased by more than 50 percent
every ten years (54 percent and 52 percent, respectively) to reach 2.9 million in 2000. The growth
rate declined gradually afterwards. From 2000, the population increased 26 percent, to 3.7 million,
in 2010, and grew another 18 percent, to 4.4 million, in 2017.
More than 90 percent of Caribbean immigrants came from five countries: Cuba, the Dominican
Republic, Jamaica, Haiti, and Trinidad and Tobago (see Table 1). Depending on the origin country and
period of arrival, immigrants from the Caribbean have varying skill levels, racial composition,
language background, and motivations for migration.

Distribution of Caribbean Immigrants by Country of Origin, 2017

CANADA- In 1796, between 550 to 600 Maroon men and women arrived in Halifax, Nova Scotia
after an unsuccessful British attempt to enslave them in Jamaica. Between 1800 and 1920 a small
number of Jamaicans and Barbadians immigrated as labourers to work in the Cape Breton and
Sydney mines. Before 1960, the few immigrants who did arrive from the Caribbean region came
from the British colonies, especially Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad, and Bermuda.

Immigration from the Caribbean really began in the 1960s and 70s. Of the 749,155 Canadians
reported to have Caribbean origins in the 2016 census, the vast majority immigrated to Canada after
the multiculturalism policy was initiated in 1971 by then prime minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau.

There have been three major waves of immigration from the Caribbean to Canada.

The first wave was between 1900 to 1960. During this period, Canada accepted about 21,500
immigrants from Caribbean countries. The slight increase in immigration from 1945 to 1960
corresponded with post-war economic expansion and the West Indian Domestic Scheme (1955–67)
which was established, almost exclusively, for the immigration of women from Jamaica and
Barbados who immigrated as domestic workers. Women like Jean Augustine, the first Black female
MP and Cabinet minister, entered Canada through this scheme.

The second wave, from 1960 to 1971, corresponded with the "liberalization" of the Canadian
Immigration Act. During this period Canada accepted about 64,000 people from the Caribbean. In
1962, Canada introduced new immigration regulations (1962 Immigration Act), which reduced the
emphasis of people migrating to Canada based on the colour of their skin or their nationality and
increased the emphasis on their education and skills. In 1967, Canada implemented the points
system. This allowed people to immigrate to Canada from all over the world. Since the 1970s Canada
saw increased migration as part of an international movement to slow European emigration, and
Canada began to depend increasingly on labour from the developing nations.
The third wave, which began in the early 1970s, coincided with the economic recession. Except for
1973 and 1974 (unusual years because of the Addressment of Status Program that helped many
persons regularize their status), immigration from the Caribbean declined. 1973 saw the highest
number of Caribbean migrations to Canada with approximately 20,000 persons from Caribbean
countries admitted into the country. In 1974, 23, 885 immigrants were from Caribbean countries.
However, by the mid to late 1970s, an economic recession had slowed Caribbean migration to
Canada. Caribbean immigration fell from 10 per cent of total immigration in 1975 to six per cent in
1979 and remained at six per cent until 1996.

Caribbean people were employed mainly as domestics, mechanics, porters, waitresses, clerks,
nurses, teachers. Today Caribbean people hold high positions in Canada

Between 1996 and 2001, the Canadian population grew by four per cent, whereas the population of
Caribbean Canadians grew more quickly and rose by 11 per cent. Caribbean Canadians still settle in
the more populous provinces of Ontario and Quebec and in major urban city hubs such as Toronto
and Montreal. But this number has dropped in comparison to migration from the Caribbean prior to
2011 to Ontario, when, of the 3,379,980 total newcomers that settled in Ontario, 216,505 (6.4 per
cent) were from the Caribbean.

The majority of Caribbean immigrants to Canada speak at least at least one of Canada's official
languages. English or French.

Caribbean farm workers Caribana in Toronto

 EXTRA- REGIONAL MIGRATION 20TH CENTURY
Extra regional migration and its impact on the Caribbean.

In their search for higher wages and better employment, skilled professionals are on the move
worldwide. Caribbean countries like Jamaica, Cuba and Trinidad and Tobago are strong exporters of
qualified labour, particularly teachers, nurses and other health professionals.

Family ties, geographic proximity and the use of the same language make the United States and
Canada and, to a lesser extent, the United Kingdom a preferred destination for migrants from the
Caribbean. Increasing job opportunities in certain sectors of the labour market along with the hope
of a prosperous life make moving north an attractive option for many Caribbean nationals. Based on
data provided by the United States Bureau of the Census12, of all foreign nationals living in the
United States, 10 per cent are of Caribbean origin with the majority coming from Cuba (34 %) and
the Dominican Republic (25 %) and more than 10 per cent are from Haiti and Jamaica.

Of all migrants from South America, each 10th is originally from Guyana. Whereas some
governments favour the exodus of their skilled in exchange for desired remittances to boost their
economies, many countries suffer tremendous constraints in their capacities to provide equal,
qualitative and affordable social services to their populations. Worse, the continued depletion of
professionals deprives the region of its desperately needed qualified staff whose education and
training were often a considerable expense to its taxpayers.

Since qualified professionals play a critical role in sustainable development, this continuous loss
threatens to paralyze progress underway in the economic and social sectors in the region. Therefore
more needs to be done to alleviate the impact of the brain drain and to provide for attractive
options at home for those who would otherwise seek greener pastures abroad. Research has shown
that, for example, in the case of health workers an improvement in pay and working conditions
could act as an incentive to stay. A raise in pensions, better child care, educational opportunities and
recognition of the profession are also known to be important (WHO, 2002).